158 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER

Contrastive and Error Analyses in Inverted Order to Facilitate English Language Teaching

Shivani Saini [email protected] Post Graduate Govt. College, Chandigarh, India

Abstract Both Contrastive and Error Analysis have vital roles in accounting for problems in teaching English as a foreign/second language (TEFL/TESL). Contrastive Analysis (CA) compares languages and makes predictions about possible errors learners make due to the influence of their first language (L1), while Error Analysis (EA) analyses pupils’ compositions or conversations and investigates different sources of errors one of which is cross linguistic influence. It is obvious that CA and EA are not the same. They overlap in a certain area, but they are not competing against each other. Both CA and EA can be used in a complementary role in understanding learners’ errors in second language learning. In the present article, a teaching methodology (“a contrastive approach” to EA) will be explored where the traditional order of conducting CA and EA (where CA leads to EA) has been inverted. The approach in the present study is that the job of diagnosis belongs to EA and here CA can be used as complementary to EA as a remedial procedure. Keywords: contrastive analysis (CA), error analysis (EA), first language (L1), teaching

Introduction It is irrefutable that errors are not just L2/FL learners. They should be viewed as inevitable but also necessary in the process complementing each other rather than as of learning a language. Corder (1967) competitors for some procedural pride of considers errors to be products of a system place (James, 1980). There is little gain in of the learner language, as he argues that “a adopting an exclusive ‘either-or’ approach learner’s errors provide evidence of the and the results of doing so can be positively system of the language that he is using (i.e. debilitating. has learned) at a particular point in the Contrastive Analysis (CA) is normally course”. Thus, the errors a foreign/second considered as a predictive device. language learner makes in the process of Wardhaugh (1970) suggests that predictive constructing a new system of language need CA is really a sham in that no contrastivist to be analyzed carefully to understand the has ever really predicted solely on the basis process of language learning. Errors can be of the CA. But let us not throw the baby regarded as the indicators of the stages of along with the bath water. Let us have both the progression between the first language contrastive analysis (CA) and error analysis (L1) and second language (L2) or foreign (EA) exist in harmony with each other. language (FL) systems. Nickel (1971) is of the opinion that an error Both Contrastive and Error Analyses analysis without a contrastive analysis is have a vital role to play in accounting for quite simply impossible; pupils often make different types of errors committed by interlingual errors, which can be analyzed

Beyond Words, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2016 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER &59 with a contrastive study in much more to L1 influence. Possessing this vital detail. It is obvious that CA and EA are not knowledge, the analyst should conduct CA the same. They overlap in a certain area, but in order to explain those errors. This does they are not competing against each other. not mean that the present study is as Both types of analyses are needed in order Richards (1974) calls it “a non-contrastive to benefit from research and one influences approach to error analysis”. Rather it is “a the other in a positive way. Further, helpful contrastive approach” to EA but the and useful conclusions can be drawn in traditional order of conducting CA and EA order to improve second/foreign language (where CA leads to EA) has been inverted. teaching. In other words, the present study is a The approach in the present study is juxtaposition of contrastive as well as error that the job of diagnosis belongs to EA and analyses (where EA leads to CA) as the here CA can be used as complementary to focus of the study lies in the overlapped area EA as a remedial procedure. This means where contrastive analysis and errors that the first step should be deciding that analysis complement each other rather than which subset of attested errors is attributable acting as foes as it is described in figure 1.

Literature Review Contrastive Analysis more languages, the intent of which is to Contrastive linguistics is a branch of provide teachers and text book writers with linguistics which seeks to compare (the a body of information which can be of sounds, grammar and vocabulary) two service in the preparation of instructional languages with the aim of describing the materials, the planning of courses and the similarities and differences between them. development of classroom techniques. Contrastive analysis is the technique Procedure of Contrastive Analysis associated with contrastive linguistics and it (CA). Whitman (1970) breaks contrastive may be defined as a systematic comparison analysis down to a set of component of the selected linguistic features of two or procedures. The five steps are as follows: • Taking the two languages L1 and L2 • Picking forms from the descriptions • Writing the formal descriptions of for contrast the two languages (or choosing descriptions • Making a contrast of forms chosen of them) • Making a prediction of difficulties through the contrast &+0 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER

Two Different Versions of Contrast- Significance of Contrastive Analysis ive Analysis Hypothesis. Contrastive in Teaching. Marton (1981) is of the analysis hypothesis (CAH) is classified into opinion that CA is a useful and helpful strong and weak versions. Wardhaugh instrument to recognize the divergent and (1970) classifies the strong version of CAH common features of two languages. Of the as that version that claims to predict the same opinion is Ausubel (1968), who stated difficulty through contrastive analysis. The that “if had to reduce all of educational assumption is that the two languages can be psychology to just one principle, I would compared a priori. The strong version say this: The most important single factor claims the following: influencing learning is what the learner 1. The main obstacle to L2 learning is already knows. Ascertain this and teach him the interference from the L1 of the learner. accordingly.” All in all, Contrastive 2. The greater the difference between Analysis provides teachers with a clearer L1 and L2, the greater the difficulty will be. understanding of the learner’s mother 3. A systematic and scientific analysis tongue as well as with the second language of the two language systems can help to be learnt. The teachers can provide predict the difficulties. insightful pieces of advice for their students. 4. The results of CA can be used as a Teachers can improve their methods, reliable source in the preparation of teaching publishers can improve the textbooks’ materials, planning of the course and the exercises according to the newest CA results improvement of classroom techniques. in a comprehensible and easy manner, and Wardhaugh (1970: 126) notes that learners can connect their L1 and L2 in a contrastive analysis has intuitive appeal and tangible way. All “require a knowledge of that teachers and linguists have successfully contrastive grammar in order to be able to used ‘the best linguistic knowledge predict, explain, correct and eliminate errors available…..in order to account for due to interference between source and observed difficulties in second language target language” (Nickel, 1971). learning’. He called such observational use Error Analysis of contrastive analysis as the weak version According to the basic tenets of Error of CAH. Here, the emphasis shifts from the Analysis, language learning is not merely predictive power of the relative difficulty to the result of repetition, but the result of the explanatory power of observable errors. cognitive interaction among the learners, L1 This version has been developed in Error and L2 as well as the environment of Analysis (EA). CAH is a theory or learning. That is, the development of the L2 hypothesis while EA is an assessment tool. reflects the complex interaction between Brown (1987) also suggests that the weak language learning and mental process. version focuses not on the a priori The most influential publication prediction of difficulties but on the a launching Error Analysis as an approach in posterior explanation of the sources of SLA was S. Pit Corder’s (1967) article on errors in language learning. According to ‘The Significance of Learner’s Errors’ this, only some errors were traceable to which call on applied linguists to focus on transfer and CA needs to be used hand in L2 learners’ errors not as ‘bad habits’ to be hand with error analysis. eradicated, but as sources of insight into the learning process. Cook (2011) makes a CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER &+1 point that a language learner possesses a set Moreover, error analysis can provide of cognitive structures for hypothesis valuable data for the development of formation in which the making of errors is a suitable curricula, and the preparation of positive sign of the learning process itself. teaching materials, text books and Error analysis focuses on the examinations. Corder notes that it is on the difficulties of the target language as well as basis of information the teachers get from the psycholinguistic process of language errors made by their students that they can learning. The methodology of error analysis vary their teaching procedures and (traditional error analysis) can be said to materials, the pace of the progress and the have followed the steps below: amount of practice which s/he plans at any 1. Collection of data moment. Corder lays stress on the practical 2. Identification of errors (labelling uses of error analysis and applications for with varying degree of precision depending language teaching. on the linguistic sophistication brought to Error analysis enables teachers to bear upon the task, with respect to the exact decide whether they can move on to the next nature of the deviation). item on the syllabus or whether they must 3. Classification into error types devote more time to the items they have 4. Statement of relative frequency of been working on. This is the day-to-day error types value of errors. But in terms of broader 5. Identification of the areas of planning and with a new group of learners difficulty in the target language; they provide information for designing a 6. Therapy (remedial drills, lessons, remedial syllabus or a programme of re- etc.). teaching. In short, the main purpose behind error Implementing the Complementary analysis is to analyze the learner’s errors in Amalgamation order to discover knowledge of the language As mentioned earlier, contrastive till now and to know how the language is analysis of two languages is criticized for learnt by the particulars learners. being purely predictive in nature and it is The Implication for Language normally generalized that most of the Teaching. Error analysis has brought about transfer errors predicted by contrastive major changes in language teaching analysis are actually not committed by practices. Learner errors provide the teacher learners of a second language. In order to with important feedback on his/her teaching overcome this drawback of CA, this study and information about the types of errors suggests conducting a complete error produced by a particular group of students. analysis of language learners’ errors to be It can also help the teacher to judge the followed by contrastive analysis of transfer progress made in learning the target errors to remove any possibility of any error language over a period of time (Corder, type being predicted by CA. 1981; Brown, 1994). Methods This case study is an action research committed in writing English by the learners which employs both contrastive analysis of English at undergraduate level. Brown and error analysis to frame a contrastive (1994) and Ellis (1995) elaborated on how grammar based on the common errors to identify and analyze learners’ errors. Ellis &+2 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER

(1997) and Hubbard & Power (2003) gave The study was conducted with a practical advice and provided clear random sample of one hundred and five examples of how to identify and analyze students with thirty five students each from learners’ errors. The initial step requires the B.A. II (Bachelor of Arts – second year), selection of a corpus of language followed B.Sc. II (Bachelor of Science – second year) by the identification of errors. The errors are and B.Com I (Bachelor of Commerce – first then classified. The next step, after giving a year). The subjects were asked to write an grammatical analysis of each error, provides English composition of 100-150 words. a plausible explanation of different types of They were given some topics for errors. composition writing and they were Purpose of the study instructed to choose any one topic. In order In this study, this amalgamation of EA to diagnose the grammatical influence of the and CA is tested empirically in an English first language in the writing of the learners classroom at undergraduate level. The of English, error analysis of the written purpose is to ascertain the fact that a compositions of the L2 learners was considerable amount of errors in learning a conducted. This error analysis was focussed second language is made due to the on the transfer errors committed by the influence of L1 (transfer errors or learners. interlingual errors) and therefore the Analysis of the sample compositions significance of using an empirically tested The errors identified in the written CA (where EA is followed by CA) in composition produced by the subjects were classroom cannot be overlooked. The classified into the three main linguistic subjects who are chosen for this study are categories of syntax, lexicon and learners of English at undergraduate level. morphology. These three main categories All of them share a common first language were further subdivided according to the − Punjabi, which is the regional language of different parts of the sentence: Punjab state of India. Syntactic Transfer Errors The objective of this study is to figure • Article Errors out the percentage of errors committed due • Preposition Errors to the grammatical influence of the first • Pronoun Errors language of the learners of English in the • Tense Errors writing of English. The study further seeks • Word Order Errors to identify and analyse learners’ errors in • Punctuation Errors writing English with the help of EA and • Emphasis Errors CA. Based on the results, the present article • Direct Translation Errors seeks to suggest a teaching method which Lexical Transfer Errors involves the judicious use of L1 in • Word Errors facilitating TEFL/TESL. • Redundant ‘be’ Errors Phases and Instruments • Conjunct Verb Errors The focus of the case study was to • Spelling Errors analyse the written compositions of learners Morphological Transfer Errors of English in order to identify the common • grammatical errors made by them due to the Plural Markers Errors • influence of their first language. Subject / Verb Agreement Errors CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER &+3

• Comparative and Superlative Forms analysed to identify transfer errors at the Errors syntactic, lexical and morphological levels. The boundaries of different categories, No attempts have been made to study and especially syntax and morphology, may analyse deviations at the level of discourse overlap as these two categories are inter- as this was beyond the scope of this study. related areas of study. Morphology Based on the findings of this analysis, a sometimes interacts with the study of syntax contrastive grammar was created covering and vice versa. all the areas of the target language where It must be acknowledged here that the maximum errors are made because of the written compositions of the learners were first language. Results In order to examine the relative transfer errors followed by lexical and occurrence of different errors in the three morphological errors. The learners of B.A groups, an overall comparison of the group produce greater number of transfer frequency of all errors is made in terms of errors as compared to B.Sc. and B.Com. number and percentage. A comparison of groups. Moreover the error rate of B.Sc. the overall performance of the three groups group is greater than the B.Com. group. of learners is presented in the following The results of the study revealed that table. 57% of total errors committed by learners There is a sharp contrast between the are due to the influence of their L1. The error rates of the three groups (See Fig.2 on following figure shows the overall p. 150). The highest numbers of the errors percentage of transfer errors committed by committed by all the learners are syntactic the three groups of the learners . &+4 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER

Figure 2: Frequency Distribution of Errors in Main Linguistic Categories

Figure 3: Percentage of Interlingual vs. Intralingual Errors The percentage of transfer errors again they study all of their subjects in English. confirms the fact that a considerable amount Alternatively, it can be stated that B.Sc. and of errors committed by adult learners is due B.Com. groups study English in an ESL like to transfer. Therefore the significance of environment where they get opportunities to using empirically tested Contrastive learn English outside the English language Analysis in the second language classroom classroom also. cannot be overlooked. These findings lead the present study The poorer performance of B.A. group towards another revelation. The revelation is as compared to the B.Sc. and B.Com. that the necessity of maximum exposure to groups showcases their different teaching the target language cannot be dispensed learning environments. Most of the learners with while acquiring a second language. of B.A. group get fewer opportunities of Therefore, though the present study seeks to exposure to the target language as most of establish the role of first language in the them studied in the government schools English language classroom, it also strongly where students learn English in the EFL like advocates the obligatory use of the target situation. Furthermore, most of them study language in the second language classroom. most of their subjects in Punjabi medium In other words, the need to subject the which further reduces their chances for learners to maximum exposure to English exposure to English. On the other hand, the should not at all be eclipsed by the learners of B.Sc. and B.Com. groups get indiscriminate use of their first language. A maximum exposure to the target language as balanced and judicious approach should be CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER &+5 used which justifies the use of first language overtime to provide the learners to get as a scaffold in learning a second language. maximum exposure to the target language, This scaffold should be gradually removed as it happens in an ESL like situation.

Conclusion and Recommendations for Teachers Based on the results of the study, the suggested here. The figure above is a present article seeks to recommend a reflection of how the present study teaching strategy where EA and CA can be envisages the use of EA and CA in the used in complementary form to use the L1 English language classroom. All of this of learners in English language classroom in should be done before the practice of the a judicious manner. Though the present given structure so that habits are formed on research study is based only on the errors in a conscious, cognitive basis. the written data of the students, still the While following this plan in English same recommended strategy can be used for language classroom, a teacher needs to use a improving the errors made by students in juxtaposition of EA and CA for improving speaking English. the transfer errors committed by students An empirically tested CA may prove to while writing English. The steps to be be very beneficial for language teachers. It followed for this teaching strategy are as provides an insight into those errors which follows: are made by the learners of English as a i. First of all, a teacher needs to foreign/second language due to the collect the data in the form of influence of their first language. A potential written compositions and record the method for using both EA and CA in speech of the students. The written English language classroom for improving data may be collected by asking the the writing skills of FL/L2 learners is &+6 CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER

ii. students to write in English on some vi. The teacher should take care to use given topics. The data in the spoken this technique in the small groups of form may be collected by asking the four to five students each, so that students to try to speak in English individual attention can be paid to on any topic and then recording the difficulties faced by each whatever they speak in English. student. iii. The next step is to find out the vii. All this should be done before the errors in written and spoken form, drill of a particular target language carefully identify and analyze those structure. Frequent use of errors which are made due to the translation as a contrastive influence of their first language. technique for learning grammatical iv. Finally a contrastive analysis of structures would be one of the transfer errors has to be conducted characteristics of this approach, to find out the source of particular although it would not become the errors made due to the influence of only or even the main technique. L1. This may be quite a painstaking As suggested above, EA and CA are study for the teacher, but the results indispensable for improving the teaching of will definitely be worth the and learning process of a second language. amount of time and effort spent on L2 learners are more prone to errors made it. due to the influence of their L1. But just to v. After the completion of this predict the errors made in L2 on the basis of process, the teacher can use this L1 using CA only can be very painstaking newly gained insight in warning the and of little use because most of the errors learners of possible difficulties that predicted by CA are actually not made by will come in their learning of L2 learners. So it is always advisable to use English because of their L1. empirically tested CA in classroom where CA follows EA.

2016 Shivani Saini Shivani Saini completed her PH.D in 2015 under Prof. Deepti Gupta, Ph.D.’s able supervision. It was Prof. Gupta who suggested that she send an article for publication in Beyond Words journal. She is now a teaching at the Post Graduate Govt. College, Chandigarh, India Suggested reference format for this article: ;>FJF! ;# ('%&+! 8KQBI?BM # 3KJOM>NOFQB >JA 4MMKM 1J>HTNBN FJ 6JQBMOBA 9MABM OK 5>@FHFO>OB 4JDHFNE 7>JDP>DB @EFJD# !$)&%# "&'#(, (' ! &58"&67# :BOMFBQBA CMKI EOOL0$$GKPMJ>H#RFI>#>@#FA$FJABS#LEL$2=

References Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational Psychology: Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles. ACognitive View. New York: Holt, An Interactive Approach to Language Rinehart and Winston. Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of Language Regents. Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall CONTRASTIVE AND ERROR ANALYSES IN INVERTED ORDER &+7

Cook, V. (2011). Second Language Learning Hubbard, R. S., & Power, B. M. (2003). The Art and Language Teaching. London: Hodder of Classroom Inquiry: A Handbook for Education. Teacher-researchers. Portsmouth, NH: Corder, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Heinemann. Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University James, C. (1998). Errors in Language Learning Press. and Use. London: Longman. Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. Harlow: learners’ errors. International Review of Longman Group Limited. Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-169. Marton, W. (1981). Contrastive Analysis in the Ellis, R. (1997a). Second Language Acquisition. Classroom. In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Contrastive Oxford: Oxford University Press. Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Ellis, R. (1997b). ‘SLA Research and Language Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Marton, W. (1981). “Pedagogical Implications Press. of Contrastive Studies.” In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Ellis, R. (1997c). “SLA and language pedagogy: Contrastive Linguistics and the Language an educational perspective”. Studies in Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. Second Language Acquisition, 19, 69-92. Marton, W. (1981). “Some More Remarks on Ellis, R. (1995a). Interpretation tasks for the Pedagogical Use of Contrastive grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 29, Studies.” In J. Fisiak (Ed.), Contrastive 87-106. Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Ellis, R. (1995b). “Uptake as language Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. awareness”. Language Awareness, 4, 147- Nickel, G. (1971). Papers in Contrastive 60. doi: Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge 10.1080/09658416.1995.9959877 University Press. Ellis, R. (1995c). Appraising second language Richards, J. (Ed.). (1974). Error Analysis. acquisition theory in relation to language London: Longman pedagogy. In G. Cook and B. Seidlhofer Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The Contrastive (Eds.), Principle and Practice in Applied Analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly 4, Linguistics: Studies in Honour of H.G. 123-30. Widdowson. Oxford: Oxford University Whitman, R. (1970). Contrastive analysis: Press. problems and procedures. Language Learning, 20, 191-97