World Mission and Higher Education Internationalization: a Comparative

World Mission and Higher Education Internationalization: A

Comparative Study of Christian Universities in South Korea and

Canada

Christina Jane Hwang

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto

World Mission and Higher Education Internationalization: A Comparative

Study of Christian Universities in South Korea and Canada

Christina J. Hwang

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto

2020

Abstract

This thesis explores the nature of internationalization activities at two Christian higher education institutions comparatively—one in South Korea and the other in Canada. A qualitative study, it examines the question of the extent to which an institution’s internationalization policies and programs reflect the core values of the evangelical Christian faith stated in their mission and vision statement. A conceptual framework was created using Jane Knight’s (2004) framework for internationalization and the concept of Holistic Christian world mission found in the

Lausanne Covenant. This enables understanding of how the current theories of Christian world mission and the secular ideas of internationalization come together to influence the institutional mission. The history and context of each school also were studied to see how much they influence the internationalization strategies.

The study found the evangelical core values of the Christian faith in the mission statements at each of the Christian higher education institution are strongly reflected in internationalization policies and programs. They are the driving force behind what they do in

terms of internationalization ‘at-home’ and abroad. This is due to underlying motivation for the strategies of internationalization being the scriptural calling of Holistic Christian world mission.

Consequently, a new values-based conceptual framework for internationalization emerged.

The study revealed there are several intersections between the secular notions of internationalization and the values of Christian world mission in the precepts of the Lausanne

Covenant. The socio-cultural rationales of Social and Community Development fuse closely with the motivations of Christian Social Responsibility which are tied with values of compassion, justice, reconciliation and mercy. Knight’s (2004) rationale of global citizenship development also intersects with the Great Commission’s calling to reach out to all nations. It is also linked to the Second Greatest Commandment of love and service for others and building of community through Christian discipleship and mentoring. The secular political rationale of technical assistance alongside peace and mutual understanding has values in common with those of the

Lausanne Covenant, including Christian and Social Responsibility, Churches in Evangelistic

Partnership, and Cooperation in Evangelism. However, context does affect the degree and types of engagement in internationalization programs.

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Acknowledgments

This dissertation has been a long and life-changing journey full of excitement and challenges. In all of the enjoyment and stresses in the research and writing, I was able to keep moving forward because of my relationship with God through Jesus Christ. He is Dominus illuminatio mea, the source of my strength and hope. I first acknowledge and give thanks, glory and praise to Him.

Many individuals have contributed to my intellectual development and this dissertation would not have come to completion without their support. First, I would like to express deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ruth Hayhoe. Words cannot express how thankful I am for your continuous care, patience and kindness in this journey. Your vast scholarship and understanding in comparative education is admirable and your example of humbleness and grace towards your students is something I will personally cherish. Warmest thanks also go to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Glen Jones and Dr. George Sumner. I am grateful for your support, insights and the clarity you have brought to my writing throughout the process of this work. I am also thankful to Dr. John Stapleton, my external examiner for his interest and willingness to read and review my thesis.

Thank you, Dr. and Mrs. Jei, for your generous time and help with all the logistical support in arranging my time at Handong. Without your support, my research at Handong Global

University would not have been possible. Thanks also to all my research participants at both

Handong Global University and Tyndale University College, for giving your time and sharing your experiences.

At OISE, I have been blessed with so many friendships along this scholarly and personal journey. Thank you to all of Dr. Hayhoe’s thesis group members and to my “office crew” in

Room 6-277. This amazing community of people have brought valuable support in every way.

Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the friends and relatives outside of school who have given me encouragement. A special thank you goes to my friend Janice, who was there from my start at OISE. I will always think fondly of all our chats in the car after class and the many study sessions until the very end.

Finally, my heart overflows with gratefulness and love for my family. First, to my strong and beautiful mother, Cecilia Hwang. She is a pianist and educator whose continuous care and sacrifice for myself and others brings a warmth and confidence to my soul. My father, Dr.

Thomas Hwang, is a scholar, writer, pastor and man after God’s heart. Your passion for

Christian world mission inspires me. Thank you, mom and dad, for your continuous encouragement and for being amazing examples of service to God and others. Thank you to my brother Jason, sister-in-law Soo, niece Leah, and nephew Matthew. Your prayers, smiles, and moral support mean the world to me. Thanks also to my little sister Andrea, brother-in-law

Jiyung, and nephew Joshua. Andrea, you have always been my biggest cheerleader and faithful prayer partner through this adventure. All in all, I could not have asked for a more amazing squad to have alongside me. Saranghaeyo and gamsahamnida!

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii Acknowledgments ...... iv Table of Contents ...... vi List of Tables ...... xii List of Figures ...... xiii List of Appendices ...... xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 Purpose of the Study ...... 5 Research Questions ...... 5 Definitions ...... 5 Rationale and Significance of the Study ...... 6 Motivation of the Researcher ...... 8 Organization of the Thesis ...... 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 11 Christian World Mission and Evangelicalism ...... 11 The Lausanne Covenant ...... 17 Evangelicalism ...... 19 Globalization and Internationalization ...... 21 Summary ...... 27 Chapter 3: Research Methodology and Design ...... 29 Philosophical Worldview ...... 29 Conceptual Framework ...... 30 Rationale for Design Type ...... 33 Case Study Research Design ...... 33 Research Sites ...... 34 Case Site 1: Handong Global University ...... 34 Case Site 2: Tyndale University College and Seminary ...... 35

Data Collection Strategies ...... 35 Sampling Strategy and Participant Interviews ...... 36 Data Analysis Strategies ...... 39 Transcription and Category Construction ...... 39 Methods of Achieving Validity ...... 41 Research Ethics ...... 43 Summary ...... 43 Chapter 4: Context of the Study ...... 45 South Korea ...... 45 Geography ...... 45 Peoples and Language...... 46 Economy ...... 47 Religion ...... 48 Government and Politics ...... 48 Education ...... 50 Canada ...... 52 Geography ...... 52 Peoples and Language...... 52 Economy ...... 53 Religion ...... 54 Government and Political System ...... 55 Education ...... 56 Christian World Mission and the Missionary Movement in South Korea ...... 58 Early Period ...... 58 Colonialism, Wars, and Post-Independence ...... 59 The Rise of Korean World Mission Since the Late 20th Century ...... 60 Current Status of Korean World Mission ...... 61 Christian World Mission Movement in Canada ...... 65 Canadian Missionary Heritage ...... 65 Current Snapshot of Protestant Christian Mission in Canada ...... 67 Christian Higher Education: Historical Overview ...... 68 South Korea ...... 68 Canada...... 74 National Internationalization Strategies ...... 77 South Korea ...... 77 Canada...... 83 Summary ...... 90 Chapter 5: Handong Global University ...... 91 Institutional Portrait ...... 91 Institutional Accolades...... 93 vii

Governance Structure...... 94 Embodiment of Christian Identity ...... 95 Internationalization Policies and Initiatives ...... 97 Motivations for Internationalization ...... 97 Program Strategies ...... 99 English Language...... 99 Global Convergence Studies ...... 101 Foreign Language Study ...... 101 Handong International Law School (HILS) ...... 102 Global Leadership, Entrepreneurship and International Development ...... 102 Curriculum ...... 103 Practical Training in Various Fields ...... 103 Academic Mobility ...... 103 International Student Recruitment ...... 103 Student Exchange/Study Abroad ...... 104 International Volunteering/Service Mission ...... 104 Partnerships and Cooperation ...... 105 OECD ...... 105 United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI)/UNAI Hub and Library ...... 105 UNESCO-UNITWIN Host University ...... 105 Global Associations ...... 106 Extracurricular Activities ...... 106 International and Intercultural Campus Events...... 106 Student Clubs and Associations ...... 107 Co-Curricular Activities ...... 107 Global Engagement Mobilization (GEM) Project ...... 107 Global Entrepreneurship Training (GET) Project...... 108 Organizational Strategies ...... 108 Student Housing ...... 108 Support Services for Students ...... 109 Support Services for International Faculty ...... 110 Alumni Network ...... 111 Financial Support and Resources ...... 113 Core Values of Evangelical Christian World Mission and Faith ...... 113 Non-Proctored Examinations ...... 114 The Handong Honour Code ...... 114 HanST (Handong Spiritual Training) ...... 114 Chapel and Devotional Services ...... 114 Handong International Church ...... 115 Team System ...... 115 Residential College System ...... 115 Understanding of Christian World Mission ...... 116

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Context ...... 117 Historical/Political Influence ...... 117 Socio-Political Climate ...... 117 Geographic/Regional Influence ...... 118 Summary ...... 118 Chapter 6: Tyndale University College and Seminary ...... 120 Institutional Portrait ...... 120 Historical Background ...... 120 Governance Structure...... 122 Evangelical Christian Identity...... 124 Transition to a New Campus...... 125 Internationalization Motivations and Initiatives ...... 126 Biblically-Based on The Great Commission and The Second Great Commandment ...... 126 To Reflect The Global Society and Welcome Others ...... 126 Experience of Institutional Leadership ...... 127 Creating and Equipping Christian Leaders of Service ...... 128 Program Strategies ...... 128 Academic Mobility ...... 128 Israel Study Tour...... 129 Business Administration and International Development ...... 130 Canadian Chinese School of Theology Program ...... 130 Importance of Language ...... 130 Intercultural Studies Minor ...... 130 Extracurricular Activities ...... 131 International and Intercultural Campus Events...... 131 Student Clubs and Associations ...... 132 ‘Third Culture Kid’ Club ...... 132 Social Justice Club ...... 132 International Service Mission ...... 132 Worship Team: Tyndale Band and Tyndale Singer ...... 133 Organizational Strategies ...... 133 Office of Student Life ...... 133 Support Services for International Students and Faculty...... 134 Registrar’s Office and Business Office...... 134 Student Orientation ...... 134 Faculty Funding ...... 135 Alumni Relations ...... 135 Information Technology ...... 135 Online Courses ...... 135 Food Facilities...... 135 Library ...... 136

Core Values of Evangelical Christian World Mission and Faith ...... 136 Tyndale University College and Seminary Statement of Faith ...... 136 Chapel Services ...... 138 Connecting with Local Churches ...... 138 Integration of Faith and Learning ...... 138 Community Life and Standards ...... 139 Understanding Christian World Mission ...... 139 Training Locally, Reaching Globally ...... 139 Faith and Works ...... 140 Context ...... 140 Influence of the Institutional History ...... 140 Theological Influence ...... 140 Geographic Influence ...... 141 Summary ...... 141 Chapter 7: Comparative Case Findings ...... 143 ‘Cross-Border’ Internationalization Strategies ...... 146 Partnerships ...... 146 Economic/Business ...... 149 Internationalization ‘At-Home’ Strategies ...... 150 Building of Community ...... 150 International Student and Faculty Community ...... 151 Bursaries and Financial Support ...... 153 Societal and Geographical Differences ...... 154 Curricula and Programs ...... 156 Extracurricular ...... 159 The Pursuit of Language ...... 160 Organizational Strategies ...... 162 Open Access Courseware and Technology...... 162 Governance ...... 163 Grassroots Internationalization and Faculty ...... 164 Summary ...... 166 Chapter 8: Conclusions ...... 169 Summary of Findings ...... 169 Implications and Contribution of the Research ...... 172 Theoretical Implications ...... 172 Policymakers ...... 173 Private and Faith-Based Higher Education ...... 173 Limitations of the Study ...... 174 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 175

References ...... 178 Appendices ...... 196

List of Tables

Table 1 Rationales for Internationalization of Higher Education ...... 24

Table 2 Number of Research Participants ...... 38

Table 3 Research Triangulation Matrix ...... 42

Table 4 Korean Missions as of December 2014 ...... 62

Table 5 Korean Missionary Ministry Types and Involvement Status 2017 ...... 64

Table 6 Survey of North American Protestant Mission Agencies ...... 68

Table 7 Intersection of Internationalization Rationales and Christian World Mission Values 168

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List of Figures

Figure 1 A Conceptual Framework of Internationalization and Holistic Christian World Mission based on the Lausanne Covenant ...... 32

Figure 2 Geographic Distribution of Korean Missionaries (2017) ...... 63

Figure 3 Conceptual Framework for Values-Based Internationalization ...... 144

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List of Appendices

Appendix A: Institutional Consent Form ...... 196

Appendix B: Consent Form for Administration and Faculty/Staff ...... 200

Appendix C: Consent Form for Students ...... 206

Appendix D: Questions for Administrators ...... 212

Appendix E: Questions for Faculty and Staff ...... 214

Appendix F: Questions for Students ...... 217

Appendix G: Ethics Approval ...... 219

xiv 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

As Arthur Holmes (2001) suggests, “Christianity’s engagement in higher education began in third-century Alexandria” (p. 8), which was more of an intellectual center than either Athens or Jerusalem. Augustine of Hippo travelled to Rome and then to Milan to study the Holy

Scriptures more deeply. He subsequently became a Christian and his writing on theological and educational issues laid significant foundations for Christian religious learning. Augustine died in

430 CE during the Roman Empire. Monastery schools were the sole remaining educational institutions and studies were devoted to Christian doctrine and the liberal arts (Vanzanten, 2011).

With the ascension of Charlemagne in 800 CE, religious education continued to grow. Monastic schools prepared monks for the contemplative life, and cathedral schools trained men for the active life of priests, church administrators, and civil servants. These institutions emphasized moral formation through the liberal arts (Klassen & Zimmerman, 2006).

What we now call the university first appeared during the 11th century in Italy, England,

France, and Germany. The earliest universities of Europe, such as Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, were so thoroughly interconnected with church structures and the Christian culture out of which they arose that they were, in effect, ecclesiastical institutions. The university colleges were modeled after the monastic orders, but were also influenced by the medieval guild system with its masters and apprentices (Rashdall, 1987; Ruegg, 1992).

After the Protestant Reformation some of these universities retained formal religious associations. However, with modernization, the world of higher education gradually secularized.

The three ‘classical’ sociological theorists Marx, Durkheim, and Weber thought that the significance of religion would decrease in modern times. Each believed religion is an illusion and predicted the decline of institutions such as religious universities and colleges. More

2 recently, Peter Berger (1999), who once contended that religious believers would be reduced to small sects, revised his thinking and resisted the notion of a worldwide secular culture when he wrote:

The assumption that we live in a secularized world is false. The world today, with some

exceptions... is as furiously religious as it ever was, and in some places, more so than ever.

This means that a whole body of literature by historians and sociologists loosely labeled

‘secularization theory’ is essentially mistaken. (p. 2)

He also admitted belief that ‘‘modernization leads to a decline of religion’’ (p. 2) has proven false.

Although higher education and religion have had a particularly complex relationship throughout the 21st century, faith-based institutions of higher learning continue to play a significant role in the sphere of higher education. Post-modern arguments and controversies around secularization theories in higher education say Christian higher education is on the decline. Yet religious higher education affiliated with Protestant Christianity is now showing rapid development outside of the traditional Northern core areas such as Europe and North

America and shifting towards the Global South. This growth in Christian colleges and universities around the world has been significant in the past 20 years (Glanzer, 2012). Christian higher education is now flourishing in such places as the continent of Africa and notably in

South Korea (Glanzer, 2012; Glanzer, Carpenter & Lantinga, 2011).

Historian Mark Noll (1997) states that “in the twentieth century, evangelical colleges and

(since the 1960’s), universities have constituted one of the most important alternatives to the burgeoning sweep of state-sponsored higher education” (pp. 195-196). Carlberg (2002) speaks of how Christian liberal arts colleges are slowly growing, rather than in decline. For example,

3 according to the Reisberg (1999), evangelical Christian colleges expanded by 24 percent compared to 5 percent for private secular institutions.

In 2006, there were more than 2,000 religiously affiliated higher education institutions worldwide (Arthur, 2006). Approximately 600 outside of North America embraced a Christian ethos in their current mission statements and also formulated aspects of their policies, governance, curricula, and culture in light of their Christian identity (Glanzer, 2013). The significance of these institutions as actors within national higher education systems is continually growing. For example, ten percent of South Korea’s higher education institutions (HEIs) are

Christian institutions (Ng, 2008). These institutions are fulfilling the demand for higher education by providing access to an increasing student population.

Statement of the Problem

Though many of these institutions are guided by their Christian faith, their programs and policy initiatives often mirror the trends and policy imperatives of their secular counterparts.

This is seen quite strongly in processes of internationalization, as Christian and secular institutions alike have forged international partnerships for research and student/faculty exchanges. At the same time, Christian higher education institutions, particularly those which profess evangelical values in their mission, have historically taken an international perspective in many aspects of their institutional development, such as organizational roles, curricula, and joint ventures with international non-profit organizations, and service learning that takes place in an overseas context (Abram et al., 2005; Glanzer, 2013; Logan & Curry, 2013; Schaffer, 2004;

Swezey,1990). Much of this appears to be driven by the foundational Christian belief in global mission, which is often motivated by biblical imperatives to spread the ‘good news’ of

Christianity.

Mission and vision statements have been a longstanding practice of corporations and now have become a research subject in the field of higher education. Much of the literature on mission statements focuses on the analysis of the phraseology employed and its patterns of frequency (Firmin & Gilson, 2010). Davis, Ruhe, Lee, and Rajadhyaksha’s (2007) study demonstrated that a mission statement with strong ethical values was reflected in students having the same values. Wilson (1996) argues that a religious organization’s mission statement becomes the key to implementing the practical reflection of religion in that organization on a daily basis. Other examples of literature have been dedicated to the religious influences of mission statements in American Catholic universities (Woo, 2005; Young, 2001). Additionally, mission statements focus members of the institutions on a central purpose and motivate them to greater efforts on behalf of the organization (Morphew & Hartley, 2006). The mission of higher education is normally based on three generally articulated priorities: teaching, research, and service. These missions may overlap in practice (Scott, 2006).

The inclusion of internationalization into a mission statement is cited as responsible for the successful execution of that policy (NASULGC, 2004). However, the rationales and the institutional mission and vision of higher education institutions (HEIs) risk being unfulfilled expressions of purpose unless they are genuinely integrated into the institution’s strategies. Still, a key unknown is how the mission statements of HEIs influence what actually occurs on a daily basis and the degree to which actual practices match mission statements. Furthermore, currently, there is little research on how evangelical Christian faith-based institutions situate themselves amid the current trends of globalization strongly driving internationalization; and how they relate this to their institutional mission.

Purpose of the Study

This research will provide a comparative analysis of the internationalization policies and activities of Christian higher education at institutions in two regions, Canada and South Korea.

My goal is to better understand how the historical and current theories/paradigms of global

Christian mission and the secular process of internationalization in higher education institutions

(HEIs) converge and influence the institutional mission. This study seeks to contribute to the literature on the internationalization of higher education. The two institutions that will be used as comparative case studies are Handong Global University in South Korea and Tyndale University

College in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Research Questions

This study will be guided by the following questions:

Main question:

To what extent do an institution’s internationalization policies and programs reflect the

core values and mission of the evangelical Christian faith that are stated in the mission

and vision statement of the institution?

Two research sub-questions:

1. In what ways do Christian world mission and the secular notions of

internationalization intersect?

2. How much does the context of each institution resonate with and/or influence the

institution’s internationalization policies and programs?

Definitions

There are key terms that guide this research and should be defined.

a) Internationalization: I will be using Jane Knight’s (2008) concept of internationalization

which is defined as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global

dimension into the purpose, functions (research, teaching, and service) or delivery of

higher education at the institutional and national levels” (p.21)

b) Evangelical: The term ‘evangelical’ comes from the Greek word euangelion, meaning

‘the good news’ or the ‘gospel.’ Thus, the evangelical faith focuses on the ‘good news’ of

salvation brought to sinners by Jesus Christ.

c) Evangelism: the practice or study of telling the ‘good news’/ ‘gospel’

d) Evangelicalism: Alister McGrath (1995) suggests that from a theological perspective

there are six guiding convictions: 1) the supreme authority of Scripture (the Holy Bible)

as a source of knowledge of God and a guide to Christian living; 2) Jesus Christ, as both

incarnate God and Saviour of sinful humanity; 3) the lordship of the Holy Spirit; 4) the

need for personal conversion; 5) the priority of evangelism for both individual Christians

and the church; 6) the importance of the Christian community for spiritual nourishment,

fellowship, and growth.

e) Christian mission: Kirk (2000) defines the Christian mission as follows: “announcing the

good news; transforming cultures; providing justice for the poor; promoting encounter,

dialogue and witness among the religions of the world; building peace in a world of

violence; and caring for the environment. Moreover, all this is to be done in partnership”

(p. 21)

Rationale and Significance of the Study

Historically, the mission zeal has come from a Western perspective. However, as mentioned above, Christianity has moved into a much more global paradigm now where mission

7 is no longer a ‘west to the rest’ strategy but rather is now an ‘everywhere to everywhere’ strategy. Those nations who once were the recipients of the mission cause are now becoming the senders. South Korea is a perfect example of this. According to the Centre for the Study of

World Christianity (2013), there were approximately 400,000 missionaries sent out by churches throughout the world in 2010. Out of the top 10 sending countries, two were in the Global

South. South Korea (not too long ago considered to be a part of the Global South) is now the fifth in sending countries (in 2006, it was 2nd, next to the US). Hence, the comparative case studies of South Korea and Canada will illustrate how the theories of internationalization and theology of mission will translate into practice at the institutional level.

In the context of internationalization and comparative higher education, this study is significant in three ways. First, this study is unique in that it employs two different theories and frameworks—those of internationalization of higher education and Christian world mission—to examine an issue in comparative and international higher education. Despite both having global dimensions, the literature of these two fields have few connections in scholarship or practice.

Through exploring the two frameworks of Holistic/Integral Christian mission and internationalization at each institution, a key contribution of this study will be to connect the research in comparative education and internationalization with research on Christian world mission. By linking the two in a new conceptual framework, this study provides a new theoretical foundation for further studies on the intersection of institutional mission, faith values expressed in global Christian mission, and their articulation in and through policies and programs of internationalization.

Second, comparative research makes it possible to view society, educational policies, and practices in multiple ways (Arnove, 2003). Given the importance of intercultural understanding

8 in the globalizing world, this intercultural comparative analysis of internationalization might present researchers and policymakers with a new analytical tool and different perspective for future internationalization policies, both in faith-based and secular HEIs in the West and Global

South and East.

Lastly, with the increasing demand to develop the knowledge economy in Canada and

South Korea in order to more effectively compete in the global market, the internationalization of higher education institutions has become a more prevalent strategy. Overall, this research is significant because it adds to understandings of how faith-based institutions can play an important role in offering postsecondary education with a distinctive mission, which can both create and contribute to greater diversification in the dominantly public higher education sector.

Motivation of the Researcher

As a bilingual primary education educator for many years who taught in diverse classroom settings, I embraced the importance of multicultural education. My work, particularly with bilingual education and English language learners, eventually brought me to work overseas in South Korea, where I served as an administrative staff member at a faith-based college and seminary. This institution was founded as a seminary specifically to train international students living in South Korea. The school also has branch campuses in 25 countries around the world, the majority of which are situated in developing nations. In addition, they have correspondence schools. As a person of faith, having an experience of working at a faith-based institution that is at its core missionally minded, I found myself thinking about how, at the heart of internationalization, there are many similarities to the values of global Christian mission, and this led me to my core research question.

Organization of the Thesis

This thesis is composed of eight chapters. Chapter One provides an introduction and some background to the research, followed by a discussion of the purpose of the study, the research questions, definitions of key concepts related to the research, the significance of the research, and my own motivations.

Chapter Two is a literature review in which I will explore the two main bodies of literature drawn on for the research: globalization and internationalization of higher education, and evangelicalism and Christian world mission.

Chapter Three presents the methodology and conceptual framework followed by the rationale for the type of research design, the selection and description of the sites and participants, data collection strategies, data analysis strategies, methods of achieving validity, and ethical standards followed.

Chapter Four addresses the context of both South Korea and Canada as countries, presenting an overview of the historical and current accounts of the Christian world mission movements of each country. Next is the historical and recent contexts of Christian higher education. The chapter finishes with a description of the internationalization strategies of South

Korea and Canada.

Chapters Five and Six present an analysis of the two institutional case studies done of

Handong Global University and Tyndale University College and Seminary. These are based on interviews and supplemented with documents. I discuss the findings in terms of the types of internationalization strategies adopted and how they are perceived. Additionally, I describe the core values of evangelical Christian world mission and faith shared by the participants, and

10 discuss the degree to which context and values play a role in influencing the internationalization at each institution.

Chapter Seven contains the cross-case findings and analysis of the main research question and sub-questions of the study. Through the comparison, I develop a new values-based conceptual framework for internationalization from the initial framework presented in Chapter

Three. The overall findings found that the values of Holistic Christian Mission under the

Lausanne Covenant are engrained in the values of the mission and vision of each Christian higher education institution studied. This makes internationalization the instrument in which the doctrines of Christian world mission take shape.

Finally, Chapter Eight is my concluding chapter. It presents a summary of the findings and a discussion of the implications and contribution of the research, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter presents a review of the literature that informs the proposed study: Christian world mission and evangelicalism, along with globalization and the internationalization of higher education. The first shapes the theoretical framework while the latter informs the conceptual framework. The first part of this chapter reviews the historical paradigms and theory of the theology of mission. It then proceeds with the birth of the Lausanne Movement and Covenant and closes with definitions of evangelicalism. The second part of the chapter covers the literature on globalization and the definitions, rationales and strategies, as well as international studies on internationalization of higher education. A more detailed review of the higher education systems and the national contexts of South Korea and Canada will be presented in

Chapter 4.

Christian World Mission and Evangelicalism

The theoretical framework of this research draws from the field of missiology and the theology of mission. What is the theology of mission? First, one must understand the term mission. Mission is the overarching term describing God’s mission in the world—missio Dei. In other words, it is the “mission of God to bring about redemption to the world or human participation in this mission” (Sunquist, 2013, p. 7). Missiologists Ott, Strauss, and Tennent

(2010), examine the tasks of missions (the undertakings of the church to fulfill its mission) across four motifs: (a) proclamation and conversion; (b) church planting and growth; (c) civilization and moral improvement; and (d) philanthropy, humanization, and liberation. Within these theological mission motifs, there are two major themes—evangelism and social action.

David Bosch (1991) places the Christian mission endeavour within the realm of several paradigmatic shifts within the history of Christianity and examines its contextual nature. More

12 specifically, Bosch’s paradigm theory of mission employs the historico-theological subdivisions of the history of Christianity used by the prominent theologian, Hans Küng (1987). Küng’s analysis of the Christian faith is organized according to the paradigms of six major periods: the

Apocalyptic paradigm of early Christianity; the Hellenistic paradigm of the patristic epoch; the

Roman Catholic paradigm of the Middle Ages; the Protestant Reformation paradigm; the

Enlightenment (modern) paradigm; the developing Ecumenical (postmodern) paradigm. Bosch

(1991) then develops a unique interpretation of Christian mission relating to these same periods while also using Thomas Kuhn’s (1970) scientific paradigm theory framework.

Combining Küng’s (1987) six subdivisions along with Kuhn’s (1970) paradigm theory,

Bosch (1991) conceptualizes the broader mission process as fundamentally changing from one era to the next and having an “effect on our understanding of how Christians perceived the church’s mission in the various epochs of the history of Christianity” (p. 183). Bosch’s thesis is that the events of the twentieth century, including the end of colonialism, the rise of nationalism, the destruction resulting from two world wars, the advancement of technology, the increasing environmental threat, and the growth of Christianity in the Global South, all mean that a new paradigm of mission is necessary, and in fact is emerging. Furthermore, Bosch emphasizes that mission will be practiced in partnership. In essence, mission can no longer be thought of as the one-way street of ‘from the West to the rest of the world’ but rather as being a two-way journey that is from ‘everywhere to everywhere’.

Within the emerging postmodern-ecumenical paradigm falls another mission theory paradigm—Holistic/Integral mission. In the late 1960s, the evangelical church and its members began a movement called the Lausanne Movement (Ott et al., 2010). The movement particularly embraced this theory of Holistic/Integral mission and made it a part of their Covenant. In order

13 to understand integral mission theory, we must first examine the previously mentioned theological-historical contexts from which the shifts in paradigms occurred. For the purpose of this research, the study will focus on the period beginning from the Enlightenment (modern) paradigm up to the emerging ecumenical (postmodern) paradigm of the present time.

Protestant missions evolved in the midst of the Enlightenment, colonialism, and

Evangelical awakenings (Bosch, 1991). All three make up the context of the rise of Protestant mission and have shaped the modern understanding of mission. The earliest Protestant mission efforts were motivated by the Puritan and Pietist traditions of the 17th and 18th centuries. This theology “emphasized the need for personal conversion and discipleship in the life of the individual Christian” (Ott et al., 2010, p. 107). Thus, the foundational understanding of mission was that every person needed to hear the gospel because humanity was sinful. Proclaiming the

‘good news’ for individuals and followed by planting churches, was the most important task.

Therefore, evangelism was at the heart of Protestant missions until the late nineteenth century

(Ott et al., 2010).

Evangelicalism as a branch of Protestantism also drew from those ideals. In the late 19th century/early 20th century, a more ultra-conservative movement within the evangelical community was fundamentalism. Those who were a part of this movement had a much narrower view of the bible and prescribed to a dispensationalist theology. The focus of mission was exclusively on saving souls. This was also the time in which many bible schools and institutes were founded (Sunquist, 2013).

On the other side of the spectrum was the social gospel movement. The belief held by theologians such as Walter Rauschenbush (1861-1918) and Emerson Fosdick (1878-1970) was one of “God on earth through social action and change, a Christianization of the social order”

(Ott et al., 2010, p. 128). It was a theology of liberation and transformation through social process. The priority was to meet the social needs of the people rather than proselytizing.

Missionaries and missionary organizations went across the world to bring social improvement by building modern schools and hospitals, educating women and spreading the ideals of democratic governance (Robert, 2009; Sunquist, 2013; Ott et al., 2010).

David Livingstone (1813-1873) was a Scottish missionary who was sent out by the

London Mission Society to work in South Africa. He was deeply disturbed by the atrocities of the Arab slave trade that was being perpetrated on the African people. Livingstone believed the way to fight this oppression was to bring Western free-market trade and scientific thought to the

Africans (Ott et al., 2010). Consequently, Livingstone’s idea of Christianity and commerce was a rather holistic Christian mission call—bringing a practical and economic approach via the

Western missionary movement.

The founding of the first Protestant missionary societies in the late 18th century brought cooperation and unity to the Christian mission. The first major Ecumenical Missionary

Conference in Edinburgh, 1910, highlighted and defined this idea. It marked the beginning of the modern ecumenical movement (Sunquist, 2013). The second meeting in Jerusalem, in 1928, brought on the founding of the International Missionary Council. Later, the World Council of

Churches (WCC) was formed in 1948 to unify and organize all the national churches, bringing together churches from different regions (Sunquist, 2013). Although mission was still at the core of the member churches, alternative understandings of salvation and theology were discussed.

The Ecumenical or Conciliar movement in the twentieth century became much more distinct after the Uppsala Assembly in 1968. Ecumenicals generally upheld Johannes Hoekendijk’s progressive mission theology that underscored mission for the secular world. In the 1968 World

Council of Churches (WCC) Assembly in Uppsala, the divide between evangelicals and ecumenicals intensified when the conference resounded with Hoekendijk’s position—mission with more emphasis on humanization than salvation. His viewpoint that “the world sets the agenda for the church,” rather than the kingdom of God and his Word, was controversial.

(Bevans & Schroeder, 2004; Ott et al., 2010).

Evangelical and conservative churches and their mission bodies, however, went against the progressive, ecumenical environment of Christian mission represented by the WCC. They were not pleased with the idea that the evangelical core of mission (evangelism) was being ignored. They held two major conferences in 1966. The Berlin Congress on Evangelism had the theme of “One Race, One Gospel, One Task” and emphasized “the gospel for all nations (one race) the responsibility of all Christians (one task)” (Sunquist, 2013, p. 161). The Wheaton

Congress on the Christian World Mission followed. Both were created in order “to give wider visibility to the Evangelical movement” (Bevans & Schroeder, 2004, p. 260) and to offer a more biblically based alternative to ecumenism.

In 1974, Reverend Billy Graham sponsored another meeting, the International Congress on World Evangelization in Lausanne. Led by John Stott, a highly regarded evangelical voice within the WCC, evangelicals then endorsed the Lausanne Covenant, which affirmed the authority of the Bible and the uniqueness and universality of Christ. Despite the fact that the

Lausanne Covenant strongly advocated the priority of evangelism as outlined by the Great

Commission of Matthew 28:16-20,1 it also acknowledged social justice. Together they were two

1 Matt 29:16-20: Then the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain where Jesus had told them to go. When they saw him, they worshiped him; but some doubted. Then Jesus came to them and said, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age” (NIV)

16 vital components of the Christian mission. The social justice component of mission was already being practiced in the non-Western world, particularly in Latin America. This theology was known as what is called ‘liberation theology’. It was developed within the Catholic church. One prominent liberation theologian was Gustavo Gutierrez. His book A theology of liberation was a call for social change that would “alleviate poverty and empower the oppressed” (Ott et al, 2010, p. 131). This meant understanding the reality of the poor and the term ‘preferential option for the poor’ was also embraced. The Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff “developed a trinitarian theology of liberation” (Ott et al, 2010 p. 66) and Jesuit priest and theologian Juan Luis Segundo was another important figure in the liberation theology movement. Liberation theology advanced out of real situations of oppression such as laborers who were not being paid fair wages by their wealthy land owners (Sunquist, 2013). It called for the reorganization of social, economic and governmental structure, mainly through political protest movements. Controversies within the

Catholic church emerged as the theology of liberation were seen too closely related to Marxist concepts and ideologies.

During the Lausanne Conference, the idea of ‘mision integral’ was championed by Latin

American theologians Rene Padilla, Orlando Costas, and Samuel Escobar (Bevans & Schroder,

2003). Padilla’s concept of ‘mision integral’ grew out of the work of fellow Latin American

(Catholic) scholars such as Gutierrez, Boff and Segundo. It was then coined by members of the

Latin American Theological Fellowship (FLT). ‘Mision integral’ posits that social action and evangelism are both essential and indivisible parts of the Christian mission. This theology of mission was then translated into what has become known as ‘Holistic or Integral Mission.’

The Micah Network was established in 2004 as an international secretariat of worldwide members who engage in promote integral mission and global initiatives through Christian relief.

According to the Micah Declaration on Integral Mission (2004), at the heart of integral mission is:

holistic transformation in the proclamation and demonstration of the gospel. It is not

simply that evangelism and social involvement are to be done alongside each other.

Rather, in integral mission our proclamation has social consequences as we call people to

love and repentance in all areas of life. And our social involvement has evangelistic

consequences as we bear witness to the transforming grace of Jesus Christ. (Micah

Declaration on Integral Mission, para. 6).

In other words, integral mission is not just proselytizing nor is it just social action. Rather, it is looking at the person as a whole—mind body, and spirit—with the principle that “faith without works is dead.” (Stott, 1996, p. 24)

The Lausanne Covenant

There are fifteen precepts within the Lausanne Covenant. The ones on which I will concentrate are Christian and Social Responsibility, Churches in Evangelistic Partnership, and

Cooperation in Evangelism.

First, in the section titled, Christian and Social Responsibility, the Lausanne Covenant

(1974) states:

We affirm that God is both the Creator and the Judge of all men. We therefore should

share his concern for justice and reconciliation throughout human society and for the

liberation of men from every kind of oppression. Because men and women are made in

the image of God, every person, regardless of race, religion, color, culture, class, sex or

age has an intrinsic dignity because of which he should be respected and served, not

exploited. Here too we express penitence both for our neglect and for having sometimes

regarded evangelism and social concern as mutually exclusive. Although reconciliation

with man is not reconciliation with God, nor is social action evangelism, nor is political

liberation salvation, nevertheless we affirm that evangelism and socio-political

involvement are both part of our Christian duty. For both are necessary expressions of

our doctrines of God and man our love for our neighbour and our obedience to Jesus

Christ… The salvation we claim should be transforming us in the totality of our personal

and social responsibilities. Faith without works is dead (The Lausanne Covenant, para.

6).

Second, in the section titled Churches in Evangelistic Partnership, the Lausanne

Covenant (1974) states:

We rejoice that a new missionary era has dawned. The dominant role of western missions

is fast disappearing. God is raising up from the younger churches a great new resource for

world evangelization, and is thus demonstrating that the responsibility to evangelize

belongs to the whole body of Christ. All churches should therefore be asking God and

themselves what they should be doing both to reach their own area and to send

missionaries to other parts of the world. A re-evaluation of our missionary responsibility

and role should be continuous. Thus a growing partnership of churches will develop and

the universal character of Christ’s church will be more clearly exhibited. We also thank

God for the agencies which labour in Bible translation, theological education, the mass

media, Christian literature, evangelism, missions, church renewal and other specialist

fields. They, too, should engage in constant self-examination to evaluate their

effectiveness as part of the church’s mission. (The Lausanne Covenant, para. 9).

Third, in the section titled, Cooperation in Evangelism, the Lausanne Covenant (1974) states:

We affirm that the church’s visible unity in truth is God’s purpose. Evangelism also

summons us to unity, because our oneness strengthens our witness, just as our disunity

undermines our Gospel of reconciliation. We recognize, however, that organizational

unity may take many forms and does not necessarily forward evangelism. Yet we show

share the same biblical faith should be closely united in fellowship, work and witness.

We confess that our testimony has sometimes been marred by sinful individualism and

needless duplication. We pledge ourselves to see a deeper unity in truth, worship,

functional cooperation for the furtherance of the church’s mission, for strategic planning,

for mutual encouragement, and for the sharing of resources and experience. (The

Lausanne Covenant, para. 8).

The purpose of choosing the above three precepts is to find the appropriate theoretical concepts that can relate to the study of internationalization programs in Christian HEIs and its relationship to Holistic Christian world mission.

Evangelicalism

In conclusion, there are three senses in which the term ‘evangelical’ is used today in the early 21st century. The first is to view as ‘evangelical’ all Christians who affirm a few key doctrines and practical emphases. British historian David Bebbington (2003) approaches evangelicalism from this direction and notes four specific hallmarks of evangelical religion: conversionism, the belief that lives need to be changed; activism, the expression of the gospel in effort; biblicism, a particular regard for the Bible; and ‘crucicentrism,’ a stress on the sacrifice of

Christ on the cross. Bebbington’s definition has become a standard baseline for most scholars.

However, some consider his broad categories so inclusive that they would exclude few

Christians of any stripe.

A second sense of the term is to look at evangelicalism as an organic group of movements and religious traditions. Within this context ‘evangelical’ denotes a style as much as a set of beliefs, and an attitude which insiders ‘know’ and ‘feel’ when they encounter it. As a result, groups as disparate as Black Baptists and Dutch Reformed Churches, Mennonites and

Pentecostals, Catholic charismatics and Southern Baptists can all come under the evangelical umbrella—demonstrating just how diverse the movement really is (Marsden, 1984; Robert,

2009).

A third sense of the term is as the self-ascribed label for a largely American, Midwest- based coalition that arose during the Second World War. This group came into being as a reaction against the perceived anti-intellectual, separatist, belligerent nature of the fundamentalist movement in the 1920s and 1930s. Most notably, the core personalities of the less fundamentalist evangelical groups, like Carl F. H. Henry, Harold John Ockenga, and Billy

Graham, as well as institutions (e.g., Moody Bible Institute, Wheaton College, and Fuller

Theological Seminary), and organizations such as the National Association of Evangelicals and

Youth for Christ, have all played a pivotal role in giving the wider movement a sense of cohesion that extends beyond the more ultra conservative evangelicals (Marsden, 1984; Robert, 2009).

Historian George M. Marsden (1984) has also suggested that trans-denominationalism, which is characterized by a pragmatic inclination for cooperation among evangelicals, has led to shared projects and evangelistic efforts.

Globalization and Internationalization

Globalization in economic terms is a world system that is driven by the global capitalist economy and based on the philosophy of neoliberalism. It emphasizes deregulation, privatization, free markets and international competition. Roger King (n.d.) describes it as it consisting of flows of capital, people and information that goes across many global highways.

Held (1999) describes it as the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness. Jane Knight (2008) describes it as a flow of people, ideas, values, cultures, knowledge and technology across borders, resulting in a more interconnected and interdependent world. This phenomenon of globalization continues to change the way people, ideas, cultures and economies interact and is a phenomenon expanding the potential role played by higher education institutions in relationships between countries. Altbach and Knight (2007) see globalization as the economic, political and societal forces pushing 21st century higher education toward greater international involvement. The pressure to globalize has also created various forms of higher education that have influenced developmental changes in higher education in many countries

(Altbach, 2004; Altbach & Knight, 2007; Beerkens, 2003; Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002; Knight,

2007; Marginson & Wende, 2007; Mok, 2005; Wende, 2007), forcing countries and higher education institutions in every corner of the world to interact and compete on a global level, or risk becoming irrelevant.

The internationalization of higher education is a response to globalization and is both a reactor and agent of globalization trends. The fundamental principles guiding internationalization have been traditionally considered to be a process based on values of cooperation, partnership, exchange, mutual benefits and capacity building among nations and their institutions (de Wit, 2002; Knight, 2012). Thus, the relationships between nations and how

22 they collaborate and share with one another are key to the notion of internationalization in higher education.

Bartell (2003) defines internationalization as conveying an excess of:

understandings, interpretations and applications, anywhere from a minimalist,

instrumental and static view, such as securing external funding for study abroad

programs, through international exchange of students, conducting research

internationally, to a view of internationalization as a complex, all-encompassing and

policy-driven process, integral to and permeating the life, culture, curriculum and

instruction as well as research activities of the university and its members. (p. 46)

Ellingboe (1998) identifies internationalization as:

the process of integrating an international perspective into a college or university system.

It is an ongoing, future-oriented, multidimensional, interdisciplinary, leadership-driven

vision that involves many participants working to change the internal dynamics of an

institution to respond and adapt appropriately to an increasingly diverse, globally

focused, ever-changing external environment. (p. 199)

Hudzik (2011) adopts what he calls ‘comprehensive internationalization’:

[A] commitment confirmed through action to infuse international and comparative

perspectives throughout the teaching, research and service missions of higher education.

It shapes institutional ethos and values and touches the entire higher education enterprise.

It is essential that it is embraced by institutional leadership, governance, faculty, students

and all academic service and support units. It is an institutional imperative, not just a

desirable possibility. Comprehensive internationalization not only impacts all of campus

life but the institution’s external frames of reference, partnerships, and relations. The

global reconfiguration of economies, systems of trade, research and communication and

the impact of global forces on local life, dramatically expand the need for comprehensive

internationalization and the motivations and purposes driving it. (p. 6)

From the institutional perspective of U.S. higher education, Arum and van de Water (1992) define internationalization as “the multiple activities, programs and services that fall within international studies, international educational exchange and technical cooperation” (p. 202).

Hans de Wit (2015a) recently proposed a new definition of internationalization:

[T]he intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension

into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance

the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful

contribution to society. (para. 2)

In this dissertation, my working definition of internationalization follows that of Jane

Knight’s (2008), which holds that internationalization at the national/sector/institutional levels is defined as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p.21). Knight uses the term

‘process’ deliberately to convey that internationalization is an ongoing and continuing effort

(Knight & de Wit, 1999).

Knight and de Wit (1995) present two major rationales for internationalization. One is an economic and political rationale, and the other is a cultural and educational rationale. Under the economic and political aspects, they suggest five sub-rationales: (a) positive effect on economic development and technological progress; (b) increased competitiveness in the international labour market; (c) enhancing foreign policy for the improvement of a country; (d) financial motivations; and (e) meeting the national educational demand. The sub-rationales under the

24 cultural and educational category include: (a) the cultural function; (b) the integration of the international dimension into research and teaching; (c) capacity-building motivation for higher education institutions; and (d) improvement in the quality of research and education. This important stage of categorization of rationales has become a vital resource for the standard discussion of rationales for internationalization established by Knight (2004), separating them into four categories. These are (a) political; (b) economic; (c) academic; and (d) cultural and social rationales (see Table 1 below).

Table 1 Rationales for Internationalization of Higher Education

Four Categories of Rationales Social/Cultural National Cultural Identity Intercultural Understanding Citizenship Development Social and Community Development Political Foreign Policy National Security Technical Assistance Peace and Mutual Understanding National Identity Regional Identity Economic Economic Growth and Competitiveness Labour Market Financial Incentives Academic Extension of Academic Horizon Institution Building Profile and Status Enhancement of Quality International Academic Standards International Dimension to Research and Teaching Note: Data reprinted from Knight (2004, p. 23)

Some empirical studies on rationales for internationalization show that the economic rationale has been gaining ground over the last decade. In her research on national policies for the internationalization of higher education in Europe, van der Wende (1997) finds a growing

25 importance given to economic motives for internationalization policies because of interests and concerns linked to international competence and competitiveness.

There have been many international studies on internationalization in different contexts which contribute to the understanding of the institutional practices of internationalization.

Ellingboe’s (1998) findings detail five additional components which are integral to more completely understanding the process applied in internationalizing a university. These components are: (1) college leadership; (2) faculty members’ international involvement in activities with colleagues, research sites, and institutions worldwide; (3) the availability, affordability, accessibility, and transferability of study abroad programs for students; (4) the presence and integration of international students, scholars, and visiting faculty into campus life; and (5) international co-curricular units (residence halls, conference planning centers, student unions, career centers, cultural immersion and language houses, student activities, and student organizations) (Ellingboe, 1998, p. 205).

Stromquist (2007) presents a case study that uses internationalization as a framework to investigate the impact of globalization on higher education. Using a naturalistic method of inquiry, Stromquist’s case study focuses on a private university located on the west coast of the

United States to investigate internationalization efforts. As a result of the study, Stromquist

(2007) presented five factors that described the internationalization efforts undertaken by the university under investigation: (a) there was a major effort to recruit more international students and faculty; (b) there was a considerable shift toward convergence in strategies and decisions affecting the issues of governance, curriculum, and selection of both faculty and students; (c) there was a growth of ‘star’ faculty in the pursuit of higher institutional rankings and thus of higher numbers of student applications; (d) there was a sustained increase in the proportion of

26 administrative positions, as internationalization was based on ‘strategic planning’ that required knowledge of external forces and quicker response times; and (e) the expansion of the student markets leads to a dissociation between teaching and research, with increased numbers of professors in non-tenure, part-time and clinical positions being reported.

Huang’s (2006) comparative case study examined the internationalization of curricula in higher education institutions of three different countries: China, Japan, and the Netherlands. All three of these countries are non-English speaking. The research showed there was a rapid growth in the number of programs with an international dimension in all three countries. They were mainly found in the professional programs/curricula being offered in English at the graduate level, with a few that were in other foreign languages. It was also noted that by internationalizing the curricula, it provided a driving force to attract more international students.

This strengthened not only the institution’s reputation, but also each country’s push to internationalize the national system of higher education.

Using a large scale survey of more than 500 European higher education institutions,

Seeber, Cattaneo, Huisman and Paleari (2016) examined the effects of internationalization rationales on their organizational characteristics. They developed a framework testing environment, organizational factors, and intra-organizational factors, the three main components affecting HEI rationales. Their findings concluded that national contexts have little effect on

HEI rationales. However, organizational goals and internal interests do become important.

The 3rd Global Survey Report put out by the International Association of Universities

(IAU) in 2010 showed the analysis of institutional findings that were divided into six different regions around the world. For example, in Africa, the results showed that the top geographic priorities in terms of activity and focus for HEIs was their own region for international activities,

27 followed by Europe and then Asia and the Pacific (p. 93). It was striking to note the absence of collaboration with North American HEIs as a preferred region. However, the survey also revealed that the other five regions showed little interest in Africa with respect to internationalization. Europe was the top ranked geographic focus for internationalization.

Activities receiving the highest institutional attention and resources for internationalization activities in Africa are: international research, international student exchange and/or attracting international students, and strengthening international/intercultural content of curriculum (p. 97).

The top three rationales for internationalization in Africa are to: strengthen research and knowledge production, improve student preparedness, and internationalize the curriculum (p.

64). The main internal drivers of internationalization within institutions are: institutional leadership, the international office, and faculty members (p. 163). The external institutional drivers of internationalization are: governmental policy/Business and industry demand, demand from foreign HEIs, and a lack of public/private funding for HEIs (p. 72).

The internal/external drivers of internationalization mirror the aggregate results of the other five world regions (p. 69). An ad hoc approach to internationalization is more prevalent in small institutions than in middle or large sized institutions. Overall aggregate results show that four out of the five priority activities identified by HEIs focused on students (p. 24). Out of the

745 HEIs who responded to the survey, 61% were public institutions, 59% being focused on both teaching and research and 63% offered degrees up to the PhD/3rd cycle level.

Summary

The literature on the definitions and rationales of internationalization and globalization in higher education provides insight into how the primary response to globalization is to utilize the internationalization process to reshape its function and purpose to become more global.

Literature on the evangelical Christian world mission movement provides an overview of the

Christian faith values, motivations and approaches, particularly in relation to evangelical Holistic

Christian mission.

Evangelical Christian higher education institutions are not immune to the wave of global competition that is part of that sector. Their mission and vision priorities typically reflect

Christian Biblical values. Part of these values includes sharing the gospel message with everyone and everywhere, which implies both local and global. Both internationalization and evangelical world mission encompass global perspectives, and each use tools to reach their respective purposes. However, some gaps in the literature remain. These include an understanding of the degree to which faith values play a role in defining the trajectory of the international/global components at a university, even if the mission of an institution professes global biblical values. Similarly, little is known about how the concepts of internationalization and Christian world mission relate to each other. This dissertation study addresses these gaps by drawing on the theory of Christian world mission and the conceptual framework of internationalization, with the goal of creating a new conceptual framework producing a different perspective on internationalization seen through a Christian missional lens. In the next chapter, I will discuss the research methodology, conceptual framework and research design that structures this study.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology and Design

This study examines the process of internationalization through the policies and program activities that have been put into place at two private, faith-based Christian universities in South

Korea and Canada. I employ a comparative method of analysis in order to understand the relationship of the mission/vision statements to the internationalization process and global

Christian mission. This chapter will present the research methodology and design. First the philosophical worldview will be presented, followed by the conceptual framework. Next, the rationale for why a multiple case study design fits the research will be explained. Finally, the rationale for site and participant selection, data sources and collection strategies, data analysis, methods of achieving validity, and ethical considerations will be presented.

Philosophical Worldview

Worldviews or paradigms guide studies and influence the design and methodology that is used for a study and are therefore quite important (Creswell, 2014). Denzin and Lincoln (2005) noted the researcher's paradigmatic belief shapes the study in ways ranging from the study's purpose to its design and how it is understood. In order to fully understand the research design and methodology for this study, my philosophical worldview, which informs or underpins this study, must first be introduced. This section will present a definition of that worldview, and an exploration of the ways in which that worldview shaped the approach to this research

Creswell (2014) presents commonly held worldviews that serve to inform both quantitative and qualitative research; these include: (a) postpositivist, (b) constructivist, (c) transformative, and (d) pragmatist views. The worldview and philosophical source of this study is constructivism. Constructivism was derived from the theory of social constructivism, or the social construction of reality, and is described by Creswell (2014) as:

[meaning that individuals] seek understanding of the world in which they live and

work… [they are]varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of

views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas…they also focus on

the specific contexts in which people live in which they live and work in order to

understand the historical and cultural settings of the participants. (p. 8)

The constructivist worldview is used as the philosophical groundwork for this research. This view calls for understanding multiple meanings, social construction, and even theory generation

(Creswell, 2014). The purpose of this study is to observe, understand, and describe both the theoretical as well as the practical relationships between the motives and values of global

Christian mission as they relate to the rationales of the policies/programs of internationalization at each institution. These are then reflected in each higher education institution’s mission statement. Furthermore, the design and methodology of this research took into consideration the need to view the data from multiple perspectives as well as understanding those perspectives from within the distinctive social, political, and historical contexts of the two institutions being studied.

Conceptual Framework

To analyze the motivations of internationalization, program strategies and organizational strategies of the two universities and how they intersect with the historical and current paradigms of Christian world mission as expressed in the institution’s mission/vision statements, I employed the practical framework of internationalization presented by Jane Knight (1993, 2004,

2012) and juxtaposed it with the Integral/Holistic mission theory (Padilla, 2003), which was embraced by the more conservative evangelical Christian community in 1974 and then was expressed in the Lausanne Covenant (Stott, 1996). This conceptual framework was first based on

31 my preliminary review of the literature on international education where the roots of internationalization of higher education are found in the concepts of cooperation, peace education, and development aid. It also took into consideration Jane Knight’s (2004) framework for internationalization, which includes policies, rationales or motivations, ‘at-home’ and ‘cross- border’ program and organizational strategies. Both program and organizational strategies have four sub-categories respectively. Along with my initial understanding of the literature on internationalization, I chose three out the fifteen declarations from the Lausanne Covenant. They are as follows : Christian Social Responsibility, Cooperation in Evangelism, and Churches in

Evangelistic Partnership. Based upon these two theoretical frames, I constructed a conceptual map of this study shown in Figure 1 below. These three declarations I believed matched well within the preliminary historical notions of internationalization and the context of higher education mentioned previously.

The framework utilizes and compares the two theoretical frames at three levels. The first comparison answers the main research question. It seeks to determine if the extent of choices made by the university’s internationalization policies and programs reflect a relationship to

Christian faith values and world mission (seen through the lens of Holistic/Integral mission). To answer the first sub-question which asks what ways do Christian world mission and the secular notions of internationalization intersect, a second comparison is made between Christian world mission and internationalization within each context of South Korea and Canada respectively.

The final comparative analysis also will systematize the above first sub-question as well as bringing in the second—the degree to which context resonates with and influences the internationalization policies and programs. This is done by cross-examining the Christian missional values as they relate to both the Korean and Canadian contexts. In each of these three

32 levels of comparison, these case studies will illustrate how the two theories translate into practice at the institutional level.

Figure 1 A Conceptual Framework of Internationalization and Holistic Christian World Mission based on the Lausanne Covenant

Holistic/Integral Mission (Lausanne

Covenant)

Evangelical CHEI

Mission/Vision Statement

CONTEXT CONTEXT

Internationalization

Program Strategies

Note: This figure created by the author of this dissertation demonstrates a conceptual framework of internationalization and Holistic Christian Mission based on the Lausanne Covenant. It examines the extent of choices made by the university’s internationalization policies and programs and how they reflect a relationship to Christian faith values and world mission. Data is adapted from Knight (2004) and Stott (1996).

Rationale for Design Type

This research plan adopts a qualitative approach. According to Denzin and

Lincoln (2005):

Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists

of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible…studying things in

their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of

the meanings people bring to them. (p. 3)

For Merriam (1998), this involves “the goal of eliciting understanding and meaning, the researcher as primary instrument of data collection and analysis, the use of fieldwork, an inductive orientation to study, and findings that are richly descriptive” (p. 11).

Case Study Research Design

Many types of strategies are commonly used in qualitative research. The four most commonly adopted are ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory and case study (Creswell,

2007; Merriam, 1998). For this dissertation, I employ a case study research method. An in-depth case study approach was chosen because my research question required comparative or multi- case study method. Yin (2003) described Schramm’s (1971) definition for case study as being the most widely used definition: “The essence of a case study, the central tendency among all types of case study, is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result.” (Schramm, 1971). Additionally,

“case study has also proven particularly useful for studying educational innovations, evaluating programs and informing policy” (Merriam, 2009 p. 51). Since my research question examines policies and programs of internationalization at the institutional level, I chose an in-depth case study approach, which offers a comparative or multi-case study method. As Yin (2003)

34 suggests, evidence from multiple cases is often considered more compelling, and the overall study is therefore regarded as being more robust.

Research Sites

Creswell (2014) notes that “the idea behind qualitative research is to purposefully select participants or sites that will best help the researcher understand the problem and the research question” (p. 189). Accordingly, purposeful sampling was used to intentionally select two higher education institutions for this study. The sample consisted of two private, faith-based evangelical higher education institutions in two different geographic regions of the world—one in the Global

North and the other the Global East. Both institutions are private liberal arts colleges offering various undergraduate and graduate degree programs. Although neither institution is affiliated with one particular Christian denomination, each does have a statement of faith, professing an evangelical theological commitment similar to that of the worldwide evangelical church as expressed in the Lausanne Covenant.

Case Site 1: Handong Global University

There are several reasons for the selection of the first case site, Handong Global

University. First, South Korean higher education has been impacted by globalization since the late 1990s, when South Korea joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Universities in South Korea have responded to the globalization forces through a form of internationalization (Byun & Kim,

2012). Along with the globalization forces, major social issues have included focusing more on quality assurance of higher education after achieving universal access in the 1990s, as well as upgrading university facilities, the academic curriculum, and the profiles of faculty and students to global standards to achieve higher global rankings (Kim & Lee, 2006; Byun, Jon & Kim,

2012; Byun & Kim, 2012). Handong Global University is not an exception to this trend. It has taken on the task of educating honest and competent global leaders for the technology-driven marketplace of the 21st century. Handong changed its name to Handong Global University in

2001-02 in order to reflect its dedication to an international perspective throughout its campus and programs (Handong Global University, 2016a). Furthermore, as a Christian higher education institution in South Korea, the Korean Ministry of Education has recognized it as being a leading school in educational reform (Kim, 2006a). All of these reasons made this institution an information-rich case study (Patton, 2002).

Case Site 2: Tyndale University College and Seminary

The second case site, Tyndale University College, was chosen because it is historically one of the oldest, independent, degree-granting faith-based institutions of higher education in

Canada. Moreover, it was born out of the world missionary movement of the 19th century, being one of the first of its kind when it was founded 120 years ago (Tyndale University College,

2013a). It originally began as a bible college to train pastors and missionaries but has most recently grown into a full-fledged liberal arts university. Thus, the richness of its resources due its long history of institutional change along with its missionary roots made this case an ideal representation of a Christian higher education institution in the Canadian context. Second, I had personal ties with the university. Several family members are graduates/alumni of the school.

This allowed for more natural introductions with faculty members and senior administrators at the institution. Therefore, Tyndale was a natural choice.

Data Collection Strategies

According to Marshall and Rossman (1999) a case study requires a complex strategy because multiple methods to collect the data will need to be used. In preparation for the site

36 visits, I collected and read relevant background resources that were available, such as online data from the university websites. The contents of site-related documents were mainly chosen as guided by the research questions. Once I arrived on site, I gathered additional institutional documents, including formal policy documents on internationalization/globalization as well as progress reports, and a list of memoranda of understanding. This also included assorted informational brochures particularly geared towards the recruitment of international students, student handbooks, posters, campus newspaper and books written by both the founding president

(of HGU) and his wife, describing the story of the institution.

Sampling Strategy and Participant Interviews

Another main source of data was that of personal interviews. Yin (2003) states

“interviews are an essential source of case study evidence because most case studies are about human affairs” (p.92). The open ended questions created for the interviews (Appendices D/E/F) were guided by the concepts of Christian world mission and internationalization, but the adaptability of a semi-structured approach allowed for the participants to speak through their own lens and frame of experiences. The questions were also shaped based on the person’s position at the university. The study utilized a purposeful sampling strategy to ascertain participants with features, sufficient knowledge and appropriate information relevant to this study which I obtained through the basic descriptions on both the universities’ websites (Patton,

2002). Furthermore I adopted a snowball sampling approach. The adoption of the snowball sampling technique was appropriate as I only had a limited knowledge of the participants beforehand at Tyndale and Handong.

Knight’s (2004) framework for internationalization outlines various program and organizational strategies. These strategies played out through the involvement of individuals at

37 many levels at the university. Senior administration (President, Vice President, Board of

Governors/Trustees, Deans, Chancellors) were selected with the understanding that they played a key role in affecting internationalization policies at the institution as well as the promotion of the mission, vision and spiritual values. I also chose to reach out to faculty from different departments. This is because it is the faculty who participate in areas such as curriculum development, teaching, learning and research. Furthermore, as all faculty at both Tyndale and

HGU are required to adhere to a Statement of Faith, it was fitting to learn about their Christian spiritual values, beliefs and thoughts related to Christian world mission. As my interviews evolved, both administrators and faculty members who were purposefully chosen also spoke about how administrative staff, students and alumni are supported and participate in the international dimensions at the university. Initially I had a limited amount of student interviewees at Tyndale and HGU through snowball sampling. Consequently, I put out student recruitment posters on campus, which brought several more participants to the study. This then brought a broader and deeper insights of how the internationalization strategies played out on a day to day basis. At Handong, I was able to reach out through an acquaintance who introduced me to a faculty member and senior administrator at HGU. That person then introduced several other participants and as the interviews went on, the snowball results came into play.

Following a qualitative case study research method, the study used semi-structured, in- depth one-on-one interviews with senior administrators (president, vice president, and deans responded), faculty, administrative staff, students and a few alumni. There were a total of 59 participants. Table 2 contains details on the research participants. Interviews and field note observations were conducted in person between March 2015 and December 2015. An average total of three months was spent at each case site location. Then, after consulting with the

38 committee members, it was suggested that more student interviews be obtained from Tyndale to make a more balanced account. This extended the total duration of data collection to ten months.

The majority of the interviews were conducted in English. The Korean participants in South

Korea were sent a translation of the interview questions for reference ahead of the meetings and had the choice of answering the questions in their ‘home’ language. As I have a working knowledge of Korean, I was able to conversationally speak with the Korean speaking participants at Handong in both Korean and English during the interviews. Those who were more comfortable responding to the questions completely in Korean did accordingly. Seven of the interviewees at HGU chose to do so.

Table 2 Number of Research Participants

Participants Handong Global Tyndale University University POHANG, SOUTH College and KOREA Seminary (CASE #1) TORONTO, CANADA (CASE #2) Senior administration 5 3 (President, VP, Deans) Senior Administration 0 0 (Governors/Chancellors/Trustees) Faculty 12 15 Administrative Staff/Directors 2 4 Students 8 7 Alumni 2 1 Total interviews 29 30 Total number of overall interviews 59

Data Analysis Strategies

Marshall and Rossman (1999) define data analysis as “the process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to the mass of collected data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time- consuming, creative, and fascinating process” (p. 150). They continue by adding “qualitative data analysis is a search for general statements about relationships among categories of data” (p.

150). It is a procedure that strives to unearth and transform the raw materials collected in the forms of documents and interviews into a new form of information more appropriate for reporting a study and making meanings. Yin (2003) outlines four principles for conducting high quality analysis in case study research: (a) the analysis should consider all of the evidence, avoid the dismissal of evidence, and keep the research question(s) in clear focus; (b) the analysis must consider rival interpretations; (c) the analysis should focus on the most significant aspect of the study and avoid detours or distractions; and (d) the researcher’s own knowledge and expertise should be considered and demonstrate appropriate knowledge of current thinking and discourse on the given topic.

As this is a multiple case study, there were two stages. The first phase in the data analysis was through a single case or within-case analysis of each university, where each case site was treated on its own (Merriam, 1998). For the within-case analysis, “each case is first treated as a comprehensive case in and of itself” (Merriam, 1998 p. 194).

Transcription and Category Construction

All the recorded voice files of the interviews were transcribed. A professional translator was hired to transcribe the interviews that were conducted in Korean into English. This is because Korean is not my primary language. Therefore a professional with a higher level of

40 fluency in Korean was needed to transcribe and translate the interviews. It was explained that confidentiality of the interview subjects was paramount and she signed a confidentiality consent form that described her responsibilities and rights as the translator. She transcribed the Korean interviews first from Korean then into English. A total of seven Korean interviews were translated and transcribed from Korean into English. The English transcriptions by the Korean translator were used in the coding and analysis. As researcher, interviews that were conducted solely in English were personally transcribed by myself.

After the data were collected, translated and transcribed, I took an open-coding approach, in which I read and scanned the initial on-site documents, field notes and the transcriptions from the interviews many times. As I read through each transcription for each case study, I made notations by using the track changes comments feature, looking for repetition of words/ideas.

Notes and key phrases/words are constructed into themes/ideas and thoughts, grouping them and assigning them a code (Merriam, 2009; Corbin & Strauss, 2007). Next, I created new documents where I took the initial data notes and then categorized them into more overarching themes. The broad themes were based on the themes and sub-themes from my interview questions. Marshall and Rossman (2006) construct these categories as “buckets or baskets into which segments of texts are placed” (p. 159). I then copied and pasted the relevant data into the appropriate folders with the identifying codes such as the participant’s name. This helped with going back to the original transcripts/documents when needed.

In the second stage, a cross-case analysis was used. This applies to the analysis of a case study that involves at least two cases (Yin, 2003). One of the purposes of studying multiple cases in a research project is to augment generalizability (Merriam, 1998; Miles & Huberman,

1994; Yin, 2003). Other purposes of studying multiple cases “are to see processes and outcomes

41 across many cases, to understand how they are qualified by local conditions, and thus develop more sophisticated descriptions and more powerful explanations” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p.

172). Drawing upon South Korea’s distinctive national political context of widespread support for globalizing higher education versus Canada’s more recent political push for internationalization (DFAITD, 2014), is one way in which I was able to consider how much context influenced each institution’s internationalization approaches. This approach proved to be effective as both are private Christian HEIs. This analytical approach is also appropriate for a study of Christian Higher Education and internationalization where there has been limited literature thus far.

Methods of Achieving Validity

LeCompte and Preissle (1993) list four factors that help maintain validity of research.

First, it is common practice to live among the participants in order to refine the data and comparisons. Second, informant interviews are a great base for ethnographic data when the data is categorized by types of participants because they tend to be concrete and empirical classifications. Third, participant observation is conducted in natural settings reflecting the life experiences of the participants and fourth, one needs to incorporate research reflection and self- monitoring. As a researcher, I was able to live on campus with the students at HGU and participate in and observe daily activities such as worshipping in the chapel services and eating in the cafeteria. I kept observational/reflective notes of my experiences. These allowed me to keep on track with achieving validity towards the research questions. Similarly, I also spent many days during the months of collecting data on Tyndale’s new campus site for different events and spending time with the students, as well as exploring spaces as the campus continued to develop.

Researchers use triangulation by collecting data from multiple data sources, investigators, methods, and theories (Creswell, 2007; Maxwell, 2005; Merriam, 1998; Miles & Huberman

1994; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003, Patton, 2002). In this study I used triangulation of the data sources (See Table 3 - Research Triangulation Matrix) in order to compare and crosscheck the consistency of information derived from the different sources. By doing so, data triangulation

“helps to strengthen the construct validity of your case study” (Yin, 2014, p. 121). The data collected from the interviews and on-site information was assessed on the basis of whether there was congruity between the interviewees’ comments and the documents. Through this process I was able to see whether any gap existed between documents and the interviews on specific information. This reduced “the risk of chance associations and of systematic biases due to a specific method, and create a more balanced and a better assessment of generality of the explanations that the study produces” (Maxwell, 2005, p. 112).

Table 3 Research Triangulation Matrix

Main Research Data Sources #1 Data Sources #2 Data Sources #3 Question To what do an Semi-structured Policy documents, Observations of institution’s interviews with online documents classes, chapel internationalization senior from institutional services/prayer policies and administrators, websites, brochures, meetings, programs reflect faculty, staff, annual reports, extracurricular the core values of students and alumni institutional activities, campus the evangelical newsletter/articles life (e.g., Christian faith that dormitories/cafeteria) are stated in the mission and vision statement?

Research Ethics

This research project followed all the ethical protocol requirements of the Social Science and Humanities Research Ethics Board (REB) of the University of Toronto, which was approved on January 23, 2015 prior to beginning the fieldwork. (see Appendix G). I began my research by seeking out institutional consent from each participating university. In the case of Tyndale

University College, I also was required to apply for consent through their Research and Ethics

Board. Once this was done, each participant was contacted via email. The letter explained the purpose of the study, how much time the interview would take and how the data would be collected and used. Once they agreed to participate in the study, I asked them to sign the consent form before proceeding through to the interview (see Appendix B/C). Furthermore, before each interview took place, I also reviewed the consent form verbally and asked permission for the discussion to be recorded to make sure that they were clear about my ethical accountability as the researcher. Only two people requested not to be recorded. Summary notes were taken during the unrecorded interviews. The translator signed a confidentiality agreement for her transcription and translation work. Another ethical procedure which I followed was anonymity.

In order to ensure that the identities of all my participants are protected, I used pseudonyms for all of them in my writing. All the data, interviews, transcripts, audio files, notes, etc. were secured in a locked filing cabinet in my home. I was the only one who had access to the personal computer used, and the electronic data could only be accessed through a personal password.

Summary

I began this chapter by discussing the constructivist theory within which qualitative case study inquiry is positioned. I then presented the conceptual framework based on Knight’s

44 internationalization framework and the Lausanne Covenant’s view of Holistic Christian world mission. I also discussed my use of case study as a research method, the process of participant selection and the collection of multiple data sources for analysis. I then explained how my data would be presented through cross-case analysis. Next, I described my triangulation strategies as a method of achieving validity. Finally, I described how the ethical procedures were followed to protect my research subjects. In the following chapter, I will provide an in depth look into the context of each case study.

Chapter 4: Context of the Study

In comparative education research, context is particularly important (Hayhoe, 2007;

Crossley, 2009). The purpose of this chapter is to provide a background for understanding each of the two countries in this study (South Korea and Canada) and examine the origins of Christian mission, faith-based higher education and types of internationalization policies enacted. By studying the bigger picture, it allows us to then also follow a trail back to local context and see how every piece interacts and shapes the actions of each university’s internationalization efforts to their mission. This chapter begins with a brief summary of the context of both Canada and

South Korea’s geography, peoples and language, religion, government and politics, and education. This is followed by a historical overview of Christian mission and missionary work in each country. Next, it will look at both South Korea and Canada’s higher education system and how Christianity played a part. The chapter will conclude with the recent national strategies for internationalization that both South Korea and Canada have taken on.

South Korea

Geography

Located in Eastern Asia, South Korea is the southern half of the Korean peninsula, bordering the Sea of Japan to the east, the Yellow Sea to the West and the East China Sea to the

South. To the southeast, it is separated from the Japanese island of Tsushima by the Korea

Strait. South Korea’s closest border country is the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

(DPRK), or North Korea. South Korea faces North Korea across a demilitarized zone (DMZ) that is 2.5 miles or 4 km wide. This DMZ was established according to the terms of the 1953 armistice that ended the Korean War (1950-53) and roughly follows the 38th North latitude parallel from the Han River on the west coast of the Korean peninsula to a little south of the

North Korean town of Kosung on the east coast. According to the US Central Intelligence

Agency World Fact Book (2017), the country is relatively small in size with a total area of

99,720 square km (109th in world rankings) and makes up about forty five percent of the peninsula’s land area. South Korea is divided into nine provinces, six metropolitan cities

(gwangyeoksi), one special city (teugbyeolsi) and one special self-governing city

(teukbyeloljachisi).

Peoples and Language

The population of South Korea is 51,181,299, ranking 27th in the world (CIA World

Factbook, 2016). The Korean people are one of the world’s most ethnically homogenous nations with 97.8% of its people being ethnically Korean and 2.2% of the population composed of a mix of Western, Chinese, Japanese, and South and South East Asians (Mandryk & Johnstone, 2010).

Furthermore, the homogeneous nature of its population is starting to change. The number of foreign residents in South Korea has more than tripled since 2005. The Ministry of Justice

Department of Immigration reported that as of the end July 2016, there were 2,034,878 foreign residents in South Korea, which accounts for 3.9% of the total population (Ministry of Justice,

2016). By nationality, the top five are Chinese 1,045,533 (51.4%), followed by the American

150,778 (7.4%), Vietnamese 144,362 (7.1%), Thai 92,417 (4.5%) and the Filipino 54, 182

(2.7%) (Ministry of Justice, 2016).

Korean is the official language and Hangul as its main writing system with some Hanja

(Chinese characters). There are different varieties of regional dialects spoken throughout South

Korea. For example: the Yeongseo dialect in Gangwon Province, the Jeju dialect of Jeju island, the Seoul dialect which is considered the standard, the Jeolla dialect in the Jeolla (Honam),

Gyeongsang dialect or south-eastern dialect and the Chungcheong dialect from the Chungcheong

(Hosea) area of South Korea. English is now widely taught throughout elementary, middle and high school as a part of the curriculum with also the option of learning Mandarin or Japanese.

Economy

The nation of South Korea has been through remarkable economic and social developments in a short amount of time. Over the past four decades it has transformed itself into the 11th largest economy in the world through rapid industrialization and modernization. This economic development is commonly known as the “Miracle on the Han River”. South Korea’s

Nominal GDP in 2016 was $1,411.246 million USD (11th in the world and 3rd largest in Asia) and is the 6th largest exporter worldwide (CIA World Factbook, 2017). The country’s main export partners in 2016 were China (25.1%), US (13.5%), Vietnam (6.6%), Hong Kong (6.6%) and Japan (4.9%). South Korea’s 2016 chief import partners were China (21.4%), Japan

(11.7 %), US (10.7%) and Germany (4.7%). South Korea’s export commodities include semiconductors, petrochemicals, automobile/auto parts, ships, wireless communication equipment, flat display panels, steel, electronics and computers. The import commodities are crude oil/petroleum products, semi-conductors, natural gas, coal, steel, computers, wireless communication, equipment, automobiles, fine chemicals and textiles (CIA World Factbook,

2017). South Korea’s main industries are electronics, telecommunications, automobile production, chemicals, shipbuilding and steel. It has been a member of the OECD since 2006.

In 2002, South Korea co-hosted the World Cup football tournament with Japan, and most recently in 2010, it was the first Asian nation to chair the G20 Summit and to host the G20 Seoul

Summit. South Korea has risen up from being a country devastated by war to becoming a top economic powerhouse, joining the ranks of high-tech, developed nations of the 21st century.

Religion

Mandryk and Johnstone’s (2010) Operation World religion statistics are as follows: Non- religious (30.98%)2, Christian (30.95%), Buddhist (23.7%), Ethnoreligionist (7.0%), Other

(4.3%), Chinese (2.70%), Muslim (0.29%), and Baha’i (0.08%). More recently, according to the results of the Population, Household and Housing census released by Statistics Korea and reported by Christianity Daily (2016), 43.9 % of Koreans practice some type of religion while for the first time more than half, 56.1% have no religious affiliation and/or are non-believers. Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most are Christian and Buddhist.

Christians comprise 27.6 % of the population. The number of Christians increased by 1.23 million from 9.46 million in 2005 to 9.67 million in 2015. Buddhism, saw a decrease of 7.3 % and the number of Catholics decreased by 2.9 %. Protestant Christians accounted for 19.7 % of believers, followed by 7.61 million Buddhists (15.5 %) and Catholic Christians at 3.89 million

(7.9%). Minority or indigenous religions include Confucianism at 76,000 (0.2%), Chandokyo at

66,000 (0.1 %), Daejonggyeo at 3,000 (>0.1%) and “other” including Islam at 130,000 (0.3%).

The proportion of those practicing religion has shown a rise among people in their 60s (57.7%) and over-70s (58.2%).

Government and Politics

The national government of the Republic of South Korea (Daehan Minguk) was formally founded on August 15, 1948 when it created a constitution. The Constitution of the Republic of

Korea determines the structure of the government and embraces liberal democracy as the basic principle of governance (Korea.net, 2017).

2 Many South Koreans have no formal religious ties but do have a connection to Confucian values and teachings.

The government is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive and judicial branches operate mainly at the national level, with some variation where the ministries can also carry out local functions (New World Encyclopedia, 2018). The executive branch is headed by the president and he or she is elected directly by the people for a single five-year term. They are neither eligible nor permitted to serve additional terms. At the time of writing, Moon Jae-In is the 12th president of South Korea, newly elected in 2017 after the impeachment of Park Geun-hye. The president is the also head of the National Assembly and

Commander in Chief of the armed forces of South Korea. It is their job to appoint the Prime

Minister and this appointment needs to be approved by the National Assembly. The Prime

Minister assists the president and has the authority to recommend or dismiss cabinet members.

The cabinet is the highest body for policy deliberation in the executive branch. It includes the

President (Chairperson) and Prime Minister (Vice Chairperson). The Executive Branch of the government runs two boards, four offices, twenty-three ministries, seventeen administrations and six committees (Korea.net, 2017). The Legislative Branch of the Government is made of up of the National Assembly of South Korea and consists of 300 members that are elected from numerous constituencies. Its task is to pass/amend laws, budgets and support state appointments.

The Judicial branch is comprised of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, regional appellate courts, local district and municipal courts. The Supreme Court is the head of the judicial branch of government for all cases in South Korean law. The Constitutional Court is only charged with constitutional reviews and cases of impeachment and is separate from the

Supreme Court.

South Korea has a multi-party system. There are five main political parties: The

Democratic Party of Korea (DPK), Liberal Korea Party (LKP), Bareunmirae Party (BP), Party

50 for Democracy and Peace (PDP), and the Justice Party (JP). The first two are the most dominant of the five. Elections take place every five years to elect the president and members of the national assembly. The National Election Commission manages the elections.

Education

Governance of the South Korean education system is shared between central and local authorities. The Ministry of Education and the municipal and provincial offices are responsible for primary to upper secondary education, while higher education is the responsibility of the

Ministry of Education and the councils such as the Educational Policy Advisory Council and the

Korean Council for University Education (KCUE). The South Korean education system operates on a 6-3-3-4 basis, with six years of primary school, followed by three years of middle school, three years of high school and four years of undergraduate post-secondary education

(Ministry of Education, 2017). The first nine years of schooling are compulsory for children between the ages of six and fifteen.

Primary education (chodeung hakgyo) is free and compulsory from the age of six. It runs from first through to sixth grade. Core subjects include ethics, Korean language, mathematics, science, social studies, physical education, music, and the arts. English has been taught as a part of the regular curriculum since 1997 with one hour per week for third and fourth graders and two hours per week for fifth and six grade students.

Lower secondary education or middle school (jung hakgyo) is free and compulsory for three years (Grades 7-9). The curriculum core subjects are the same as in primary school, but students are streamed according to ability in mathematics, English, Korean language, social studies, and science. Non-ability streamed core subjects include moral education, physical

51 education, and music/fine arts. Students are also able to pursue extra-curricular and optional courses such as home economics and information technology (Ministry of Education, 2017).

Senior high school (godeung hakgyo) in South Korea consists of three years and is not considered compulsory. Therefore, students are required to pay tuition fees and it can be both public and private. High schools are divided into general/academic, special purposed (foreign languages, arts and science), and vocational. Admission and selection procedures into senior high school vary across the educational system. It can be based on prior academic achievement, school administered entrance exams, and teacher recommendations (Ministry of Education,

2017).

Tertiary education (Dae hakgyo) in South Korea has one of the highest participation and attainment rates among 25–34 year olds in the OECD countries—69% compared to the OECD average of 42% (OECD Education Policy Outlook, 2016). In order for high school students to enter the higher education system, it is a requirement for them to take a national entrance exam known as the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) as a part of the application procedure. The

Ministry of Education recognizes several different types of institutions at the post-secondary level: Colleges and Universities, industrial universities, universities of education, junior colleges, broadcast and air universities, correspondence universities, polytechnic universities, technical colleges, and other miscellaneous institutions. University education in South Korea has expanded greatly from 70 universities in 1965 to 432 higher education institutions in 2016, which includes 189 universities, 138 junior colleges, and 46 graduate schools (Ministry of

Education, 2017). Approximately eighty percent of all higher education institutions in the country are private (OECD Educational Policy Outlook, 2016).

Canada

Geography

Canada is a federated state with ten provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,

Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and

Newfoundland and Labrador) and three territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut).

It is the world’s second largest country behind Russia. It is a land of vast territory (9,984,670 square km) with a wide diversity of mountains, prairie grasslands, and forests, wildernesses and arctic tundra. It is the most northern country of North America, bordering the North Atlantic

Ocean to the east, the North Pacific Ocean to the west, the Arctic Ocean on the north and the

United States to its south (CIA World Factbook, 2017).

Peoples and Language

Canada is a mosaic of indigenous and immigrant peoples. It considers itself as a multicultural society whose ethno-cultural make-up has been shaped over time by immigrants and their descendants. As of July 1, 2017, the population of Canada was a little over 36.7 million inhabitants, of which the majority of the population live in the provinces of Ontario and

Quebec. (Statistics Canada, 2017). Historically, most immigrants came from Europe. More recently the largest group of newcomers come from Asia (including the Middle East). More than

200 ethnic origins were reported in the National Household Survey (NHS) 2011, where 13 different ethnic origins had surpassed the 1 million mark—Italian, Chinese, First Nations,

Ukrainian, East Indian, Dutch and Polish. The ethnic origin most often reported in the NHS was

Canadian, followed by English, French, Scottish, Irish, and German (Statistics Canada, 2011).

Indigenous peoples represented 4.3 % of the total Canadian population in 2011—2.6 %. First

Nations, 1.4 % Métis, and 0.2 % Inuit (Statistic Canada, 2011). Nearly 19.1 % of the total

population identified themselves as a visible minority group.3 The three largest visible minority groups—South Asian, Chinese, and Black—accounted for 61.3 %. These minority groups are followed by Filipinos, Latin Americans, Arabs, Southeast Asians, West Asians, Koreans, and

Japanese (Statistics Canada, 2011).

Canada has two official languages: English and French, but it is a country of linguistic diversity, mainly due to the number of immigrants whose mother tongue is neither English nor

French. In 2011, it was estimated that there were more than 200 languages as mother tongue; a majority (96.8 %) of the 6.8 million immigrants reported one mother tongue with a small 3.2 % with multiple mother tongues (Statistics Canada, 2011). The largest share of the mother tongues spoken at 38.2 % was Chinese, followed by Tagalog, a language of the Philippines (320,100 people), Spanish (306,700 people) and Punjabi (305,400 people). Completing the top 10 were

Arabic, Italian, German, Portuguese, Persian (Farsi), and Polish.

Economy

Canada is one the world’s leading industrial nations in the developed world. The World

Bank ranks Canada as the 10th largest Nominal GDP at 1,535,768 million and the 17th largest

GDP by Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) at 1,625,360 million in 2016 (World Bank a,b, 2016).

Canada is a member of many major trade organizations such as the Asia-Pacific Economic

Cooperation (APEC), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Group of 7 (G7),

Group of 20 (G20), OECD and the WTO. Its main industries are transportation equipment, chemicals, processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, fish products, petroleum and natural gas (CIA World Factbook, 2017). International trade makes a

3 The Employment Equity Act defines visible minorities as “persons, other than Aboriginal persons, who are non- Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.” (Statistics Canada, 2011).

54 large part of the Canadian economy, particularly with its natural resources. In 2017, it was ranked 12th in the world for exports. The World Trade Organization (WTO, 2016) lists Canada’s main export partners as the United States (76.2%), European Union (7.7%), China (4.1%), Japan

(2.1%), Mexico (1.5%) and ‘other’ (8.4%). The key commodity groups are manufactures

(51.1 %), fuels and mining products (25.6%), agricultural products (15.6%) and ‘other’ (7.8 %).

The primary export commodities are motor vehicles and parts, industrial machinery, aircraft, telecommunication equipment, chemicals, plastics, fertilizers, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, natural gas, electricity and aluminum. Canada’s import products are an estimated

$443.7 billion in 2017. They include machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and parts, crude oil, chemicals, electricity and durable consumer goods (CIA World Factbook, 2017). The U.S. is the top import partner (52.2%), followed by China (12.1%), European Union (11.4%), Japan,

(3.0%) and ‘other’ (15.1%).

In 2013, Global Affairs Canada’s4 Minister of International Trade announced a ‘Global

Markets Action Plan—The Blueprint for Creating Jobs and Opportunities for Canadians

Through Trade’ (Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada [DFATD],

2013). This plan concentrated its efforts on the markets that will advance Canadian business through priority markets and institute ‘economic diplomacy.’ This action plan’s portfolio had many key stakeholders, including adding education as a part of its strategy.

Religion

Canada’s multicultural society reflects itself in the faith practices of its people. Just over

22.1 million people, two-thirds or 67.3 percent of Canada’s population reported they were

4 Global Affairs Canada was formerly the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada.

55 affiliated with a Christian religion. Roman Catholics are the largest Christian religious denomination representing 38.7 percent of Canada’s population. The second largest were those affiliated with the United Church (6.1percent) with the third largest being Anglican (5 percent),

4.5 percent simply said they were Christian. Baptists round out the numbers as the fifth largest

Christian denomination at 1.9 percent (Statistics Canada, 2011). Evangelical Christians made up

7.7 percent of the population (Mandryk & Johnstone, 2010). The Muslim faith represented 3.2 percent of the nation’s total population. Hindus represented 1.5 percent, Sikhs 1.4 percent,

Buddhists 1.1 percent and Jewish 1.0 percent. Traditional Aboriginal spirituality represented 0.2 percent of the population and nearly one-quarter of the population (23.9 percent) had no religious affiliation (Statistics Canada, 2011).

Government and Political System

Canada is a constitutional monarchy with a multiparty federal parliamentary democracy system (Parliament of Canada). It has three levels of government: federal, provincial or territorial and municipal. Canadian citizens elect political representatives at all three levels of government to the federal House of Commons, the provincial and territorial legislature and their city or municipal council. These representatives pass laws and keep the government accountable. The federal government is based in Ottawa. There are several branches of power.

In the executive branch, the head of the state is the Monarch of Great Britain and is represented by the Governor General who is appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, usually for five years (CIA World Factbook, 2017). Following legislative elections, it is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons who becomes the head of the federal government. As of November 2015, the head of government is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau

(Liberal Party).

The federal ministry or cabinet ministers are chosen by the prime minister among sitting members of parliament in the House of Commons (usually from their own party). The members of the executive branch are the decision makers of Parliament and implement the laws. The second branch is the legislative branch. It is a bicameral Parliament, which means it consists of two parts—the Senate, whose members are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister, and the House of Commons who are elected by voters. There are 308 ridings across Canada. The members of the House of Commons introduce, and pass legislation for all

Canadians (Parliament of Canada, 2012). There are five main political parties: Conservative

Party of Canada, Liberal Party, New Democratic Party (NDP), Bloc Quebecois and the Green

Party. The court system of Canada forms the Judicial branch of government in Canada. The

Supreme Court of Canada is at the highest level, followed by the Provincial/Territorial Courts of

Appeal, The Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court. The federal and provincial governments are all responsible for the judicial system (Department of Justice, 2016).

Education

Canada is a constitutional monarchy, but has also been a federated state since 1867 consisting of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces and territories are individually responsible for primary, secondary and post-secondary education. There is no federal ministry for education and no national policy for education. Each province has a Ministry of

Education/Department for educational policy, funding and quality assurance. Some jurisdictions have separate departments/ministries for elementary/secondary and the other for post-secondary education and skills training. Public education is provided free to all Canadians. The legislation and practices concerning separate and private educational institutions also vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, the separate school systems reflect the constitutionally protected right

57 to religious education for Roman Catholics or Protestants. Thus, public and separate school systems are publicly funded. In addition, since Canada is a bilingual country, the constitution recognizes French and English as its two official languages. This gives French speaking students who live outside the province of Quebec or English-speaking students inside Quebec the right to access their education in either official language. Therefore, each province and territory has

French language Boards of Education and the same applies to English language schools in

Quebec (CMEC, 2017).

Early Childhood or pre-elementary education, whether full or half day, is provided by each province/territory. Primary education or elementary education in the majority of the

English-speaking provinces generally consists of six years and secondary education covers the final four to six years of compulsory education. Elementary curriculum covers the basic subjects of language arts, math, social studies, science, physical education, arts, and second language learning (CMEC, 2017). The secondary education curriculum covers compulsory courses such as language, math and social science with a few options the first years. Later, students have the option of taking vocational-technical (applied) subjects or advanced academic courses that prepare students for college/university. The division of grades up to the 11th (Quebec) and 12th grade varies from province to province. For example, the divisions can be made of 6+3+3

(elementary+ junior high+ senior high); 8+4 (elementary + senior high) or 6+6 (elementary + secondary).

Canada’s post-secondary education is decentralized and offers a range of post-secondary education institutions that are both public and private. Li and Jones (2015) describe six types of classifications created by Statistics Canada of the post-secondary and adult education providers.

They are: 1. University and degree granting; 2. College and institutes; 3. Career College;

4. Apprenticeship; 5. Adult Education; and 6. Consortium. There are 233 public universities and colleges across Canada and 86 private universities and colleges, 19 of which are universities or university colleges (p. 12). For the most part, the majority of Canadian universities are public as they receive funding support through the provincial government.

In Ontario, private institutions need to register with the private institutions branch of the

Ministry of Colleges and Universities. In order for institutions to use the term “university,” or to offer degrees, they must obtain approval based on the recommendation of the Postsecondary

Education Quality Assessment Board (PEQAB). This board reviews the program for which the

HEI is seeking consent to offer a degree. Once approved, it officially receives Ministerial

Consent (Government of Ontario Education and Training, 2020).

Christian World Mission and the Missionary Movement in South Korea

Early Period

It has been said that the Korean church has been a missionary church almost from the beginning. The missionary movement in South Korea can be traced back to when the first

Western missionaries arrived in the late 19th century and began bringing the good news of the gospel. According to Park (2011), the most powerful way this was shown was through the

Korean translation of the bible. The Yesu-sungkyo-chunseo was the first Korean translation of the New Testament, which began being printed in 1882, and the complete translation was published by John Ross in 1887. A revised version of the New Testament was published in 1906 and the Old Testament in 1911. John Livingston Nevius, an American Presbyterian missionary to China, was another influential mission leader during the preparatory period for Korean foreign missions. The Nevius Method, which advocated a self-support, self-governing, and self- propagating model of church construction was adopted and accepted as policy for Protestant

Missions by the Korean church (Kim, 2013). At the core, the Nevius Method emphasized bible classes, bible schools and seminaries. Added to this was the important task that every believer be a Christian witness to all and wherever he or she may be.

The Korean church’s global missionary undertakings began as early as 1907 by the newly established self-supporting Presbyterian Church in Korea. This church was established by an alliance of four Presbyterian missions. The first seven graduates of the Pyongyang Presbyterian

Theological Seminary were ordained and decided to send out Ki-poong Lee to Quelpart (Jeju

Island) as a missionary. In 1908 the presbytery sent Suk-jin Han to Tokyo Japan. In collaboration with the Methodist and Presbyterian churches, the Japan mission grew to about fifty churches with up to three thousand members (Park, 2011). In 1909, Kwan-Heul Choi was sent to Vladivostok, Russia and in 1912, three more missionaries - Tae-ro Park, Young-hoon

Kim, and Byung-soon Sa—were sent to Shandong, China (Park, 2011; Park, 2015).

Colonialism, Wars, and Post-Independence

Despite the serious trials and tribulations under the Japanese occupation of Korea and the devastating Second World War followed by the Korean War, the Korean church still faithfully persevered and continued to send out foreign missionaries to the field. In 1937 The Korea

Presbyterian General Assembly sent Ji-Il Bang to Shandong Province and Hyung-Joo Choi to

Manchuria (Park, 2011). It was not until 1956 that the next missionaries, Chan-Young Choi and

Soon-Il Kim, were sent to Thailand, and the following year Hwa-sam Kae was sent to Taiwan.

These became new mission fields and a new era for the Korean church. In 1969, the

Presbyterian church in Korea sent Sung-man Yang to Brazil and Nam-jin Cha to the United

States. In the 1970s, others were sent to places such as Indonesia, Germany, Philippines,

Argentina and Egypt.

The final impetus for Korean Christian leaders during this time was the influence of the mass evangelism and worldwide evangelical movement which directly and indirectly influenced foreign missions in Korea. Korean Christians leaders were impassioned, participating in evangelistic endeavors such as the 1973 Billy Graham Seoul Crusade Seoul, leading more young people to commit themselves to world mission. Also, as an outflow of The Lausanne

Covenant/Movement, the Korean Evangelical Theological Society (KETS), Korean Evangelical

Fellowship (KEF) and the Asia Center for Theological Studies (ACTS) were organized, leading to a new level of cooperation and exchange with other leaders across the world and backing world mission (Park, 2011).

The Rise of Korean World Mission Since the Late 20th Century

In the late 20th century, there were several international conferences in Korea that continued the world mission movement momentum. The Korean World Mission Conference was held in Wheaton, Illinois in 1988; in May 1995 the Global Consultation on World Evangelism

(GCOWE) was held in Seoul—counting 4,500 leaders from 216 countries worldwide (Park,

2011). The Korean missionary movement continues to play a large role in world evangelism and the missionary movement of the global church in the twentieth and twenty-first century. Dr.

Yong-Hyun Hwang (1992) wrote:

[I]t is evident that God has given responsibilities to the Korean church as a leading

mission power in the center of the world churches at the end of this century; consider its

economic growth, theological richness, ecclesiastical zeal, and determination, educational

advancements, the social recognition of Christianity, abundant human resources and its

evangelical spirit. (p.57)

South Korea now stands as the third largest missionary-sending nation and second largest overseas missionary-sending nation. As the third largest, it follows the United States and India

(Moon, 2016). In particular, the missionary movement in South Korea showed exceptional growth from 1988–2013. Moon (2016) attributes this to several factors that led to the development of Korean missions, particularly from the 1980s to the 1990s. First was the rapid growth of the Korean church itself, along with its theological leanings that were more conservative in nature and brought about a culture of ‘sacrificial’ giving and support for missionaries. Second, with the country’s economic boom and through government policies, there were more opportunities that allowed for greater freedom to travel across borders. Thirdly, practically speaking, there was a surplus of seminary graduates who were not able to find ministry opportunities in South Korea, freeing them to do ministry abroad.

Current Status of Korean World Mission

Research conducted by Moon, Yoo, and Kim (2015) through the Korea Research Institute for Mission (KRIM) (Table 4), showed that at the end of 2014 there were 20,467 Korean missionaries working in 163 countries through 162 mission agencies. This revealed a growth of

1.9 percent since 2013. 10,770 were members of interdenominational agencies, 9,306 were part of denominational agencies and 382 missionaries were part of supporting organizations. The top ten countries receiving the most missionaries were China, United States, India, Japan,

Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Turkey, Cambodia, and Russia. Statistics show 50.6 percent of the total number of Korean missionaries that were sent worked in these countries, while 46.9 percent served in 47 creative access countries5.

5 Creative access countries refer to nations, areas, or ministries where there is great hostility towards Christianity and where traditional ‘missionary work’ is not possible.

Table 4 Korean Missions as of December 2014

Korean Missions as of December 2014

Missionaries Total Number 20,467 Annual Growth rate (percentage) 1.9% Members of interdenominational 10,779 agencies Members of Denominational 9, 306 Agencies Members of Supporting Agencies 382 Mission agencies Total number 162 Sending/supporting 116/46 Interdenominational/denominational 147/15 Receiving Countries Total number 163 Missionaries in the top ten receiving 50.6% countries (percentage) (China, US, India, Japan, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Turkey, Cambodia, Russia) Number of creative access countries 47 Missionaries in creative access 46.9% countries (percentage) Note: Data reprinted from Moon, Yoo, and Kim (2015, p. 85).

A more recent survey done by The Korea World Missions Association (KWMA) showed that as of December 2017, there were 27,436 Korean missionaries in 170 different countries all over the world with an increase of 231 missionaries that were sent out to mission fields since

2016 (KWMA, 2017). In Figure 2, the geographical distribution of the South Korean missionaries shows that the region with the most Korea missionaries is northeast Asia, with

6,319 missionaries (22.11%), followed by 5,893 missionaries who are doing ministry in southeast Asia (20.62%), 3,075 are working in North America (10.76%), 2,185 in Korea

(7.64%), 1,792 in South Asia (6.27%), 1,388 in the Middle East (4.86%), 1,240 in Western

Europe (4.34%), 1,170 in Latin America (4.22%), 1,181 in Central Asia (4.13%), 1,205 in South

East Africa (4.09%), 1,110 in Eastern Europe (3.88%), 959 in the South Pacific (3.36%), 611 in

North Africa (2.14%), 366 in West Central Africa (1.28%), and 90 in the Caribbean Sea (0.31%)

(KWMA, 2017).

Figure 2 Geographic Distribution of Korean Missionaries (2017)

South East Geographic Distribution of Korean Missionaries (2017) Africa, 1,205 Eastern Europe, 1,110 West Central Africa, (4.09%) (3.88%) 366 (1.28%) Central Asia, South North Africa, 611 1,181 Pacific, 959 (2.14%) (4.13%) (3.36%) Latin America, South East Asia, 5,893 1,170 (20.62%) (4.22%)

Middle East, 1,388 North East Asia, 6,319 (4.86%) (22.11%) South Asia, 1,792 (6.27%) Western Korea, 2,185 (7.64%) Europe, North America, 3,075 1,240 (10.76%) (4.34%)

Caribbean Sea, 90 (0.31%)

Note: Data reprinted from KWMA (2017, p. 36).

In terms of mission agencies that sent missionaries, denominational organizations sent

12,374 missionaries (43.3% of the total missionaries), while mission organizations sent 16,210

(56.7% of the total missionaries) as of December 2017 (KWMA, 2017). Table 5 shows the types of ministries that Korean missionaries are involved in:

Table 5 Korean Missionary Ministry Types and Involvement Status 2017

Korean Missionary Ministry Types and Involvement Status 2017 No. of No. of Major Ministries countries Missionaries Church planting 153 14,624 Discipleship training 141 9,663 Welfare/Development 82 2,017 Campus Ministry 63 1,954 Education 79 1,671 Children/Youth Ministry 78 768 Medical 51 617 Theological Seminary training 24 595

Total 31,909 Note: Data reprinted from KWMA (2017, p. 37)

Lastly, Johnstone and Mandryk (2001) write about the change in the missionary movement of the Korean church in the Operation World report, stating that “the mission vision of the Korean church has grown rapidly and matured. An increasing number of cross-cultural missionaries are being sent all over the world…” (p. 389). In the end, Andrew Walls’ (2002) thoughts on South Korea’s overall amazing world missionary movement sum it up well:

The great missionary nation is now Korea; in every continent there are Korean

missionaries by the hundreds, in the coming years, we can expect hundreds more,

preaching from Tashkent to Timbuktu, and reaching where westerners have long been

unable to tread. (p. 45)

Christian World Mission Movement in Canada

Canadian Missionary Heritage

The first missionaries who came to Canada were the Jesuits who entered New France

(Acadia) in 1611, followed by the Capuchins and priests of the Society of Foreign Missions in

1615. The majority of their work was in the Christianization of the native aboriginal peoples and providing religious services to the white settlers (The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2006). There were also many Protestant organizations that led the missionary effort in Canada. For example, there was the Anglican Missionary Society from 1820, the Methodist Missionary Society from

1849, the Presbyterian Church and its various forms from 1866, and the United Church of

Canada from 1925. By the mid 19th century, Canadian churches via their denominations sponsored missionaries overseas to do foreign missions. For example, the Canadian Methodist

Mission (CMM) reached out to West China in 1891 with only 19 missionaries and by 1917 grew to 177 missionaries. In 1925, the Methodist, Congregationalists and two-thirds of the Presbyterian churches in Canada merged to become the United Church of

Canada and took over the responsibility of the Methodist and Presbyterian Missions in China

(United Church of Canada Archives, 2017). They continued carrying out the missionary effort in such areas as education and medical work. More recently in 2017, the United Church had 92 global mission and service partners in 21 countries around the world doing international ecumenical work (United Church of Canada, 2017).

The Canadian Baptists sent Richard Burpee to India in 1845 through the support of the

Maritime Baptists. The Canadian Baptist Ministries (CBM, formerly Canadian Baptist

International Ministries and the Canadian Baptist Federation) was formed in 1859 and began serving in overseas missions to India in 1874 and then Bolivia in 1898. During their early years

66 in India, CBM planted hundreds of churches, several schools, five hospitals, and seminaries. In

Bolivia they fought for the rights of aboriginal people, influenced land reform and the creation of schools, churches and medical clinics (Canadian Baptist Ministries, 2018).

In 1908, the first missionaries were sent from Toronto to South Africa and China by the

Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (PAOC) before it officially became an organization. Soon after, others were sent to Liberia (1910), Egypt and India (1911), Argentina (1913), Tanganyika

– now Tanzania (1914), and Kenya and the West Indies (1918) (Pentecostal Assemblies of

Canada, 2017). In the late 20th century, there were 275 missionary families serving in 35 countries which has grown now to over 330 missionaries in over 70 nations (PAOC, 2017).

One of the largest evangelical Protestant missionary organizations was The Sudan

Interior Mission (SIM), an interdenominational faith mission group established in Toronto by

Walter Gowans, Thomas Kent and Rowland Bingham in 1893. These men set out to witness to the people of what was then known as the Soudan in sub-Saharan Africa. Gowans and Kent sadly died of fever due to a malaria outbreak. Bingham became too ill to return to Africa himself so he sent out a new group of missionaries in 1902, and this became the base of SIM Africa

(SIM, 2017). Many more missionaries followed into other parts of the world such as India under the Ceylon and India General Mission (CIGM) and the Poona and Indian Village (PIVM), later to become International Christian Fellowship (ICF), and also to Bolivia under the Andes

Evangelical Mission (AEM). In the 1980s, these mission organizations merged to become the

Society for International Ministries. It is now known as Serving in Mission or simply SIM (SIM,

2017). Currently SIM Canada sends missionaries from Canada to more than sixty-five countries worldwide, drawing from more than 50 different denominations.

Current Snapshot of Protestant Christian Mission in Canada

A survey completed in 2008 of 166 Canadian Protestant missionary agencies, showed that there were a total of 8,325 people serving full time in 145 countries and territories, which was an increase of 66.7 percent from 2005 (Moreau, 2011). In terms of long-term Canadian missionaries, there was an increase of 9.2 percent, which has been attributed to second and third generation Canadians mobilizing missionary work. There was a decrease in the number of tentmakers of 19.9 percent6 (Table 6). The Canadian agencies also reported a drop in the number of short-term missionaries at 7.4 percent, which is relatively small when compared to the number reported since 1998. When it comes to Canadian Protestant agencies’ deployment of missionaries to the 10/40 Window7, the adjusted share of all full-time workers from 2001-2008 have shown that almost 20 percent of the Canadian citizen workforce and over 40 percent of the non-Canadian workforce are in these countries. In 2008, 29.7 percent full-time missionaries worked in the 10/40 Window countries, which is up by 19.5 percent overall (Moreau, 2011). In addition, Mandryk and Johnstone’s (2010) Operation World statistics state there were 122 mission agencies sending to 122 different countries internationally, with a total of 5,200 long- term missionaries from Canada.

6 In general, tentmaking refers to the activities of any Christian, who while dedicating him or herself to the ministry of the Gospel, receives little or no pay for church work, but performs other ‘tentmaking’ jobs to provide support. It is a method of Christian evangelism in which missionaries support themselves by working full-time in the marketplace with their skills and education. 7 The 10/40 Window is the rectangular area of North Africa, the Middle East and Asia approximately between 10 degrees north and 40 degrees north latitude of the equator. It is seen by Christians as a ‘window of opportunity’ as it is a general area where it is purported to have the highest level of socioeconomic challenge and the least access to the Christian message/resources on the planet.

Table 6 Survey of North American Protestant Mission Agencies

Summary of Reported Canadian Protestant Missions Agency Totals, 1996-2008

Length and type of 1996 1998 2001 2005 2008 Change service (2005-8) Canadian citizens 416 421 337 511 492 -3.7% Mid-Term (1-4 years)

Long-term (4+ years) 2,961 2,613 2,493 2,059 2,249 9.2% Tentmakers 140 144 154 186 149 -19.9% Full-time Canadian 3,517 3,178 2,984 2,756 2,890 4.9% Citizens Micro-term (<2 weeks) ------3,545 -- Short-Term (2 weeks) 2,470 3,186 3,395 3,534 3,272 7.4%

Non-Canadian citizens In home country 707 1,725 1,128 1,510 4,787 217.0% Out of home country 77 244 874 728 648 -11.0% Note: Data reprinted from Moreau (2011, p.12 ).

Christian Higher Education: Historical Overview

South Korea

Korea’s history of education dates back over 4,300 years. In this pre-modern period, formal education was a private matter whereas higher education was meant for the privileged or upper class based on Confucian principles (Kang, 2012; Lee, 2004). The development of modern higher education in Korea can be traced to the turn of the nineteenth century. It shifted from a Confucian model to a European or American model. This was due to the arrival and efforts of Western missionaries on the Korean peninsula. The establishment of institutions of higher learning, particularly by Western Protestant missionaries, had a great impact on the development of Korean higher education. In 1885, Kwanghoewon (The National Hospital) was

69 the first modern hospital opened by Drs. Horace, N. Allen, and O. R. Avison to practice and teach Western medicine. With the support of philanthropist L.H. Severance, the hospital added a medical school, Severance Union Medical College and also a School of Nursing (Lee, 2004, Lee,

2000a). American Methodist missionary Mrs. Mary R. Scranton, established Ewha Hakdang in

1886. It was the first college-level school for girls, which evolved into the present day Ewha

Woman’s University (Lee 2004; Kim, 2000). The Methodist Mission founded many other private college level schools. The Reverend H.G. Appenzeller opened Paijai Hak Dang, the first normal school for men in 1886 in Seoul. Soongsil Hak Dang in Pyongyang was the first institution to have the title Dae Hak (College) in 1907. However, it was later reorganized into a professional school and renamed Soongsil Jummon Hakkyo (Soongsil Union Christian College, now Soongsil University) (Kim, 2000; Lee, 2000a). Chosun Christian (Yonhi) College (now part of Yonsei University), founded in 1915 by American missionary Reverend Horace G.

Underwood in Seoul, is another important higher education institution in Korea (Lee, 1989).

These mission collegiate schools were modeled after the American colleges of the nineteenth century. Their goal was to help build well-educated Christian citizens rooted in both Christian religious values and liberal attitudes. Courses that were offered reflected this, such as the liberal arts, humanities and natural sciences along with religious education (Lee, 2000b). Professional schools established by the Western missionaries became a second model of modern higher education in Korea. For example, in 1889, the Kyungsung Professional Medical School and the

Commercial and Industrial School began. Missionaries also opened a Lawyer’s Training Institute

(1895), Schools of Mining (1890), Postal and Electric Affairs (1897), Agriculture and Forestry

(1906), as well as several private foreign language institutes of English, French, and German

(1896) (Kim, 2000).

There are many reasons for the success of Christian higher education and its influence, which was parallel to the development of public higher education in Korea, starting from the late nineteenth century. First, American missionaries recognized that education was for all. They believed in helping particularly those who were commoners, working class or of the lower social classes, also the disadvantaged such as women. Confucian norms and value system were highly patriarchal and women were discriminated against. The boundaries of women in Confucian society were restricted to within the home and they had to be obedient to all male figures in their family, whether it be their father, husband or brother (Kang, 2012). Traditionally, the women in this society had very few to no educational opportunities. The establishment of Christian higher education institutions, such as the previously mentioned Ewha Hakdang, pioneered the emancipation of women and their subsequent progress.

Second, they introduced the concept of liberal education. This taught the spirit of independence, democratic freedom and self-reliance. Western democratic ideas and values of humanism, individual rights, representative government, and primacy of law for the nation were also brought to the forefront of the Korean people (Lee, 1989). Christian missionary educators

“emphasized both religious and liberal attitudes, which encouraged an educated citizenry” (Lee,

2002b, pp. 56). Part of the achievement and influence Christian higher education institutions in

Korea had was that the Western missionaries took into consideration the need to preserve the original goals and objectives of education previously established. Much effort was made to support the national leaders and to cultivate national strength. Thus, because they took this point of view of following some of the Confucian socio-ethical ideologies, their Christian institutes were able to succeed in contributing to the modernization of Korean higher education. The

American missionaries made direct efforts to develop an institutional type at the level of higher

71 education. This was accomplished particularly through the planning of instructional curricula and administrative systems (Lee, 1989; Lee, 2002a).

Third, the early American missionaries emphasized the importance of Western practical and scientific knowledge. Consequently, they emphasized new academic studies in Western natural sciences in their curriculum and wrote textbooks for biology, chemistry and physics.

They also emphasized the importance of manual skills. Educating the Korean people in universities and colleges that trained merchants and industrialists helped greatly in the process of modernizing the Korean nation (Ng & Zhang, 2011).

Fourth, with the establishment of Christian higher education institutions, missionaries introduced for the first time Western higher learning ideas in the native Korean language Hangul

(Lee, 1989). Before the arrival of Protestant missionaries, all educational texts were written in

Chinese characters and were taught and used by men of the noble class. Missionaries translated and published the bible, textbooks and other Christian materials into Hangul. This was yet another gateway, opening up new opportunities for women and people who were of lower class in Korean society. Literacy dramatically improved because of the missionary endeavors and social equality eventually spread (Kang, 2012). Park (2007) noted that:

It is interesting to note that the advocates of Hangul were not Koreans but foreign

missionaries and that Protestant Christianity made a contribution to the creation of a

national identity by ‘desinicization’ or ‘hangulization’ at all levels of social life. (pp. 23-

24).

According to Lee (2002b), the Protestant Christian religion through its higher education institutions “served as an educational mediator to establish modern higher education in Korea”

(p. 57), and counteracted the long-established dominance of the Confucian elite.

Korea was annexed by Japan on August 28, 1910. From this time onward, the policies of

‘Japanization’ were in full force. Policies such as prohibition of the use of the Korean language in school and changing of Korean names to Japanese were implemented. Education for Koreans was not regarded as urgent, and was different and separate from that for the Japanese. The professional school (Junmoon Hakkyo) was the predominant type of higher education during this time. Academic freedom was limited and there was a lack of research, with most being oriented towards the advanced trades. The higher education in Korea under Japanese rule was based on a

European-influenced Japanese tradition. It consisted only of practical and vocational training.

There was only one main university that was opened in 1924--Keijo Imperial University in

Seoul. It followed the model of a four-year university, where the courses provided general liberal education. The more specialized subjects were medicine, agriculture, law and engineering. The structure was that of a highly centralized, bureaucratic Japanese system. The university was highly competitive, and it limited the enrolment of Korean students. (Kim, 2000;

Lee, 2004).

During this tumultuous time, Christian higher education became a promoter of nationalism and helped directly in the process of modernization of the country. Korean citizens who were against the established Japanese higher educational institutions turned to the Christian private institutions. These Korean missionary schools were popular because they stood against

Japanese imperialism. The Christian ideals they taught supported the national identity of the

Korean people and the people also believed that the Western values would bring innovation to the nation. Universities such as Chosen Christian College (Yonsei University) and Union

Christian College (Soongsil University) were actively integrating Christian faith and nationalism

(Ng, 2009). Christian universities opposed Japanese imperialism in Korea, and the connection of

Christian education and nationalism in Korea became more obvious when the colonial government of Japan took power. In order to preserve the national identity of the Koreans,

Christian higher education institutions were shaping new school curricula; hence they gained popular respect from the people. These schools became safe havens for students who were against the Japanese rule (Ng & Zhang, 2011). Many of the Christian private institutions of higher learning such as Ewha, Severance Medical School and Soongsil expanded their educational facilities as a result of increasing educational zeal and support of private schools

(Kim, 2000). They supported student movements of anti-Japanese imperialism and assimilation policies. There were many political leaders who graduated from the schools and accepted

Christianity as a better choice and as a means to promote nationalism and verify their national identity. These national leaders were even arrested for their nationalist activities and were involved in the independence movement. As a result, they gained a very good reputation and enjoyed prestige in the country (Ng & Zhang, 2011).

According to Umakoshi (2004), “Asia is home to the largest and most diverse private higher education sectors in the world” (p. 34). Significant growth and expansion of Korean higher education has mostly been in the private sector. Amongst all the OECD countries, South

Korea has the greatest number of privately funded educational institutions where student enrolment is over 80% of the national enrolment (Shin, 2012). Christian higher education institutions continue to play a large part in this sector, providing a wider choice and contributing to Korean economic development (Weidman & Park, 2000). For example, Shin (2014) reported that in 2009, 61 out of 159 four-year colleges and universities in Korea were Christian institutions of higher education, which comprised approximately 38.3% of the higher education institutions in the country. The older ‘historical Christian universities’ that were established by

74 missionaries such as Yonsei University and Ewha Woman’s University have grown to be some of the largest, most prestigious and academically celebrated in the country (Glanzer, 2012).

Canada

Historically, the development of higher education in Canada has deep roots in the French and English colonial regimes. Most institutions of higher education were denominationally controlled. Although these HEIs were church controlled, they were not just simply theological seminaries. Catholic (French) institutions were closely aligned with the teachings and intellectual traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. They played a significant role in the establishment of colleges and universities in Quebec before and after the Confederation.

As the British settled in English Canada, they adopted and developed early models of the

British universities, which were tied to the Protestant church. A few of Canada’s oldest

Protestant denominational colleges were established prior to Confederation in 1867 through charters granted by the British crown (Fernhout, 2014; Jones, 2006). After Confederation, more new colleges and universities were established. Some were denominationally affiliated while others established as non-sectarian institutions. A pattern was set when many of the denominational colleges decided to follow a process by which they federated themselves within the larger, established public institutions. In Ontario, this was heavily influenced by the provincial government’s decisions to not provide public funding to denominational institutions, but they would receive support through their federated/affiliated relationships with public institutions. In the years following Confederation, the church colleges were influenced by considerable change in Protestant thought in Canada. New ideas in science and a more humanist ideal prevailed over the more biblical or orthodox Christian view (in which the Bible is viewed as revealed truth, standing above the human intellect) (Masters, 1966; Rawlyk 1990).

The emergence of evangelical Protestant higher education institutions (HEIs) began in the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Christians who were outside of the mainline denominations founded many bible colleges and institutes (Hiebert, Bates, and

Magnus, 2005). Though a majority of these HEIs were established particularly in Western

Canada, there were handfuls located across the nation. Evangelicals were frustrated with the trend of secularization that dominated Canada’s higher education system. These evangelical institutions were specifically created for a more bible-centered curriculum and to train students for evangelization and missionary service (Stackhouse, 1993). Virginia Brereton (1987) has also suggested that the reason for the establishment of the bible/theological schools was the cost of establishing liberal arts colleges was very expensive, so founding bible schools instead was the more economical alternative. Another reason was that the provincial governments in the 20th century did not favour giving evangelical private HEIs degree granting privileges like their secular counterparts (Stackhouse, 1993).

There has always been a distinction in Canada between ‘secular’ and ‘religious’ degrees.

Nonetheless, as the public universities embraced a secular ethos, some of the bible colleges began to increase their own courses in the liberal arts. For example, Ontario Bible College in

Toronto became well known by some Ontario universities, gaining a reputation as a kind of religious ‘junior college’ where students could transfer credits to the public HEIs (Stackhouse,

1993).

This trend changed in the 1960s and new ventures in Christian higher education were launched. In particular, according to Stackhouse (1993) there was a movement where evangelical Christians expanded their idea of vocation being just a pastoral/missional to a view that sees all vocations as being in service to God. Thus, the development of a more liberal arts

type of colleges and universities began and it became an alternative to the public university.8

Fernhout (2014) describes that across Canada, there are currently “fourteen

Protestant/evangelical institutions that fit the profile of a Christian university” (p.236).9 Six of the fourteen were designed from their inception to offer university-type programs in arts/humanities, sciences, social sciences and/or some professional areas.... the other eight institutions were founded as bible or theological colleges” (pp. 236-237). As the eight expanded their programs, the respective provincial governments permitted these schools to change their institutional designation to use the term ‘university’ and seven of the eight were able to transition into ‘university’ or ‘university college’ status (Fernhout, 2014). According to Christian Higher

Education Canada (CHEC), a non-profit association of evangelical Christian higher education institutions, they service over 17,500 students across Canada. At this time, there are 34 member campuses in seven provinces across the country. These include 11 universities, 16 colleges and

17 seminaries and graduate schools with 14,000 are undergraduate students, and 3500 at the graduate level (CHEC, 2013).

Even though Canadian faith-based HEIs have a small niche within the bigger national context, there are still cases of some progress and impact in terms of recognition, reputation and legitimacy. Dan Smith’s (2013) study on faith-based, degree granting institutions in Manitoba is an example of this. Smith argued that in Manitoba, faith-based institutions were more integrated

8 Trinity Western College (later Trinity Western University) in British Columbia, The King’s College (later The King’s University College) in Alberta, and Redeemer College (later Redeemer University College) are examples of this (See Li & Jones, 2015; Stackhouse, 1993) 9 This is based on the definition of ‘Christian’ university/college as described in the introduction. See Glanzer, P. L., Carpenter, J. A., & Lantinga, N. (2011). Looking for God in the University: examining trends in Christian higher education. Higher Education, 61(6), 721-755

77 into the mainstream HEI system as they received legislative approval from the provincial government to have degree granting authority for more programs (e.g., teacher education certification), ‘university’ status in their name and formalized government funding to the colleges/universities. There were also non-legislative actions such as permitting international students at Christian HEIs to take part in government employment programs. Affiliation agreements between public HEIs and faith-based institutions (e.g., University of Manitoba and

William and Catherine Booth University College Approved Teaching Center) further validated

Christian HEIs acceptance into and contribution to the mainstream system.

In 2002, The Globe and Mail, a national Canadian newspaper, published a report that surveyed students who attended member universities in the Association of Universities and

Colleges of Canada (AUCC) (now Universities Canada). The evangelical Christian HEI members in this group consistently ranked at the top in student satisfaction (Fernhout, 2014).

They have also done well with published national student satisfaction surveys conducted by

Maclean’s magazine, another esteemed national news publication. This survey was based on the results of the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) and the Canadian Undergraduate

Survey Consortium (Fernhout, 2014). All this shows evangelical Christian higher education is alive and well, contributing to Canada’s higher education system. Moreover, it is bringing more attention to their strengths (e.g., quality of teaching, class size, and student satisfaction) to the wider general population.

National Internationalization Strategies

South Korea

In order to improve the quality and increase the competitiveness of higher education and research in the country to a level that is globally recognized as “world-class”, there are many

78 initiatives and policies the Korean government has initiated. The following are five main examples among many of the recent initiatives that have been carried out.

BK 21 Project. The ‘Brain Korea 21 Project’ (BK21 Project) was launched in 1999. Its main objective is to cultivate high quality research, world-class expert groups/researchers and develop regional graduate schools that will lead regional innovations (Byun & Kim, 2011). The first phase was from 1999-2005. According to Moon and Kim (2001), the Korean government invested 1.4 trillion KRW (about $1.2 billion US) in higher education institutions over a period of seven years:

Three-quarters of the budget will be invested in supporting graduate schools in certain

fields in the natural and applied sciences, humanities, and social sciences. While selected

graduate schools and universities will be developed into leading world-class universities,

the remaining institutions will become regional universities that will create the human

resources required by local industries. (p. 99)

Eleven specialized graduate schools and 317 project teams were selected to receive financial support. These groups currently undergo annual and interim assessment.

The second phase of the BK21 Project began in 2006 and continued until 2012. An amount of 290 billion KRW/year, or 2.03 trillion KRW in total over seven years was budgeted.

There were several goals attached. The first aim is to make Korea one of the world’s top 10 countries when it comes to producing research papers indicated on the Science Citation Index

(SCI), the rationale being that publishing in high quality publication journals will bring international recognition to Korea’s higher education institutions. The second goal is providing scholarships for master’s and doctoral students in order to raise up gifted scholars. All of this is to create a stronger Korea with enhanced human capital (Byun & Kim, 2011; BNC, 2012).

The ‘Study Korea Project’. The ‘Study Korea Project’ is a comprehensive plan that was created to attract foreign students to Korean colleges and universities and was launched by the

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in December 2004. The focus of the

Korean government was to create policies regarding international education to be geared to recruiting foreign students to Korea, rather than sending Korean students abroad (MEST, 2007).

The initial goal was to attract 50,000 foreign students to Korea by 2010. Korea viewed this as a strategy to position itself as the education hub of Northeast Asia, provide a link between developed and developing countries, and strengthen the competitiveness of Korean education, ultimately creating more human resources for the country (Ahn, 2010).

The number of foreign students studying in Korea grew to around 50,000 in 2007, reaching the target number of students for 2010 earlier than originally planned. As a result, the target number was adjusted. The outline for attracting foreign students was redesigned and an updated development plan for was renewed for the ‘Study Korea Project’ in 2008. The government set a new goal to attract up to 100,000 foreign students by 2012. In 2012, the statistics showed that there were approximately 87,000 foreign students in Korea (Ko, 2012).

With the success of the growing numbers of foreign students coming to study in the country, the

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) officially announced in October 2012, its plan to push ahead with its second phase of the ‘Study Korea Project.’ The ‘Study Korea

2020 Project’ now aims to attract 200,000 foreign students to Korea by 2020 (Ko, 2012).

The main enhancement of the new project is to focus more on qualitative management.

For example, in order to attract and support high achieving, competent students, the government created a one-stop webpage service system in a variety of languages (e.g., Japanese, Chinese,

Russian, Vietnamese, Mongolian, Spanish, Turkish, Arabic and French), increasing accessibility

80 and diversifying nationalities. On the site, it manages foreign students’ entire stay from entrance to departure. Supports with making the visas and immigration process welcoming, user- friendlier and smoother, as well as TOPIK (the Korean language proficiency exam) are all available for potential students. Programs such as education fairs, employment fairs and opportunities, Korean language and cultural seminars and improvements in living conditions

(e.g., dormitories on campus) for foreign students are disseminated through the website and are offered in partnership through local governments and embassies. Universities received a subsidy of 2 billion KRW to open more English only and Korean language classes in 2008. They were also encouraged to expand their on-campus accommodations for foreign students (OECD, 2009).

In addition, the government redesigned the Korean Government Scholarship Program into the

Global Korea Scholarship (GKS) (see below). It can be compared to the Fulbright Grant

Program of the United States. Such efforts marked the shift of focus in Korea’s national policies on foreign students from the quantitative expansion to the qualitative improvement (Ahn, 2010;

Ko, 2012).

Global Korea Scholarship. The Global Korea Scholarship (GKS) is a scholarship program that is supported by the government of the Republic of Korea and is implemented by the

National Institute for International Education, which is an organization operating under the auspices of the Ministry of Education. In 2010, up to 51.5 billion KRW won was allocated to support 2,100 new scholarship students under the program. The objective of the GKS program is to generate deeper mutual understanding between world countries by facilitating educational exchange and human resource mobility, thereby contributing to the development of international educational peace (MEST, 2009; Study in Korea, 2013). GKS offers scholarships for those studying long-term degree courses but also short-term exchange or training programs. It also

81 includes a supportive program for the grantees, which lasts after they go back to their home countries. This program is mainly about building a global human network, forging alumni associations by each nationality of the grantees and providing grantees with up-to-date information on Korea. In doing so, GKS is offering the grantees enhanced post-scholarship support (MEST, 2009). GKS is expected to contribute not only to the nurturing and deployment of quality human resources overseas by inviting outstanding foreign scholarship students to

Korea but also to the establishment of a Korea-friendly global human network in the future.

(Study in Korea, 2013).

Incorporation of Seoul National University and other Developments for National

Universities. This policy initiative was created to make Seoul National University into a private corporate institution. The rationale behind it was “the establishment of a national university as School Corporation, independent of the national governmental structure, will give them a strong capacity for strategic leadership and autonomous management” (Byun et al., 2012, p. 7). According to the Ministry of Education, HEIs that are similar to SNU’s structure will also gradually go through an incorporation process. Policies and structures such as merit pay based on research productivity and a direct election system for the university president will be implemented to strengthen the institution and move it into becoming a more self-governing establishment (MEST, 2011).

‘World-Class University’ Project. The ‘World-Class University Project’ or WCU

Project was introduced in 2008. For this project, the Korean government invested $750 million

(US), or 825 billion KRW, over five years until 2012. The first main objective was designed to meet Korea’s critical need to foster research in key growth-generating fields such as NBIC

(Nano Bio Info Cogno) and to ensure quality in the development of next-generation human resources. Under the national subsidy initiative, the Ministry of Education, Science and

Technology (MEST) has set out to nurture new promising fields in basic sciences, and develop interdisciplinary studies that promote knowledge-based services and new industries. The second objective is to recruit and retain world-class international scholars who possess advanced research capacities, so that they can bring innovation to the education and research environment of Korean universities, and transforming them into research-oriented institutions of globally competitive standards (MEST, 2008).

The WCU offers three project types. The first is establishing new academic departments or specialized majors in key growing fields. The second is recruiting foreign scholars to existing academic fields. They will conduct joint research with Korean academics, operate research labs and teach/lecture at HEIs. The third is inviting distinguished world-class scholars such as Nobel

Prize laureates, members of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering, distinguished researchers with international acclaim for outstanding research achievements, or pioneering engineers in high technologies. (MEST, 2008; WCU, 2008; OECD, 2009). Following three selection rounds, the WCU Project has funded a total of 140 programs at 33 universities thus far.

Most of these participants are in the Seoul metropolitan area, which is especially attractive to international scholars due to its established educational, cultural, social, and economic environment (Byun, Jon, and Kim, 2012).

Canada

As described in the first section of this chapter when briefly describing Canada’s education system, Canada does not have a national ministry of education nor a national higher education policy. According to Jones, Shubert, and Trilokekar (2009), “Canada has the most decentralized policy approach to higher education in the Western world, with high levels of institutional autonomy” (p. 11). Thus, the responsibility of education rests within the jurisdiction of the provinces and territories. Consequently, any internationalization strategies and programs that Canadian universities have made are by the province but “have primarily emerged at the local institutional level” (p. 10). The universities in Quebec were at the forefront of how HEIs prioritized internationalization based on its historical and political contexts. For example, as

Quebec’s French language university system expanded, it opened its doors to students from

French speaking African nations (Picard & Mills, 2009). It also participated in international exchanges to promote French language and culture around the world. In Ontario, HEIs such as

York University’s internationalization on campus is seen through an international internship program to promote global learning and experiences (Taraban, Trilokekar, & Fynbo, 2009).

Furthermore, the Council of Ontario Universities in April 2016 submitted a plan to the provincial government to link what individual postsecondary institutions in Ontario have been doing with their respective internationalization approaches/strategies. There were four main recommendations. First, make internationalizing education a strategic part of the Government of

Ontario’s official policies. Second, coordinate with federal partners to address issues, support greater understanding and inform outreach activities. Third, enhance the global perspectives of domestic students through expansion of existing and development of new models of support for increased global experience and mobility. Fourth, enhance the attraction and experience of

84 international students through additional postdoctoral, graduate and undergraduate supports

(Council of Ontario Universities, 2016). Nationally, Canada had never really had an official internationalization policy strategy for higher education until recently. However, the federal government did attempt some short-term strategies to boost international education.

Edu-Canada. For example, the federal Edu-Canada pilot program ran from 2007-2012.

This pilot program, co-managed by the Council of Ministers of Education Canada (CMEC) was the hub to coordinate, develop and market a strong national education brand. Over this time, over 170 education promotion events in 60 countries with Canada’s network of embassies took place under the “Imagine Education au/in Canada” brand. The results of the pilot increased the number of international students in Canada by 51 percent (DFATD, 2014).

Advisory Panel. Not until 2011, did the government of Canada’s Ministers of

International Trade and Finance decide to put together an advisory panel of six expert members with the mandate to make recommendations on how to develop and implement an international education strategy. The panel went through a three-stage process, meeting with many stakeholders such as education associations, institutions and private sector organizations. They released a report on August 14, 2012, called International Education: A Key Driver of Canada’s

Future Prosperity (Department of Foreign Affairs, and International Trade Canada (DFAIT),

2012). In the report the panel gave fourteen recommendations under five core themes:

1. Targets for success—achievable goals for the growth of international student

numbers and increase in international mobility opportunities for Canadian students.

2. Policy Coordination and Ensuring Sustainable Quality—address clarifying

coordination mechanism with stakeholders and value of promoting the quality

of Canada’s education.

3. Promotion of “Education in Canada”—honing Canada’s brand and selecting

priority markets to promote it.

4. Investments—need to be strategic on packaging scholarships and attract top

talent. It is meant to promote Canada’s culture and excellence.

5. Infrastructure and Support—promotional efforts must align with study permit

issuance and visa processing. Greater exchange of information and expertise

between the Government of Canada and the education sector (DFAIT, 2012, p.xii).

In the report, most of the main recommendations focused on international student mobility (inbound) and the importance of the recruitment and retention of international students.

For example, the report recommended that Canada should double the number of international students choosing Canada from 239,131 in 2011 to more than 450,000 by 2022, which is a ten percent annual increase. Next to this would also be the introduction of an International Mobility

Program for Canadian Students to serve 50,000 students per year by 2022. Furthermore, the promotional efforts of Canada’s education brand would be targeted and focus mainly on a limited number of markets so that the funding can be allocated and supported appropriately by such provisions as scholarships and grants.

Making it Official: Canada’s International Education Strategy.

In 2014, the Minister of International Trade announced Canada’s first-ever international education strategy (IES) called Canada’s International Education Strategy: Harnessing Our

Knowledge Advantage to Drive Innovation and Prosperity (Department of Foreign Affairs,

Trade and Development Canada (DFATD), 2014). This IES strategy formalized and built upon the many recommendations that were made in the 2012 report. The IES strategy is also closely

86 tied to Canada’s Global Markets Action Plan (announced in 2013). The key areas of Canada’s

International Education Plan are as follows:

i. Focusing on Priority Education Markets

• Canada will align with markets (developing/emerging economies)

identified as priority under the Global Markets Action Plan—Brazil,

China, India, Mexico, North Africa and Middle East and Vietnam

• It must also balance maintaining advantage in attracting students in

mature markets such France, UK, Germany, Japan, Korea and US

ii. Branding Canada to Maximize Success

• A new refreshed “brand” for the use of governments and key

stakeholders

• Branding materials are tailored for each priority market and resonate

with the key audience

• Improved coordination of marketing efforts with networks in key

posts

iii. Setting Targets to Attract International Students

• Double the size of international student base from 239,131 in 2011 to

more than 450,000 by 2022

• Create new jobs and opportunities for Canadians through International

Education

o Create at least 86,500 net new jobs for a total of 173,100 new

jobs in Canada sustained by International Education

o See international expenditures in Canada rise to over $16.1

billion

o Provide an annual boost to the Canadian economy of almost

$10 billion

o Generate approx. $910 million in new tax revenues iv. Strengthening Institutional Research and Educational Exchanges and

Leveraging People-to-People Ties

• Increase the number, breadth and depth of active collaborations

between Canadian and foreign post-secondary institutions and

research centres to make Canada a top choice for both academic

recruitment and partnerships focusing on

o Student and faculty exchange

o Student and faculty mobility

o Joint research

o Joint curriculum development

o Joint course delivery

o Joint academic and skills development programs

• Supporting Activities and Leveraging Resources to Maximize Results

through

o Citizen and Immigration Canada’s (CIC) International

Student Program

o Scholarships and Bursaries-$13 million over two years

o New funding support of $5 million a year

for the IES objectives priority markets

v. A Pan-Canadian Partnership to Secure Canada’s Long-Term Prosperity

• Aligning Efforts with those of the Provinces and Territories

• Strengthening Relationships with Key Industry Stakeholders

e.g., Canadian Bureau of International Education (CBIE), Association

of Universities and Colleges Canada (now Universities Canada),

Association of Canadian Community Colleges, CEGEP International,

Polytechnics Canada

• Strengthening Canada’s Engagement in the World by fostering

relationships with high quality global institutions and key influencers

in education by building government-to-government partnerships e.g.,

Canada’s Strategy for Engagement in the Americas, Brazil’s Science

Without Borders, Canada ASEAN Education Forum vi. Performance Measurements and Measuring Success

• The IES aims to achieve 19 goals set-- some of which include:

o Doubling the number of international students in Canada by

2022

o Increase the number of international students choosing to

remain in Canada as permanent residents after graduation

o Develop and regularly update country strategies for priority

markets in coordination with the Global Markets Action Plan

o Highlight Canada’s French-language strengths to increase

Canada’s share of the international francophone student

market

o Leverage Canada’s bilingual, multicultural identity in

marketing efforts and in building strategic partnerships

o Work with online educators to foster more uptake by

international students

• Apply performance measures including target for the numbers of

incoming and outgoing students, bilateral agreements, along with

social media and web metrics, stakeholder and public-opinion

research. (DFAITD, 2014, pp. 9-15)

In 2019, the government added an updated internationalization strategy which is called

International Education Strategy (IES), Building on Success. This additional strategy has allocated $147.9 million over the five years, collaborating with provinces, territories and institutions. The main emphasis is to:

• Encourage Canadian students to gain new skills through study and work abroad

opportunities in key global markets, especially Asia;

• Diversify the countries from which international students come to Canada, as well

as their fields, levels of study and location of study within Canada;

• Increase support for Canadians education sector institutions to help grow their

export services and explore new opportunities abroad. (MITD, 2019, para.7)

Summary

This chapter has given an overview of the context of both South Korea and Canada, with the purpose of providing the background against which Korean and Canadian Christian Higher

Education, Christian world mission, and internationalization can be understood. It begins with a description of the many facets of South Korea and Canada’s geography, economy, government and political systems, language, religion, and education systems. Following that is the history of each country’s legacy and the current status of Christian mission and foreign missionary work, moving on to the history of South Korea and Canada’s higher education and how Christianity played a part. Finally, it concludes with the recent provincial and national internationalization strategies that both South Korea and Canada have taken on. The focus now turns in Chapters 5 and 6 to the two case studies of each faith-based university: Handong Global University in South

Korea followed by Tyndale University College and Seminary in Canada.

Chapter 5: Handong Global University

This chapter examines how Handong Global University implemented internationalization policies and programs at the institutional level. The principal foci of the chapter will be on the motivations, program strategies, and organization strategies that are used at the institution. First it will begin with a brief portrait of Handong Global University. This will be followed by an analysis of the internationalization policies and strategies and how they are perceived. The next section will describe the core values of evangelical Christian world mission and faith. The final section will discuss the perception of how much influence the context has on the internationalization at the institution.

Insights from this chapter are based on twenty-nine semi-structured interviews with senior administrators, faculty members, administrative staff/directors, students and alumni. The study also involved a review of informational materials such as promotional brochures, university website, policy documents, and booklets collected from the institution. Pseudonyms by way of initials were assigned to each participant to keep their identity confidential.

Institutional Portrait

The name Handong, is a combination of “Han” and “Dong” in Chinese characters, which means Korea-East. The name came from a contest held by its founding committee, and was designed to give the community a more positive sense of a new university being founded. Young

Ae Kim (2006a) described the meaning of Handong as “the cradle of the academia located at

Korea-East” (p. 28). Handong University opened its doors in 1995 as a co-educational faith- based university. In 2000, it received licensing for the establishment of specialized graduate schools in areas such as International Law and Translation and Interpretation. In 2001, Handong

University was renamed Handong Global University. That same year, the International Law

School (HILS) was opened. At present, the university has twelve schools with undergraduate programs and seven schools at the graduate level. They are:

Undergraduate

1. Global Leadership School

2. School of International Studies, Languages and Literature

3. School of Management and Economics

4. School of Law

5. School of Communication Arts and Science

6. School of Counseling Psychology and Social Welfare

7. School of Spatial Environment System Engineering

8. School of Mechanical and Control Engineering

9. School of Contents Convergence Design

10. School of Life Science

11. School of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering

12. Global Entrepreneurship and Information Communication Technology

Graduate Programs

1. General Graduate School

2. Graduate School of Global Management and Leadership

3. Graduate School of Education

4. Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation

5. Graduate School of Counseling Psychology

6. Graduate School of Global Development and Entrepreneurship

7. Handong International Law School (HILS)

Four of the majors (Global Management, US and International Law, Information

Technology and Global Convergence Studies) are offered 100% completely in English. In 2014, the 20th Convocation ceremony took place, in which 1,036 students (900 undergraduates/140 graduates/65 transfer students) graduated. HGU currently has an enrolment of approximately

5,337 students in total (HGU, 2016c). The dorm capacity of international students is 100% and the foreign faculty ratio is at 23%.

Institutional Accolades

Handong Global University has become one of South Korea’s most respected Christian higher education institutions. It received the Project of Strengthening Educational Capacity for

University Prize in 2008 and 2009 from the South Korean Ministry of Education, Science and

Technology (MEST) and it was chosen the ‘Best School for Educational Reform’ from 1996-

2001 by Korea’s Ministry of Education, receiving national recognition and grant funds from the government. In 2002 and 2003, the Korean Ministry of Education chose HGU as an

‘Outstanding University among upcoming local universities.’ In 2008, HGU entered into an

‘Internship Agreement’ with the OECD, the first university in South Korea to do this. In 2014,

Handong was designated as ‘Gyungsang Province’s Educational Donation Hub Center’ hosted by the Ministry of Education and the Korea Foundation for the Advancement of Science and

Creativity. The hub aims to find ‘blind spots’ or areas of need of marginalized students in the field of education and to support more students. HGU was then designated as the 2015 Excellent

Institution for Donating Education hosted by the Advancement of Science and Creativity and recognized by the Ministry of Education. In 2012, a Graduate School of Global Development

94 and Entrepreneurship was opened, and a new department of Psychology was opened in 2014 within the General Graduate School.

Governance Structure

Handong’s university governance structure is shaped in large part by the regulations and statutes issued by South Korea’s Ministry of Education. The two main governance bodies at

HGU are the Board of Trustees and the University Council. The chief role of the Board of

Trustees is oversee the fiscal management and operation of the institution as well as upholding the educational philosophy, development of values, mission and vision of the university. They also have the authority to appoint the president of the university. Part of the responsibility of the president of the university is to realize the mission and vision of institution and he goes through an evaluation every couple of years to see the if any progress has been made. It is also a requirement by the Ministry of Education. HGU is an inter-denominational institution which mean that there is no one church denomination/authority overseeing the daily operations.

However, there are several denominational church leaders who are members of the board of trustees who come from several protestant denominations such as the Presbyterian Church of

Korea. Many of the church leaders were part of the initial formation of Handong as a university.

The University Council’s main role is to deliberate on academic matters of the university such as academic programs, curriculum, admissions, and student welfare. The University Council consists of the Director of Academic Affairs (Chairperson), Dean of the Faculty, Director of the

Faith Education Center, Director of the Language Education Center, Director of International

Affairs and a number of faculty. Within the University Council, there are many ad-hoc committees. Many of the decisions are made from a bottom-up governance model. For example, a working group committee was formed that initially discussed the mission, vision and

95 statement of the faith of HGU. It was discussed intensively over a year. Following this, the draft went through the whole faculty meeting--which regularly convene twice per year. This working group is formed about every 5 years or as needed. It then goes through the final approval process by the President and the Board of Trustees.

Embodiment of Christian Identity

As an evangelical Christian institution, HGU emphasizes the development of men and women to be global leaders of service who will transform the world and who exemplify a

Christian character of truthfulness and uprightness. Its charge is to educate honest and competent global leaders for the technology-driven marketplace of the 21st century. Handong’s main slogan,

‘Why Not Change the world?’, is a catchy phrase quickly summarizing this. A second lesser- used slogan is ‘God’s University, nurturing God’s people God’s Way.’. This slogan is further encapsulated in its mission statement: “HGU is aiming to pursue academic excellence and holistic education based on the Christian faith to train global leaders who will change the world”

(Handong Global University, 2009, para.2).

Looking deeper into HGU’s evangelical institutional identity, Handong Global

University’s Vision has been expressed in different forms throughout its history. In one document for international student admissions, Handong’s Vision states that HGU aspires to bring out global leaders who are:

• Honest Christian laymen who will change the world through the spirit of love, humility

and service for the glory of God

• Honest global servants who live to serve communities, nations and the world through

their professionalism and ethics

• Honest intellectuals with a biblical world view in various academic fields, who will re-

establish the true purpose of education and rebuild destroyed biblical creationism and

morality (Kim, 2006b, p. 80).

More recently, on the institution’s website (HGU, 2016d), the vision of the university is summarized in three visions and 10 projects which are:

1. Handong people who bear fruit by combining upright character and spirituality

2. Handong campus developing and giving talents for others

3. Ten World Changing Projects - HGU sets out the Top 10 Projects to bring the slogan

“why not change the world?” into reality. (HGU Vision, para. 3)

The 10 World Changing Projects are:

1. Regional Revitalization Project

2. Uniting Korea Project

3. Africa Project

4. Entrepreneurship Project

5. Smart-Financing Project

6. Next Generation ICT Project

7. Next Generation Cars and Robots Project

8. Sustainable Energy Project

9. Environmental Project

10. Next Generation Life Project/Health-Welfare Project. (HGU Vision, para.3)

Internationalization Policies and Initiatives

Motivations for Internationalization

Information from the interviews and on-site materials shed light on the reasons why

Handong endeavoured to make the institution more global. A variety of rationales are found as the guiding principles of internationalization policies and programs and many are interconnected and not necessarily mutually exclusive.

The Great Commission. The majority of interviewees stated that at the heart and foundation of the motivations for internationalization at HGU is the Christian gospel mission, the

Great Commission of Jesus Christ. In other words, it is the duty of Christians to send out people and preach the gospel of Jesus to those who do not know Him around the world. As one faculty member stated, “We have the Great Commission in mind… that’s why Handong exists, otherwise we are the same as other universities” (L.Y.Z.). Another way this idea of the Great

Commission was expressed would be that the motivation for internationalization is for the expansion of the kingdom of God.

Cultivation of Global Leaders. Under the Vision 2020 mid-term internationalization policy goals and in the mission and vision of HGU, global leadership training is a key motivator for the university. One senior administrator confirmed this by expressing the following points:

Under the slogan of ‘Why not change the world?’ we have focused on nurturing world

leaders who can change the world, who can create change not only within this country

but also in other developing countries. In this context, the globalization plan has been

promoted and globalization is still a very important part of this university. (Q.D.S.)

Service to Developing Countries for Change. Moreover, another motivation to nurture global leaders mentioned above is so that these leaders can go out and serve across the world,

98 particularly in developing nations. A staff member explains, “We ceaselessly ask ourselves, where is our work? and in particular, we focus on helping developing countries. We are trying to fulfill the needs of developing countries.” (L.T.) An international student adds:

we want to train other peoples too so that we can have a privilege, have a good education,

and if we train them spiritually and academically, they will go back to their country, and

they will work on behalf of us to make our motive come true - why not change the world?

(E.T.)

Another international student talks about the idea of training leaders for change, stating “And everything they will learn here, they [the students] can also share that to their countries, and that can be also a catalyst of change to their countries” (K.V.).

Attracting Foreign Students to Promote a Globalized Campus. Several students commented on the fact that one of the motivations for internationalization at the institution is to bring in more international students in order to create a more globalized campus. One in particular states:

I think for me, that the initiative at Handong, why they are trying to make it more

internationalized I guess is, maybe to promote the university first of all, to promote and to

attract more foreigners… ‘Cause I think the purpose of Handong, as we can see in the

vision to like make, creating global leaders, like moulding global leaders in this

university. So I think Handong wishes to have more leaders that will represent different

countries all over the world. So the more international students we have here, we have

more representatives to all over the world. (K.V.)

Program Strategies

The internationalization of the programs is driven by the main policy outlined in the

Handong mid to long term ARISE and SHINE Vision 2020, but the content of the curriculum itself is driven by the professors. An overview of the Policy Vision is below:

VISION 2020

Articulation of Christian Institutional Missions

Rebuilding Character Education for Global Citizenship

Integrative Education System for Creative Learning

Student Recruitment and Admissions Strategies for Excellence

Educational Content Innovation for New Challenges

Strengthening R and D Capacity with the Glocal Focus

Human Resources Development and Professional Enhancement

Infrastructure Expansion for University Globalization

Network Building with Global Partners and Friends

Endowment for Sustained University Development (HGU Policy Document, n.d.)

English Language

In HGU’s internationalization Vision 2020 plan, it states that in order for students/faculty and staff to serve globally, it is imperative that students should be equipped with the language skills needed for international activities. More specifically, Handong’s goal is to equip students with a one plus one model in language skills. This means that students will acquire one or more languages by the time they graduate. At Handong, the main language to achieve that goal is

English. This emphasis on English as an internationalization strategy is reflected in its programs.

There are 160 or 46% of the courses taught in English each term and are open to foreign and

100 exchange students. These courses range in areas of the Humanities, Social Sciences and

Engineering Sciences such as Mathematics, Microeconomics, Introduction to Philosophy,

Psychology and Computer Graphics. Three of the majors are offered 100% in English. They are

Global Management (GM), U.S. and International Law (UIL) and Information Technology (IT).

Practical English intensive education is required of all students in order to graduate (over 12 credits and a certain acquired minimum in TOEFL/TEPS/TOEICL English or international language scores). They are also required to compete 12 hours of English conversation and

English discussion during their first and second years.

One faculty member points out that one of the global realities is the use of English in the academic world and reinforces the importance of learning English:

For scholarship, if you want to know scholarship, if you want to know cutting edge

insight, you better know English. As I tell my students, if you Naver10 something, if you

look up do a search on Naver, you will have 1/10th of the resources available as you

would on Google. So get to Google. As much as I don’t like homogenization,

monopolization, if you want resources, you better Google it. Because Naver is not going

to be your key to understanding… Sorry, that’s where we’re at right now. That’s the

global language. (O.M.)

Handong believes what differentiates itself from other Korean universities is having been the first to offer English major programs other than English language learning, and that students have direct contact with foreign students and professors in their daily life in English. Several of

10 Naver is a Korean language internet search engine

101 the faculty members pointed out this fact and were quite proud of the high percentage of courses and programs that are offered.

Global Convergence Studies

A few faculty members and a senior administrator spoke of how the administration would be working on a change in the policy of using English as a strategy for internationalization through adding a new major. Part of the goal of this program was to enhance the international profile of the institution by attracting more international students. It also was thought of as a solution to some issues of the quality of English course offerings. In the fall of 2015, HGU opened a new program called Global Convergence Studies (GCS). This program was created and geared specifically for international students. Another senior administrator was quoted as saying on the website that the GCS program was created “after reflecting on the necessity to revitalize creative education through designing multi-disciplinary converged majors. The aim is to further strengthen varied majors and education order to attract foreign students” (Handong Global

University, 2015, para.2 ). In addition, this program allows students more flexibility to choose their own majors and they are not necessarily hindered by limited availability of courses in the

English language. On the other hand, this is not to say that English should be the only language of importance.

Foreign Language Study

HGU’s internationalization policy states that it is preparing global leaders. In addition to

English, a requirement of all students at Handong is to complete a course in a second language.

Courses in foreign languages such as Chinese (Mandarin), Korean and French are a few of the languages offered to students.

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Handong International Law School (HILS)

One program that exemplifies Handong’s internationalization of programs is the establishment of Handong International Law School (HILS). HILS was founded in 2002 and is

Asia’s first international law school. The law school itself was international in nature because one of its main selling points is that the program is essentially modeled after a US Juris Doctor

(JD) program11, and students can qualify to take the Bar examination in the US, but most of them practice internationally. Thus, the focus of the education is preparing the students for international practice such as public international lawyers, which includes human rights law.

Global Leadership, Entrepreneurship and International Development

In the undergraduate program, each student entering the first year does not declare a major. Rather, the students enter what is called the Global Leadership School. Students are educated in languages, IT subjects, core humanities, and science along with Christian worldview courses. The idea behind this is by having a year of general education, each student is receiving a foundation to meet the demands of globalization and to be a leader of the global society. The undergraduate program moreover offers a degree in Global Entrepreneurship which is paired with Information and Communication Technology. The Graduate School offers a degree in

Global Development and Entrepreneurship which was founded to advance sustainable development around the globe. This program integrates theory with practice by mobilizing

HGU’s history and resources for international cooperation and development.

11 A Juris Doctor (JD) is a graduate-entry professional degree in law

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Curriculum

Practical Training in Various Fields

Embedded within certain majors, there is an emphasis on solving problems in the developing world such as what are called ‘caption courses.’ For example, in the engineering department, there is the idea of solving problems for the 90% (underprivileged) vs the 10%

(privileged). The students go to developing nations to use their practical knowledge learned in class to uncover solutions to real world issues in the communities they go to serve. Another example of putting study into practice with a global focus is in the International Studies

Department where the professor spoke about teaching a course on global training and research.

In that course, the students are able to get hands on experience by immersing themselves in the context that they are studying and examining the issues within that particular global context.

Academic Mobility

International Student Recruitment

Although Handong is considered to be quite competitive in its admission of students

(around 10-20% of applicants are accepted), there are a few unique ways in which Handong approaches the recruitment of international students that relates to the mission and vision of the university. First, it reaches out to children of missionaries. According to one professor, there is a specific quota for the number of students who are specifically missionary kids (MKs):

There are 40 seats reserved for these students out of 900. So, it is easier for them to come

in at Handong…so around 40% are accepted…and it is a special blessing for them to get

into Handong. So that’s a special benefit for missionaries. That’s the policy that we have

kept for many years--at least 15 years. (L.Z.T.)

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Second, another way Handong engages in international student recruitment is through its scholarships. Handong offers generous scholarships that are earmarked for international students that are from developing nations. Details on the scholarships offered are further discussed in the organizational strategies section on financial support.

Student Exchange/Study Abroad

The majority of the student mobility at Handong is inbound. The students come from either international locations to study for four years as an undergraduate student; or HGU hosts many students from all over the world who come for a semester as exchange students. There are about 160 courses that are taught in English and offered each term. Currently, Handong has 183 exchange partner universities where students at those institutions are able to participate. In

North America, there are 35 partner institutions in the US and one in Canada. In Europe, it has

27 partner schools in 13 different countries (Netherlands, Lithuania, Latvia, Czech Republic,

France, Hungary, Poland, UK, Malta, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Russia and Spain). In Asia, it has 34 partner schools in 14 different countries (e.g., Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan). In

Africa, it has 17 partner schools in ten different countries. In the Middle East, there are three partner schools in three different countries and in Central and South America, it has four partner schools in four different countries.

International Volunteering/Service Mission

According to Handong, approximately 400 students take part in service missions overseas each year (outbound mobility). Much of this is done through the GET/GEM programs, which is described in the co-curricular section of internationalization programs.

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Partnerships and Cooperation

A large part of HGU’s ‘cross-border’ internationalization lies with its many one-on-one partnerships with higher education institutions joining to form a global network of HEIs, inter- governmental, and non-governmental agencies.

OECD

In 2008, HGU signed an internship agreement with the OECD, which was the first of its kind in South Korea. In this agreement, two to three Handong students are deployed to the

OECD as interns, particularly in the area of Information Technology and Network Service.

United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI)/UNAI Hub and Library

The United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI) is a global initiative that aligns higher education institutions with the United Nations in active support for the ten universally accepted principles in the areas of human rights, literacy, sustainability, and conflict resolution. UN secretary-general Ban Ki Moon launched this initiative in 2010. In January of 2011, Handong

Global University was selected as the principal hub for the UNAI in the category of ‘Capacity

Building for Higher Education Systems.’ As the UNAI Global Hub for capacity building, HGU empowers developing states in their educational capacity by transferring know-how of its interdisciplinary studies such as Global Entrepreneurship and Business along with its whole person education. Furthermore, Handong was designated Korea’s 11th UN Depository Library.

UNESCO-UNITWIN Host University

The University Twinning and Networking Program (UNITWIN Network) was established in 1992 following the relevant decision of UNESCO’s General Conference in all of

UNESCO’s fields of competence by building university networks and encouraging inter- university cooperation through the transfer of knowledge across borders. From the beginning of

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Handong Global University’s establishment, it has focused on strengthening interdisciplinary learning and serving in developing countries. A combination of programs that were offered at the university such as IT, Global Management and Law education at HGU attracted interest at the UN. Thus, in 2007, HGU was named as South Korea’s UNESCO-UNITWIN Host. One of its initiatives as host is to harness the Internet to make courseware open to the public in order to increase access to quality educational material for everyone. This initiative is sponsored by the

Korean Ministry of Education.

Global Associations

HGU is also part of the Global Engineering Education Exchange (GEEE), a member of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU), which is a US-based higher education association of 178 Christian institutions around the world, and the Association of

Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia (ACUCA).

Extracurricular Activities

International and Intercultural Campus Events

Culture Festival. Once a year, the international student population puts on the Global

Culture Festival on campus. At this festival, many of the countries of the international students on campus are represented. The campus community has the opportunity to come and try the food and learn about the countries and culture. Performances such as cultural dance and singing are also part of the celebration.

Color Festival. One international student interviewed spoke of a joint event with another local university (POSTECH) and a church in Pohang that celebrated one of the many festivals found in Indian culture. The Color festival is a festival where the farmers rejoice and sing to welcome the spring season. People play with colors - in this case it was with balloons. The event

107 brought students and community members from 30 different nationalities and there were around two to three hundred people who participated in the celebrations.

Student Clubs and Associations

International Student Council. Handong has a student council that is specifically made up of international students and representing the voices of the international student population on campus. The support of this council is part of the internationalization policy.

Cricket Club. One interesting club that came out of a discussion with an international student was the creation of a cricket club on campus. Cricket is a sport that is virtually unknown in South Korea, so this club came about not only because a few students were interested in playing the sport, but also in the spirit of Handong promoting all that is global. To fulfill this, the students decided on educating Koreans about a different sport that is played around the world. In his words: “If you are changing something, why not the sports side as well?” (E.T.).

What is amazing was that it started out with only five students and they now have a team of 22 players. The team also was blessed to receive a donation from the Korean Association of Cricket.

Korean Cultural Activities. HGU provides culture experience programs such as

Hanbok (Korean traditional costume) Day, industrial excursions, outings to K-Pop (Korean pop music) festivals, taekwondo demonstrations and Korean historical site tours for visiting and international students.

Law and Advocacy Club. This club practices mock trials of what happens in US courts.

Co-Curricular Activities

Global Engagement Mobilization (GEM) Project

The GEM project was started from the perception that most problems that we encounter are tangled with science, technology, economy, environment, and the cultural situation with a

108 need to be creatively worked out through interdisciplinary convergence. Students in the program form a team to propose solutions to a problem. These students volunteer their time during their summer and winter breaks to serve, train and apply their knowledge in a holistic way. This further builds global leadership and communication skills as they interact with their team members to come up with a solution. A project is selected based on relevancy to knowledge learned from the university major, characteristics of the project site itself, cross-cultural understanding, and eventually, the possibility of long-term sustainability.

Global Entrepreneurship Training (GET) Project

The objective of the GET is to help future leaders of developing countries to develop an entrepreneurial mindset through education and enable them to help their countries in establishing capacity building for development. There have been 15 GET programs since its inception in

2008. This program is a one-week intensive course program completely run on a volunteer basis by members of the faculty of specific programs that connect well to the entrepreneurial vision

(e.g., Law and Global Business development). Students of the programs also volunteer their time to apply on a practical level what they have learned in their courses/classes.

Organizational Strategies

Student Housing

I-House. Handong subscribes to a Residential College system when it comes to its student housing. There is one dormitory that is specifically for international students under the

Residential College system called Carmichael College. It is also affectionately known as I-

House. All incoming international students are guaranteed a room in this dormitory. In its description on the website, the difference between I-House and the regular dormitories is that “I-

House is specifically designed to cultivate students with global minds…where many students

109 with vastly different backgrounds live together in this small community” (Handong Global

University, 2016b, para. 1)

Support Services for Students

International Student Orientation (HanST). Handong has a separate orientation for incoming international students, and for visiting or exchange students who are only on campus for a semester. HanST is short for Handong Spiritual Training. The orientation week is a time for the international students to participate in activities that introduce them to the life at Handong and receive spiritual guidance/understanding about the spirit of Handong—which are honesty, integrity, and service. It also creates a time for the international students to bond and get to know each as an international community. Each international student also receives a ‘Handong

Survival Guide’ in English, which includes all the essential information that a new or visiting student might need to know about living and studying on campus.

1:1 Student Mentoring. The International Buddy System (IBS) is an ongoing project within the Office of International Affairs in conjunction with the Handong Student Union. Each international student is paired with a Korean student. This is to help incoming international students to not only have a personal connection with a person who is familiar with the life on campus, but also to provide someone who can help them navigate language and cultural issues that might come up living in a foreign land.

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Korean Language and Tutoring. International students at Handong can take Korean language courses and receive Korean language tutoring provided by Korean students on campus at no charge.

Support Services for International Faculty

Campus Housing and Education. Handong offers free of charge full housing on campus for all international faculty and their accompanying family members. They are only responsible for utilities. To help the faculty members with children, there is also a private school, Handong International School (HIS) located on campus to which faculty members can send their children to at a reduced tuition fee rate. This school is a fully bilingual school

(English and Korean).

Visas and Moving Overseas. Furthermore, the Office of International Affairs (OIA) offers support for incoming foreign faculty with visa, moving costs and overall settling into life in Korea.

Faculty Community Support. One of the challenges found by the international faculty were the cultural barriers between the international faculty and Korean faculty members at HGU.

As a result, one international faculty member, who has been a professor at the university for over eleven years, took the initiative and started a group in 2012, called the ‘International Community for Unity.’ He described that this community group was created in an effort “to try to get more engagement between the international faculty and families and the Korean faculty and families”

(L. S. D.). He goes on to say that in his opinion the group has going on “with some success” in bridging the two communities together.

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Alumni Network

There is a large network of alumni from HGU who work and live around the world.

Handong has what are called ‘Handong Ambassadors.’ They primarily consist of alumni who represent Handong in their home countries and provide practical information about the institution. Any potential student who is interested in applying to the school has the opportunity to contact and speak with an ambassador.

Many alumni not only successfully go on to continue their graduate studies abroad at prestigious universities, they also continue to have ties with Handong by either employing graduates or coming to speak about their business, non-profit organizations, or current vocation in which they have chosen to be of service to others through their work. For example, one alumnus interviewed spoke about establishing a non-profit organization that services low-income high school students and foreign worker students in Korea. This organization offers tutoring and mentoring with the goal of helping the students get into university. He has expanded his network internationally into the United States as well. For him, three key words came to mind as to why he established his organization: love, humility and service. Those key values were taught and ingrained in him when he was a student at HGU. They stayed and were just as important to apply and live out in his current career.

A senior administrator gave other examples of two different alumni applying the values of Christian service for others. The first alumnus used what he learned at Handong to help others in a developing nation. This person went on to study architecture at Harvard University and then started a building company called NIBC, which stands for ‘Not I but Christ’ in Vietnam. Not only did he hire about fifteen Handong alumni who are now working with him, but through his

112 business he is able to give back by using the profits from his business to establish a kindergarten school for children. He is also a financial supporter of Handong.

The second alumnus spoke about an encounter he had on his way to a study abroad opportunity. It was his first time in Seoul (as he was from a small town), and while on the subway he came across a disabled man with no legs who was begging for money. In his conversation with him, he learned about the challenges the man faced in society and this moved the alumnus to pray and promise the man that he would not forget him when he is older and that he would work to build a world where people like him could live well. Many years later, the alumnus started a company called Hand Studio, which is an application development company.

Part of the company’s mission is to find solutions to help the disenfranchised such as orphans, the handicapped, and the elderly. The alumnus also commented that he had found five things while he had been studying at Handong. They are: the meaning or purpose of life; an unchangeable and strong belief; finding a teacher who he can follow for his whole life; finding friends who he can walk with for his whole life; and a song he can always sing with his friends.

This alumnus described the lyrics, which say:

People who follow God’s road get together here. We raise our two hands and praise

God’s guidance in Handong… What is God’s road? The road is narrow and there is no

applause from others, but we are going to walk along the road… This song is the

unofficial anthem of Handong. (N.Z.L.)

Not only is Handong’s alumni network an example of how they are living out the

Christian values of humble service stated in the school’s vision, but it also is a way of continuing the legacy of its vision and purpose. As one staff member commented:

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One positive sign is that the numbers of Handong alumni who studied abroad and came

back to Handong to teach students has been increasing. I believe they can guide students

into the fundamental purpose of the school. (L.T.)

Financial Support and Resources

Handong Global University provides generous academic grants and scholarships for students coming from developing countries of various social-economic backgrounds that may post an obstacle to higher education. For example, the Handong Cornerstone Scholarship is awarded to a highly qualified international student from designated developing countries. It covers tuition and housing fees for eight semesters (four years). Only the first year of entering will be exempt from the GPA (first and second semester for freshmen). Recipients must then maintain a GPA of at least 3.0 in each of the following years to remain eligible for the scholarship. Many generous sponsors have established scholarship funds to assist students in specific demographic or academic categories. International students may also apply for full or partial scholarship grants.

Core Values of Evangelical Christian World Mission and Faith

Within its policies, HGU lists five main core Christian values that are part of the fabric and ethos of the university. The first is Christ-honoring, which includes Godliness and worship.

The second is Character, under which are honesty, integrity, humility and love. Third is

Competence, which is excellence and servant leadership. Fourth is Community—building awareness and Christian communion with one another. And fifth is Change—through restoration, transformation and justice. Many of these values are evident in the types of programs and policies that have been implemented throughout the campus.

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Non-Proctored Examinations

From its beginning, Handong has implemented an unsupervised examination system.

According to the policy, this system aims to train students to be honest with God and themselves.

Education based on the values of honesty and integrity is believed to be essential for those who aspire to become future leaders.

The Handong Honour Code

One way in which Christian values are reflected is in the policy that each freshman student at the beginning of their learning career at Handong is asked to read and pledge to keep the ‘honorary code.’ This Honour Code is the commitment to live a life representative of the people of ‘God’s University.’ It is a culture whereby Handong students and faculty attempt to distinguish themselves from the world and to enhance Christ-like character, which emphasizes honesty, responsibility, respect, sacrifice, and service in each person’s daily lives.

HanST (Handong Spiritual Training)

Each freshman participates in spiritual training (HanST) for five days as part of the orientation week, where there are various lectures and recreation activities introducing the students to the life at Handong. Many of the students spoke about how they benefited from the training and then went back to volunteer.

Chapel and Devotional Services

Every Wednesday, all students at Handong are required to attend and participate in weekly chapel services. There are two Korean chapel services and two that are in English.

Every Tuesday, the faculty takes part in weekly early morning devotion and worship. It was observed that as the service took place in Korean, there were simultaneous English translation earpieces provided for the foreign faculty during the service as well as a bilingual order of

115 service pamphlet and hymnal. At Handong International Law School (HILS), faculty and students also attend a weekly devotional service where each faculty member take turns leading and students participate by leading worship music and praise.

Handong International Church

Handong International Church is a multicultural church that was established on the campus of HGU. This is another space where students and faculty alike can come together to practice and live out their faith. Within the church there are many programs that support the growth of the Christian faith values such as small groups or bible study groups, and the English

Handong Discipleship School (EHDS)—a one-month summer discipleship school that includes intense bible training and ten days of short-term missionary service. There is also the English

Praise Team—where people lead musical worship.

Handong believes in a holistic approach to education. This means that not only is it important to build the academic knowledge of the student but the character of the person as well.

Christian character is built on the faith values found in the bible that have been outlined above.

This ‘whole person’ education is visible through many programs at Handong via the community life.

Team System

Beginning in the freshman year, each student is put into a team of thirty-five to forty students. During the year, each team is under a professor, who provides guidance, mentorship and leadership training. The team meets once a week on Wednesday for chapel, work-duty and for social and recreational events.

Residential College System

In 2011, HGU adopted a Residential College System (RC) but it was not fully applied

116 throughout all the dormitories until 2012. The goals of the system are to allow for students to grow in community and also learn to serve one another through service activities on and off campus. It is a system created to foster an environment that harmonizes learning and life or brings a more holistic sense of life. As one faculty member pointed out, the initiation of the RC system actually brought more strength to the university community as a whole:

So it [the university] has become stronger community. It has become more holistic

because you need to deal with holistic education there [the RC]. Not only faith, in the

narrow sense of the word but now even the academic component as well. (K.N.D.)

The RC consists of 350-500 students, with one headmaster, 10-15 professors, one pastor and two assistants. Approximately 80% of Handong students live in the dormitory. Generally, each

‘Team’ is formed via the RC system.

Understanding of Christian World Mission

After speaking with administrators, faculty and students, the most common definition of how they understood Christian world mission is two-fold. The first being that it is a combination of fulfilling the Great Commission, or in other words, evangelism—sharing the truth of Christ to the world. The second part is the work—or living out of the faith in deed. That means showing love, mercy, justice, and giving a voice to those who do not have one. One professor described mission as being holistic:

World mission I think is holistic in orientation (emphasis added). And as our mission

statement wants us to be, I think it recognizes that you don’t just go and say here’s Jesus.

On the other hand, you don’t just say here’s clean water… those two things are related to

Christians. We ought to be making sure that people understand that. (O. M.)

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There were a few who were much more conservative in their thinking and understood Christian world mission to be only about the evangelism.

Context

Historical/Political Influence

South Korea’s amazing story of rising from the ashes of war and colonization to becoming a nation whose economic and social development was so great in such a short amount of time plays a part in the internationalization, particularly when it comes to teaching and training about entrepreneurship. One faculty member commented about this through his involvement in the business law aspect of entrepreneurship:

Sharing the Korean economic development story and trying to inculcate in people a sense

of their potential through private enterprise… Not just business people, but government

people as well. We tell the business people, you need to get up and get going, and the

government people, you need to have a good, sensible set of rules that will make

everybody better, everybody better off. So that’s a great example, I think, of something

global that we do…That story is a powerful one. (F.Q.)

Socio-Political Climate

The realities of a declining South Korean student population have changed the approach to internationalization. One professor’s discussion of change is in the student recruitment strategy. Because of the declining Korean university student population, the South Korean government has put a cap on how many Korean students Handong and other universities may admit in the freshman year. Handong is moving more towards recruiting a greater number of full-paying international students to cover this gap.

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Geographic/Regional Influence

Academy Industrial Linkages. The city of Pohang is the headquarters of POSCO

(formerly Pohang Iron and Steel Company). POSCO is a multinational steel-making company.

In 2010, it was the world’s largest steel manufacturing company but is now the world’s fourth largest steelmaker. South Korea also boasts many other big industries such as shipbuilding and car manufacturing. Multinational companies such as Hyundai and Samsung are recognizable and respected Korean companies around the world. In an indirect way, these companies do influence to some degree the direction of the kinds of majors and courses students choose to take at Handong because it will lead to a job in those companies. I observed that many pamphlets promoting the kinds of jobs available in those companies were available to students on campus.

Job training seminars also are offered through the Office of Student Services. Furthermore, although not quite as emphasized in the past, the new president is looking into introducing future plans for regional cooperative academic-industry projects that will promote and nurture the talents of students and industries to contribute to Pohang regional development.

Summary

This first case study analysis of Handong Global University opened with an institutional picture of its history and development. This was followed by the investigation of the internationalization policies and strategies which found that there were many more ‘at-home’ program and organizational strategies versus a smaller amount of ‘cross-border’ strategies. The

‘cross-border’ strategies were mainly revealed through the various strong global partnerships with organizations such as the United Nations and the OECD. However, both frameworks for internationalization highlighted the global efforts being done, particularly because HGU had a well-articulated short-, mid- and long-term internationalization policy in place. The core values

119 of evangelical faith, such as honesty and discipleship, echoed on campus with policies like non- proctored exams, weekly chapel services, and the TEAM system. This case study also found that the main understanding of Christian world mission comes from the calling to accomplish the

Great Commission— a commission holistic in nature. Finally, South Korea’s historical, socio- political and regional conditions did play a nuanced role in influencing how HGU managed their internationalization policies and programs. Chapter 6 will continue with the case study exploration of Tyndale’s internationalization strategies.

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Chapter 6: Tyndale University College and Seminary

This chapter examines how Tyndale University College and Seminary implemented internationalization initiatives at its institution. The principal foci of the chapter will be on the motivations, program strategies and organizational strategies that are used at the institution.

First, it will begin with a brief portrait of Tyndale University College and Seminary. Next it will be followed by an analysis of the internationalization programs and strategies and how they are perceived. Thereafter, it will describe the core values of evangelical Christian world mission and faith and reflections on how it relates to the institutional mission. The chapter closes with a consideration of how much the context plays a role in the internationalization strategies. Insights from this chapter are based on thirty semi-structured interviews with senior administrators, faculty members, administrative staff/directors, students and alumni. The study also involved review of informational materials such as promotional brochures, the university website, policy documents, and booklets collected from the institution. Pseudonyms by way of initials were assigned to each participant to protect their confidentiality.

Institutional Portrait

Historical Background

Tyndale University College and Seminary has its roots in training Christian leaders for over 120 years. Founded in 1894 as the Toronto Bible Training School, it was “the third of its kind to be established in North America and the first in Canada” (Tyndale, 2016b, para. 2). The

Toronto Bible Training School was designed to prepare laypersons to serve in the newly developing programs of the YMCA with the numerous Sunday schools in Toronto and outlying areas, in addition to a growing movement in world missions (PEQAB, 2005). Under the leadership of Dr. Elmore Harris, then minister of the historic Walmer Road Baptist Church,

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Toronto Bible College (TBC) was established. First located in Walmer Road Baptist, it moved to 110 College Street on the University of Toronto campus and was eventually established at 16

Spadina Avenue. Led by Dr. J. Wilmot Mahood, the London College of Bible and Missions

(LCBM) began in 1935 as the London Bible Institute in London, Ontario, Canada. It was decided that TBC and LCBM would join together in 1968, and it was renamed Ontario Bible

College (OBC) (Tyndale, 2016b). In 1976, OBC moved the campus to north Toronto on 25

Ballyconnor Court and established a graduate school, Ontario Theological Seminary (OTS).

An Act Respecting Ontario Bible College and Ontario Theological Seminary was passed on December 7, 1982, granting the institutions the right to confer Bachelor of Theology,

Bachelor of Religious Education and Doctor of Divinity degrees (Legislative Assembly of

Ontario, 1982). An amendment (Bill PR18) to this act was passed on June 20th, 1986, to acquire additional degree granting powers for degrees of Bachelor of Religious Education, Bachelor of

Sacred Music, Bachelor of Biblical Studies, Bachelor of Religious Studies, Master of Theology,

Master of Religious Education, Master of Theological Studies, Master of Divinity, Doctor of

Ministry, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Missiology and the honorary degree of Doctor of

Divinity (Legislative Assembly of Ontario, 1986).

Wanting to renew its vision to ‘build a world-class centre of Christian higher education’ the Board of Directors decided to adopt the name Tyndale College and Seminary (Tyndale,

2013b, para.7) in 1998. The reasoning behind this name was linked to the legacy William

Tyndale left as a Christian scholar; his “commitment to making the Scriptures available to all persons led him to undertake the first English translation of the Bible at the cost of his own life”

(Tyndale, 2013b, para. 7). On June 26, 2003, by an Act of the Ontario Legislature, Bill Pr21 -- an Act respecting Tyndale College and Seminary-- the institutions were renamed Tyndale

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University College and Seminary. The newly granted University College was given the approval to offer secular degrees in the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Arts Honours degrees in programs such as Business, English, History, Human Services, Philosophy, Psychology and

Religious Studies (Legislative Assembly of Ontario, 2003b).

In 2007, Tyndale received Ministerial Consent from the Ontario Ministry of Training,

Colleges and Universities and from the Ontario College of Teachers to “offer a 12-month

Bachelor of Education program to prepare teachers for primary, junior, and intermediate grades”,

(Tyndale, 2013b, para.9), and in July 2008, the first cohort of Bachelor of Education students began. Graduates of the program can receive certification to become a teacher in Ontario through the Certificate of Qualification from the Ontario College of Teachers.

Governance Structure

Tyndale’s organizational structure is divided into three main bodies: the Senate, Cabinet and Board of Governors. These three bodies are in charge of making high-level decisions in the primary activities at the university in the areas of academic, administrative and governance. The

Senate is responsible for the development of academic programs, standards, procedures and services. They ensure the cultivation of an academic and intellectual environment according to the standards of higher education in Canadian universities and they advise the Board of

Governors accordingly. The Senate is comprised of “ex-officio” and elected members. They include the President, the Provost (Chair), the Registrar (secretary), Academic Dean of each faculty, Vice President of Student Development, Library Director and equal number of 3 elected faculty members in both the undergraduate faculty programs and seminary (graduate). The

Cabinet oversees coordination of academic functions in relation to administrative, financial and external functions. The Board of Governors (BOG) main duties are fiduciary oversight of all

123 resources in relation to Tyndale’s institutional mission, vision, values and strategic direction and vitality. The Governors are appointed through a process that is initiated by the Board of

Development Committee (BDC). Recommendations are referred to the committee and then they are evaluated based on a broad range of skills required for optimal function for the institution.

The BOG is responsible for the selection, appointment and performance evaluation of the

President. The fulfillment of the mission and vision of Tyndale is a key part of the role by the

President. The Chancellor fulfills a largely ceremonial role and is appointed by the BOG.

He/she also represents and endorses Tyndale’s vision, mission and statement of faith. All three of these governing bodies relate in the following ways:

1. The Senate, through the President, presents its decisions involving academic programs

and curricula for final approval to the Board of Governors

2. The Cabinet, through the President, presents its organizational and operational decisions,

including budget, for final approval to the Board of Governors

3. The Board of Governors approves decisions made by the Senate and Cabinet with the

understanding that these decisions have been developed in adherence with the mandates

and policies and aligns with the strategic direction and mission, vision and values

Tyndale is working towards a more shared governance model. The faculty provide input into all academic decision making through their Faculty Committees, Academic Planning Committee and the Senate. All the Cabinet members, including the Provost, University and Seminary Deans attend the board meetings and are active in discussions. For example, when it came to the mission statement of the university, it was discussed and developed by the University College faculty members and then was finally approved by the BOG.

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Finally, as Tyndale is an evangelical, inter-or trans-denominational higher education institution, it endeavors to include a broad range of Christian denominations on the Board of

Governors and there is no specific church authority involved in the selection of the BOG.

Evangelical Christian Identity

Tyndale University College and Seminary is a trans-denominational, evangelical university college and seminary. Its mission statement reflects its vision to educate future

Christian leaders to be of service to others in whatever career they are called to. The mission statement reflects this identity by saying it is “dedicated to the pursuit of truth, to excellence in teaching, learning and research, for the enriching of mind, heart, and character, to serve the church, and the world, for the glory of God” (Tyndale, 2013c, para.3). Tyndale University

College and Seminary continues to be a diverse institution with over 40 different denominations and 30 different ethnic backgrounds represented within its community (Tyndale, 2013a).

Currently there are over 1,600 students in the college and seminary together and 12,500 alumni (Tyndale, 2013a). The seminary is one of the largest Christian seminaries in Canada and the 12th largest in North America (Tyndale, 2013a; Postsecondary Education Quality

Assessment Board (PEQAB), 2005). Tyndale currently has 12 full-time professors at the college. In the overall college and seminary, there are some 62 professors and more than 80% of those have earned doctoral degrees. These faculty hold earned doctorates from such institutions as York University, University of Toronto, Queen's University and, overseas, Aberdeen

University (Tyndale, 2013a).

At present the undergraduate programs in Math and Biology offer a 2+2 option, where students can study for the first two years at Tyndale and then finish their degree at Nipissing

University and receive a Bachelor of Science. Tyndale also has joint certificate programs with

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Seneca College in Human Services in the Early Childhood Education and Social Services tracks

(Tyndale, 2013d). Since the 1980s, Tyndale students could take advantage of the University of

Waterloo’s offer to grant a transfer of fifty percent of credits towards completion of a Bachelor of Arts degree. Other higher education institutions in Ontario developed relationships in the

1990s with Tyndale, such as York University and the University of Toronto, which currently allow full credit transfer up to two years at York and one year at the University of Toronto

(PEQAB, 2005).

Transition to a New Campus

Tyndale acquired a property from the Sisters of St. Joseph of Toronto in 2007. The new campus, located on Bayview Avenue, south of Steeles Avenue, is a 56-acre property where many programs and departments relocated in 2009, including the Bachelor of Education, Doctor of

Ministry, Spiritual Direction, Admissions, Development and Community Relations. As the facilities were more than 50 years old and built for a different purpose, many renovations needed to be made to adapt them for a modern university. Construction of a new library, student spaces and food services areas were among the repairs and restoration work that was done. The

Bayview campus now provides much more room for future growth with more than 35 classrooms, over 200 dormitory rooms, multiple sports amenities and land. In April of 2015, the final transition from the previous Ballyconnor campus to the new Bayview campus was announced. Full and complete operations on the new campus began on May 1, 2015. The opening celebrations, which included the Official Campus Opening and Ribbon Cutting

Ceremony as well as a Dedication Service, took place on the first weekend of October, 2015.

Many dignitaries and local politicians were welcomed and in attendance. It was considered a great opportunity to introduce the new campus to the wider community in the city.

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Internationalization Motivations and Initiatives

Biblically-Based on The Great Commission and The Second Great Commandment

The main motivation to internationalize is the importance of how the relationship of globalization and Christian education go hand in hand. More specifically, it is used to fulfill the

Great Commission through higher education. One student described it as follows:

“Because of the fact that we are sent on a mission in the Great Commission—Jesus says to spread the Gospel and to all Nations…Christian higher education and globalization is probably an aspect that is very necessary” (W.X.)

Another motivation to internationalize is the Christian recognition of the bible telling us that we must love our neighbour. This is seen as both locally and abroad. As our world becomes a smaller place with globalization and access to technology, this allows someone who is halfway around the world to be considered as our ‘neighbour.’ Loving our neighbor, near or far, is a biblical calling. A professor described it this way:

I think the Great Commandment, the Second Great Commandment that we love our

neighbours as ourselves… [is] the idea that that's really global neighbours. I think that

everyone has to be very aware of that today. That our neighbours don't just mean just

next door where we live but our neighbours mean people from around the world--the

church in Asia, the church in Africa… So I think it's a biblical motivation. (E. I.)

To Reflect The Global Society and Welcome Others

Several faculty members and senior administrators commented on the fact Tyndale understands it is located in a very multicultural country and city, and believes it has a mandate to reflect that diversity of the global society on its campus. As one professor remarked, “I think the motivation is that that’s the reality that we’re living in a global economy. I think Toronto, being

127 such a multicultural place, it makes it almost obvious to us.” (E.I.) Furthermore, as the university reflects the global society, it also becomes a place welcoming to others. This in turn creates a community that is considered warm and inviting and welcoming to international students who are coming from far away. One student described the motivation by saying:

I think it’s to make them feel more at home, more welcome. Because it would be hard

getting used to a new culture. Especially if there was a language barrier, that would be

really difficult. So I think just introducing them to other students who are going through

the same sort of things, and also trying to introduce them to more people generally so that

they feel more at home [is the motivation for internationalization]. (E.Q.)

Experience of Institutional Leadership

Another reason for the motivation to reflect the globalized world is also because of the intentional commitment on the part of the leadership. Since the leadership has had a lot of experience of working and living abroad in a Christian missional context, this influences the approach and vision of why Tyndale chooses to internationalize. As one senior administrator stated:

Our president has a wide background of international travel. He was the executive

secretary for the Canadian Baptist Missions, so he has travelled to 40 or 50 countries. So

he himself is a strong advocate [of internationalization initiatives]. (S.T.)

A staff member also concurred, saying:

I’d say our president …. he comes from a missions background himself. He was the

former president of Canadian Baptist mission. But he’s also, interestingly enough, he

wrote his doctorate on urban missions. So he’s very much that global-local guy. He

cares very much about the local mission and the global mission. I think for him seeing--

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making sure we’re addressing international issues, but not forgetting our local community

and vice versa --is very important to him. (K.C.)

Creating and Equipping Christian Leaders of Service

That same staff member also spoke about part of the motivation of internationalization is from a Christian ministry perspective. That is, Tyndale’s reasoning is to train students who will go out and be inspired by Christ to make an impact on the world with the training that they received as a student:

I think from a ministry perspective: creating students that want to have an impact on the

world. They go out and serve, whether it’s through missions or business that they’re

going into the world equipped with the education they’ve receive here to be able to be

servants of Christ in whatever field they’ve been felt called to-overseas. (K.C.)

Program Strategies

In 2005, as described by the former president at the time, the Board of Governors approved Vision 2020. Vision 2020 spoke to how they envisioned Tyndale University College becoming in this twenty-first century. Central to the vision was a broad-based faculty of arts and science at the University College. In addition, there would be a number of small professional schools such as business, education, nursing and social service (Tyndale Connection, 2006).

Based on interviews and document analyses, there is no evidence Tyndale has a formalized internationalization policy in place. However, many of its programs and curriculum initiatives do reflect an effort to be more international.

Academic Mobility

Student Exchange: Liebenzell Exchange Program. An agreement between Tyndale

University College and the Internationale Hoschshule Liebenzell (IHL) in Germany allows

129 students in BA programs, both from Tyndale and Liebenzell, to study for one semester at the partner institution abroad. The first group of five German exchange students arrived in the fall of 2013. One staff member spoke of how the exchange is mainly one way, due to the fact that the program in Germany is offered in the German language. However, the staff member did speak of one student who was fluent in German and was able to take part in an exchange at IHL.

Study Abroad. There are several options offered for outbound mobility of students at

Tyndale. First is the Oxford Studies Program that is made through an arrangement with Crandall

University. Students are able to spend a semester in England which can go towards academic credit for a Tyndale B.A. Second, the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities

International Studies Program is a program where Tyndale University College students are able to apply and participate in the study abroad programs offered through the CCCU called the Best

Semester program. There are nine different programs offered and they range from American

Studies in Washington D.C., to programs in Uganda, Australia, UK, Latin America and the

Middle East. A staff member mentioned that very few students take the opportunity to study abroad mainly due to financial constraints. Those who have participated have gone mainly through the Oxford Studies Program in England.

Israel Study Tour

As I was on campus, I noticed a poster for a course allowing the opportunity to study abroad in a short-term intensive course in Israel--The Israel Study Tour: Historical Geography of the Bible course. Through this course, students have the opportunity to gain an undergraduate/or graduate (seminary) credit as a part of an elective.

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Business Administration and International Development

Tyndale offers a unique program that integrates business with a focus on international and sustainable development. Students who major in international development are also required to fulfill an internship program abroad in countries such as Malawi, Thailand, and Angola. The internships are in collaboration with faith-based non-governmental agencies like Hope

International and World Vision. Examples of projects that the students work on are in the area of healthcare, orphan and child care, water, sanitation and education/building schools.

Canadian Chinese School of Theology Program

Tyndale University College and Seminary and the Association of Canadian Chinese

Theological Education (ACCTE) have collaborated in a strategic partnership to organize the

Canadian Chinese School of Theology. The program offers several master’s degrees in theological studies and Master of Divinity as well as modular courses at the undergraduate level.

What is unique about this program is all of the courses are being fully offered in Mandarin, meaning that students have the option of completing their degree in a different language.

Importance of Language

One professor spoke about how part of training students to be more globally minded is through learning other languages. More recently a change has been made in which new minors in French as a Second Language as well as American Sign Language (ASL) were added as part of the degree programs.

Intercultural Studies Minor

One student spoke about the option for students who were interested in learning about different cultures, developing skills in cross-cultural communication and also Christian world mission, that they could take classes in Intercultural Studies. This program offers courses such

131 as Global Christianity and Cross-Cultural Studies. Students also are required not only to take a language course but also have an internship component for three months, many of which take place abroad. The student described her friend’s experience and what they did:

I had a friend who was in the program who went over …she did her internship in Zambia.

She worked with educating different classrooms, elementary school classrooms, about

AIDS and that kind of thing. And also on top of that sharing the gospel with them and I

think she, she went to different communities and just helped in different ways that they

needed help. (L.G.)

Extracurricular Activities

International and Intercultural Campus Events

Hunger Banquet. This is a banquet that is held each year to bring awareness of global poverty and how that relates to different countries around the world. The way it works is that each attendee pulls an economic class out of a hat and based on the statistics of the class you pull, you are put in the section of the banquet table that reflects your economic status. For example, if the attendee is at the extremely wealthy table, they will have fine linens and be served plenty of food/drink. But on the other end of the spectrum, those at the table who are of the extreme poverty class, will be served on a paper plate and have a minimum amount of food.

It is considered a very hands-on, real experience for those taking part and demonstrates, to an extent, the realities of the world we live in. To end, there is a guest speaker who comes and talks about global poverty. It is an exercise to have students think about how they can do something and take action in order to help or alleviate a very real-world problem.

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Student Clubs and Associations

‘Third Culture Kid’ Club

The ‘Third Culture Kid’12 (TCK) Club was created out of the need to support those students who are of many cultures and consider themselves to be of ‘third culture’ because they felt almost like they fit neither in one culture or another. These students gathered on a regular basis for fellowship and share their experience.

Social Justice Club

Many of the students interviewed mentioned that either they were involved in or knew of one of the clubs on campus that speaks a lot from an international perspective--the Social Justice

Club. In this club, they focus on a lot of international issues such as human trafficking. This club has a big desire to bring students together to bring awareness and change to the international issues of such as human trafficking in Canada and throughout the globe, or, more recently, the refugee crisis. In the club, they invite special guest speakers who are working in organizations that fight social justice issues around the world, and they discuss these issues from a Christian perspective. Students then consider how they could come up with practical solutions at a grassroots level and bring more awareness to issues of social justice.

International Service Mission

Mission teams are organized through the Office of Student Affairs and the Coordinator of

Global Engagement. Many students volunteer their time during their summer break to go out to serve on various short-term mission trips around the world. Many events take place before they

12 A ‘Third Culture Kid’ is a term referred to children who were raised in a culture outside of their parents’ culture for a significant part of their development years. The “third culture” is an amalgamation of the country from which the parents originated and the culture in which the family resides.

133 leave in preparation for these trips, such as fundraising as well as awareness about the countries where they will be serving.

Worship Team: Tyndale Band and Tyndale Singer

The Tyndale Band and the Tyndale Singers is a new auditioned course for credit and campus ministry group. Those who are selected participate in ministering and serving during the various chapel services on campus and also external events throughout the academic year.

Organizational Strategies

Tyndale is quite conscious of the international community that is reflective of the multicultural city of Toronto. This leads to specific services being offered specifically for international students.

Office of Student Life

Coordinator of Global and Community Engagement. Since 2012, the Office of

Student Life hired a Coordinator of Community and Global Engagement. As the coordinator, he/she is in charge of engaging and involving the student body with local and global aspects of the community on and off campus. This involves extracurricular activities such as local community volunteer outreach, global outreach which are mainly the mission trips, getting students plugged into churches, and working with supporting international students. The coordinator runs an orientation specifically geared to help new international students be a part of the campus community and living in Toronto. Another aspect of the position is also dealing with student insurance (e.g., medical insurance).

International student support worker. Under the Coordinator of Global and

Community engagement is a student leader who is on staff. This person’s goal is to build

134 community within the International students and ‘Third Culture Kids’ as well as the rest of the student body.

Student Housing. With the new campus renovations, Tyndale offers many more spaces for students to live on campus in the dormitories. The Office of Student Affairs also offers a list of ways to find off-campus housing around the city for students who are interested in alternative housing.

Support Services for International Students and Faculty

Registrar’s Office and Business Office

The Registrar’s office has appointed a staff member who specifically caters to the international students on campus. As the registration associate, their job is to help international students with academic and documentation services such as making sure the students are taking the correct classes to meet graduation requirements. Within the business office there are also a couple of appointed staff members who deal with all the financial questions that international students might have when applying and studying at Tyndale (e.g., bursaries, scholarships, and tuition).

Student Orientation

Each incoming international student at Tyndale University receives an International

Student Handbook giving an overall view of the basic needs on how to survive in the city of

Toronto and on Tyndale’s campus. Topics range from Canadian culture, life in the city, transportation, finances, health and employment/immigration information for spouses studying/working in Canada and family staying in Canada, to academic life such as registering for courses. Important/key contact information is provided. There is also now a Tyndale arrival

135 app made just for international students and a webpage on the institutional website devoted to international students.

Faculty Funding

The faculty are given a yearly stipend that they are allowed to use for research or travel expenses when speaking or travelling to conferences--internationally or locally.

Alumni Relations

Tyndale also has a large worldwide network of graduates who work and do ministry across the world. These graduates are not only the ambassadors for the institution but also work for the kingdom of God through their chosen professions.

Information Technology

Online Courses

Tyndale offers the option of several courses that can be taken online every semester. For example, a few years ago, Tyndale introduced an online master’s degree in Theological Studies.

This opened the opportunity to bring students from all over the world to Tyndale virtually and it also gives more flexibility.

Food Facilities

One staff member spoke about how once during the year they coordinated with the food services company to organize themed cultural food lunches for the students to try. This

‘Multicultural Week’ was formed to connect and bring more awareness about the countries where student mission teams have done volunteer ministry:

We did a multicultural week where we worked with the caterer here, Aramark and they

did for each lunch of a week…they did a different kind of themed lunch. So like, we did

it based around different missions teams we’ve had in the past…I think we had an Ireland

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day. So they did like stew and potatoes and then we did a Japan day. So it was sushi. It

was fun. People really liked that one. I’m trying to remember. We did Zambia. It

wasn’t a Zambian dish but it was a traditional African dish that they made. That went

over really well as well. (K.C.)

Library

On the new Bayview campus, a completely new library was built for the students, faculty and staff to enjoy. There is also a separate education library for the students in the Bachelor of

Education program which houses many multicultural resources for the student teachers.

Core Values of Evangelical Christian World Mission and Faith

To begin to understand the theological perspective of what Tyndale believes as core

Christian values as a trans-denominational evangelical institution, Tyndale University College adheres to a statement of faith which is stated on their website. These faith tenants reflect the core Christian values of the institution:

Tyndale University College and Seminary Statement of Faith

1. There is but one true and living God who exists eternally in three persons, the Father,

the Son, and the Holy Spirit. God alone is Creator, Preserver and Governor of all things

visible and invisible, at work in the world to redeem creation.

2. The eternal Son of God, incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, was conceived by the Holy

Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. He declared God’s Kingdom and embodied that reign

in His acts. Having rendered a life of perfect human obedience to the Father, He died on

the cross as a vicarious and victorious atonement for sin. In His atoning death and bodily

resurrection, Christ opened the way of rescue from sin and death, reconciling the world to

God. Exalted as Lord, He continues to intercede on behalf of His people.

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3. The Bible, both Old and New Testaments together, is Holy Scripture. It is the authoritative written Word of God, inspired by the Holy Spirit, inerrant in all that it teaches, the one entirely trustworthy rule for faith and life. The teachings of Holy

Scripture are apprehended through the careful study of the text in all its dimensions, together with prayerful theological reflection, under the guidance of God’s Spirit.

4. Human beings alone, both male and female, are created in the image of God. All people are made to enjoy relationship with God, with one another, and with the good creation of which we are stewards. Humankind’s sinful disobedience has incurred God’s just judgment, bringing sin, guilt, depravity and misery upon all humanity.

5. God in mercy and grace redeems all who repent of their sin and trust Jesus Christ alone for their salvation, justifying them through faith in the Saviour, restoring their relationship with Him, giving them new life by the Holy Spirit, and empowering them for discipleship.

6. The one holy, Catholic and Apostolic church occurs in local communities of believers all over the world. The Church is the Body of Christ, the people of God, and the fellowship of the Spirit, sent into the world to glorify Jesus Christ and to bear witness to

God’s dawning Kingdom in word and deed.

7. On a day that has been appointed, Jesus Christ will appear again as judge to raise the righteous unto eternal blessing and the unrighteous unto eternal separation from God. He will consummate His kingdom of peace, and His redeemed will enjoy everlasting life, reigning with Christ in the new heavens and the new earth. (Tyndale, 2013c, para.3-10)

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Chapel Services

There are three undergraduate chapels every week: Community or ‘Gather’ chapel, ‘God in my everything’ chapel, and Sunday night ‘Encounter and engage’ chapel. Students also have the opportunity to serve on the chapel team such as the Tyndale band or Tyndale Singers as a part of their spiritual development in worshiping and connecting with God. Chapel services are an integrative part of spiritual learning at Tyndale University College. With the exception of the

Bachelor of Education program, all students who are enrolled in at least nine credits per term must accumulate 15 chapel credits per term during their first full year at Tyndale. There are many types of chapel services that bring awareness to the international community and world.

Some chapels during the year are dedicated to missions or take place in various languages spoken by the campus community.

Connecting with Local Churches

Tyndale University College is a multidenominational institution and has many relationships with local churches throughout the city of Toronto. Thus, it encourages students to connect with a local congregation that most fits their worship needs. The Office of Student

Services offers a list of nearby local churches from a variety of denominations and cultures to help those who might need guidance on finding a church to suit their worship needs. One staff member commented that the Tyndale campus itself also hosts a church on campus.

Integration of Faith and Learning

Students at Tyndale are required to complete courses biblical foundations in order to graduate from their program. Furthermore, one senior administrator spoke about how the

University College (UC) is making a conscious effort to put an emphasis on biblical literacy within all of the curriculum and programs. This is because of the belief as stated in the mission

139 that one must not only look at academic values, but the spiritual side of a person as well. One way in which the professors integrate faith and learning in their classroom is through practice.

Many of the students mentioned how, in some of their classes, the professor would open each class with prayer or conduct a small time of devotion by reading a passage from the bible and reflecting on what it means. These are key spiritual practices of the Christian faith.

Community Life and Standards

Each student at Tyndale must sign a Community and Standards statement which articulates the standards for appropriate personal and communal conduct for students at Tyndale.

As Tyndale is a Christian community, the community life standards do adhere to distinctly

Christian values that honour God in each person’s actions, attitudes and beliefs.

Understanding Christian World Mission

Training Locally, Reaching Globally

One professor spoke about mission through a cultural lens. To them, world mission is spreading of the gospel around the world, but within the Chinese Christian cultural context, it begins with the local community. In other words, it starts from the local church. The spreading of the gospel starts first by training mainly the local pastor of the churches. This pastor then should himself be involved in missions through their church by teaching the congregants/members of the church and then sending them out, “Mission start from teaching…

Start from training their members and then eventually sending them out to the world to spread the gospel. That’s the ultimate goal.” (B.D.). Christian world mission is recapitulated by living out how Jesus lived and what Jesus did. The vehicle in which this is fulfilled is through

Christian higher education.

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Faith and Works

The majority of people spoke about how Christian world mission is about integrating both the spreading of the gospel through preaching the good news in fulfillment of the Great

Commission and also doing the work/deeds to help those in need. In other words, as one professor believed, “It is a two-handed approach… this is the faith… and practical help in the name of Christ” (C.G.).

Context

Influence of the Institutional History

Tyndale has had a long history as being an institution that trained and sent out missionaries, thus having a global perspective since its early beginnings. One professor spoke about this, saying:

Tyndale has always had this sort of outward focus. Tyndale has a long history…And it

had sort of a missions focus. So at the Ballyconnor campus there was this Hall of

Missions- and so there’s this outward focus. So you’re here. But you’re not to stay here.

You’ll get training and you’ll go. So that happened long before globalization... I think

Tyndale’s mission has always sort of had that globalized idea. And so we’ve seen as

world developments have come along, kind of meshed with what Tyndale was trying to

do already. (Q.G.)

Theological Influence

Historically, Tyndale has been and continues to be a trans-denominational higher education institution of faith. It is rooted in the tradition of the Protestant Reformation and the evangelical world missionary movement of the 19th century that now still continues to serve the global church. Because of this heritage, it has always had an international mindset in how it

141 understands and serves the cultural diversity of the world. As a professor summarized, “So, we come from many different denominations, so being so multi- and trans-denominational, I think open up a path being global too—and in a geographical sense as well as within a denominational sense” (E.I.).

Geographic Influence

The majority of the interviewees brought up the fact that because Tyndale was located in the city of Toronto, Canada, this played a large role since Toronto is one the world’s most multicultural and diverse cities. It is Toronto’s multiculturalism that provides a driving force.

As one professor expressed:

I think that some of it is the fact that we are located in Toronto. It’s much easier for

Tyndale to have a diverse population than maybe even Redeemer down in Hamilton.

Which is close…So some of this is a reflection of that. We want to be able to make a

connect in a new way to the students that we have. (Q. G.)

Summary

This second case study analysis of Tyndale University College and Seminary began with an institutional sketch of its history and development. This was followed by the investigation of the internationalization policies and strategies, which found that similarly to HGU there were many more ‘at-home’ program and organizational strategies versus a limited amount of ‘cross- border’ strategies. The ‘cross-border’ strategies were mainly revealed through the student service mission endeavors and internships projects abroad. However, both frameworks for internationalization underlined many of the global efforts accomplished on campus. The core values of evangelical faith such as prayer and worship were demonstrated through attendance of chapel services and the practice of the integration faith and learning in the classroom. This case

142 study likewise found that the main understanding of Christian world mission comes from the calling of accomplishing the Great Commission and equally practicing that faith through works of service to those in need. It can also be interpreted through a cultural lens by training locally to send people out globally. Finally, Canada’s context of being a multicultural society, its Judeo-

Christian history as well as Tyndale’s long legacy as one of the oldest private faith-based institutions in Canada, resonated with and played a role in influencing how Tyndale implemented their internationalization program strategies. Chapter 7 now compares the findings of the two case studies and re-explores the main question of “To what extent do an institution’s internationalization policies and programs reflect the core values of the evangelical Christian faith that are stated in the mission and vision statement?” The study concludes with Chapter 8 identifying the implications and contribution of the research, limitations of the study and recommendations for future research.

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Chapter 7: Comparative Case Findings

This chapter presents the key findings of the research based on a pattern analysis of the themes found across the two case studies. Cross-case analysis brings a deeper understanding and illuminates a study’s data and occurrences (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin, 2009). Even though the answers that were considered in the analysis are based on the case study data presented in

Chapters 5-6, some information from Chapter 4 was also taken into consideration. The totality of Chapter 7 summarizes the three research questions (one main and two sub-questions) which are:

Main research question:

To what extent do an institution’s internationalization policies and programs reflect the

core values and mission of the evangelical Christian faith that are stated in the mission

and vision statement of the institution?

Two research sub-questions:

1. In what ways do Christian world mission and the secular notions of

internationalization intersect?

2. How much does the context of each institution resonate with and/or influence

the institution’s internationalization policies and programs?

Through the comparative analysis of the two cases in South Korea and Canada, a new conceptual framework has emerged from the initial conceptual framework introduced in Chapter 3. The new framework arose and was developed as the interviews and narratives of the participants were analyzed and added to the initial conceptual framework (Figure 1) that was based solely on literature review. The interviewees thoughts were then cross-referenced with additional documents collected and the observations that took place on campus. Figure 3

144 below is a summary of this new Conceptual Framework for Internationalization and Christian world mission—what I have proposed as a values-based internationalization.

Figure 3 Conceptual Framework for Values-Based Internationalization

Holistic /Integral CHEI Mission/Vision Mission

Statement (Lausanne Covenant)

Context

Internationalization

Note: This figure demonstrates a values-based conceptual framework for internationalization created by the author of this dissertation.

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Overall, this new conceptual framework developed indicates that the larger core values of the evangelical Christian faith at each of the evangelical Christian universities studied are the drivers of the internationalization policies and programs. In other words, the values of

Holistic/Integral mission under the Lausanne Covenant are embedded into the values stated in the mission and vision statement of each evangelical Christian institution and are, therefore, equal and the same. The reason why Holistic Christian mission under the Lausanne Covenant and the mission statements are the same is because many of the values of holistic Christian mission under the Lausanne Covenant are embedded and overlap in the mission of the universities. For example key words and beliefs such as love, service to the community and world through restoration and justice. Christian character values such as honesty, integrity and faithfulness also reoccur in both. Internationalization is the mechanism by which the doctrines of Christian world mission take shape within the value frame expressed through the Lausanne

Covenant tenets. In addition, although context is not the main motivator for the internationalization strategies, it does play a role and affects, to a degree, how the programs and strategies are designed and implemented.

The following aspects of internationalization programs and organizational strategies highlight and tell the story of a Christian values-based framework at both at Handong and

Tyndale and the main themes of intersection of the secular notions of internationalization and

Christian world mission.

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‘Cross-Border’ Internationalization Strategies

Partnerships

A notable difference between HGU and Tyndale is in the diversity of the global organizations with which it has partnerships. Handong has a much wider engagement in global issues mainly due to different types of agencies such as Christian missionary organizations, non- government organizations, multinational corporations/businesses, domestic and foreign governmental agencies, and foreign higher education institutions. HGU’s reputation draws respect, not only in South Korea, but internationally, particularly for the international/global work Handong pursues through the international and global partnerships with major inter- governmental agencies such as UNESCO and the OECD. Related to this is the commitment of

HGU’s senior leadership, especially by both the founding and current presidents, to take on the global challenges, (i.e., fulfilling the UN Sustainable Development Goals as the first UNAI hub institution in Asia). From the beginning, it was a priority set by the founding president and senior leadership to forge relationships with not only Christian organizations but secular ones as well. It was actually because of the collaboration with Korean mission agencies and the missionary activities that Handong was already engaged from the beginning in capacity building that drew the attention and attracted the United Nations to have HGU be a part of their network.

It also follows closely with its 2020 internationalization policy goals to continue growing global partnerships, particularly with the United Nations-UNAI programming:

Both the United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI) and the UNESCO UNITWIN hosted

at Handong is a key axis of development of university education globalization and

internationalization. (Handong Global University Internationalization Policy, n.d.)

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Furthermore, several of the professors spoke about how the UN recognized the excellent work that was being accomplished and saw that as a great opportunity to partner with Handong as it seemed like a natural fit. This is an example of how much the internationalization programs and collaborations are at its core very much stirred by the global Christian mission movement to answer to the call of Christ to serve the needs of others around the world. Stott (1996) speaks of how “social activity not only follows evangelism as a consequence and aim, [it] precedes it as its bridge, but also accompanies it as its partner” (p. 182). HGU’s founding president Kim (2006b) speaks of the importance of partnerships as a key approach in Handong’s vision of changing the world, believing that

forming partnerships will create even stronger networks to provide assistance to countries

in need…and more importantly bring about global prosperity and peace which will make

this world a better place to live for all of us and for our children and many generations to

come. (p. 104)

The context of Korean missionary endeavors leaning more towards ‘Holistic Mission’ approaches in the Korean context of Handong Global University is most likely because it is following the trends of the Korean missionary movement. According to Moon (2013), missionaries pursuing holistic ministries increased from 9.3 percent to 18.7 percent, reflecting a missiological emphasis on the need for holistic approaches such as community development and business as missions deriving from a four-year span between 2008 and 2012. Consequently, the types of internationalization programs created by HGU mirrors the same type of ‘Holistic

Mission’ notions such as the Global Engagement Mobilization (GEM) program and Global

Entrepreneurship Training (GET) projects. Each of these programs encourages students to follow their spiritual calling and apply the academic knowledge of what they learned in their

148 classes by serving others who are in need. By doing this they are not only assisting in finding practical solutions to real-life issues that improve the living conditions in the localities where they are serving (the main focus being on developing nations in Asia and Africa), but also serving as catalysts of the Great Commission and Great Commandment found within what is

Christian world mission as they are sent out into the world.

Likewise, the students are being trained to respect the host culture. This brings out lessons in intercultural learning by being sensitive to and not coming into projects thinking that they have all the answers. Instead, they are there to work alongside local citizens and let them take the lead in projects. Also, this is very much along the philosophy of intercultural mission training (Terry & Payne, 2013). The secular rationales of both technical assistance and global citizenship development intertwine well with the motivations and strategies of Christian mission—particularly social responsibility and intercultural learning. At Tyndale, similar ideas are applied when students are preparing for the overseas mission trips. Even months before departure, there is much training going into learning more about the culture and needs of the country in which they will be serving. As one student expressed:

There’s the application process and that involved completing forms and doing a one on

one interview…and once teams are selected the teams actually have a weekly meeting

starting in January to grow together and plan the trip and what we will be doing (in the

summer). Either preparing lessons or learning about the culture we’re going to better

serve. (B.M.)

Likewise, Tyndale’s International Development degree requires students to fulfill an

Internship with an international development agency to graduate from the program. The internship is purposeful because it provides another opportunity for students to serve in a

149 developing nation as well as apply what they learn in the classroom in the ‘real world’ with hands on training in the field. As one professor said, these internships build many skills and cross-cultural learning for the students:

Depending on the organization, they [students] will work on projects because our interest

is to ensure that they have certain skills like project management, or how to evaluate

projects, knowing how to work as a team and how you value cultural diversities; because

they will be coming from Canada and going to a different country with different people,

different culture. It becomes very important to them to know how to work in a

multicultural environment… knowing how to understand the culture of another person

and know that I shouldn’t impose mine, but I should try to work harmoniously. (O.P.)

Economic/Business

A number of elements play a role in differentiating the global dimension of the programs at Handong. As mentioned above, Handong’s reputation in development work and entrepreneurship has drawn attention from international organizations. Due to South Korea’s many large multinational electronic, information technology, motor and iron/steel corporations such as Samsung, LG, Hyundai, Kia and POSCO to name a few, HGU has been able to forge partnerships with many of these companies. The senior administration has made great efforts to continue fostering these relationships to have greater academic-industry cooperation. In turn, not only do the faculty have the opportunity to conduct academic research, the students can also have more ‘real-world’ experience to find solutions that will in turn serve the global community, and are encouraged to do so through what is called “caption courses”. In turn, students are able to obtain internships at these companies which also opens the door for them to be employed full

150 time once they have graduated. For example, POSCO sponsored start-up companies and research.

Canada is also home to many multinational, global industries, and international and university-industry partnerships are being championed to create more opportunities for students to be part of Canada’s training, innovation and research. However, these industry collaborations with higher education institutions are mainly with the large, research-based universities. As a small, private faith-based university, Tyndale is in the minority. However, Tyndale’s global outreach and partnerships are more strategic in that they choose to partner and built relationships with mostly faith-based global organizations such as World Vision or Partners International. At the same time, students have the opportunity to still tackle relevant real-world issues through internships abroad and also on a local level.

Internationalization ‘At-Home’ Strategies

Building of Community

Both Handong and Tyndale emphasize the importance of building a community on campus where each student is nurtured holistically. It is important for the student to excel academically, but it is equally significant that the physical and spiritual wellbeing is cultivated.

These Christian spiritual values are built by each incoming student taking required courses in

Christianity, Culture, and Worldview in higher education, and basic introduction to Christian theology where they learn about the Old and New Testament scriptures. These holistic values are further underscored through weekly spiritual worship by attendance of chapel services on campus. Moreover, the chapel services play another essential role in permeating the international/global perspectives at these institutions and is a unique internationalization ‘at- home’ strategy found within Handong and Tyndale. For example, at Tyndale, there are specific

151 chapel services focused on the heart of Christian world mission. The students are introduced to the concept of Christian world mission though guest speakers who are serving or have served in the mission field.

Other invited special guests that were mentioned by students and staff at Tyndale are an

African children’s choir or a Thai dance troupe. These international guests come and share their faith and culture during these mission-focused chapel services. There are also worship services honouring the different cultures represented within the campus community, an honour shared though music and prayers. The community sing hymns and prayers are spoken by faculty and students in the many indigenous languages. Other infusions of understanding global issues through a Christian perspective are established when short-term mission teams come back from their service trips abroad and share their experience and work accomplished. In addition to the chapel services students and faculty are encouraged to sign up to be a part of an organized 24 hour day of prayer or weeks set aside to focus on praying for different countries around the world. It is quite evident that the international/global activity is focused through the lens of

Christian faith.

International Student and Faculty Community

In the last decade, one of South Korea’s prevailing social demographic trends is around its population. More specifically, the population of university-aged students in the country is declining due to the overall declining national birth rate and the ageing of its populace. Where in the past, the demand for spots in the domestic pool higher education institutions within the country was quite competitive and limited, this began to change in more recent years. To fill the excess seats in the nation’s universities, Korea’s Ministry of Education set out a new national strategy with a target of tripling the foreign student enrolment, growing the number to 200,000

152 by 2023. South Korea’s government likewise increased spending from 620 million dollars to 1.2 billion dollars to support the above-mentioned strategy (Custer, 2015). Other initiatives included new regulations to permit universities to open departments and programs exclusively for foreign students, an expansion of English taught programs, particularly in STEM subjects, increasing the employment support for international students who wish to stay in Korea after graduation, and increasing the funding for the marketing and recruitment of foreign students for Korean universities (ICEF Monitor, 2015).

Within the Canadian context, Canada has only recently come out with a comprehensive internationalization policy which emphasizes quite heavily the recruitment of international students to its higher education institutions among other strategies. However, because the majority of Canada’s HEIs are public, the government’s priority and funding lie mainly with the larger public universities who mainly use international student recruitment to enhance the income of the institution. This then perhaps limits private universities such as Tyndale in their ability to fully expand their global reach in a more comprehensive way. Nevertheless, international student recruitment as an income generator is not of high importance for Tyndale.

The wider trend in secular internationalization rationales when it comes to the recruitment of international students has tended to move towards a for-profit rationale where students are recruited for the sole purpose of gaining revenue (Knight, 2012, de Wit 2002,

Hudzik, 2011). The institutional internationalization policies and strategies to recruit international students and support them at HGU is much clearer and more extensive when compared to Tyndale. Although the above mentioned larger national context plays a factor in

HGU’s recruitment strategy, what mainly differentiates it is in the motivation and approach they take to recruit and care for their international students. As one Tyndale student explained, the

153 motivations behind the recruitment of international students from different parts of the world fulfills and is a representation of the gospel. This is another example that much of their motivation is rooted in the Christian missional values of reaching out and serving others from all nations around the world spoken about in the bible.13

Bursaries and Financial Support

As the world mission values of reaching those from all nations are at the root of foreign student recruitment, both Handong and Tyndale support these types of students by offering various funding through scholarships and bursaries. However, one of the main differences between HGU and Tyndale is the extent in which monetary support is offered to students who come to their campuses. Handong is quite deliberate in offering scholarships for students who come from developing nations (Handong Cornerstone Scholarship) and those who come from families who are in Christian ministry such as missionary and pastor kids (The Joshua

Scholarship). In the national context of South Korea, international students who are studying in

Korea can also take advantage of a scholarship called the Global Korea Scholarship. Handong supplements the recipients of this scholarship by giving them additional funding for things such as food and school materials (e.g., textbooks). Tyndale provides students a number of scholarships based on merit and financial need, but these are not necessarily geared exclusively for foreign students from developing nations, the standard maintained at HGU. As the founding

President Kim (2006b) stated:

The primary reason why we invite and provided international students with scholarships

and take the time to educate them is to help bring up the living standards of the whole

13 He [Jesus Christ] said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation” (Mark 16:15).

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world. It is time to stop focusing on the development and wealth only of individual

countries, but to promote the cause for all countries to prosper together, that is to prosper

globally. (p. 103)

Societal and Geographical Differences

South Korea’s societal context is very much a homogeneous nation in ethnicity, language, and culture. This social phenomenon can pose a challenge for international students to integrate and find their place within the South Korean context. Handong also has an additional hurdle because it is located in the smaller port city of Pohang, limiting access to a wider group of global peoples compared to the more metropolitan capital of Seoul. However, as a result,

Handong has made a consorted effort in their internationalization policy to provide a place that accommodates and nurtures the international community on campus. According to HGU’s internationalization policy:

Student Dormitory Management Team: 100% dormitory is guaranteed to foreign students

upon request of the Office of International Affairs. Dormitories where foreign students

mainly reside are interviewed, guided and safely managed by assigned dedicated staff.

These staff share relevant information such as targeted programs and cooperate for

effective support and management of international students. (Handong Global University

Internationalization Policy Document, n.d., section 5)

One way this is displayed is through the Residential College (RC) system, and more specifically a dormitory that is geared specifically for international students:

In particular, by constructing and operating Carmichael College as a residential college

for foreign students, it fosters global citizens through the community life of foreign

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professors, foreign students, and Korean students. (Handong Global University

Internationalization Policy Document, n.d., section 5)

As mentioned above, the Carmichael College residence is overseen by a dedicated foreign faculty member who acts as an advisor for the students. Organizationally speaking, a common internationalization strategy does include services for international students such as housing with rationales such as socio cultural and citizenship development. As the international student community has continued to grow over the years, the internationalization recruitment policy has recently shown a new development. This shift is mainly because HGU considers that fostering a sense of community for international students and sincerely understanding their struggles are important. Consequently, they have begun the process of being even more targeted in the number of students that are recruited from specific, mainly developing nations. This means, in the future there will be a larger number of students who come from the same background/nation which will help cultivate a deeper sense of belonging and fellowship.

According to one professor:

At the residential college, we’re working at trying to build an international community…

and we’re trying to restructure…so that everybody is feeling less at the margins of

everything and isolated… One of the things we’re looking to do is bring in large

communities from 7 countries to start stage one. And then we’ll broaden that out, and add

another 7 next year. So our first year we’re looking at 7 basic countries that we want to

get large communities. No less than 5-10 students from each of them. That’s what our goal

would be. So every year we’re getting 5-10 students from each one of those countries. Then

we’ll have a few years down the road, each one of those communities will have 40 or more

students. That’s what we want to have. A permanent presence of 30-40 students from all

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of those countries. I’d welcome more, but I mean that would be that’s the goal. Then you

have freshmen coming in and feeling comfortable and confident, then they can better

engage the international community (O.M.)

In addition to this, to advance and strengthen the international community spiritually HGU has the Handong International Congregation––a multi-ethnic church on HGU’s campus. The worship services are in English and consist mainly of HGU students, faculty and their families along with some local residents of Pohang, English teachers and American military.

Tyndale’s geographic and social context allows for a more organic aspect in building the international student community in that it has the advantage of being located in an extremely culturally diverse city where an additional ‘home’ community for the students is more accessible to them outside of the university campus though places such as the large ethnic-based immigrant churches. This being said, Tyndale’s campus does provide dormitory housing for students on campus and support for those who want to live off of campus as well.

Curricula and Programs

Both universities have created programs and specific curricula that infused international global and cultural dimensions into their existing courses. If we compare the two institutions, it is clear the main foci on being global are in areas of entrepreneurship business and International

Development. For example, HGU has a Global Entrepreneurship and Information

Communication Technology undergraduate program that brings the idea of ICT with business, particularly to support systems in places needing technological advances. The graduate program in Global Development and Entrepreneurship emphasis is on leadership training when serving in developing nations. HGU International Law School program was the first in Asia. Much of the course work in the program emphasizes social justice issues in law around the world and

157 international development. Tyndale has a Business degree in International Development which prepares students who are interested in service overseas for governments and NGOs. They also have multicultural training in their Counselling program, and the History department recently changed its history course into Global history to make it less from a Western perspective.

Tyndale also offers a minor in intercultural studies. According to many faculty, both

HGU and Tyndale use similar or the same textbooks and research as some secular university programs. Even some of the values behind having an internationalized curriculum might be similar. For example, the promotion of Intercultural Understanding, Citizenship Development,

Social and Community Development, Peace and Mutual Understanding, and Extension of

Academic Horizon are secular rationales for internationalization that may be valued by non- secular (Christian) universities as well.

HGU and Tyndale, however, have an added spiritual dimension. HGU is very explicit in its mission statement about training global leaders who can then change the world based on the

Christian faith, hence a global perspective in their courses is valued. Tyndale’s mission statement outlines its mission of pursuing the truth and serving the world for the glory of God, which may be some of their core motivations to have global curricula. They require the students to develop the spiritual inner self and what they believe in their faith as a requirement in order for them to reach out globally. These motivations do change some of the ways these internationalized curricula are delivered. Some professors stated they want the students to understand others through the biblical perspective, adding an aspect to these studies where students may discuss how God sees the world through an international lens. Tyndale describes this as an intersection of faith and learning which includes more biblical literacy even when applied to an international context. Handong also similarly believes this as its mission statement calls for ‘whole person

158 education based on the Christian faith.’ The professors are asking the students to not only understand the content of the curricula intellectually, but they are also teaching them to apply the head knowledge to the spiritual arena. They are two separate areas. Yet, from the perspective of each Christian university, this is where the intersection takes place. This spiritual understanding is key to how the international is brought out. It is very much connected to the outreach to others

(the Great Commission and Great Commandment).

The outcomes of the internationalization programs diverge slightly as well in the end.

While some students have secular reasons for attending these programs, such as working for a multi-national company after graduation, the majority of the students that were interviewed mentioned feeling called to go into roles serving the world, whether directly in ministry as missionaries, or to work for international NGOs:

No matter what field I wanted to go, there’s always this part of me that wants to serve

other people through my job or career later. So I’m thinking of doing something that I

can serve also, for other people cause that’s what Handong taught me. (K.V.)

I see a lot of students who have their own [Christian] life values and thinkings and how

they liked to make their life. And I hear a lot of students that once they graduate, they

would like to help other people. For instance being a missionary in a foreign country- like

South East Asia, that is not a job that you can earn a lot of money in it, but it is clear

distinction between friends in this school and in my friends in Seoul …because they

really know what they want to be and how to contribute to the world. (T.M.)

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These statements are a demonstration of how much the values identified in the mission statement of both universities, particularly the value of service to change the world based on Christian faith, are being realized.

Extracurricular

Handong and Tyndale both offer student clubs and association, international and intercultural campus events that promote internationalization ‘at home’ on campus. For example, Tyndale’s Social Justice Club mainly focuses on global issues such as human trafficking and the refugee crisis. Within Jane Knight’s internationalization framework, the rationale of social community and citizenship development within a campus intersects well with the Great Commandment and Christian and Social responsibility. Another extracurricular activity playing a large part in campus life at both Tyndale and Handong is the overseas service mission trips. The main rationale of these clubs and events on campus is to encourage intercultural understanding along with Social and Community Development. The majority of the clubs and events come out of a need unique to the context of being a Christian university. For example, there are several students in each of the university’s student bodies who have lived in many countries because they are from Christian missionary families. These students have distinctive cultural and social background experiences. Thus, at Tyndale the ‘Third Culture’ Kids

Club arose from the need to gather like-minded students who consider themselves to be of a

‘third culture’, sharing with each other how they lived out the global Christian mission as children of missionaries —the good and the challenges.

The ‘Hunger Banquet’ at Tyndale is an example of how the issues of world poverty and food scarcity on a practical level bring light to the underlying biblical principle of service to others who are in need not only in North America but around the world. Furthermore, each

160 institution consistently programs bi-yearly mission trips. Faculty and students who were interviewed and participated in the overseas service mission trips repeatedly emphasized their motivations for participating in the projects as being a calling to serve the Lord. They did not receive any compensation for their participation. In fact, each person was responsible to fundraise. Even though the secular rationale of Social and Community Development intersected well with the Christian values of Christian Social Responsibility, whether it was through

Christian evangelism or working on supporting the local community in capacity building, they voluntarily took time out their own schedules because they believed it was following biblical principles and the mission of the church.

The Pursuit of Language

Both Tyndale and Handong utilize language to drive the ‘at-home’ internationalization strategies but in different ways due their contexts. A global trend in higher education internationalization is the growing role of English in university teaching and research in non-

English speaking countries (Byun & Kim, 2011). One of the national internationalization strategies in higher education utilized by the South Korean government to meet the demands of globalization is the offering of courses in English via examples of internationalization policies that were discussed in Chapter 4. According to de Wit (2015b), in Asia, South Korea leads other countries in developing English taught courses. Since part of Handong’s Christian vision/values and institutional internationalization policy from its inception was to reach missionary children and students from outside nations, it was one of the first Korean universities to offer entire programs of study in English when very few Korean universities were doing so. Realizing that in order to help international students navigate the Korean institutional system such as learning specifics about programs offered and choosing courses, HGU created an English version on their

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Korean website. Although this might seem like a trivial thing now, at that time it was an intentional and major decision made by the administration. Moreover, this highlights HGU’s dedication to internationalize the campus through its programming. HGU presently offers 40% of their classes in English, with five different degree programs that can be completed only in

English and outside of “international studies” where, traditionally, most English programs are offered at Korean universities. Therefore, within the Korean higher education context, the

English language has a key role in widening the international reputation of the institution more widely, and to an extent, strengthening the quality of the institution.

Tyndale, on the other hand, uses the local context of Toronto on a practical level to internationalize one of its programs. Toronto is home to a large Chinese immigrant group population. The Chinese Christians within this group have planted a sizable Chinese church community within the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). For many of the new immigrant Chinese

Christians in Toronto, English is not their first language but some are eager to be more formally theologically trained. This then brought the opportunity for Tyndale to create a strategic partnership with the Association of Canadian Theological Education to organize the Canadian

Chinese School of Theology (CCST) in Toronto. This partnership allowed for the Chinese community in the GTA and beyond to pursue a Bachelor of Religious Studies (BRE), a master’s degree in Theological Studies (MTS), a Master of Divinity (MDiv) or a Graduate Diploma in

Christian Studies (DipCS) all offered fully in their home language of Chinese

(Mandarin/Cantonese). Moreover, reference materials are offered in both Chinese and English so that students have access to, and can become well-versed in both languages. Likewise, with both Handong and Tyndale, the realities of globalization and financial pressures as relatively

162 small, private higher education institutions also drives them to offer these programs through the language strategy as it is another way of gaining some revenue.

Organizational Strategies

Open Access Courseware and Technology

Another main difference in how Handong has made efforts to expand their globalization is through technology. More specifically HGU has dedicated an online presence by harnessing and making courseware open to the public in order to increase the quality of educational materials for everyone. As South Korea’s UNESCO-UNITWIN host, Handong began an initiative called the UNESCO-UNITWIN OpenCourseWare (OCW)/ Open Educational

Resources (OER) or UUOOI Initiative. This initiative brings courseware of lectures by scholars from around the world open to the public. Even more specifically, it provides a platform for instructors to upload their materials, training on teaching with digital media and intellectual property, and provide grants to the instructors who participate. It is sponsored through the

Korean Ministry of Education and the Korean National Commission for UNESCO via

UNESCO-UNITWIN. Since South Korea’s government financially backs such a large initiative, along with HGU’s strong ties with other higher education institutions through the UNESCO-

UNITWIN program, this strongly supports Handong’s ability to build their technological network compared to Tyndale. It is worth noting much of their global partnerships with the universities within the UNESCO-UNITWIN network are in developing countries. Currently the

OCW/OER worldwide initiative mainly cooperates with universities in Romania, Turkey,

Kenya, Rwanda, East Timor and Mongolia. This also aligns well with not only Handong’s mission and vision to help support developing nations, but also in the underlying value of World

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Mission to reach the ‘unreached’ through Christian and Social responsibility through capacity building in those nations.

Tyndale has made efforts to globalize through technology, but it is smaller in scale.

Tyndale has gradually offered more online courses in both the University College

(undergraduate) programs and at the Seminary. In the last few years, Tyndale has offered a

Master of Theological Studies (MTS) degree that can be completed fully online. Since the university has moved to its new campus, it has invested in the informational technology infrastructure with programs like Adobe Connect to support the ongoing online programs. As one administrative staff commented:

Because of our online courses we offer, we have students from all different areas in the

world joining us. In the past, it was not an option. We have students, for example, in

Hong Kong, Korea, the United States, Germany, China and international students who

are [located] in other provinces within Canada… technology provided us a lot of

opportunity to reach out to other places and other people. (C.I.)

The online courses has invited more global diversity and interaction. It is also another opportunity in equipping God’s people, especially for those who are in the missionary fields and are not able to be on campus. This then reinforces the notion of Christian discipleship.

Governance

Handong makes their internationalization strategies explicit, whereas Tyndale does not; however, the commitment to internationalization throughout its governance levels is clear for both universities. One difference is the administrative structure and the support system for the implementation of internationalization. Handong’s internationalization policies are centralized and actualized within the Office of Academic Affairs, although the majority of the programs and

164 provision systems are realized through the Office of International Affairs (OIA). For example, it is the latter department that deals mainly with the recruitment and retention of international students as well as foreign faculty in helping them with financial aid to housing and extracurricular programming. More than anything, the Office of International Affairs is responsible for making the transition and life of any international persons on campus smooth and hospitable. The OIA is one of the key places for building of the community on campus due to the Korean context previously discussed above.

Tyndale, as discussed previously, does not have a formal internationalization policy in place. However, the two main departments dealing with international programs and services on campus for the University College are the Office of the Registrar and the Office of Student Life.

There is a dedicated staff member in the Registrar’s office who deals with registration and visa aspects for international students. The campus life and community are facilitated through an international student coordinator who works via the Office of Student Life. It is a much smaller scale compared to HGU, mainly due to the fact there is a much smaller international student population at Tyndale.

Grassroots Internationalization and Faculty

Jane Knight (2004) identified the ‘commitment of senior leaders’ and the ‘involvement of faculty and staff’ as a key governance strategy for internationalization. At these two Christian universities, the leaders as well as the faculty share Christian values naturally leading them to commit and be actively involved in internationalization programs. The administration and the faculty buy into the mission of the university to be global because of their shared Christian values such as fulfilling the Great Commission of making disciples of all nations (global view), and service to those in need. In many secular universities, the internationalization policies are

165 top-down pushed by rationales such as knowledge production and international branding and profile (Knight, 2004). However, at these Christian universities, it is both top-down and bottom- up. Even before a formal internationalization strategy was in place at Handong, many of these internationalization programs already existed as a result of staff initiatives and student involvement. At both Handong and Tyndale, many professors are global in their teaching because their scholarship comes from a Christian worldview, and therefore they infuse the curricula with the intercultural and global. There are also some who are actively engaging in international partnerships and research initiatives. It is that obedience to a calling from the holy scriptures that makes them dedicated to the mission of the university and to the wider motivation of Christian world mission. That added element of dedication, crossing faith with learning, enhances the international programs and curricula at both institutions. Ott et al. (2010) describes the motivation of world mission as undeniably ‘divine guidance, calling, and gifting’ with ‘love and compassion’ at the heart of it. A good example of this calling is community built through mentoring and service to the students at HGU:

Handong ceaselessly forms a consensus that Handong is a Christian university and its

goal is to foster a person with a good character, intelligence and Christian spirituality

through Christian education. I think this is the reason that Handong has been able to

preserve its Christian identity. Professors at Handong teach and conduct research like

professors in other universities and they also play a role in consulting to develop

students’ good character and carrying out religious education… At Handong, professors

are the main agents of education for character development, intelligence and Christian

spirituality. Handong Professors recognize their roles as both teachers and supporters.

They usually don’t have classes on Wednesday. Sometimes they have morning classes if

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necessary, but usually they don’t. However, on Wednesday, their schedules start from

8.30 am and team gathering is 2.30 pm. They participate in chapel. Their schedules

finish in the evening. They are very busy all day long. I think professors’ participation is

very important to preserve the identity of Handong. (Q.D.R.)

Summary

Chapter 7 consists of the comparative case findings of the two individual case studies in

Chapter 4 and 5. From these two case studies, it is clear the evangelical core values of the

Christian faith stated in the mission and vision statements at each of the Christian higher education institution are strongly reflected in internationalization policies and programs. In fact, those Christian values are the driving force behind what those institutions do in terms of internationalization on campus and abroad. This is due to the fact that the underlying reason of what motivates the approaches and strategies of internationalization is the scriptural calling of

Holistic Christian world mission.

The two case studies revealed there are several intersections between the secular notions of internationalization and the values of Christian world mission via the precepts of the Lausanne

Covenant. The socio-cultural rationales of Social and Community Development fuse closely with the motivations of Christian Social Responsibility which are tied to values of compassion, justice, reconciliation, and mercy. Knight’s (2004) rationale of global citizenship development also intersects with the Great Commission calling of reaching out to all nations, and the Great

Commandment of love and service for others and building of community through Christian discipleship and mentoring. The secular political rationale of technical assistance along peace and mutual understanding has common values with Christian and Social Responsibility as well as Churches in Evangelistic Partnership and Cooperation in Evangelism. The most common

167 internationalization strategies used at both Christian HEIs are types of support services provided for international students and faculty. An emphasis on global entrepreneurship and international development through overseas mission trips and course majors offered are present as strengths due to the underlying values held by the administration, faculty and students. Table 7 describes a summary of the intersections discussed.

Socio-political contexts played a larger role in affecting Handong’s internationalization policies and program, mainly due to its monocultural society and the South Korean government’s efforts to overcome the challenges of a decreasing population. Both HGU and Tyndale’s religious history of Christian world mission also resonated and influenced the international dimensions on campus with the geographical location of Toronto playing a more dominant role in Tyndale’s internationalization efforts.

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Table 7 Intersection of Internationalization Rationales and Christian World Mission Values

Internationalization Christian World Mission Common Rationales (Secular) Values and Approaches/Strategies Motivation (Lausanne Covenant) Socio-Cultural Great Commission Services for international Global citizenship -reaching out to all nations students/faculty Development -international housing/visa Discipleship -community Extracurricular building/mentorship -friendship and language exchange programs, cultural Great Commandment events -love and service for your neighbour Programs/courses infused with global and intercultural dimensions

Socio-Cultural Christian Social Global Entrepreneurship Social and Community Responsibility Program Development -compassion, justice, reconciliation, mercy Entrepreneurship and Leadership Training Political Churches in Evangelistic Technical Assistance Partnership Overseas Missions Peace and Mutual -partnership with parachurch Trips/Service Learning Understanding agencies/NGOs International Development Cooperation in Evangelism Program -sharing regional and -overseas internships with functional planning for partnering NGO/agencies common good/furthering of the gospel

Great Commission -reaching out to all nations

Note: This table demonstrates the intersection of internationalization rationales and Christian mission values created by the author of this dissertation. Data in column 1 is adapted from Knight (2004) and data in column 2 is adapted from Stott (1996).

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Chapter 8: Conclusions

This final chapter begins with a brief summary of the study and its findings. It then focuses on the implications, contribution and limitations of the study, and follows with recommendations for future research. The research was conducted using a comparative case study that included two cases, one university located in South Korea and one in Canada. The purpose of the study was to explore comparatively the internationalization policies and programs of evangelically based Christian higher education institutions in order to understand how the current theories of Christian world mission and the secular ideas of internationalization come together to influence the institutional mission. The history and context of each institution was explored and taken into consideration in order also to see how much it resonates with or influences the internationalization strategies. Overall, these two questions allowed for a discovery of how far the internationalization programs reflected the core values of the evangelical Christian faith that are stated in the mission and vision statement of each university.

Summary of Findings

Through the comparative research of the two case studies, it was discovered that the values of Holistic Christian world mission found in the Lausanne Covenant are a part of the underlying values of the evangelical faith stated in the mission and vision of each of the faith- based universities, making them alike and almost inseparable. Moreover, those core values determine and influence the internationalization policies and programs at each institution.

The first sub question—in what ways do Christian world mission and the secular notions of internationalization intersect?—led to the identification of some key commonalities between the two theories. It became evident the socio-cultural rationale and rationales of community development and global citizenship development had clear parallels with the motivations in the

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Lausanne Covenant’s commitment to Christian Social Responsibility. In particular, a common strategy that allowed them to intersect was seen in the ‘at-home’ internationalization services on campus which nurtured friendship, language exchanges and cultural events. Projects of global entrepreneurship and leadership training, as well as international development, were also common strategies employed, and they worked well with both secular community development and service activities of evangelistic churches in partnership. The ‘cross-border’ strategies of bi- yearly overseas service mission trips intersected with the secular rationales of technical assistance and peace and mutual understanding.

The Lausanne Covenant was further developed in the Manila Manifesto of 1989 and in the Cape Town Commitment of 2010. The refinements did not affect the main meaning of each of the original three chosen precepts. It in fact reiterated in more detail current strategies taken into consideration for Social Responsibility that should be applied for Christians who believe in the mission of God. Furthermore, the church (and its extensions such as parachurch organizations) should continue to focus on partnership and cooperation to reach the whole world with the good news of Jesus Christ. The twelve other precepts within the Lausanne Covenant are based mainly on the role of the church and the applied theological authority of scripture from the bible and its uniqueness. The twelve precepts that were not chosen relate more with the direct

‘evangelization’ side of the concept of holistic mission versus the ‘social responsibility’ side

(e.g., peace education) and were not as relevant as the focus on the study is on higher education internationalization. Choosing the three specified precepts of Christian and Social Responsibility,

Churches in Evangelistic Partnership and Cooperation in Evangelism fit well with the secular rationales of internationalization. This is because they centered more on the practical and development aspects of the holism of Christian mission.

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However the fit is not perfect. Some anxieties do lie within the theology of mission when applied to the ‘evangelistic’ side of holistic mission. Christian world mission has very explicit boundaries that call for the preaching of gospel message of salvation through Jesus Christ. When partnership occurs with secular organizations, the findings found that the ‘evangelism’ aspect mostly gets left out or is far down the list of strategies. Therefore it is about how far one theologically decides to interpret those Christian values to fit or not fit within the secular more less explicit boundaries of internationalization.

Although Christian Higher Education is able to impart and emphasize core values by its focus on the development of the whole person and global leadership skills. This is translated into personal development and community building as faculty and students meet together to discuss and practice what it means to be global citizens and leaders within the campus community. With interaction and service to one another, values at work create purpose and a sense of where one’s identity lies. Once purpose was cultivated, students at HGU and Tyndale were able to grow their purpose in community and make a global impact rather than just serve themselves. Self-serving is replaced by serving others, whether locally or globally. The foundations of understanding who one is and one’s spiritual purpose brings a calling as whole person education nurtures purpose. Christian values lead to seeing the other and coming to understand there is a bigger world full of people in need. This is part of the response to the call of the Great Commission and Christian Social Responsibility.

Finally, context plays a role in affecting the types of programs in which both Handong and Tyndale are engaged. This answers the second sub-question of how much the context of each institution resonates with and/or influences the institution’s internationalization policies and programs. The religious, socio-political and geographical contexts brought out different aspects

172 of how each school approached their internationalization. For example, Tyndale’s campus being situated in the multicultural city of Toronto allowed students to experience the ‘global’ right in their ‘backyard’ at home through connecting with the local immigrant communities/churches while having more ‘cross-border’ experiences with Christian NGOs and development agencies.

Meanwhile, South Korea’s governmental internationalization policies of recruiting foreign students along with South Korea’s missional church history has supported Handong’s ongoing efforts to globalize its campus through strategic partnerships and international student recruitment, particularly around Asia.

Implications and Contribution of the Research

Theoretical Implications

The internationalization policies and programs at Handong and Tyndale show that to varying degrees, there are implications for the application of Jane Knight’s framework for internationalization. Knight’s value-neutral secular rationales have been discussed in the literature and it can be argued this study demonstrates an additional rationale for the internationalization framework is needed—that of spiritual motivation. Thus, leaders in charge, whether at the institutional or national levels, can consider the possibility of a strong values- based form of internationalization that includes a spiritual rationale or motivation. Such an approach can serve to counteract the current trend of neoliberalism, with a for-profit and competition-based model of internationalization plaguing higher education. With the implementation of internationalization strategies and programs that are values-based, it may be possible to bring back the initial roots in cooperation, peace education, and development aid.

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Policymakers

Related to the theoretical implication discussed, given that this study demonstrated strength and success in internationalization strategies driven by value-based motivations, the question of how policymakers can adopt strategies that enable higher education institutions to enhance the ‘global public good’ is paramount. Values affect the ways these Christian universities function and are the most important component when put into practice in the program and organizational strategies of internationalization. The literature in this field should not ignore the role that Christian universities play in internationalization. A key point of note is that Christian higher education institutions have been inherently emphasizing internationalization for the ‘global public good’ for a long time because of their spiritual values which also are built into their mission and vision. This further confirms Hans de Wit’s (2015a) updated definition of internationalization with its inclusion of explicit values. Secular policy makers can therefore study how these institutions have been promoting the ‘public good’ through social responsibility.

They can see that intentionally highlighting the ‘why’ or motivation in the processes of internationalization at the institutional level not only enhances the “quality of education and research for all students and staff” but more importantly enables them to “make a meaningful contribution to society” (de Wit, 2015a).

Private and Faith-Based Higher Education

Within the many research studies that have been done on private higher education institutions, Canada’s private universities are largely invisible. Although South Korea has a larger number of private universities, the research primarily focuses on larger national studies and evangelical faith-based universities are in the minority. This case study contributes to the

174 understanding of both private and faith-based universities and the ways that these evangelical

Christian institutions engage in internationalization.

Limitations of the Study

Case study research has limitations in terms of how the findings can be utilized. The study’s design involves a multiple case study. Yet only two case studies were conducted so it is limited in regard to the quantity of information collected in each case. The fact that the study was conducted at two Christian (faith-based) universities mean the findings are not generalizable but certain lessons can be learned that may be applicable to similar faith-based Christian institutions, as long as the differences in context are taken into account (Stake, 2000). Context was also important and each institution came from a distinctive geographic region with differences relating to history and cultural background. Therefore, the findings from this research are limited to the specific internationalization policies and programs as well as the events and time of the study.

Second, the main source of information came from the experiences of participants who were faculty and administrators. Although the study involved 15 students and three alumni, this relatively small number limited the data from their experiences available for analysis.

Third, there is also the issue of language. The first case study site is located in South

Korea. As a researcher, I made every effort to find site-related documents in English, but the main internationalization policy documents were written in Korean. Although I have a working knowledge of the Korean language, I would not consider myself fluent. Consequently, a native speaker was used to translate those documents. Furthermore, for some of the interview participants, English was not their first language and this may have affected their ability to share fully their knowledge on the subject. On the occasions where interview participants might feel

175 more comfortable answering in their native tongue, a translation of the conversation was utilized for analysis. Nevertheless, in each case mentioned, during the final analysis of the data, misconceptions could have possibly arisen in translation due to language.

Recommendations for Future Research

As a researcher, one must contemplate any additional questions that might need to be addressed and the findings of this research study invite further inquiry and questions.

First, one phenomenon that was highlighted at the two Christian universities was the dedication of the faculty and how much they truly believed it was a calling to serve in an institution with a value-specific mission. Their commitment to serve all students and build a more welcoming community and classroom environment was clearly seen. A more longitudinal study on the role of faculty and their influence on how internationalization policies and programs were permeated throughout the campus could be another way to understand a value-driven strategy in internationalization.

Next, as one of the internationalization strategies utilized by Christian universities is the recruitment of children of missionary families, a more in-depth study on the role of students who are ‘third culture kids’ (TCK) would be valuable and an exploration of how being ‘in the middle’ of many cultures can influence the creation of cross-cultural global leaders, and bridge-builders in God’s global mission. Furthermore, a study on how these particular students navigate and experience campus life and how more culturally informed administrative practices can be created to help mitigate the challenges TCK students face could be valuable.

From this research, it was apparent Handong had many significant partnerships and there being much cooperation with both secular and non-secular institutions. This aspect of Handong stands out when compared to Tyndale’s partnerships with pre-dominantly Christian institutions.

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Handong’s ability to forge diverse partnerships while staying close to their values may be an important future study. This research has highlighted the importance of values in the policies and practices of these two Christian universities. It would be interesting to study whether or not their value of cooperation, as described in the Lausanne Covenant, is part of their effectiveness in forming these partnerships. Studying other Christian universities that are noteworthy in their quality and size, as well as diversity of partnership, may be meaningful.

Additionally, related to this idea, there are still certain anxieties that are associated with partnering with secular organizations within the evangelical community. This is because even though there are certain commonalities of values that are forged between the secular and sacred as shown in this research study, there is still some tension felt—one being that evangelical HEIs will lose the Christian values/mission on which they are founded and eventually become no different than their secular counterparts. A further longitudinal study on these types of collaborations at CHEIs (private vs. public/religious vs. pluralistic) and how it influences the mission of the institution could be beneficial.

Another feature of the Christian universities was their strong alumni network and the way they played a role, not only in fulfilling the mission of the institutions in their respective career callings, but also in spreading the word about the institution and its mission. Additional research on how the alumni of these faith-based institutions might play a role in promoting the internationalization and global role of the university might serve as an interesting model.

From a philosophical perspective, this research has recognized the important role that values play in the internationalization process and it may, therefore, be prudent to question the role of value-neutral rationales. With Christian motivations, the values are quite clear and there is no hiding the call to spread the Christian gospel. A study might be done on whether secular

177 values are truly neutral. And how far is the idea of value-neutral rationales in internationalization a Western construct? Can it be applied to other cultures?

Finally, theologically, within the Korean context at Handong, the strength of the Korean diaspora church and Korean people is used as a partnership strategy as well as recruitment strategy to get the name of the university out into the world. Future research might involve comparing how diaspora churches in other Asian cultures or African diaspora churches can be tapped into a network in order to help support global work and the mission of Christian institutions.

178

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Appendices

Appendix A: Institutional Consent Form Dear

My name is Christina Hwang and I am a doctoral student at the Ontario Institute for Studies in

Education at the University of Toronto. Currently, I am conducting research for my doctoral dissertation on World Mission and Higher Education Internationalization: A Comparative Study of Christian Universities in South Korea and Canada. In particular, this study comparatively explores internationalization policies and activities of Christian higher education at institutions in two countries (South Korea and Canada) in order to understand how the historical and current theories/paradigms of global Christian mission and the secular process of internationalization in higher education institutions (HEIs) intersect and influence the institutional mission. The study will be conducted under the supervision of Dr. Ruth Hayhoe.

There are three points of data collection in my study that require your institutional consent: first is permission to name your institution in the case study, second is access to organizational documents relating to internationalization e.g., Memorandums of Understanding, and other relevant policy documents; and your permission to carry out key informant interviews with selected administrators, faculty and students at your institution. Interview participants will be formally recruited based on their consent. All participation will be voluntary and at no point will participants be judged, evaluated or put at risk of harm. All participants may withdraw at any time without consequence. All interviews will be audio-taped only with the permission of the individual participants.

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Participation in this study can benefit your organization in that the findings will enable your institution to benchmark itself with other Christian higher education institutions with similar visions and goals. At the same time, your institution could use the findings, which includes the student voice, to identify its own potential to enhance internationalization policies and programs through its Christian lens into the field of higher education. With limited literature available on this topic within the Christian higher education context, this study intends to fill this gap in the scholarly literature and help the academic communities gain a deeper understanding of internationalization policies and programs in institutions that have a particular institutional mission and suggest ways in which the Christian university ethos can contribute to the wider higher education community.

The identities of the participants will be kept anonymous and the study will not attribute any quotes to specific individuals. Also, individual anonymity is guaranteed should the data collected be used in subsequent publications or public presentations.

All the data collected from the interviews will be kept in strict confidence and stored in a locked cabinet at my home. It will be used for the purposes of a PhD thesis and perhaps for subsequent research articles. All raw data (i.e., transcripts, field notes) will be destroyed five years after the completion of the study. Upon completion of the study, the research will also be hosted online and participants will be notified of the URL in order to have access to the final results.

198

If your organization voluntarily agrees to allow me access to the involved research units, please sign the letter below. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. My supervisor,

Dr. Ruth Hayhoe, is also available for questions regarding my study. Our contact information is below. Dr. Hayhoe and myself will be the only individuals with access to the collected data.

Thank you in advance for your cooperation and support.

Sincerely,

Christina J. Hwang

PhD Candidate, Higher Education Program

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

Canada

647) 824-5245 [email protected]

Dr. Ruth Hayhoe

Professor, Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education,

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

199

Canada

416-978-1213 [email protected]

If you have any questions related to your rights as a participant in this study please contact the Ethics Review Office at the University of Toronto at 416 946 3272 or, [email protected]

By signing below, < Name of University Dean/VP Academic/Provost > is willing to allow the researcher to identify in her study, conduct interviews and collect documents at between .

Name: ______

Position: ______

Signed: ______Date: ______

Please keep a copy of this letter for your records.

200

Appendix B: Consent Form for Administration and Faculty/Staff To the participants in this study,

Thank you for offering to participate in this project. This letter explains what is involved so you can make an informed decision about taking part. My name is Christina Hwang and I am a doctoral student at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto.

Currently, I am conducting research for my doctoral dissertation on World Mission and Higher

Education Internationalization: A Comparative Study of Christian Universities in South Korea and Canada. In particular, this study comparatively explores internationalization policies and activities of Christian higher education at institutions in two regions (South Korea and Canada) in order to understand how the historical and current theories/paradigms of global Christian mission and the secular process of internationalization in higher education institutions (HEIs) intersect and influence the institutional mission. The study will be conducted under the supervision of Dr. Ruth Hayhoe.

This study will be carried out in South Korea and Canada. Data will be collected through both documents and interviews at each university. The study will interview a minimum of two senior administrators (university President or Vice President/Dean/Provost), a minimum of five faculty/administrative staff and a minimum of five students. The collected data will be used for the purposes of a PhD thesis under the supervision of Professor Ruth Hayhoe, Department of

Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,

University of Toronto. It may also be used for subsequent research articles. Dr. Hayhoe and myself are the only researchers with access to the collected data.

201

Participation in this study can benefit your organization in that the findings will enable your institution to benchmark itself with other Christian higher education institutions with similar visions and goals. At the same time, your institution could use the findings to identify its own potential to contribute to internationalization policies and programs through its Christian lens to the higher education field. With limited literature available on this topic within the Christian higher education context, this study intends to fill in gaps in the scholarly literature and help the academic communities gain a deeper understanding of internationalization policies and programs in institutions that have a particular institutional mission and how the Christian university ethos can contribute and add diversity to its secular university counterparts.

Our interview should last between 60 and 90 minutes. I would like to tape our interview, with your permission. If you would prefer that I not tape our session, please let me know before our interview. The questions will focus on the rationale for internationalization policies and programs at your institution. I am also interested in examining if those policies/programs have commonalities with Christian world mission. As the interview proceeds, I may ask questions for clarification or further understanding, but my part will be mainly to listen to you speak about your views, experiences, and the reasons you believe the things you do. After the interview, I will write brief notes that will be used to assist me in remembering the surroundings of the interview (i.e., characteristics of the site). However, for the confidentiality reasons, you will be given a fictitious title or name in the transcription of the data and not mentioned by name or title in the dissertation or in any publication. You will at no time be at risk of harm.

202

I acquired your name from your institution’s website and I selected you as my study’s participant because I’ve learned that you have been actively involved in internationalization programs/activities. However, participation in this study is voluntary and I will not inform any other member of your institution of your participation in the study. During our interview, you are free to refuse to answer any of the questions that you are not comfortable answering.

You may at any time refuse to answer a question or withdraw from the interview process at any time without consequence. If, after our interview, you decide to withdraw from my study, please contact me and I will destroy my notes and all data collected. At no time will value judgments be placed on your responses nor will any evaluation be made of your effectiveness in your organization.

It is the intention that each interview will be audio taped and later transcribed to paper. In order to keep the interview anonymous, in my personal notes I will assign a number to you that will correspond to your interviews and transcriptions. If you wish, I can send you your transcript in order for you to add any further information or to correct any misinterpretations that could result.

All information will be reported in such a way that individual persons cannot be identified. All raw data (i.e., transcripts, field notes) will be destroyed five years after the completion of the study.

If you would like to have summary of the study results sent to you upon the completion of the study, please check here: ______

203

The tape and transcripts will be kept in a safe location in my home office for further analysis.

Only my supervisor and myself will have access to the tapes and transcripts. Your identity will be kept confidential and not used in the final study, in publications or presentations.

Upon completion of the study, I plan to post the research on a website. When that time comes, I will notify you of the URL, so that you have access to the final results.

Please feel free to share this information letter and website with your supervisor and/or others in your organization.

My contact information as well as the contact information of my advisor and the ethical review board at the University of Toronto is as follows:

Christina J. Hwang

PhD Candidate, Higher Education Program

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

Canada

647-824-5245 [email protected]

204

Dr. Ruth Hayhoe

Professor, Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education,

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

Canada

416-978-1213 [email protected]

If you have any questions related to your rights as a participant in this study or if you have any concerns or complaints about how you have been treated as a research participant, please contact the Office of Research Ethics at the University of Toronto at 416 946 3273 or, [email protected]

I would like to express my appreciation for your participation in this project. By signing below, you are indicating that you fully understand the conditions above, you are willing to participate in this study, you consent to being audio taped and transcribed, and you have received a copy of this letter.

Sincerely,

Christina Hwang

By signing below, you are indicating that you are voluntarily willing to participate in the study, you have received a copy of this letter, and you are fully aware of the conditions above.

205

Name: ______

Signed: ______Date:______

Please initial if you agree to have your interview audio taped: _____

Please keep a copy of this letter for your records.

206

Appendix C: Consent Form for Students To the participants in this study,

Currently, I am conducting research for my doctoral dissertation on World Mission and Higher

Leadership, Higher and Adult Education, at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,

University of Toronto. It may also be used for subsequent research articles. Dr. Hayhoe and myself are the only researchers with access to the collected data.

207

This project intends to help the academic communities gain a deeper understanding of internationalization policies and programs in institutions that have a particular institutional mission and how the Christian university ethos can contribute and add diversity to its secular university counterparts. As a participant of this study, you may find the opportunity to narrate and reflect on your ideas and experience with internationalization programs/activities at your institution. Hopefully, you can gain a deeper understanding of your experience through this reflection as well.

Our interview should last between 60 and 90 minutes. You will receive a $5 gift card for your time. This is yours to keep, even if you withdraw from the study. The interview session will be recorded with your permission. The questions will focus on the rationale for internationalization policies and programs at your institution. I am also interested in examining if those policies/programs have commonalities with Christian world mission and to the institution’s mission. As the interview proceeds, I may ask questions for clarification or further understanding, but my part will be mainly to listen to you speak about your views, experiences, and the reasons you believe the things you do. After the interview, I will write brief notes that will be used to assist me in remembering the surroundings of the interview (i.e., characteristics of the site). However, for the confidentiality reason, you will be given a fictitious title or name in the transcription of the data and not mentioned by name or title in the dissertation or in any publication. Also I will not inform any other member of your institution of your participation in the study. You will at no time be at risk of harm.

208

During our interview, you are free to refuse to answer any of the questions that you are not comfortable answering. You may at any time refuse to answer a question or withdraw from the interview process at any time without consequence. If, after our interview, you decide to withdraw from my study, please contact me and I will destroy my notes and all data collected. At no time will value judgments be placed on your responses nor will any evaluation be made of your effectiveness in your organization.

If you would like to have summary of the study results sent to you upon the completion of the study, please check here: ______

The tape and transcripts will be kept in a safe location in my home office for further analysis.

Only my supervisor and myself will have access to the tapes and transcripts. Your identity will be kept confidential and not used in the final study, in publications or presentations.

209

Upon completion of the study, I plan to post the research on a website. When that time comes, I will notify you of the URL, so that you have access to the final results.

Please feel free to share this information letter and website with your supervisor and/or others in your organization.

My contact information as well as the contact information of my advisor and the ethical review board at the University of Toronto is as follows:

Christina J. Hwang

PhD Candidate, Higher Education Program

Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

Canada

647-824-5245 [email protected]

Dr. Ruth Hayhoe

Professor, Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education,

Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 6th Floor

University of Toronto

210

252 Bloor Street East, M5S 1V6

Canada

416-978-1213 [email protected]

Sincerely,

Christina Hwang

By signing below, you are indicating that you are voluntarily willing to participate in the study, you have received a copy of this letter, and you are fully aware of the conditions above.

Name: ______

211

Signed: ______Date:______

Please initial if you agree to have your interview audio taped: _____

Please keep a copy of this letter for your records.

212

Appendix D: Questions for Administrators 1. What is your institution’s mission statement?

2. In your opinion, what does that mission statement mean to you? Could you define/explain the mission of your institution more fully?

3. What are your views on globalization in general?

4. What are your views on globalization in higher education in particular?

5. In what ways do you think your views on globalization are distinct as an evangelical Christian scholar and leader at your institution?

6. How do you think that globalization has impacted your institution’s mission? Include examples.

7. How has the institutional organizational structure changed, if at all, in response to globalization?

8. What are the motivations for internationalization initiatives at your institution?

9. In your view, who are the key players involved in leading the institution’s commitment to internationalize the campus? What are their roles?

10. How are the policies and programs communicated to the administrators, faculty, staff and students of your institution?

11. What types of opportunities and services are related to the internationalization initiatives at your institutions?

12. What do you think are the positive contributions/greatest successes your institution has made in regard to internationalization policies and programs initiatives? Can you please give specific examples?

13. What do you think makes your institution distinct from secular institutions when it comes to its internationalization policies and programs? Can you please give specific examples?

213

14. What do you see are the challenges related to internationalization initiatives in your institution?

15. What do you see as distinct challenges for Christian higher education institutions when it comes to their internationalization policies and programs initiatives compared to their secular counterparts?

16. How have you overcome or plan to overcome those challenges?

17. In your opinion, what are the core Christian values of the evangelical faith?

18. In your opinion, how would you define evangelical Christian world mission?

19. In what ways do you believe your definition of Christian world mission impacts the mission of the institution?

20. How do you perceive the intersection of Christian world mission and secular notions of internationalization policies and programs? Please give specific examples.

21. In your opinion, in what ways has the context (e.g., historical, geographical, theological. social, political) influenced the internationalization policies and program initiatives at your institution?

Is there anything else that I have not asked you about that you would like to add?

22. Do you have any questions?

214

Appendix E: Questions for Faculty and Staff 1. What is your institution’s mission statement?

2. What does that mission statement mean to you? Could you define/explain the mission of

your institution more fully?

3. What are your views on globalization in general?

4. What are your views on globalization in higher education in particular?

5. In what ways do you think your views on globalization are distinct as an evangelical

Christian scholar at your institution?

6. How do you think that globalization has impacted your institution’s mission? Include

examples.

7. How has the institutional organizational structure changed, if at all, in response to

globalization?

8. What are the motivations/key factors for internationalization initiatives at your department?

In your institution?

9. In your view, who are the key players involved in leading the institution’s commitment to

internationalize the campus? What are their roles?

10. Describe your involvement (if any) in the implementation of the internationalization policy

and program initiatives.

11. How have you made changes (if any) to internationalize your curriculum?

12. In what way(s) (if any) is your curriculum distinctive from secular institutions?

13. What types of international partnerships (e.g., research projects), faculty exchange,

publishing opportunities, and international conferences have you participated in?

14. In what way(s) (if any) do these international initiatives distinguish your department from

secular institutions?

215

15. What support structure is in place that promotes the internationalization initiatives in your

department? In your institution?

16. What do you think are the positive contributions/greatest successes your department has

made in regard to internationalization policies and programs initiatives? Can you please give

specific examples?

17. What do you see are the challenges related to internationalization initiatives in your

department?

18. What do you think makes your department distinct from secular institutions when it comes

to its internationalization policies and programs? Can you please give specific examples?

19. What do you see are distinct challenges for Christian higher education institutions when it

comes to its internationalization policies and programs initiatives compared to its secular

counterparts?

20. How have you overcome or plan to overcome those challenges?

21. In your opinion, what are the core Christian values of the evangelical faith?

22. (a) In your opinion, how would you define evangelical Christian world mission? (b) What

are the motivations of world mission?

23. In what ways do you believe your definition of Christian world mission impact the mission

of the institution?

24. How do you perceive the intersection of Christian world mission and internationalization

policies and programs? Please give specific examples.

25. In your opinion, in what ways has the context (e.g., historical, geographical, theological.

social, political) influenced the internationalization policies and program initiatives at your

institution?

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26. Is there anything else that I have not asked you about that you would like to add?

27. Do you have any questions?

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Appendix F: Questions for Students 1. Do you know the mission statement of your university?

2. After reviewing a copy of the mission statement, describe what that statement means to

you?

3. How do you think that this mission statement has informed the practice at your university?

4. What comes to mind when you think about the term globalization and what would your

definition of globalization be?

5. What do you think are the motivations of the internationalization initiatives at your

institution?

6. What types of internationalization policies/program initiatives have you participated in or

experienced at your institution (if any?) e.g., internationalized curricula/student

exchange/study abroad/international assistance or service projects/international student

clubs/international/multicultural campus events

7. In your experience, how have the internationalization policies and programs impacted

your educational experience at your institution? How do you see yourself as a result of

these initiatives?

8. In what ways have they been positive/challenging? Please give specific examples.

9. In your opinion, what are the core Christian values of the evangelical faith?

10. (a) In your opinion, how would you define evangelical Christian world mission? (b) What

are the motivations of world mission?

11. In what ways do you believe your definition of Christian world mission impact the mission

of the institution?

12. Being that is a Christian higher education institution, in your

opinion how are the internationalization initiatives distinctive from a secular institution?

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13. How do you perceive the intersection of Christian world mission and secular notions of

internationalization policies and programs? Please give specific examples.

14. In your opinion, in what ways has the context (e.g., historical, geographical, theological

Social, political) influenced the internationalization policies and program initiatives at your

institution?

15. Is there anything else that I have not asked you about that you would like to add?

16. Do you have any questions?

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Appendix G: Ethics Approval