The Legacy of Charles Lyell: Advances in Our Knowledge of Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata

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The legacy of Charles Lyell: advances in our knowledge of coal and coal-bearing strata

ANDREW C. SCOTT Geology Department, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 OEX, UK

Abstract: On his travels in both Britain and North America Sir Charles Lyell paid particular attention to coalfields and their fossils. Understanding the formation of coal and associated rocks was the subject of several publications. In this contribution three aspects of this work are highlighted, all of which are the subject of ongoing modern research. Lyell was interested in modern analogues for the Carboniferous coal swamps and was amongst the first to suggest analogies with the mires of the eastern United States, such as the Dismal Swamps. A brief review of recent research on new modern analogues from Southeast Asia is presented. Lyell observed 'mineral charcoal' in some of the coals and noted its anatomical structure. Considerable advances in our understanding of the role of fires in terrestrial ecosystems and their potential as an agent of fossil preservation are addressed. One of Lyell's most important palaeontological finds was of remains of the earliest reptiles (these proved to be amphibians but Sir William Dawson found reptiles subsequently) preserved in the Upper Carboniferous tree trunks at Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. Whilst this occurrence of reptiles is no longer the oldest, the reasons for the remarkable tetrapod occurrences in upright sandstone-filled lycophyte trees at Joggins are currently being investigated and recent progress is presented.

Throughout his life, Sir Charles Lyell was fascin- of the fossils he found were undertaken by the ated by the study of coal and coal-bearing strata. leading palaeontologists of his day. The study of coals and coal fields was not only the subject of numerous papers but also became a major feature of his travels in North America. Historical background Indeed, coal was a strategic material at the time and was the subject of several lectures that Lyell made The nature and origin of coal has remained a field during his visits to North America. Some of his of study for over 200 years and even today many researches, such as the discovery with Sir William fundamental questions concerning coal have yet to Dawson of tetrapods within upright lycophyte be satisfactorily resolved. Although this is indeed a trunks at Joggins, Nova Scotia (Lyell 1853a; Lyell very complex problem, geologists at the end of the & Dawson 1853), remain as important now as then eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century (Carroll 1994). Many of the problems which Lyell considered the possibility of simple solutions. One attempted to address are still the subject of ongoing can consider the origin of coal as comprising three research. While some of the problems addressed by basic problems. First, there is its composition- Lyell, such as the age and structure of various whether in fact coal is formed from vegetable or coalfields, have largely been solved, others are still mineral material. Second, if its origin is vegetable the subject of intense research and debate. is coal formed from in situ or drifted plant remains? In this contribution three major research topics Third, there is the question of coal's diagenesis - are highlighted: the origin of coal together with the processes that affect the material during burial evidence of the fauna and flora of coal measures; (the coalification process - the conversion of peat the occurrence and significance of charcoal in coal into coal by heat and pressure). The solution to each seams; and modern analogues for ancient coals. In problem requires information from both laboratory each of these three topics it is important to recog- and field observations. In the latter half of the nize that background data were limited. It is eighteenth century many authors lacked basic interesting to note, however, that Lyell understood experience of field work. the limits of his expertise and called upon the By 1780 a number of authors, particularly on the services of other researchers so that the descriptions continent (De Buffon and De Luc in France and

ScoTt, A. C. 1998. The legacy of Charles Lyell: advances in our knowledge of coal and coal-bearing strata. 243 In: BLUNDELL,D. J. & ScoTr, A. C. (eds) Lyell: the Past is the Key to the Present. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 143, 243-260. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Baron van Beroldingen in Germany) had recog- Brown in Haliburtons 'Nova Scotia' (Lyell 1843). nized the vegetable origin of coal (Stevenson 1911; The work of Brown and Logan contributed to Bennett 1963). This idea of a vegetable origin was establishing that Carboniferous coals were formed first accepted in Britain by Hutton (1795). Hutton by vegetation living in situ (see for example Binney considered that coal was formed by the deposition 1846; Brown 1846, 1848; Logan 1841; Lyell 1841). of vegetable material in the sea and that it was Lyell became interested in all aspects of the subsequently heated to form coal. Opposed to this Carboniferous coal measures in particular, from the view, however, was the Irish chemist Richard plants and animals preserved associated with the Kirwan (1799) (championing the mineral origin of coals, trace fossils, sediments, to the structure of the coal) who was in turn vehemently attacked by coal basins (Lyell 1846a, b, c, d). A key to the James Parkinson (1804). By the time of the development of his thoughts on the origin of coal- publication of the first edition of Lyell's Principles bearing sequences was the visits Lyell made to the of Geology (1830-1833) the vegetable origin of coalfields of North America and to Nova Scotia in coal was firmly established. In Volume 1 of the particular. Principles Lyell made only four references to coal Lyell first visited the superb exposures of Upper strata, in Volume 2 (1832) he made only one Carboniferous Coal Measures along the Bay of reference to coal formation and in Volume 3 (1833) Fundy in Nova Scotia in the summer of 1842. He only one reference to coal alteration. writes (1845, vol. 2, p. 63), At the time of the publication of Volume 2 of the Just returned from an expedition of 3 days to the (1832) there was considerable support Principles strait which divides Nova Scotia from New for the drift origin of coal, which would have given Brunswick, whether I went to see a forest of support to the diluvialsts. Lyell (p. 242) writes, fossil coal - trees - the most wonderful pheno- Notwithstanding the vast forests intercepted by menon perhaps that I have seen, so upright do the the lakes, a still greater mass of drift-wood is trees stand, or so perpendicular to the strata, in found where the Mackenzie reaches the sea, in a the ever-wasting cliffs, every year a new crop latitude where no wood grows at present except being brought into view, as the violent tides of a few stunted willows. At the mouths of the river the Bay of Fundy, and the intense frost of the the alluvial matter has formed a barrier of islands winters here, combine to destroy, undermine, and and shoals where we may expect a great sweep away the old one - trees twenty-five feet formation of coal at some distant period. high and some have been seen of forty feet, piercing the beds of sandstone and terminating The drift versus in situ hypothesis of the origin of downwards in the same beds, usually coal. This coal was of considerable interest to Lyell. His field subterranean forest exceeds in extent and quality observations on coal and coalfields played an of timber all that has been discovered in Europe important role in developing his ideas which were put together. more prominently discussed with each edition of his Principles and later his Elements and Manuals. Lyell provides a detailed account of his visit to Following his visits to North America to study the section at Joggins (Lyell 1843). He not only coalfields, and especially with his experiences at notes the occurrence of several levels of trees but Joggins, Nova Scotia, Lyell expands his entries on also some of the fauna and flora associated with the coal to nine by the ninth edition (1853b) and the coals. Lyell (1843, p. 178) draws several con- fifth edition of his Manual of Elementary Geology clusions from his observations of the Joggins (1855b) contains 18 entries on coal and coalfields sequence: which includes detailed descriptions of in situ trees, 1. That the erect position of the trees, and their the use of modern analogues and also a discussion perpendicularly to the planes of stratification, of fire. imply that a thickness of several thousand feet of coal strata, now uniformly inclined at an angle of 24 ~ were deposited originally in a horizontal position [see Fig. 1]. The origin of coal and the associated fauna 2. There must have been repeated sinkings of and flora the dry land to allow of the growth of more than By the time of the studies of Lyell, although the ten forests of fossil trees one above the other, an botanical origin of coal had been firmly inference which is borne out by the independent established, the nature of the accumulation of the evidence afforded by the Stigmaria, found in the plants was widely debated. Lyell noted (1843) underclays beneath coal-seams in Nova Scotia, mention of upright fossil trees in the coal measures as first noticed in South Wales by Mr. Logan [see of Joggins in a paper published in 1829 by Richard Fig. 1]. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 1. Observations of Lyell on the Upper Carboniferous Fossil Forests of Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. (a) Field observations (Lyell 1845). (b) Detail of fossil trees at Coal Mine Point above Coal 15 (Lyell & Dawson 1853). (c) Dendrerpeton bones from inside sediment-filled lycophyte trunk (from Lyell & Dawson 1853) (now identified as microsaur tooth and a femur of Dendrerpeton by Carroll (1982)). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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3. The correspondence in general characters of the erect trees of Nova Scotia with those found near Manchester, leads to the opinion that this tribe of plants may have been enabled by the strength of its large roots to withstand the power of waves and currents much more effectually than the Lepidodendra and other coal plants more rarely found in a perpendicular position.

In addition to his studies of the Joggins cliffs, Lyell also investigated the formation of Recent trace fossils made in the red muds of the Bay of Fundy (Lyell 1849b). He observed not only vertebrate footprints but also rain prints and recorded these in his publications (e.g. Lyell 1845, vol. 2, plate 7; 1853b, p. 203). He used these to compare with fossil footprints and traces which he encoun- tered in his studies of coalfields (e.g. Lyell 1846a, b, c, d, 1849a) (Fig. 2(b)). Lyell was so impressed with his visit to Joggins that he revisited the locality with Sir William Dawson in September 1852. In his letter of 12 September 1852 to Leonard Homer (Lyell 1881), he writes,

Dawson and I set to work and measured foot by foot many hundred yards of the cliffs, where the forests of erect trees and calamites most abound [see Fig. 3]. It was hard work, as the wind one day was strong, and we had to look sharp .., the rocking of living trees just ready to fall from the top of the undermined cliff should cause some of the old fossil ones to come down upon us by the run. But I never enjoyed the reading of a marvellous chapter of the big volume more ... I believe I mentioned in my last that Dawson and I found the skeleton of an animal in the middle of one of the upright trees of the Joggins Nova Scotia. Clearly Lyell and Dawson had embarked upon a project to make more detailed observations on the Joggins sections. The discovery of the fossil animals within upright tree trunks meant that Lyell could not complete his task of measuring the Joggins section (Fig. 1). Indeed, given the time available it is unlikely that he would have done so anyway and probably concentrated on the part of the sequence yielding the greatest number of tree horizons. The publication of the Joggins section was left to Dawson alone (Dawson 1853) but the Fig. 2. Coal Measures of Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. occurrence of the earliest reptile within tree stumps (a) Section through sediment-filled lycopyte trunk, became the subject of a joint paper (Lyell & Joggins, Nova Scotia, eroded to show internal sediment Dawson 1853) which has stimulated further stratigraphy (for sketch see Fig. 7). (b) Tetrapod research up to the present day. Particularly footprint, (exact horizon unknown) (Natural History interesting is the manner of the discovery of Museum, R2927). Dendrerpeton acadianum (in fact an amphibian - reptiles were found by Dawson on subsequent visits, one being named Hylonomus Lvelli) (Figs 4 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 3. Upright sediment-filled trunks, Upper Carboniferous, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. (a) Two successive horizons (arrowed) with upright lycophyte trunks. (b) Sandstone-filled lycophyte trunk. (c) Sandstone-filled calamite pith cast. (d) Upright sandstone-filled lycophyte trunk.

and 5) (Dawson 1859). In the original publication In his autobiography, Dawson (Dawson 1901) the discovery of the vertebrate fossils was recorded notes that Lyell's poor eyesight was a great as being by chance in 1852 inside a trunk filled hindrance to his work and sometimes a source of with sediment and found lying on the beach. The personal danger. Dawson was clearly impressed account by Dawson changed over the years so that with Lyell's intellect and enthusiasm. He wrote in 1859 we read that the fossil stump containing the (Dawson 1901, pp. 54-55): vertebrates was found with Lyell in 1851 (Dawson I remember how, after we had disinterred the 1859, p. 268; also Dawson 1863). bones of Dendrerpeton from the interior of a Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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large tree on the Joggins shore, his thoughts ran rapidly over all the strange circumstances of the burial of the animal; its geological age, and the possible relations to reptiles and other animals, and he enlarged enthusiastically on these points, till suddenly observing the astonishment of a man who accompanied us, he abruptly turned to me and whispered, 'the man will think us mad if I run on in this way'. The discovery of the vertebrates persuaded Dawson to look especially for additional material. Further discoveries were made at odd intervals over the succeeding 30 years culminating in his detailed work on Coal Mine Point (Dawson 1882) where he documents details of 25 trees, 14 of which proved productive in the occurrence of vertebrates. In their original publication of 1853, Lyell and Dawson state that they had paid "special attention to the difference of the deposits enveloping the upright trees, and those which fill the trunks themselves, forming casts within a cylinder of bark now turned to coal, the central wood of the trunk having decayed'. (p. 58) (Fig. 1). It is clear that the authors were interested not only in the stratigraphy but more so in the sedimentology and taphonomy of the plants and animals, a thoroughly modern approach. In this paper the authors offer several hypotheses to explain the occurrence of animals within the trunks. They note that in another tree the

lower part of the cast, the sandstone contained a large quantity of vegetable fragments, as above mentioned [p. 59], principally pieces of carbonised wood [see for example Fig. 6], leaves of Noeggerathia or Poacites?, and stems of Calamites. With these vegetable remains we found the bones, jaws, teeth etc. before alluded to, all distinctly within the lower part of the cast, and scattered among the vegetable fragments contained in it, as if either washed in separate pieces, or, more probably, mixed with woody matter when the animal fell to pieces through decay [see Figs 5 and 6]. A part of the vegetable matter present must have been introduced after the tree became hollow. The creature to which the bones belonged may, therefore, either have been washed in after death, or may, when creeping on the surface, have fallen into the open pit caused by the decay of the tree, or may have crept into some crevice in the trunk before it was finally buried in the mud and sand. (pp. 62-63)

Fig. 4. Vertebrates from within Joggins trunks, Upper Clearly three hypotheses were being actively Carboniferous, Canada. (a) Cranial and postcranial considered. By 1882, however, Dawson clearly remains of tetrapod (Natural History Museum, R299). favours the pit-fall theory and it is thus the one (b) The holotype of Hylonomus iyelli (Natural History which has been favoured by most subsequent Museum, R4168). (c) Reconstruction of Hylonomus authors. lyelli on a Canadian stamp. It is clear that Lyell was correct in the need to Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 5. Vertebrates from sediments within lycophyte trunks, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada, (a) Skeletal remains of Calligenethlon watsoni (Natural History Museum, R442). (b) Small tetrapod limb bone with fusain fragment (Natural History Museum, R4564). (c) Tetrapod jaw fragment with fusain fragment (Natural History Museum, R434).

examine the sediments both inside and outside the around the outside of the trunk until it reaches the trunks (Fig. 1). Re-examination of all the published top of the broken or rotted trunk. This 'land data indicates that the one hypothesis that will not surface' is the one on which the animals were work is the pit-fall theory! As part of an ongoing living. The rotted centres of the trees would then act reinvestigation of Upper Carboniferous fossil as traps or pit-falls for any unsuspecting animals forests of Nova Scotia (Scott & Calder 1994; who stumbled upon them. Once the animal had Calder et al. 1996), several of the tree-bearing fallen in it would not be able to escape and would levels have been reinvestigated (Fig. 3). Details of be entombed in sediment from the next flood. For these investigations will be published elsewhere but most of the trees (e.g. Fig. 7), sediment from both some general points may be made. (1) Animals are inside and outside the trunks can be matched and frequently associated with fossil charcoal at the indicates that sediment was being deposited both base of some trees (Fig. 7). This is evident from inside and outside the trunk at the same time examination of the literature, museum material although the thickness of the sediment layers may from the original collections and from new vary. No soil surfaces have been found at the top of discoveries made by J. H. Calder and the author. the filled trees in the surrounding sediments. Most The role of fire needs to be more fully explored (see of the tetrapods (except in a few isolated cases) below). (2) The detail of the sediment infill and occur near the base of the trunk fill (Dawson 1882 surrounding sediments indicates that they would and personal observation, Fig. 6) when much of the not have acted as pit falls (Figs 2 and 7). In the pit- trunk was still exposed. Several theories are fall theory it is supposed that the tree trunk rots in possible for the occurrence of the animals but two the centre and is hollow. Sediment is deposited of the most likely are that they acted as dens or Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 6. Sediment-filled lycophyte trunks, Upper Carboniferous, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. (a) Base of trunk with fusain and vertebrates overlain by sandstone fill. (b) Fusain fragments from base of trunk.

refuges for living animals or else the animals were palaeoecological studies of trees in situ (see washed into the hollow stumps. Clearly also of below). interest is the fact that so many tree horizons with Lyell clearly recognized that it was important to trees preserved as casts up to 10 m high occur at examine the sedimentology and taphonomy of the Joggins. This is almost certainly because of the trees, a level of detail rarely undertaken today. very rapid subsidence and sedimentation rates seen Interest in these forests has increased over the past in the basin (Calder this volume). (3) Fossiliferous ten years and we are only now making progress in trees can be predicted, hence making it unnecessary understanding their formation and significance (see to indiscriminately remove and break up the trees to DiMichele & De Maris 1987; Demko & Gastaldo discover fossils, which is important given the 1992; Scott & Calder 1994; Calder et al. 1996). protected status of the site and the importance of To at least some degree Lyell could claim to be a Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 7. Field sketch of sediment-filled lycopyte trunk, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. eroded to show internal sediment stratigraphy (for photo see Fig. 2(a)).

founding father of the study of terrestrial palaeo- for the identification of the plants and that such ecology. Clearly Lyell's discovery stimulated a material was of palaeontological interest. wealth of research and both sedimentologists and Despite the observations of Lyell on the preser- palaeontologists should be grateful to the promi- vation of anatomy in charcoal in coal seams, few nence that the discovery gave to the Joggins researchers have developed this theme. Much of the sequence and to the subsequent finds. debate over the subsequent 150 years has concerned the nature and origin of such mineral charcoal, called fusain by Stopes (1919). The occurrence and significance of Interestingly, Lyell fails to link the occurrence of mineral charcoal in coals to the occurrence of fire. charcoal in coal seams The discussion of a fire origin of charcoal did not Lyell (1847) was one of the first to recognise and become common until the end of the nineteenth and illustrate charcoal in coal seams (Fig. 8). Fossil beginning of the twentieth century (Muck 1881; charcoal was also found associated with vertebrates Stutzer 1929). In the volume edited by Stutzer in the base of some of the fossil trees (Fig. 6). In (1929) the debate on the origin of fusain was polar- describing the coal of Eastern Virginia he states that ised. Jeffrey (in Stutzer 1929) wrote, 'My opinion some portions exactly resemble charcoal in appear- of the origin of fusit or fusain ... is unhesitatingly ance (p. 268). He notes also that similar material is that this material is charcoal derived from the observed in some Welsh coal, where the charcoal is action of forest fires'. White (in Stutzer 1929) called 'mother coal'. Much of the discussion wrote on the other hand, 'it is quite impossible for concerned the botanical affinities of the charcoal me to conceive of fusain as exclusively the result of rather than its origin from burnt vegetation but it is forest fires'. Fifty years later, many still failed to important to note that Lyell was aware of the signi- recognize the fire origin of fusain; the situation was ficance of the anatomical structure of the material still unresolved, with Schopf (1975) for example Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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recognized that the anatomy of the plants may be useful for the identification of the species concerned. Even today botanical identification of fusain is not routinely undertaken. Several plants have now been described from fossil deposits preserved as fusain (e.g. Alvin 1974; Scott 1974; Friis & Skarby 1981) but many geologists still ignore this valuable data source and most palaeobotanists prefer to work on less fragmentary plant fossils. The occurrence of fossil charcoal in coal seams provides many important clues to the ecology and environment of ancient peat deposits (Scott & Jones 1994). Peat-forming environments of the southern USA have been taken as possible analogues to ancient coal seams and recent studies indicate that fires are an integral part of many of these wetland ecosystems (e.g. Cohen 1974; Cohen et al. 1984; Rollins et al. 1993). It is, however, only in the last few years that it has recognised that studies of ancient charcoals provide data on climate, atmospheric composition and erosion and depositional events (Chaloner 1989; Cope & Chaloner 1980; Scott & Jones 1994; Nichols & Jones 1992). In his visit to peat-forming areas of southern United States Lyell did encounter evidence of fires. He states (Lyell 1855a p. 386), 'I may mention that whenever any part of a swamp in Louisiana is dried up, during an unusually hot season, and the wood set on fire, pits are burnt into the ground many feet deep, or as far down as the fire can descend, Fig. 8. Fossil charcoal (fusain) from the USA (from without meeting with water, and it is then found Lyell 1847). (a) 'Vegetable structure of mineral charcoal that scarcely any residuum or earthy matter is left' from Cover-hill mines, Virginia' (A-F discussed by (see also Lyell 1849a, vol. 2, p. 245). As already Lyell). (b) 'Blackheath specimen (Creek mines)' (A-B mentioned, Lyell observed fossil charcoal in the discussed by Lyell). base of some of the upright lycopsid trunks but did not link these two observations. Examination of the tetrapod material collected by Lyell and Dawson writing, 'For some and probably for the majority of from the tree-trunk fills from Joggins has shown the occurrence of fusain the forest fire origin seems that most are associated with fusain (fossil ruled out.' charcoal) (e.g. Fig. 5). Recent field observations by Over the past 20 years much effort has gone into the author and J. Calder have indicated that several the study of fusain to understand its origin and the filled stumps have abundant charcoal at their base identity of fusain as fossil charcoal and its (Fig. 6). The occurrence of a large quantity of formation following wildfire has been firmly charcoal in the base of the trunks could have meant established (see Scott 1989a; Jones 1993; Jones et that they were hollowed out by fire with the charred al. 1993 a, b; Scott & Jones 1991a,b, 1994; plant remains accummulating at the base (Fig. 7). Winston 1993 and references therein). The trunk could then, if it remained upright, have One of the keys to understanding the nature and acted as a den or refuge for animals particularly if origin of fusain is the preservation of fine anato- there was a fire scarred base which created a hole mical details, as observed by Lyell (1847). The through which animals might crawl. However, fire advent of the scanning electron microscope has is likely to have spread through the vegetation and revolutionized the study of fossil charcoal. The may have also killed the animals. Such charred high-fidelity three-dimensional anatomical preser- debris may have been subsequently washed into the vation both in modern charcoals produced fol- hollowed trunks during a flood event. A further lowing wildfires (Fig. 9 (e), (f)) and in fossil possiblity is that the trees were partially rotted fusains demonstrates a similar mode of origin before the fire and the animals that were either (Scott 1989a) (Fig. 9 (a)-(d)). Lyell (1847) also living inside the trunk or were using it as a refuge Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Fig. 9. Scanning electron micrographs of fossil (a)-(d) (Coal 15, Upper Carboniferous, Coal Mine Point, Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada) and Recent (e)-(f) charcoal (Tilford, Surrey, UK). (a) Fusain fragment. (b) Detail of end walls showing homogenized cell walls. (c) Fusain fragment. (d) Detail of longitudinal section. (e) Longitudinal section of Pinus wood showing rays. (f) Transverse section of angiosperm wood showing homogenized cell walls and vessel end plate.

from the fire were killed by the fire. The driving of fossil charcoal in sediments is not widely animals to their deaths by the action of fire has been recognized. The recording of plant fossils by suggested for other tetrapod deposits (Scott et al. sedimentologists is rare in itself and the distinction 1994). The common fragmentation of skeletons and between coalified plants and fossil charcoal the mixing of tetrapod material with charcoal may (fusain) is rarely made. Over the past 20 years there suggest that this is not the case. Details of these have been several studies which have demonstrated arguments will be presented elsewhere but the the importance of fossil charcoal. observation that tetrapods occur most often in the base of trunks associated with charcoal in relatively Palaeoatmospheres and palaeoclimates few of the many tree horizons is important, but much more data are needed on the taphonomy of There has been considerable recent interest in the the vertebrates and the trees themselves. modelling of ancient atmospheres and climates For the most part, even today, the occurrence of (Chaloner & McElwain 1997; Berner 1994; Berner Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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& Canfield 1989). It has been demonstrated that the occurrence of fossil charcoal constrains atmospheric oxygen levels over the past 400 million years to within both upper and lower limits (Cope & Chaloner 1980; Chaloner 1989), the 'fire window' of Jones & Chaloner (1991) who suggest that atmospheric oxygen has not fallen below 13 per cent and not risen above 35 per cent. It is clear that oxygen levels have risen and fallen from the Devonian to the present day. Berner and Canfield (1989) note very high (over 30per cent) oxygen levels during the Carboniferous. This, together with the occurrence of widespread lowland equatorial peat systems, may have made the Euramerican coal measures particularly fire prone (Scott & Jones 1994) resulting in Carboniferous coals having high fusain contents (Robinson 1987).

Sedimentology Few sedimentologists working on ancient sequences have appreciated the linkage between fire and erosion/depositional cycles (but see Allen 1974; Nichols & Jones 1992; Scott & Jones 1994). Fires may result in a significant increase in erosion and hence deposition in a basin (Swanson 1981). This has been well demonstrated in Yellowstone National Park following the extensive fires of 1988 Fig. 10. Taxodium distichum, the swamp cypress (the (Meyer 1992). There have been relatively few et al. leaves have fallen from this deciduous conifer), in peat- detailed studies of Pre-Quaternary charcoal forming swamp, Everglades, southern USA. deposits (Scott & Jones 1994). Evidence of early catastrophic fires has been recorded from Lower Carboniferous nearshore marine sediments in western Ireland (Nichols & Jones 1992; Scott & Jones 1994; Falcon-Lang 1998). These fires not review). It is not only important to consider this in only resulted in significant erosion but also affected terms of botanical/anatomical data but also as the depositional systems. It has been demonstrated yielding important ecological data. For example that fires of different vegetation types in different some Carboniferous plants are preferentially climatic zones burn at different temperatures preserved as charcoal and hence may have been (Rundel 1981). Experimental charring of wood has living in fire-prone ecosystems (Scott & Jones shown the linkage between temperature and 1994: DiMichele & Phillips 1994). reflectance values of the charcoal (Scott & Jones The botanical identity of a charcoalified plant 1991a). Experimental data appear consistent with assemblage may also yield significant palaeo- data collected from charcoals from Recent fires ecological data when compared with associated (Scott & Jones 1994), thus offering the possibility non-charcoalified assemblages (e.g. in the Lower of using details of the fossil charcoal to help Carboniferous of Kingswood, Fife; Scott & Jones understand past fire regimes. 1994). In the Yorkshire Jurassic, Cope (1993) has contrasted the charcoal taxonomic composition with the taxonomic composition of associated plant Palaeobotany and palaeoecology compression fossils noting that the differences can In hand specimen, fossil charcoal looks uninter- be explained by ecological factors and sediment- esting and uninformative. Charcoal, and hence ological processes acting within a delta environ- fossil charcoal, does, however, retain considerable ment subject to periodic natural wildfire. anatomical data. Over the past 25 years, partic- Fossil charcoal has much to offer the geologist ularly with the advent of scanning electron and perhaps we should take a lesson from Lyell microscopy, the anatomy of many charcoalified when recording field observations - all information plants has been described (see Scott 1989 for a may be relevant. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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Modern analogues for ancient coals waterlogged conditions and that the source of the water has a major influence on the nature of the In his early work Lyell (1830) showed little concern resultant peat. Predominantly flow-fed systems for coal. He did, however, use the analogy of the (rheotrophic) yielded planar peats with variable ash Mackenzie River to explain his views on the drifted and sulphur contents whereas rain water-fed origin of ancient coals (p. 242). Lyell's visits to systems (ombrotrophic) yielded raised or domed North America, especially to the wetlands of the peats with low ash and sulphur content (Moore south, together with his observations on Carbon- 1987). Combined with the fact that the Carbon- iferous coals in particular, profoundly changed his iferous coals of Euramerica (Calder & Gibling views. In his first visit to North America (Lyell 1994) formed in the palaeotropics, tropical raised 1843), Lyell describes his visit in December 1841 mires (peat-forming systems) are a more to the Great Dismal Swamp and makes a direct appropriate analogue for Carboniferous coals comparison with the coal measures. Lyell later (Cohen et al. 1989; Cohen & Stack 1996; Staub & noted (1855, p. 382) in comparison with upright Esterle 1992; Cameron et al. 1989; Moore & trees of the coal measures that 'some Coniferae of Hubbert 1992; Esterle & Ferm 1994; Cobb & Cecil the Coal Period grew in the same swamps as 1993; Cecil et al. 1993; Neuzil et al. 1993; Supardi Sigillariae, just as now the deciduous Cypress et al. 1993; Grady et al. 1993; Eble & Grady 1993). (Taxodium distichum) abounds in the marshes of Interpretation of the trophic setting of ancient Louisiana even to the edge of the sea' (Fig. 10). peats/coals has been used as a proxy for During his second visit to the United States in palaeoclimate with ombrotrophic peats 1846 Lyell was impressed by his observations on representing a non-seasonal regime and rheotrophic the Mississippi. He documents his observations in peats showing a restricted regime with a dry season some detail (Lyell 1849a, vol. 2, pp. 77-81, 190- (Cecil et al. 1985; Moore 1987; Calder 1994). 195) and incorporates these into both the Principles A major feature of many of these tropical and the Manual. Some of his observations relate to analogues is that they are thick and domed with low the problem of the absence of sediment in coal: 'It ash and sulphur content. Detailed studies of the may be affirmed that generally in the "Cypress coals (e.g. Neuzil et al. 1993) has demonstrated the swamps" of the Mississippi no sediment mingles domed ombrogenous peats of Indonesia will result with the vegetable matter accumulated there from in low ash and low sulphur coal (less than 10 per the decay of trees and semi-aquatic plants.' The cent ash and less than 1 per cent sulphur), even if problem of the nature of the Mississippi peats is a marine rocks are laterally and vertically adjacent to long-standing one. Some have claimed that these the coal. The upsurge of interest in using domed would make good analogues for coal (Kosters et al. tropical peats as analogies for Carboniferous coals 1987) but others (e.g. McCabe 1987) point out that in place of the planar peats of the southeast USA the peats do in fact show considerable 'ash' on has led researchers to think of peats as either planar ignition and may, upon burial, only give rise to a or domed, rheotrophic or ombrotrophic (Cohen & carbonaceous shale. Combining observations on Stack 1996, Scott 1989b). It has, however, been modern systems together with data from Coal demonstrated by several authors (both from Measures of Nova Scotia Lyell makes some inter- temperate systems (e.g. Styan & Bustin 1983) and esting calculations on the time involved. His tropical systems (e.g. Cohen & Stack 1996) that conclusion (Lyell 1855, pp. 286-287) is that it many of the larger peat deposits may be partially would take more than 2 million years to convey to domed and partially planar. In some cases these the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi the quantity may record a planar-domed-planar sequence of sediment of the Nova Scotia coal measures, (Cohen & Stack 1996), a succession interpreted for which is approximately the time span represented some Carboniferous coals (Bartram 1987). The by the coal measures of Joggins (Calder, pers. importance of the trophic status of peat has been comm. 1997). recognised only relatively recently. The state of The interpretation of the Carboniferous coal knowledge at the time of Lyell would not have measures using the peats and depositional systems allowed him to appreciate this. Most of the coals of the southeast United States is one that has had a Lyell observed at Joggins were thin planar, rheo- long history and many authors have used this trophic peats deposited in a rapidly subsiding basin modern analogue (e.g. Dapples & Hopkins 1969; (Hower et al. 1995) where there were frequent Fisk 1960; Spackman et al. 1966). An increase in changes in rainfall pattern as seen by the inter- our understanding of the nature of peat formation fingering of coal zones with trees and reddened has demonstrated that the most appropriate ana- intervals. Lyell's careful observations on the coals, logues to Carboniferous coals may lie in the ombro- sediments and biota represented, however, the way genous peats of Southeast Asia (Moore 1987; forward. Teichmtiller (1989) observed that the Clymo 1987). It was shown that peats form in trophic status of ancestral coals is one of the most Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

256 A.C. SCOTT intriguing and problematic aspects of the genesis of standing the coal-forming vegetation, the investi- coal. Lyellian studies of fossil forests and under- gation of animals and their traces, the origin of lying peats are shedding light on this problem sediments and their rate of deposition, climate and (DiMichele & Phillips 1994; Calder et al. 1996). weather were all part of the same problem to be In all these studies there is the view that the explained. Lyell showed that careful field obser- present holds the key to the past and that a study of vation, combined with a knowledge of modern modern peats will lead to a greater understanding of processes, was the key to interpreting the past. Carboniferous coals. Whilst this may be true to What Lyell was unable to know was that the some extent, there are several inherent problems present is not always a completely reliable guide to with this approach. It has been widely recognized interpreting the past. Lyell, and indeed many that coal-forming vegetation has changed radically current researchers, did not realize that the peat- through time (see reviews in Collinson & Scott forming vegetation of today was quite different, 1987 a, b). This was a fact not obvious to Lyell. If both in terms of growth construction and repro- it were simply that there were different species, ductive strategy, from that of the Carboniferous. genera or families of plants which had a similar This, combined with the fact that atmospheric and growth and life habit, this might not be proble- climatic conditions were also different, means that matic. It is now clear, following detailed anatomical detailed modern analogies are not possible for all studies of Upper Carboniferous coal-forming plants but the most Recent coals. using data from coal balls, that the growth I have shown three key areas that interested Lyell strategies and life habits of the peat-forming plants and which are also the subject of modern study. were quite different from those living today. Plant These are: the formation of coal and coal-bearing construction, growth strategy, tissue types and sequences; the role of fire in shaping coal forming reproductive strategy were all different (DiMichele ecosystems and the use of modern peats to interpret & Phillips 1994). Even the way the resultant peat ancient coals. It is clear, as Lyell appreciated, that a compacts is affected by types of plants forming the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach is peat (Winston 1986). It has also been shown that needed to unravel these problems. Too often the rate of plant growth may be radically different research has centred on only one aspect using only between Carboniferous and Recent plants one tool. For example, coal measure sediment- (DiMichele & Phillips 1994) and indeed tissue ologists have concentrated on elastic sediments compaction may also differ depending on the taxa between the coals, coal petrologists have concen- concerned (Winston 1986). Exact analogies trated on the coals and ignored the intervening between modern peats and ancient coals may not, sediments and both have often ignored the fauna, therefore, be found. There has been a tendency to flora and their traces. Indeed, fossil forests atop imagine all coals of all ages are the same but clearly coals provide an important link between these two recent advances in our understanding of the (Calder et al. 1996). vegetational composition demonstrates that this is If further progress is to be made in our clearly not the case (Collinson & Scott 1987a). understanding of coal measures systems then an Modern analogies are useful, as Lyell found, in integrated or holistic approach is necessary. This visualising ancient deposits, but too much reliance has been partly attempted only for a few sites (e.g. on detailed interpretation of the Recent systems Willard et aL 1995, Calder et al. 1996) and the to interpret some of the older, for example the success of such an approach has been demonstrated Upper Carboniferous, coals will lead to erroneous on other terrestrial sequences such as the site for the assumptions and results. One way to resolve these current oldest reptile-like vertebrate from East issues is through careful multidisciplinary work on Kirkton, Scotland (Rolfe et al. 1990, 1994 and plants, erect trees, coals and sediments etc.- the subsequent papers). Unfortunately in this world of approach employed by Lyell and his colleagues. increasing specialisation, the ability, and indeed desire to undertake a more holistic approach, seems to be lacking both on the part of researchers and Conclusions and future work their granting agencies. Perhaps we should take a Personal field observations were important in lesson from Sir Charles Lyell where the shaping Lyell's view of the origin and significance combination of careful field observations together coal and coal-bearing strata. In particular, his with a theoretical framework helped him to travels to several North American coal basins and promote the relatively new science of geology not especially his observations on the Joggins section, only to other scientists but also to the public at together with his observations on Recent peat- large. forming environments of the southern United States gave him a particular holistic approach to unravel- The work at Joggins with J. H. Calder was funded by ling ancient wetland ecosystems. To Lyell, under- NATO grant 940559. I thank K. de Souza for Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

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