NATIVE AMERICAN Farming & Agriculture Table of Choctaw, Farming Contents & Agriculture

2. Choctaw, Farming & Agriculture Sources: Choctaw Nation Historic Preservation Department, Choctaw Nation Agriculture Outreach Program 4. Citizen and Choctaw Nation School of Language Potawatomi Choctaw people and animal products that were Nation, Farming lived in balance eaten according to the seasons. In and Agriculture within the landscape the spring, women collected leaves of their homelands, present-day eastern from young, succulent plants such Mississippi and western Alabama. As as poke, dock and stinging nettles, 5. Cherokee, a result, Choctaw people have been providing the Vitamin A, calcium recognized as the best agriculturalists and iron needed to supplement dried Farming & of all of the Southeastern Tribes food rations that had been stored Agriculture (Romans 1770). The Choctaw people over winter. In the summer, they draw part of their identity from collected edible fruits like grapes and cooking and eating old Choctaw family blackberries, grains like sump weed 6. Chickasaw favorites. seeds, and oily hickory nuts, while the men provided protein by fishing Nation, Farming Their culinary repertoire includes meat and hunting small game. In the and Agriculture from both large and smaller animals, fall, women gathered acorns, while as well as plant foods collected in the men hunted the larger animals season. Traditional foods are still eaten that the acorns attracted, their meat by some Choctaw families today to and hides prime for the coming maintain good health and cold. In the winter, the community preserve their culture; dug starchy tubers like greenbrier there is an active effort roots, and welcomed the Vitamin C to revitalize traditional provided by fresh persimmons. In the Choctaw food dishes that are 1500s, the Spanish brought Shukha no longer in the everyday diet. (pigs), Wak (cattle), Takkon (peaches), This diet, developed by and Shukshi (watermelons) to the Choctaw ancestors over Choctaw homeland. By the late 1700s, many generations, Choctaw farmers added leeks, garlic, Gwen Coleman Lester represents a balance cabbage, hogs, chicken and ducks of wild plant foods (Romans 770:84).

2 | Native American Farming & Agriculture Choctaw people shared these One of the greatest threats dishes with visitors to their facing Choctaw traditional homeland and influenced culture today is a decreasing world history as Europeans connection with the land. Today, took Native American foods the Choctaw traditional foodway worldwide. For example, offers insights into healthy Choctaw cuisine is the basis eating, local food, and sustainability. of American soul food, it With this in mind, the Choctaw contributed significantly Nation continues to preserve farming to Cajun cuisine, and corn and agricultural history by teaching tribal is the third most important members and neighbors how to be agriculturally food crop world-wide. Corn minded. The tribe’s Historic Preservation program was domesticated in Mexico and brought north. grows out the seeds for highly threatened Choctaw Choctaw ancestors in 500 BC) and Perique (a Choctaw farmers developed four varieties of corn heritage crops that have been collected and traditional Choctaw variety of tobacco, one of the – Tanchushi, Tanchi hlimishko, Tanchi tohbi encourages Choctaw families to do so as well. most expensive in the world). Future plans include and Tanchi bokanli. These corn varieties, along These unique crop varieties represent the efforts of distribution of seeds to interested Tribal families with beans, were shared with the Spanish when centuries of work on the part of Choctaw farmers, and teaching them how to cultivate them. This will they arrived in Choctaw country in the mid-1500s; tending the crops and selecting the best seeds help to expand rural markets, shrink the local food later, some varieties made their way to the rest of each year. Compared to today’s commodity crops, desert, and make these healthy, Choctaw-produced the world. these tend to be higher in nutrition, flavor, and food ingredients more widely available. sustainability. Three hundred years ago, Choctaw communities began maintaining three distinct types of highly Today, some of efficient agricultural fields: small family garden these ancient plots planted between the houses in a village, large Choctaw community fields located down in the bottom land varieties of crop adjacent to the village, and patches of pumpkins plants survive and melons located away from the village. These by only a few fields utilized Choctaw advanced permaculture hundred seeds. practices developed over 15,000 years of Crop varieties sustainable land use. being preserved today include Tanchi Tohbi (the traditional Choctaw flour corn), Tanchi hlimisko The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma’s ancient land- Choctaws began raising cattle in the 1730s. By the (the traditional Choctaw yellow hominy corn), management practices are still valued today as 1770s, many Choctaws spread out into previously Choctaw Sweet Potato Squash (a 30lb variety the tribe harvests large crops of pecans, hay, cattle unsettled land in order to better graze their with amazing flavor and shelf life), Smith Peas (a and buffalo from thousands of acres of tribally livestock. By the start of the Trail of Tears in 1830, small field pea brought out of Mississippi in 1882), owned and cultivated land. The Choctaw Nation of the Choctaw Lambsquarter (a native green, with a better Oklahoma Agriculture Outreach program utilizes cattle herd nutritional profile than raw spinach), Huazontle (a Ag in the Classroom and works with Head Starts, numbered variety of domesticated Lambsquarter, grown by Daycare and public school students to teach and about 43,000 promote agriculture education. Working with head (Carso tribal extension agents, Agriculture Outreach 2005). works with the USDA as well as Oklahoma Around the Cooperative Extension Service, assists with local same time, livestock shows and works with tribal members on Choctaw their agriculture needs. farmers began growing and harvesting crops as separate families, like their Euro-American neighbors. This was not without consequence. Within decades after the Trail of Tears, these harsh land practices resulted in the decimation of the soils in the Choctaw homeland.

Native American Farming & Agriculture | 3 Citizen Potawatomi Nation, Farming and Agriculture

Written by: Early in the spring, when their food was Pat Thompson, about to run out, the Potawatomi tapped Oklahoma maple trees for syrup. They collected Ag in the sap in birch bark pails and poured Nanabozho and the Maple Trees Classroom it into log troughs hollowed from When Nanabozho, the Anishinabe Original Man, our teacher, The Citizen basswood trees. The large surface area part man, part manido, walked through the world, he took Potawatomi and shallow depth of the troughs was note of who was flourishing and who was not, of who was people came to ideal for ice formation. Every morning, mindful of the Original Instructions and who was not. He was Oklahoma from the ice was removed, leaving a more dismayed when he came upon villages where the gardens Great Lakes area during the Indian concentrated sugar solution behind. were not being tended, where the fishnets were not repaired and the children were not being taught the way to live. Instead of Removals. They are relatives and allies The concentrated solution could then be seeing piles of firewood and caches of corn, he found the people of the Ojibwe and Ottawa tribes, and boiled to make sugar. lying beneath maple trees with their mouths wide open, catching the the name “Potawatomi” refers to their Wooden evaporating dishes were placed sweet syrup of the generous trees. They had become lazy and took role as “fire keepers” in that alliance. on flat stones over the coals of a fire for granted the gifts of the Creator. They did not do their ceremonies They are Algonquian-speaking people, that burned night and day. In the old or care for one another. He knew his responsibility, so he went to and their name for themselves is times, families would all move together the river and dipped up many buckets of water. He poured the water “Nishnabek” (related to the Ojibwe to “sugar camp,” where firewood and straight into the maple trees to dilute the syrup. Today, maple sap word “Anishinabe.”) There are around equipment had been stored the year flows like a stream of water with only a trace of sweetness to remind 33,000 Potawatomi Indians today. before. Most of the time was spent the people both of possibility and of responsibility. And so it is that it takes forty gallons of sap to make a gallon of syrup. Potawatomi women planted and stirring. When the syrup reached just harvested corn, beans, squash, and the right consistency, it was beaten so Stories excerpted from Robin Wall Kimmerer, “Maple Sugar Moon,” Braiding tobacco, and gathered wild rice that it would solidify in the desired Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants, Milkweed, 2015. and berries. The men hunted deer, way, into soft cakes, hard candy, and elk, and wild birds and caught fish. granulated sugar. Then it was stored in They converted forests into enriched birch bark boxes called makaks, and How the Squirrels Taught the People agricultural fields using an ancient sewn tight with spruce root. Given birch technique known as “slash and burn.” bark’s natural preservatives, the sugars to Make Sugar would keep for years. During Gtegangises (Planting Moon), It is said our people learned to make sugar from tools made of bone, stone and wood Student Activity: the squirrels. In late winter, the hungry time, when were used to cultivate crops, including caches of nuts are depleted, squirrels take to the Read both stories that explore this history peanuts, potatoes, onions, melons and the treetops and gnaw on the branches of sugar maples. Scraping the of Maple sap. Compare the two stories. “Three Sisters” (corn, beans and squash). bark allows sap to exude from the twig, and the squirrels drink it. Which one is a fable and which one is But the real goods come the next morning, when they follow the Crops and a variety of nuts (acorns, fact? What is the moral of the fable? same circuit they made the day before, licking up the sugar crystals chestnuts and beechnuts) were that formed on the bark overnight. Freezing temperatures cause the harvested during Dgwaget (fall) and Vocabulary water in the sap to sublimate, leaving a sweet crystalline crust like — having to do stored for the winter in underground agricultural rock candy behind, enough to tide them over through the hungriest pits and baskets. with the science or occupation time of year. of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising Our people call this time the Maple Sugar Moon, Zizibaskwet Giizis, allies — groups associated or The month before is known as the Hard Crust on Snow Moon. People united with another for some living a subsistence lifestyle also know it as the Hunger Moon, when stored food has dwindled and game is scarce. But the maples carried common purpose the people through, provided food just when they needed it most. Stories excerpted from Robin Wall Kimmerer, “Maple Sugar Moon,” Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants, Milkweed, 2015.

4 | Native American Farming & Agriculture Vocabulary Communal— of or relating to a community Community — shared ownership or participation Cherokee, Farming Cultivated — to loosen or break up the soil Depleted — reduced in amount by using up; exhausted, especially of strength or resources & Agriculture Extinct — no longer existing Fallow — land for crops allowed to lie idle during the Written by: and sunflowers. To plant corn, the women growing season Pat Thompson, would dig small holes about two inches Matrilineal — relating to, based on, or tracing descent Oklahoma Ag in apart, place seven kernels of corn in each through the maternal line the Classroom hole and cover the hole with a small hill Nitrogen — a colorless tasteless odorless element The Cherokee of soil. Pumpkins, beans and sunflowers that occurs as a gas which makes up 78 percent of the may have been grew in between the rows of corn. atmosphere and that forms a part of all living tissues raising squash as Nitrogen-depleting corn was planted with nitrogen-fixing beans. Pole beans were allowed to Nitgrogen-Fixing — a process of combining early as 3,000 years atmospheric nitrogen with other elements to form climb on the tall stalks of corn. The men helped ago. Even earlier, useful compounds some scientists think clear the larger communal fields but spent most of they may have been cultivating plants such their time at war and hunting deer, bear, and elk. Swidden — an area of land cleared for cultivation by slashing and burning vegetation as marsh elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, Like tribes in the west, the Cherokee also hunted bison but a smaller breed, called timber bison, and sunflowers. For at least the last 1,400 The soil is so remarkably fertile that the women alone which is now extinct. Children used darts blown years they have been raising beans and corn. do all the laborious tasks of agriculture, the soil through hollowed-out river cane to hunt smaller During the Mississippian Period (800 to requiring only a little stirring with a hoe to produce game—squirrel, rabbit, opposum and game birds. 1500 CE), the Cherokee ancestors developed whatever is required of it; yielding vast quantities The English Lieutenant Henry Timberlake visited a new variety of corn called eastern flint of peas, beans, potatoes, cabbages, Indian corn, the Cherokee in 1762. He was surprised to find which closely resembles modern corn. Corn pumpkins, melons, and tobacco, not to mention a that the women did most of the farm labor. was central to several religious ceremonies, number of other vegetables imported from Europe, not especially the Green Corn Ceremony. The By the mid-1700s Cherokees were growing so generally known amongst them, which flourish as Cherokee cleared woodlands for cultivated apples from Europe, black-eyed peas from Africa much, or more here than in their native climate; and, by fields in a practice called “slash and burn” or and sweet potatoes from the Caribbean. By the the daily experience of the goodness of the soil, we may “swidden” agriculture. This involved felling late 1700s they were growing watermelon from conclude that, with due care, all European plants might larger trees and burning shrubs and grasses. African and peach trees introduced by the Spanish. succeed in the same manner. - English Lieutenant New fields would be cultivated with a digging Peaches were pounded and mixed with flour Henry Timberlake (Timberlake, 42) stick. These fields would be used until the to make bread and cooked and dried for winter soils became depleted. Then the depleted storage or used to flavor soups and beverages. fields would be left alone to lie fallow, and Vocabulary new fields would be cleared. Cherokee society In the mid 1700s, an Anglo-American captive, Climate — the average weather conditions of a was matrilineal. In matrilineal societies, Mrs. Bean, introduced the Cherokee to dairy particular place or region over a period of years a person’s clan and tribal membership are cattle and taught them to prepare and use dairy Fertile— producing vegetation or crops plentifully traced through the mother rather than the foods. This provided some nourishment even father. The women were the farmers and when hunting was bad. With the introduction of Flourish — to grow well were in charge of the fields and gardens. dairy farming the Cherokee began to amass large Villages were surrounded by vast communal herds and farms, which required more manual Cherokee people less dependent on traders. It also cornfields. The entire community, women and labor. This would soon lead the Cherokee into led to a change in terms of gender roles. Women men, worked in these fields. The women and using slave labor. The same Anglo-American began spending more time in the home weaving children tended smaller household gardens captive taught Cherokee women to set up looms, and doing household chores. The men began near their homes. Children used blow darts spin thread or yarn and weave cloth. At this time, taking more responsibility for the farm work. By to scare away small animals and birds. In the the Cherokee were wearing a combination of the 1820s, Cherokees were practicing small-scale household gardens were a traditional hide (animal skin) clothing and loomed woods ranching of hogs and cattle, hunting and smaller variety of corn, cloth purchased from traders. Weaving gathering, and fishing. Farms ranged in size from beans, squash, pumpkins their own cloth would make the two to 10 acres at that time and were arranged in

Native American Farming & Agriculture | 5 kin-based groups along the stream and river valleys. Cherokee land was valuable farming land with the ideal climate and necessary 200 frost- free days for growing cotton. Some Cherokee farmers began growing cotton to sell. This put them in competition with Anglo-American Chickasaw Nation, farmers who were also trying to make money growing cotton. For this and a combination of other reasons, the government decided to move the Cherokee from their ancestral lands in the east to the land in the west, known then as Indian Territory and now as Oklahoma. Farming and Loom — a frame or machine for weaving threads or yarns to produce cloth This removal took place in two phases, 1836 and 1839. One group left Agriculture voluntarily in 1836 and another group was forced to leave in 1839. This forced removal came to be known as the “Trail of Tears.” Many Throughout history, Cherokee died on the Trail of Tears. Most of those who died were farming and women and children. Although they lost many of their tools, horses agriculture and livestock on the journey, the Cherokee took up farming again have been an when they got to the new land. The women had sewn seeds from their integral part of old fields into the hems of their skirts. They used these seeds to start the Chickasaw over. Economically, the Cherokee benefited from the good soil of the way of life. In new territory. By 1859 there were over 100,000 acres in cultivation, ancient times, and Cherokee farmers were averaging over 35 bushels of corn an acre. our ancestors lived The tribe had over 240,000 head of cattle and were exporting 50,000 in villages where they Reproduction of the mural painted at the Marietta Post office that depicts a Chickasaw family making pashofa. head a year, worth over $1,000,000, to eastern markets. Flatboats and grew corn in communal fields and divided steamboats connected Cherokee towns with centers of US trade as far the harvest among the villages. This was of the floor. This design kept the food cool south as New Orleans. the primary crop, and it fed the villages and dry. A removable ladder allowed access Economic — of, relating to, or based on the production, year round. After European settlement to the food stored inside. By rubbing oil distribution, and consumption of goods and services and colonization, Chickasaws established on the posts, they kept the dried corn and family farmsteads. On these farms, they Export — to carry or send abroad especially for sale in another squash, nuts and seeds, and dried meats and country cultivated cotton and raised livestock such fruits safe from rodents and other small as cattle, hogs and horses. They used horses animals. Wild Potato Clan Ah-ni-ga-to-ge-wi or Wild Potato Clan (originally and oxen to pull wooden plows with iron Many traditional Chickasaw foods and Kituwah clan, has also been known as the Bear Clan, Raccoon Clan plowshares. They used the scythe and recipes have withstood the test of time. and even Blind Savannah in different regions) — Were known to be other hand tools for tending and reaping. Chickasaw families continue to cook farmers and gatherers of the wild potato plants in swamps (hence The United States established agents and and enjoy many of the same foods their the name gatogewi = “swamp”) and along streams to make flour or blacksmiths to provide tools and to make ancestors enjoyed long ago. Most notably, bread for food, and were so named after them. The wild potato was repairs. The tools made large cultivation this includes the Three Sisters, grape a main staple of the older Cherokee life back east (Tsa-la-gi U-weti). easier to produce superior crops. dumplings and pashofa. Historically, members of this clan were known to be keepers of the Chickasaws depended upon the crops land and gatherers. The clan color is green and their wood is birch. raised in household gardens and common The Three Sisters is a vegetable medley Their flag is yellow with green stars. According to Cherokee folklore, fields to sustain them throughout the year. of corn, squash and beans that are planted plants are sacred. They not only feed us but also have healing powers. Seeds were saved from each year’s harvest together so each plant can support An old Cherokee story is that when animals were being over-hunted and vegetables were planted in rotation and nourish each other. Today, many by humans, the animals decided to get together and hold a counsel. with the seasons, and any excess was Chickasaws enjoy Three Sisters Stew. They decided to infect humans with disease. Each animal came up preserved for later use. Each Chickasaw Corn, beans and squash have provided with a different disease. However, the plants were still friendly toward family built a corn crib to protect food kept nutrition for the Chickasaw people for humans so each plant came up with a cure for one of the diseases that in storage. They set four tall posts deep generations. These three sisters grow infected humans. Today, as with the general population, there into the ground and build a timber floor on together and support each other as they are very few Cherokee farmers. But there are some who top of the posts, high above the ground. A thrive. Traditionally, the vegetables were are trying to revive some of their traditional healing small, four-sided building constructed of planted together in late May or early June. plants by gathering and saving heirloom seeds timber walls covered in In gardens, small mounds were built two and providing the seeds to tribal members to clay daub sat on top feet apart at the base and four feet apart at plant in their gardens.

6 | Native American Farming & Agriculture the top. In the center of each, several corn kernels the large iron pots. Pashofa paddles were were captured and many simply escaped into the were planted in a small circle. After the corn designed specifically for this purpose. They woods. Several breeds descended from these pigs grew about a hand high, pole beans were planted were carved with long handles, broadened at including the Choctaw Pig. Soon after, Chickasaws in another circle in the mound, about six inches one end like a spoon, only flat with a straight began to domesticate the pig and raise it in pens outside the corn. A week later, squash seeds were edge for scraping. The strong heartwoods on their farms. The bacon was known to be more planted around the outer edge of the mound. The of hickory, bois d’arc and oak trees were streaked, firm and better tasting because the pigs beans grew up the cornstalks, which were strong used. Because they were made so well, these were fed on the hickory nuts, acorns and chestnuts enough to hold the weight. The squash grew out paddles last several generations, handed of the Chickasaw Homeland. and covered the ground, keeping out the weeds down like a family treasure from one family and keeping in the moisture. These plants to the next. The handles wore smooth after The Chickasaw Horse was known for its endurance provided for each other, just as they many years of use, a legacy of the loving, and speed. Although it was provided for Chickasaw families. hardworking hands of our ancestors. Pashofa was, shorter than other breeds and still is, served at large gatherings of our people, of horses, it was stocky, Corn has long been a staple of the for celebrations and ceremonies. muscular and powerful. Chickasaw diet. Corn grew across It had tough feet that were so well- the Chickasaw Homeland, in the Next to the corn pounder, the pashofa kettle was a adapted to the terrain; they didn’t Southeastern United States, and necessary item in Chickasaw households. Prior to need shoeing. Their necks were Chickasaws long ago began to domesticate European trade, Chickasaw women crafted large very short, so they had to spread their front legs to it as a crop. They planted vast fields around clay vessels for cooking pashofa. The process of reach the grass. Chickasaw horses were used for households, tending the crops and harvesting making these pots took much labor and many hours transportation, hunting and carrying large game. together. Much of the corn was dried and stored of preparing the clay, building and fashioning the They were an important part of the daily lives of for later use and large gatherings. Families also pot by hand and waiting for the clay to dry before ancient Chickasaws. received corn from the harvest, and most grew firing. Though the pots were well-made and served their own in household gardens. While some was many people, the metal kettle began appearing Cotton Gin Port, located in Monroe County, eaten fresh, most was dried and saved for use as European trade increased. They were virtually Mississippi, strengthened the Chickasaw throughout the year. Women used corn pounders indestructible and spared hours of making ceramic economy at a critical time in our history. made from hollowed out tree trunks to crack pots. Many pashofa kettles were handed down As Chickasaws moved onto family and grind dried corn. Corn provided the main among Chickasaw families for generations. homesteads and built farms to raise ingredient for many foods. Generations were livestock and crops, cotton become nourished from pashofa and corn cakes. The corn Grape dumplings were traditionally made from a major commodity. Built in 1800, pounder was a household item for Chickasaw the wild “possum grapes” that hung from vines Cotton Gin Port was the first cotton gin women. on trees throughout the Chickasaw Homeland in the Chickasaw Homeland and one of Mississippi, Alabama and Tennessee. Though of the first in the surrounding region. Pashofa is a traditional dish that consists of cracked “possum grapes” are no longer used, it is still a The cotton gin decreased the time and corn (hominy) and pork, covered in water and dish revered by many. labor it took to separate the cotton from the boiled for several hours. Chickasaws have enjoyed cottonseeds. Cotton Gin Port was located on the pashofa for centuries. Traditionally, cooking pashofa These dishes, all served at the west bank of the Tombigbee River. People from required many hours of close attention. Women world-renowned Chickasaw all over the area come to process and ship their came together to prepare enough to feed an entire Cultural Center, are just part cotton, along with many other products, down the village. This required several pounds of cracked of the unique and vibrant Tombigbee to the gulf at Mobile, Alabama. corn. When the time came to prepare pashofa, corn culture of the Chickasaw pounders were used to crack hominy kernels. Next, people. Ongoing, concerted efforts to ensure this Still a favorite pastime of many, the corn was poured into boiling water in a pashofa part of the culture continues, for generations to fishing was traditionally used kettle. Pork was added and it continued to cook until come, is a point of emphasis for the Chickasaw as an important means for food. the mixture was soft and soupy. It could take a good Nation. There were many rivers and creeks in portion of the day, depending on how much was the Homeland from which to fish. Chickasaws Pigs were not native to the Chickasaw Homeland prepared. built berms along the water’s edge to allow fish in, but were introduced by Spanish explorers. but not out. Once trapped, fish were caught with One of the most important One explorer, Hernando hands or spears. Natural poison, made of crushed steps in cooking pashofa de Soto, came in contact buckeyes, green walnut hulls and shoestring root, was to stir the pot regularly. with Chickasaws in 1540. was also used. When the mixture was thrown in This ensured the corn would During one battle with the water, the fish become stunned and floated to not stick to the bottom of the Spanish, many pigs the surface for easy capture.

Native American Farming & Agriculture | 7