The State of Culture in Spain 2020

visual industry. audio- the of growth and education artistic and heritage cultural such as development and territorial cooperation, sustainability of of this edition along these lines, addressing fundamental questions cies, theendeavourisboundtofail.We approach thesecondpart poli- all of perspective cross-discipline a and tool a as it without mainstay for the Agenda 2030 sustainable development goals and, previousin maintained have we cultureAs ICE, the of editions a is Covid-19 isaffectingtraditionalmodels. proposals to improve efficacy and efficiency, also considering how of series a produce and evaluation an run we addition, In ments. achieve- main its and policies players, identifying policy, Spain’scultural foreign to bededicated will edition of this part first The and problem issues. 2011 that have made it possible to focus on our different soft spots country’s culturalreality. Sixeditionshavebeenproduced since and CommunicationObservatorythatsystematicallymonitorsour Culturein Spanish)isapublicationbytheFundaciónAlternativas The Report ontheStateofCulture inSpain(orICEfrom itsinitials

Report on THE STATE OF CULTURE IN SPAIN 2020. SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTION ABROAD [ICE-2020] SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTIONABROAD [ICE-2020] IN SPAIN 2020 THE STATE OFCULTURE Report on informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 1 19/11/20 10:55 informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 2 19/11/20 10:55 REPORT ON THE STATE OF CULTURE IN SPAIN, 2020 SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTION ABROAD [ICE-2020]

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 3 19/11/20 10:55 informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 4 19/11/20 10:55 REPORT ON THE STATE OF CULTURE IN SPAIN, 2020 (ICE,2020) SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTION ABROAD

Management: Inmaculada Ballesteros

Coordination and Editing: Enrique Bustamante

Authors: Irene Aláez Inmaculada Ballesteros Enrique Bustamante Raquel Caerols Concepción Cascajosa Patricia Corredor Jorge Fernández de León José Andrés Fernández Leost Diego López Garrido Juan Luis Manfredi Alfons Martinell María Angeles Querol Arturo Rubio Mariano Martín Zamorano

Communication and Culture Observatory FUNDACIÓN ALTERNATIVAS

MADRID 2020

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 5 19/11/20 10:55 It is strictly forbidden, without written authority from the “Copyright” holders, subject to the sanctions laid down by law, to totally or partially reproduce this work by any other medium or procedure, including reprography and computer processing, and the distribution of copies of it through rental or public loan. The Fundación Alternativas does not necessarily identify with the texts that it commissions and edits, and this responsibility falls exclusively to its authors.

ISBN: 978-84-122331-9-3 Legal deposit: M-28612-2020

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 6 19/11/20 10:55 TABLE OF CONTENTS

9 Presentation Diego López Garrido and Inma Ballesteros

11 Introduction. Between two crises (2011-2020). Shipwrecks and cultural hopes for the near future Enrique Bustamante

27 Foreign cultural action: cultural diplomacy or foreign cultural policy Irene Aláez Vasconcellos

41 New players in cultural diplomacy: cities, civil society, social media and digital environment Mariano Martín Zamorano

55 Cultural and creative industries: cultural content on the internet as cultural cooperation agents Juan Luis Manfredi Sánchez

67 Spain within the framework of the European cultural cooperation strategy: potential mutual synergies José Andrés Fernández Leost

77 Panorama for Spain’s external cultural action: challenges and proposals Alfons Martinell Sempere

87 Sustainability of the past: a new protection strategy for archaeological heritage María Ángeles Querol

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97 Culture and territorial development, challenges and opportunities for the countryside Jorge Fernández León

111 Including culture and the arts in the education curriculum: an unresolved, urgent task Raquel Caerols Mateo

123 Production and distribution of audiovisual fiction in Spain: between traditional operators and the emergence of video on-demand services Concepción Cascajosa Virino

137 Institutional coordination and the value of stage heritage in globalisation: challenges for cultural policy in the stage sector Juan Arturo Rubio Arostegui

147 Report on the state of culture in Spain (2020): two complementary snapshots on the situation of culture Patricia Corredor Lanas

183 Advisory board

185 Research team

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 8 19/11/20 10:55 PRESENTATION

Diego López Garrido Inma Ballesteros

Although all sectors are affected by the pan- mation, as a bastion of innovation, in this new demic, culture has been, is and will be one reality that we keep on creating. of the areas that has most suffered its conse- Without beating around the bush, we can quences. Cultural activities need to be in close say that the digital environment has been contact with their audience and closing cine- colonised by cultural content. According to mas, theatres, concert halls and cultural activi- Eurostat,1 over 70% of Internet connections are ties in general has opened up an abyss between made with the intention of consuming cultural creators and their audiences. As you might ex- content. However, this presence is not being pect, this led to seeking ways of emerging in recognised, not even by the sector itself, that a new context using other tools that became often wastes its enormous potential to assert faithful allies to get through the darkest days its role in the new economy. This is doubtlessly of the health crisis. Today, as the month of July one of the great challenges to tackle, strength- comes to a close, it seems that it’s all behind us ening technological skills among creators and but we really have no idea how long we’ll have administrators, understanding how new busi- to keep up these new rules and, more impor- ness models work and proposing new cultural tantly, when life as we knew it will return. cooperation formulas that guarantee cultural In this scenario, cultural cooperation has content diversity in a digital environment. had to put the brakes on thousands of activities On the other hand, the cultural sector’s ca- as the virus spread throughout the world and pacity to connect with other disciplines must be physical borders closed. Simultaneously, digi- boosted by public powers when designing co- tal arenas were flooded with cultural content operation strategies for economic and territori- and encouraged unusual encounters that have al development. We need forums and spaces for made it possible to experiment with new ways inter-sector connection to boost innovation, an of telling stories, enjoying music and keeping inherent part of cultural creation in all its fields. in touch with the audience, such a fundamental part of cultural action. These experiments have brought out the strengths and weaknesses of a sector as it goes through major transfor- 1. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index. php/Culture_statistics_-_use_of_ICT_for_cultural_purposes

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 9 19/11/20 10:55 DIEGO LÓPEZ GARRIDO E INMA BALLESTEROS

Matters that we have been forced to rethink Our experience tells us that cultural coop- include our relationship with audiences. The eration projects are not intended for individ- audience has always been a key element in any ual purposes. They are initiatives that meet a cultural project. Its role has always been ac- greater goal beyond applause from the audi- tive and has conditioned how action has devel- ence and the critics. They provide value to for- oped. The conditions caused by the pandemic eign policy because they connect people, and mean that we have to reformulate how we they build networks based on trust and shared make contact and interact with everyone be- values. These intangibles are the true value of yond the stage. In this respect, the digital me- cultural cooperation because culture is about dium is a universe to explore, brimming with people, so cultural policy has to revolve around possibilities that we have to begin to discover. people. In the new framework of cultural cooperation, From 21st July of this year, new perspec- we will have to come up with ideas that allow tives have opened up for foreign cultural co- online and offline actions to coexist and work operation. The European Recovery Fund is out how to interconnect them. providing a chance to get very powerful fi- In Spain, cultural cooperation has been a nancing for the cultural and creative industries key element of foreign policy despite the many projected abroad. Culture needs an injection, ways of understanding it. With the recession not only of money, but also of real policy. This in 2008, cuts devastated the sector that nev- is an opportunity to make the transformations ertheless kept on generating networks in less raised in this report, presented in the in-depth formal environments. Culture professionals introduction by Enrique Bustamante, its coor- working in international cooperation have dinator. used all their experience to generate a chain of Spain should present the European Com- value that is one of our great strengths to tap. mission with an ambitious, wide-reaching Away from institutional programmes and ma- project for the Spanish and European strategy jor events, maybe slightly less ambitious pro- for foreign cultural policy. And this should fall jects have been sprouting, that have neverthe- within the context of the pandemic crisis, and less woven a hybrid and apparently ethereal should never lose sight of public opinion, that fabric but that nevertheless form part of our this report analyses using an extensive ques- cultural ecosystem. This is one of the issues tionnaire. that we wish to defend in this report and that we think will continue to evolve within the The Report on the State of Culture in Spain new normal and includes informal networks of in 2020 intends to help build this great plan professionals who seek out and find each other on the foreign cultural policy that our country to implement ideas and proposals that might and our industry needs. appear spontaneously in the digital environ- We would like to thank the Instituto Cer- ment or in any space with support from civil vantes, Acción Cultural Española AC/E and society, turned into an active audience that en- AECID for their work on this project, joining courages cultural production when deploying forces in this intention to rethink the foreign their cultural rights. cultural cooperation model for our new reality.

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Enrique Bustamante

The death of Luis Eduardo Aute as the COV- was ignored in the Moncloa Pacts (so often ID-19 epidemic took hold, representing not quoted these days) and was treated in some only an emblematic five decades of music and sectors, such as cinema, with blind neoliberal- song, but also painting or poetry or cinema ism that took our industry to the brink. and an entire vision of creative, independ- The cultural crisis brought about by the ent and critical capability, seemed to mark a pandemic is another historic paradox. When symbolic milestone in the collapse of Spanish we finished this publication last March and culture during lockdown, in every possible as- prepared to present ICE 2020 to the public, pect. However, Aute was also the erudite dem- many of us analysts were emphasising the onstration of an “undisciplined” creator who hopes and dreams of a situation that, although periodically went through a crisis, reinvented still affected by the consequences of the reces- himself and was reborn, who condensed so sion and the austerity of the “Great Crisis”, many registers and nuances that everyone can might fan the flame of positivity in the light find something to appreciate from one of his of a new progressive Government that flew the artistic moments or another, or in one of his flag of culture with a decisiveness that had not creative manifestations. been seen since 2004. Ever since the democratic transition, Span- The Survey among cultural agents, who ish culture has seemed to follow a similar dy- have been traditionally taking part in it for a namic of crisis and resurrection, artistic drive decade, highlighted precisely this feeling in and economic collapse. This even includes ICE 2019 which boasted relatively improved paradoxical destinations swimming against the scores for the diversity of Spanish culture, tide of political expectations, exactly as we saw although it continued to penalise public poli- in the late 70s when, in spite of the role given cies at all administrative levels and failed all to the arts on the road to democracy, culture

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 11 19/11/20 10:55 ENRIQUE BUSTAMANTE

aspects of projection and cultural strategies tors threatened a symbolic schism, particularly abroad. There is a common thread running be- severe for a Government that claimed to be tween Rodríguez Zapatero’s government and progressive, but also for the majority of the the start of the Coalition Government headed regional governments and major cities hailing by Pedro Sánchez (with all its differentiated from a very wide range of ideologies, where nuances) concerning appreciation of culture aid for culture and some of its activities came and a willingness to support its diversity, that late and in insufficient quantities. the years of Mariano Rajoy’s governments had The reactions from the culture association wiped from our memories. and business world were generally prudent The lockdown to beat the virus abruptly and positive. Calls to officially consider culture and painfully shattered these good vibrations as “a primary need” or as a “strategic sector”, because isolation launched a head-on attack urgent calls from national award winners in right at the heart of society’s symbolic life. culture and the arts who considered that “the Caged creativity was able to develop and even current model can dilute responsibilities…at shine from time to time on the internet (with all administrative levels,” thereby calling for the additional plus of generous creators and “joint action from all administrations” on a companies working for free), although the sector that is “fragile and vulnerable”, based economic, and also social and symbolic, chain on the principles of “inter-administrative co- of added value was collapsing above all in dis- ordination, cooperation and collaboration.” It tribution and dissemination, penalising cul- is true that cultural economic activities were tural activities and sub-sectors the more col- theoretically covered by the general measures lective and social their consumption: theatres, taken to prevent financial collapse, but the spe- concerts, cinemas, museums, bookshops, etc. cific nature of many of the sector’s needs, particularly due to its unstable and irregular work, In the case of Spain, this hammer-blow to left culture out in the cold concerning many of culture was like sticking a finger in a bleed- the rescue packages being implemented. ing wound as Spanish culture was only slowly recovering after what we called in ICE 2019 a In early April, the Ministries of Culture and “lost decade” due to lack of progress in all so- Inland Revenue announced a plan of short- cial and economic indicators. With 0.4% less term emergency measures, including lower- GDP than in 2009, a loss of turnover of €4,000 ing cultural VAT for online sales of books and M compared to 2008, 16,000 less cultural jobs digital press, and a future reactivation plan. and freezing any progress in gender equality, However, the effective measures only came as there was a great deal of ground to make up. a result of the joint meeting called by the Cul- ture Council that brought together the State The epidemic arrived and the “state of Administration, autonomous regions and the alarm” landed on this shaky ground. Just as a FEMP in a formal agreement “to rebuild and general, economic and health crisis arose, a boost culture in all areas.” And so, finally, the cultural crisis also came about because most first consequent measures were launched by Governments reacted late to the evidence of Central Government (€76.4 M initially) and in collapse, despite estimations of losses of over the regional and local field, aimed basically at a third of the financial year’s cultural turnover. providing aid to the specific nature of the cul- In the midst of a sea of demands and requests tural sector in terms of furlough arrangements for help by each economic sector, culture was and assistance for arts workers, and to inject put off once again and it was only considered cash flow and funding into cultural companies later when the claims from its multiple sec-

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and production companies, vulnerable to eco- However, beyond the necessary extension nomic suffocation. of the exceptional support measures for culture until the end of the outstanding economic However, culture has also inevitably been consequences of the pandemic on its business, the extraordinary terrain for a flood of popu- we need to start thinking about what happens list, and often demagogic, criticism and allega- next, about a major reactivation plan and its tions from people who not so long ago ignored social profitability, as well as economic ben- it or gleefully punished the sector. This is the efits. case of prominent politicians from parties and local governments as in Madrid that apa- This type of initiative fits with the goals of thetically stood by as the succession of “Black the Coalition Government, which came about Fridays” from Rajoy’s Governments affected following the motion of no confidence and the culture: VAT put up by as much as 13%, accu- interim government after two general elec- mulated budget cuts, sinking “social projects” tions, that had made at least some signs of a run by the banks, repeatedly broken promises change in attitude towards culture: restoration regarding the sponsorship law, plummeting of the Ministry of Culture, an attempt to in- foreign projection in every possible way. When crease the state cultural budget by almost 10%; two autonomous regions governed by the PP setting up the Gender Equality Observatory and Ciudadanos with support from Vox try to in Culture, with a specific work plan for 2019 take advantage of easing the state of alarm to and studies planned by sectors; recovery of the dismantle archaeological heritage protection PACE (External Action Plan) by the Ministries and stimulate property speculation, with the of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and Cul- pretext of speeding up economic recovery, it is ture (confirmed by the ministers José Guirao inevitable to think that the heralded “new nor- and José Borrell, with a new provision of €155 mal” feels too much like a flashback to what M), a really eloquent, inspirational gesture to we have experienced over and over in the past. strengthen external cultural action, slowing down traditional competence and collusion Complaints and criticism have once again between the two portfolios that Moratinos and emphasised the danger of confusion and dis- González Sinde signed in 2009, discarded in tortions that have been surrounding the world 2012 with the arrival of Mariano Rajoy. of culture over the last few years. For example, complaints raised by the business world However, along these lines, we above all around bullfighting, cuisine or tourism that prefer to highlight the progressive coalition could legitimately claim assistance for their commitments between the two parties men- business but instead they continued to questioned in the “A new deal for Spain. Govern- tion the legitimacy of culture and even ab- ment agreements for an entire term of office” surdly the “cultural industries”. Or the abusive (December 2019) document that breaks down claims from some artists and business owners proposals reiterated by the ICE and the Obser- who invoked eternal copyright (supposedly to vatory from 2011 to 2019: boost creativity among creators seventy years • Chapter 6 (Culture and Sport) thereby after their death) ignoring not only the histori- states that “we will promote a state trea- cal social contract that has surrounded intel- ty for Culture”, increasing “the budget lectual property rights in Europe but the risk for culture progressively in the general of falling into a copyright that systematically state budgets.” expropriates this right in favour of capital and major players. • In different sections of this topic, there are promises to act in specific outstand-

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 13 19/11/20 10:55 ENRIQUE BUSTAMANTE

ing territories: “Finish drafting the respectively in 2008) (Ministry of Culture. Artist’s Statute”, set up the authorship Cultural statistical analysis, 2019). rights office, support for “Artistic and The general weakness running through this cultural creations in co-official and own economy is influenced to a large extent by the languages“, a “reading deal”, an “Action fact that Spanish people do not spend much plan on Equality in the cultural field” on cultural goods and services, overwhelmed that connects with “closing the gender by the crisis. So, in 2018, each home spend an gap in the STEM field” in chapter 7 and average of € 682.5 on culture per year (€718.3 with “measures for deserted Spain” in in 2017), despite the Ministry of Culture’s digital access. change in accounting to include mobile and • Section 6.4 states that “we will defend a Internet-related services in this chapter, which plural RTVE model that is independent, represents 22.5 % of total spending. public, transparent and high quality, that might become a centre for produc- Average spending per individual in this section aimed at promoting and broadcast- tion reached €274.6 a year, with a slight drop ing Spanish culture.” back on 2016 (€307) and even 2017 (€288.6) without coming close to the maximum level • Chapter 11 addressed Spain’s external from 2008 (€372). role in the field of cooperation, as a “Eu- ropean Spain that is open to the world”: increasing development aid up to 0.5 % 2. Plummeting public spending of GDP, strengthening the AECID and reforming the law of Spain’s coopera- The other factor that decisively determines tion abroad, reinforcing relations with the situation of Spanish culture and that also Africa, the EU and Latin America and thereby conditions its unequal offer from re- the Caribbean. gion to region, is cultural public spending, meaning the commitment from the different This new Cultural Policies Plan must una- local and national authorities with that essen- voidably and initially start with the greatest tial segment from the welfare state that, in turn, weaknesses in Spanish culture(s), that might determines basic correlations for cohesion and be summarised as follows: social redistribution. In this way, the “cleared”1 public expenditure on culture rose in 2017 (last I. PERSISTENT WEAKNESSES FOR CULTURE IN joint figure available) to €5,092 M (€7,090 M SPAIN: EARLY 2020 in 2008). However, breaking down the figures is even more revealing: in the aforementioned financial year, the Central State spent €678 1. Insufficient private spending M (1,135 in 2009), the Autonomous Regions €1,144 M (2046 in 2009) and Local Adminis- Firstly, the total turnover is an emblematic tration spent €3,270 M (3,837 in 2009). Con- economic figure for the weight of culture in sequently, in our ICE 2019 report focussing on the Spanish economy that in 2018 (latest fig- local cultural policies, we concluded that the ures from the Ministry of Culture) rose to administrative level closest to citizens (includ- 12,714.3 million Euros, a slight setback from the €14,099 M in 2017 (€16,963 M in 2008). This meant 2.4 % of the GDP in 2018, 3.2 % including intellectual property (2.8 and 3.5 % 1. Cleared expenditure: “Obligations recognised by the different public administrations”.

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ing provincial governments) had been the last 2010 levels (€662.3 M) after many years in line of resistance against plummeting public constant decline and some partial recoveries cultural policies for almost a decade. And to since 2015. However, it should also be empha- a certain extent, it continues to play this role sised that Spanish cinema barely made up 15% (0.28 % of GDP compared to 0.16% of spend- of this total business, a long way off the 20% ing from the Central State and Autonomous that had been considered as the bare minimum regions) despite the frustrated attempt to in- to hold out, even in a year with productions by crease this central state budget in 2019. two classic stars, Almodóvar and Amenábar, whilst most of the box office is concentrated 3. Access inequalities on on Hollywood stars, and in Spanish cinema on a very small number of films supported by Regarding this unequal offer, it is essential to TV chains. In exemplary fashion, this demon- mention the socio-economic variables that strates market problems that determine imbal- determine severe cultural consumption in- ances in identity, creativity and diversity of an equalities among the Spanish population, ex- emblematic cultural industry. acerbated by the crisis: size of home, level of studies, civil status and type of home certainly 5. Instability and imbalances in production influence this level of cultural spending, but and jobs the most significant parameters remain the job situation and the consequent income lev- At a mercantile level, this cultural economic el: earning more than 3,000 Euros/month re- fabric is moved by 122,673 cultural companies sults in €382.7 spent on culture per year while in the different sectors (112,643 in 2008) that for an income of less than €1,000, this barely represented 3.7% of total Spanish business en- amounts to €168.1. This implies that, in the tities, generating 690,300 jobs in 2018 (latest midst of a severe worsening of job insecurity available figures), 3.6 % of the Spanish total and socioeconomic inequality, this has also (706,300 in 2008). widened the inequality of access to paid cul- The prevalence of SMEs and self-em- ture, that creates and aggravates a general frac- ployment is clear when we see that 7.2 % of ture. Cultural imbalances thereby slow down business entities have more than six workers upward mobility even more, when it was al- and only 0.6 % have more than fifty workers ready quite frankly in poor repair. (IDEM) but this data that would demonstrate its productive atomisation in any other indus- 4. Intra and inter-sector weaknesses try is a positive factor in culture, showing its creative diversity. Temporary work had be- However, in many cultural sectors such as come the general rule over the last decade, in- recorded and digital music, cinema and au- creasing the massive instability of creators and diovisual or even books, it is not enough to auxiliary workers in culture, including a great calculate its turnover because only part of deal of bogus self-employment and plummet- these quantities really feeds the Spanish cul- ing salaries and the chance to make a living tural economy. Although this detailed analysis, from their work, despite the very high propor- that few statistical sources and fewer periodic tion of further education, 69.3 % compared to studies highlight today, eludes the purposes 42.9 % in general. Furthermore, creative work and dimensions of this text, cinema in Spain is generally even worse paid by online plat- might be raised as an example, as its turnover forms, despite their remarkable savings in dis- in 2019 rose to €624.1 M, almost recovering tribution costs.

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 15 19/11/20 10:55 ENRIQUE BUSTAMANTE

The endemic concentration of businesses in dedicated to “digital content”, demonstrating Madrid and Catalonia is also dangerous (42.1 % constant growth since 2013 (9,471 in 2013). of the total). This becomes a majority of 64.9 % Although sales for this last share had less rela- if we add Andalusia and the Valencian Commu- tive weight, with €23,250 M, compared to the nity, leaving a scarce margin for the remaining IS total (€115,154 M), its growth was greater communities. This conceals desertification of (+8.7 % compared to a general figure of +5 %) the economy and the offer–and its distribution but this evolution was reversed in employment capacity–for most of Spanish culture. with 109,281 positions (an increase of 3.3 %) compared to the general for IS (+7.3 %). Gender equality also has unfinished business in Spanish culture, as 54.5 % of jobs are In any case, the lion’s share of this digital taken by men (420,100) compared to 45.5 % business was encapsulated by the cinema, ra- for women (270,200). A strong imbalance in dio and digital television activities, 34.6 % of the percentage over total employment (4 % the total, and programming and broadcasting of men compared to 3.1 % of women) that activities, 29.7 %. While the remaining digital has barely changed in a decade (0.62 % more cultural sectors appeared with less weight: ad- women in culture) despite proclamations of vertising on-line (11.4 %), publishing includ- equality. ing books and the press (11 %), videogames (6.2 %), … 6. Insufficient and imbalanced digitalisation The great black hole of this progress over the last six years is the flagrant gender inequal- Another significant field in the state of Spanish ity, with 64.7 % of jobs held by men and only culture is its digital transformation, vital for it 35.3 % by women, which is enormously worry- to survive and become stronger in a world that ing for the future and made more acute by the is increasingly governed by offer and consump- glass ceiling in management careers: 2.8 % of tion on digital devices and networks, a terrain women compared to 11.4 % of men. that is now only mediated by the autonomous entity Red.es and its ONTSI (Information So- ciety Observatory), answering to the Ministry II. SOCIAL PACT, BASED ON CIVIL SOCIETY of Industry.2 Its latest reports on the ICT sector and digital content in Spain (a concept that We have to look back on it, without resent- spans not only cultural industries in the strict- ment as a basic democratic clean-up: just like est sense, but also creative industries such as in public health, in education or research, the advertising) bring out a certain optimism on mud that culture is currently mired in comes the progressive digitalisation of this field, al- from boggy ground, the succession of “Black ready estimated at 54 % (2017) although it also Fridays” in the days of Rajoy, of cabinet meet- owns up to its delays and its unequal evolution ings that, with no compassion whatsoever, among sectors. neither communication nor consensus either with the opposition or the sector, and with no Consequently, in 2018 and out of 35,100 plausible justification that it barely scratched information society companies, 10,035 were the surface of the deficit, the cultural sector’s crisis was wilfully worsened: brutal VAT rises, amassed budget cuts, biased censors, broken promises (sponsorship law), punishments 2. ONTSI. Annual report on the digital content sector in Spain, heaped on culture with a whiff of ideological 2019. Retrieved from: https://www.ontsi.red.es/sites/ontsi/ files/2020-01/InformeSectorContenidosDigitales2019.pdf vendetta.

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Now, with a view to the yearned-for release sive for their authors. However, in the wake of from our imprisonment and opening up pub- the newly recovered Culture Council, it is real- lic culture again, we thereby cannot limit our- istic to demand a major social pact that agrees selves to claiming the return to a “golden age” on and defines a coordinated, joint recovery that never even existed in Spain, but we should plan at all levels of the Spanish state. recall claims from some analysts as for years In other words, culture cannot always live we have been calling for new cultural public on the edge of the abyss, in a situation that is policies that arise from a real deal with civil so- simply putting out one fire after another, re- ciety revolving around their culture(s), based acting to economic or health disasters, accord- around the search for diversity and pluralism ing to the politicians and ideologies unaware of at its core, and the conviction that culture (and their importance, with increasingly less indus- communication) play a key role in the whole trial and economic muscle to keep going. development of a society (economic, social, ecological) (Bustamante, 2014). The system- Consequently, and looking at the main im- atic low scores given in our surveys regarding balances brought up earlier, we might dare to public policies at all levels are a further reflec- systematise a few essential lines of this action tion that the cultural policies of the past were for the immediate future. designed for a model of culture and society • The first threat to cultural diversity is that is now old and tired. the symbolic deep inequality that has However, systematic public policies are es- been installed and normalised in Span- sential in culture, on the condition of abandon- ish society, because as we analysed ing all the illustrated despotism, any bureau- with accurate data in our reports, al- cratic structure, that can be easily captured by most half the adult population in Spain lobbies and media stars, to become grounded, has no access to culture (or communi- as solidly proposed by the latest UNESCO cation) that requires payment or they reports (Re/shaping cultural policies, 2015, have to devote ridiculous quantities to 2018), in consultation and participation from it, for reasons of instability, and scarce the whole wealth of associations that rise up income. This is an often-repeated con- around culture (users, creators, gender, sector- clusion in surveys or recent territorial based and territorial entities, producers, etc.); reports in Barcelona or Andalusia, that and in transparent application of systematic constitutes a severe danger in demo- indicators and assessments that verify its di- cratic terms, increasing citizen “disen- rect and induced effects over time. gagement” that the FA Democracy Re- ports have been detecting. It is difficult to imagine that a “State Deal” is on the horizon for culture between all the ma- • This risk requires a future focus on fair jor political parties. It seems implausible right access to culture both socially and ter- now after recent ‘crimes against culture’ com- ritorially (including deserted Spain… mitted by many right-wing opposition politi- deserted by cultural offer). The gesture cians, and from statements that are as brutal made by many creators and companies as reiterated by the leaders of Vox (“Spain can to offer free creations during lockdown live without its puppeteers”) or from the then- is a valuable symbol of this situation, spokesperson from Ciudadanos, Marcos de and should be complemented by pe- Quinto (“Gathering place for well-paid activ- riodic campaigns in the near future ists who are docile with power”), only offen- to promote cultural consumption and spending to continue “manufacturing”

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audiences. However, in the future, as- should break down and fully apply the sessments from programmes such as Artist’s Statute. Vale Cultura in Brazil or Argentina of- • The fight against media oligopolies fer important experiences to reach out and global digital giants requires an to excluded populations and contribute antitrust regulation that protects crea- to a sustainable economy for culture. tors’ rights (currently overexploited on • The other great defect of cultural many platforms) and for users. On the equality evidently involves gender. Its positive side, fair taxation is required progressive work, begun in 2007, was with the traditional economy that al- abruptly stopped from 2012 onwards lows resources to be amassed to sus- and now requires a firm, legislative eco- tain a special support plan for cultural nomic plan paying particular attention industries and the national and/or Eu- to digital culture. However, systematic ropean platforms, including the public observation should particularly spread communication service. to cultural consumption to prevent dis- • Fiscal policies take an undeniable star- criminatory situations to access culture ring role in this field: positively, very and “digital inequality” (training, skills, low cultural VAT which should be uses, added value in on-line communi- rounded down uniformly among cul- cation). tural activities and transferred to the • Effectively, the virus crisis has come on-line environment; negatively, fair to emphasise, as if this were necessary, taxation obligations for major online that the future of a major part of cul- platforms, regulating its cultural and ture and communication is unavoid- independent investment and uphold- ably digital, which requires a real plan ing the public service. Exceptional do- to boost digitalisation from cultural in- nations are appreciated, but in a rule dustries. The spontaneous and unequal of law, obligations and duties must be digital transition of our cultural sectors formulated legally, watched over by in- (strong in audiovisual, weak in books, dependent authorities. for example) cannot be maintained • The essential primacy of public spend- without severe risks. ing on cultural policies, fed by the • The shining light of diversity also im- aforementioned sources and other pos- plies copyright regulation and policy sible sources such as the national lot- that ensures the concurrence and tery, do not exclude the opportunity transparency of authorship societies in and urgency of updated legislation that all sectors, and that, while protecting strengthens specific sponsorship of creator’s salaries, no longer polarises culture, with special attention given to authorship pay between the few multi- micro-sponsorship, always in a fiscally millionaire stars and a mass of poorly fair and transparent form and with paid creators or “volunteers” who can- public guidance on the strategic and not make a living from their artistic particularly vulnerable activities and work. The situation of the “amateurs”, territories. ever more numerous and vital as a re- • If there is current consensus in the cul- serve of creativity, should be consid- tural world, it is that Spanish cultural ered in this comprehensive design that action abroad, ruined by the crisis, is an

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urgent and fundamental terrain to pro- Orozco, Francisco Rui Cádima, Martín Becerra, ject Spanish culture, for international Ana Mae Barbosa and Guillermo Mastrini. cooperation and for cultural diplomacy The OCC has decided to determine Span- and our country’s image throughout ish cultural action as problematic and urgent the world. A coordinated and coherent since the crisis, and so a vital task for the new strategy is essential in this field as con- Government and unfinished business for our cluded by many renowned experts in cultural agents and sectors as repeatedly dem- this ICE 2020. onstrated by our surveys. And, after the effects Finally, this is a case of thinking and debat- of the pandemic and its demonstrated conse- ing, reconstructing a real support strategy for quences (financial and epidemic globalisation, Spanish culture, fleeing from this endemic and nationalisation of resources, penalisation of nasty action-reaction dynamic that has often international and internal inequalities), this been manipulated to qualify culture as a sector action was revealed to be more important than of begging acrobats; to legitimise public plans ever in culture. Our authors have made a mas- and resources due to the social demands and sive effort to assay this reality. needs, from the users and from cultural agents, in a fertile dialogue that should rule over any On the one hand, symbolic cultural diplo- other political and economic consideration. macy (artistic, cultural, intellectual) between nations and countries is becoming increasing- To start with, whenever possible, drafting ly important in a world marked by disordered a real White Paper for Culture could be and globalisation and, at the same time, by a clash should be addressed, based on systematic con- between exacerbated nationalisms that feed sultations with citizen associations and cultur- isolationism and unforeseeable regional con- al players, a call for “general states of Spanish flicts. And it is presented today as the essential culture(s)” as a basis for debate and drawing line of public diplomacy, as the only alterna- up new public policies. tive to relations of force and power, growing on the side-lines of customary international laws that are being revived today in the inter- III. SPANISH CULTURAL ACTION ABROAD national arena, causing massive damage to the fight against inequality and poverty (Sadikki, Regarding the last field mentioned in this list, Said, 2009; Montoya, Sandra, 2012). In these the first ICE back in 2011, devoted to the global circumstances, cultural diplomacy, which has projection of Spanish culture, already men- become fashionable in international relations, tioned that one of our preferential fields of is perfectly legitimate and valid and is becom- study was our country’s international cultural ing the topic of many studies and academic cooperation, precisely because we are working and political insights. On the condition of nu- from a global and interdependent conception ancing many of its goals, players and tools and of diversity; and we might mention Europe, incorporating them into a global vision of di- Latin America and North Africa as priorities, versity. Because, as we have upheld in previous for multiple historic and current reasons, for ICE editions, culture is a vital mainstay for the this inescapable task. In successive reports, this 2030 sustainable development goals and with- topic has been developed by a wide range of out it as a tool and a cross-discipline perspec- experts and ICE 2018 devoted its central dos- tive of all policies, these goals are bound to fail. sier to “Spain and the Ibero-American cultural space” with contributions from top-notch au- Along that line, cultural diplomacy required thors such as Néstor García Canclini, Guillermo today by that uncertain international field is

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far from the classic vision of unilateral and peoples, often subject to unpredictable col- propaganda instrument of the Nation-States or laboration with foreign states and their media of their promotional work for mere export of resources. However, today’s digital networks cultural products; and of course, of an omni- and the devices and applications that strength- present conception of mercantile public rela- en their expansion and omnipresence allow a tions that tend to corrupt any understanding level of universalisation of access to symbolic between intelligent communities right from contents and of porosity in its reception that, the outset. Consequently, we prefer to talk when well administrated, can overcome these about external cultural action that encompass- obstacles satisfactorily. On the condition, es all the aforementioned declinations. naturally, of not being planned to flagrantly go against its own ethical principles, and not Firstly, action requires a position of inter- feeling sorry for “hard” diplomacy of military cultural dialogue between peoples and their threats or political and commercial blackmail identities, respecting other’s cultures, and not that unfortunately remain in play today. just an instrumental vision of actual national cultural resources. In addition, it must be in- The history of external cultural action for tegrated in the heart of the broadest horizon- some emerging nations, already analysed from tal and multilateral cooperation seeking out time to time by specialist research, shows the cultural diversity that can only be global. In a difficulties of attaining this complex combina- time of overflowing and erosion of the States’ tion. Either due to the effect of the periodic monopoly below (local powers, tertiary sector economic crises or due to the sudden turna- entities, civil society) and above (due to re- round of national priorities or even due to gional integrations such as the European Un- “soft power” work clashing with the authori- ion or multilateral organisations), diplomacy tarian impulses of its countries; such as Brazil and joint cultural action from a nation has to or Mexico, Turkey, India or China (Rodríguez be conceived as the result of integrating mul- Echevarría, María del Rocío, 2015; Saute Tor- tiple public and private, national and interna- regini, Camila, Chagas, Carolinan and Ruiz, tional, state and substate players (Fernández Carina, 2018), that demonstrate as many stun- Leost, José Andrés, 2015). Finally, it should ning successes as early disasters in their for- focus on outsider populations and not just the eign diplomacy; and that chip away at external elite, as always happens in the world of cul- efforts over long periods when the distances ture, and so it must be planned and sustained between their cultural projections and their in the medium/long-term, without expecting national interests are revealed, or between immediate results that are incompatible with their regional leadership and their aspirations the slow time required for diffusion and em- to dominate. Donald Trump’s United States powerment of the symbolic assets in current can thereby be evaluated from the perspective plural societies. of an abrupt and massive squandering of capital accumulated over decades, with an acceler- Given that diplomacy and the external cul- ated deterioration to that country’s cultural tural action within it are necessarily based on diplomacy efforts to present a friendly image social communication, or more simply put, of the world based on its creativity and its cul- they are “external communicational policy” tural potential. (Manfredi, Juan, 2011; Badillo, Angel, 2014), it was not easy to complete this magical crusade Without looking much further, Spanish cul- in a classical world characterised by scarce tural action has enjoyed periods of modernisa- lines of communication between nations and tion and rollout, such as the 1980s or the sec-

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ond half of the 90s (de la Riva, Forn, 2012), and However, in turn, Spanish international stages of regression and deterioration such as cultural action is integrated and strengthened in the dark years of the great crisis of the 21st within the European Union that barely ran ex- century that, from 2010 to 2018, downgraded ternal action in 2004 and ignored Latin Amer- development aid in general (Oxfam/ Intermón, ica but began to take off by setting up EUNIC 2019) and exterior cultural cooperation in (European National Institutes for Culture) particular, right down to a bare minimum (Ba- in 2006, in the communication on the “Euro- dillo, Angel, 2014). Beyond the one-off effects pean agenda for culture in a globalising world of the financial crises, many analysts bring out (COM, 2007 (242 Final)”, implementation of the lack of a real state policy in this field, the the European External Action Service (EEAS) zigzagging succession of plans and institutions, from 2010, and particularly the “preparatory the systematic lack of coordination between action”, a broad enquiry urged by the Europe- a multitude of organisations and the different an Parliament in 2014 (Rodríguez Ponga, Ra- state and substate levels of public action, the fael, Sánchez Moreno, Eduardo, 2017). With lack of a consistent strategy maintained over one-off and isolated interventions, and lacking time, of a modern model of cultural diplomacy a global and regional strategy, European efforts and cultural cooperation capable of facing the were not always successful as demonstrated by challenges of today’s world (Badillo, Angel, the audiovisual cooperation programmes with 2014; Martín Zamorano, Mariano, and Rius- Mercosur, that bragged of a non-existent in- Uldemolins, 2016; Lamo de Espinosa, Emilio, dustrial model similar to the European model Badillo, Angel, 2017; Menéndez Reyes, Maria and support from the affected States that fell Eugenia, 2018; Alvarez, Joan, 2019). away in no time at all (Vlassis, Antonio, 2016). Furthermore, future challenges in this field In particular, this cooperation made its for the Spanish State, its languages and diverse formal debut in the cultural world with a cultures are made more difficult, but also more joint communication in 2016 “Towards an EU necessary than ever, in its current international Strategy for International Cultural Relations”,3 context. In neighbouring Africa and Asia, due that sought to make the EU a strong global to their interdependence with immigration and player, promoting cultural diversity and hu- their development cooperation requirements; man rights, with action centred on three main with Latin America because recovery after axes: supporting culture as an instrument for the job crisis in favour of that “Ibero-America sustainable social and economic development; cultural space” (essentially coordinated with promoting culture and intercultural dialogue the Portuguese and therefore economically for peace between communities; and strength- and ideologically, with Brazil and Portugal) is ening cooperation on cultural heritage. conditioned today by the emergence of China This mission, integrated in the Vice-Pres- and Russia on that continent and due to a wave idency of the European Union for foreign af- of neoliberal governments that shy away from fairs and security (PESC) now run in the new supporting culture (Alvarez, Joan, 2019b). The Brussels commission by Josep Borrell, address- projection and cooperation of that creativity es candidate countries, the EU’s neighbours, reserve comprising the 50 million inhabitants 47 developing countries and it includes South- of the United States with Hispanic origins has, in turn, become more arduous in an atmosphere that exalts English-speaking culture and privileges, and leave Spanish and its artistic 3. Joint Communication to the European Parliament & the Council. “Towards an EU Strategy for International cultural creations out in the cold. relations”. Brussels, 8-6-2016. JOIN(2016) 29 FINAL.

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ern Asia, Africa and Latin American and the communication. He emphasises the Caribbean, a particularly important regional role of major cities in this purpose, and field for Spain where there is a great deal of the use of social media (particularly unfinished business as shown in recent studies Twitter) by public institutions that are (Bonet, Lluis, Schargorodosky, Héctor, 2019) committed to external action. The central aim of this ICE 2020 is to ana- • Juan Luis Manfredi (University of Cas- lyse and reflect upon this panorama, providing tilla la Mancha) addresses the role of solutions and alternatives grounded in a study cultural and information content on the of the real world. And to do this, we have called net as cultural cooperation agents. The upon academic experts and renowned profes- internet provides cultural and creative sionals in the field of culture and cultural di- industries, including public media, with plomacy. a growing function in the midst of internationalisation and within the heart of the global ecosystem of digital media. IV. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM ICE 2020: FROM • Jose Andrés Fernández Leost (Com- EXTERNAL CULTURAL ACTION TO SERIALISED plutense University) focuses on Span- FICTION ish cultural action in the new scenario of the European Union’s strategies and ICE 2020 has shone the spotlight on Spain’s external cultural agendas that have external cultural action, with a dossier coor- been forcefully deployed over the last dinated by five authors, all renowned experts few years, although with a remarkable in this field, boasting wide-reaching research delay. Our external cultural action and work. Altogether, these texts provide a vibrant its institutions such as the Instituto gaze, brimming with initiatives and proposals Cervantes can draw on remarkable re- on the present and the future of our interna- inforcements and synergies in this tional cultural projection. They have all made framework. an additional effort to update the context and the impact of the virus pandemic and the eco- • Finally, Alfons Martinell (University of nomic repercussions over the last few months. Girona) suggests a dual panoramic vision of Spanish external cultural action, The initial section on this topic comprises: from its turbulent historic evolution • Irene Aláez (Complutense University) and in the succession of institutions, dissects the diverse concepts used in programmes and actions that have this field to analyse the multiple nature characterised it in democracy. He con- of its players, particularly the constel- cludes that we need to revitalise it and lation of public administration organi- adapt it to significant changes in Span- sations and their effective coordination ish society and international areas and deficits. She concludes with the over- mentions the urgency of making deci- whelming need for a joint work frame- sions in this regard. work and a common road map. As has become traditional, the second part • Mariano Martín Zamorano (University of this ICE 2020 addresses a wide array of im- of Barcelona) examines how the cul- portant current sectors and perspectives of tural diplomacy paradigm has evolved Spanish culture, ranging from preserving clas- and been transformed by a whole host sical culture, arts training for young people, of players and the mutations of digital plans to boost performing arts to the most re-

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cent audiovisual developments from the Over • Concepción Cascajosa (Carlos III Uni- the Top video drive. Here as well, our writers versity) studies the current situation have attempted to analyse and predict the con- of production and distribution of au- sequences of the pandemic on its respectively diovisual fiction in Spain, from drops in fields and problem areas. the box office share for Spanish cinema in its own cinema market and the ex- • María Angeles Querol (Complutense treme polarisation of its successes and University) approaches the conceptuali- failures, as far as revitalisation of seri- sation of archaeological heritage and the alised fiction both on classic TV chan- history of its management, providing a nels and especially regarding video preventive conception of the urban ap- on demand and OTT television. This proach. In particular, she concludes that relaunch nevertheless offers pros and sustainability of recovery and preserva- cons and calls for new regulation in the tion of the past affects rural environ- Spanish audiovisual field. ments and their limited resources. • Arturo Rubio (University of Nebrija) • Jorge Fernández León (Municipal Cul- analyses the situation of the Spanish ture Foundation, Gijón) analyses the performing arts from new perspectives situation and the role of culture in the such as the role of amateurs, closure countryside, as a complement to en- of theatres or the crisis in major cities hance the ICE 2019 dossier on local such as Barcelona in a global environ- cultural policies. In the midst of cultural ment. Based on the exhaustion of pub- desertification within “Deserted Spain”, lic cultural policies in this sector, he highly valuable initiatives and projects separates off new proposals. emerge to recover and comprehensively develop these communities. • Patricia Corredor (Rey Juan Carlos Uni- versity) draws conclusions from the • Raquel Caerols (Antonio de Nebrija Uni- survey taken by around one hundred versity) reviews arts education in gen- Spanish cultural agents with an average eral, and how to get culture on the edu- score of 5.1 for the current situation cation curriculum for our young people. of our culture. Two current questions The long succession of education laws on Spanish cultural action are strongly and plans in Spain has thereby subjected criticised, in conjunction with some of arts training to a back and forth, sudden the worst scores concentrated on for- changes that are neither well-grounded eign projection of our cultures. The role nor promise happy endings, although of ICT and diversity in creation and current governmental projects do hold a consumption get the best scores. glimmer of hope for improvement.

REFERENCES:

Álvarez, J. (2019a): Hacia un nuevo paradigma para la diplomacia cultural, Real Instituto Elcano. Retrieved from: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano_es/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_ CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_es/zonas_es/lengua+y+cultura/ari8-2019-alvarezvalencia-hacia-paradigma- diplomacia-cultural-espanola

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Álvarez, J. (2019b): Diplomacias culturales en español, Instituto Europeo de Estudios Internacionales. Retrieved from: https://www.fsanmillan.es/sites/default/files/page/docs/informe-diplomacia- cultural-enero-2019.pdf Badillo, Á. (2014): Las políticas públicas de acción cultural exterior de España, Real Instituto Elcano. Retrieved from: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/wcm/connect/403edb0044639570ad11 bde307648e49/EEE19-badillo-politicas-publicas-accion-cultural-exterior-espana+.pdf?MOD=AJPE RES&CACHEID=403edb0044639570ad11bde307648e49 Bonet, L. and Schargodorosky, H. (eds.) (2019). Retos de las relaciones culturales entre la Unión Europea y América Latina y el Caribe, Barcelona, Quaderns Gescénics. Retrieved from: http://www. ub.edu/cultural/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Bonet-Schargorodsky-eds.-2019-Retos-de-las-relaciones-culturales-entre-la-Unión-Europea-y-América-Latina-y-el-Caribe.pdf Bustamante, E. (2013): La cultura en tiempos de crisis. Fuentes financieras y políticas públicas, Docu- mento de trabajo 12/1983, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas. Retrieved from: https://www.fundacionalternativas.org/public/storage/cultura_documentos_archivos/6b530de3cae4649920364a448 41532c5.pdf De la Riva, F. (2012). «En defensa de una diplomacia cultural para España», Política exterior, no. 147, May. Retrieved from: https://www.politicaexterior.com/articulos/politica-exterior/en-defensa-de- una-diplomacia-cultural-para-espana/ European Union (2016): Joint Communication to the European Parliament & the Council. Towards and Eu Strategies for International Cultural Relations, Brussels, 8-6-2016. JOIN(2016) 29 FINAL. Fernández Albertos, J. (2018): «El impacto de la desigualdad en la democracia», in A. Penadés (coord.), Informe sobre la democracia en España 2018, Fundación Alternativas. Retrieved from: https:// www.fundacionalternativas.org/public/storage/publicaciones_archivos/11f785ff90372901183423 4b4aca3e12.pdf Fernández Leost, J. A. (2015): «Diplomacia cultural y relaciones público-privadas», AFDUAM, no. 19. Retrieved from: https://repositorio.uam.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10486/676299/AFDU- AM_19_1_20.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Lamo de Espinosa, E. and Badillo, Á. (2017): El Instituto Cervantes y la diplomacia cultural en España: Una reflexión sobre el modelo, Real instituto Elcano. Retrieved from: http://www.realinstitutoelcano. org/wps/wcm/connect/e0f53c81-30af-4cc9-93d3-b7b22e0d84e2/LamoDeEspinosa-Badillo-Insti- tuto-Cervantes-diplomacia-cultural-Espana-reflexion.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=e0f53c81- 30af-4cc9-93d3-b7b22e0d84e2 Manfredi, J. (2011): «Hacia una teoría comunicativa de la diplomacia pública», Comunicación y Socie- dad, vol. XXIV, no. 3. Retrieved from: http://dadun.unav.edu/handle/10171/27282 Menéndez Reyes, M. E. (2018). «Diplomacia cultural: aparición del concepto y apuntes sobre el modelo de diplomacia cultural en España», Culturas, vol. 5, no. 2. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329658741_Diplomacia_cultural_aproximacion_al_concepto_y_apuntes_so- bre_el_modelo_de_diplomacia_cultural_en_Espana/link/5c13e964a6fdcc494ff50a8f/download Montoya, S. (2012): «La redefinición de la diplomacia cultural en el mundo contemporáneo», OASIS, no. 17, November, pp. 165-202. Retrieved from: https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/oasis/article/view/3670/3770 OXFAM/INTERMÓN (2019). La realidad de la ayuda 2019. De la década perdida a la agenda 2030, Ma- drid. Retrieved from: http://www.realidadayuda.org/Informe_RDA_2019_FINAL_270619.pdf

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Rodríguez Echevarría, M. R., Tawit Kuri, M. (2015): «La diplomacia cultural de México y Turquía como instrumento de poder regional», Cahier des Amériques Latines, no. 80. Retrieved from: https:// journals.openedition.org/cal/4136 Rodríguez Ponga, R. and Sánchez Moreno, E. (2017): «La cultura en las relaciones internacionales de la UE», Estudios de Política Exterior, no. 179. Retrieved from: https://www.politicaexterior.com/ articulos/politica-exterior/la-cultura-en-las-relaciones-exteriores-de-la-ue/La cultura en las relaciones internacionales de la UE Saddiki, S. (2009): «El papel de la diplomacia cultural en las relaciones “internacionales”», CIDOB, no. 88. Retrieved from: https://www.cidob.org/es/articulos/revista_cidob_d_afers_internacion- als/88/el_papel_de_la_diplomacia_cultural_en_las_relaciones_internacionales Saute Torregini, C., Chagas, C. and Ruiz, C. (2018): «La diplomacia cultural en la política exterior brasileña. Un análisis comparado de dos momentos de transición matricial», Foro Internac- ional, vol. 58, no. 1, Mexico. Retrieved from: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_ arttext&pid=S0185-013X2018000100089&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=esLa diplomacia cultural en la política exterior brasileña”. Vlassis, A. (2016): «Organizaciones regionales y diversidad cultural: La diplomacia de la Unión Europea con el Mercosur: entre la sombra de Hollywood y la acción gubernamental», CIC, no. 21. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312949806_Organizaciones_regionales_y_di- versidad_cultural_la_diplomacia_de_la_Union_Europea_con_el_Mercosur_entre_la_sombra_de_ Hollywood_y_la_accion_intergubernamental

informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 25 19/11/20 10:55 informe_cultura_2020_ingles.indb 26 19/11/20 10:55 FOREIGN CULTURAL ACTION: CULTURAL DIPLOMACY OR FOREIGN CULTURAL POLICY

Irene Aláez Vasconcellos

This article looks at how culture is used by foreign diplomacy to achieve economic and political aims and not as an end in itself. Throughout the text, questions will be raised that demonstrate the need for external cultural policy that firmly backs internationalisation of creators and consolidates production and distribution networks. Ideas are also put forward that might improve the current situation and lead to a common foreign policy that boosts the image of Spain’s culture abroad. The consequences of COVID 19 exacerbate these requirements.

Key words: cultural diplomacy, external cultural policy, cultural policy, cultural internationalisation, external cultural action.

I. INTRODUCTION: CONCEPTS IN THE FRAY Over these months, the institutions have attempted to work out how to protect the cultur- In March 2020, Spain was affected by a great al ecosystem whilst also beaming culture into pandemic with worldwide consequences. We homes, where the right to take part in cultural are now in a complex situation with global life has developed individually. Many decisions challenges that require global solutions, mean- have involved backing content digitalisation ing that we must devise new formulas for glob- to ease access, although we should not forget al governance. To do so, multilateral authori- people without access to the internet who fall ties such as UNESCO, the European Council down the so-called digital gap. and the European Union should open up to Today’s decisions will be the result of future this society and become permeable to new situations, meaning that we need to start work voices, agreeing on their new mandates. His- now, backed by experts and scientists from dif- tory shows us how it is possible to come out ferent areas with a wide range of views, brain- of major crises if we stick together, even if the storming possible scenarios, the measures they State’s role has to be reconfigured. Even more require and their consequences. so when this refers to mobility spaces as we must be aware that this virus has hopped from We are still nursing our wounds from the one country to another by plane. 2008 economic crisis, from which we were

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slowly starting to emerge into a recovery of Internationalisation of culture involves the sorts, although leaving a society with high rates market and fundamentally the creation and of inequality, which is going to be what suffers consolidation of production and distribution most in this crisis, with scare capacity for resil- networks. To do this, innovative, flexible and ience. As the United Nations has already stated, weightless cultural policies should be drafted in reports from the Committee on Economic, that adapt to the globalisation process for the Social and Cultural Rights, it is acknowledged cultural industries and determine new rela- that economic cuts are made during periods of tions between the public and private sectors to severe economic crisis, but it also warns that position them in this new international-mar- these measures require a previous impact re- ket-network. port and to date, this criterion has not been The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cul- met. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur for tural Diversity from 20011 and the Convention cultural rights raised the need to maintain the on the Protection and Promotion of the Diver- cultural ecosystem as a guarantee of rights. sity of Cultural Expressions from 20052 high- Let’s remember the social value of culture light that “While ensuring the free circulation that, beyond its economic dimension, has ca- of ideas and works, cultural policies must cre- pacity for social transformation, cohesion, ate conditions conducive to the production and self-esteem and belonging to the community dissemination of diversified cultural goods and that might help us think about how to rebuild services through cultural industries that have a fairer society based on values. Precisely the the means to assert themselves at the local and main aim of Agenda 2030, although it does not global level”. In addition to abiding by their in- explicitly cover culture, is to be used for sus- ternational obligations, each State must define tainable social transformation, with no strings its cultural policy and implement it through the attached for future generations, and therefore means it considers fit, whether by operational with clear current relevance. Culture coopera- support or appropriate regulations. tion can play an essential role in these com- Diplomacy has been transforming since the mon values and in building fairer societies all mid-20th century. Classic diplomacy, that Gul- over the world, on the basis that there is a clear lion (1965) called public diplomacy, was based interdependence with the planet, among indi- on the principle of relations between the elites viduals and between different territories. that ran different countries. Subsequently, As we have seen, the changes that are taking Leonard (2009) explained that international re- place in the globalised society and in the new lations should no longer be an elitist contraption information society, the change of both para- to be used by high level politics to become an digms or production processes, and mobility of instrument that regulates the traffic of national persons, creators and researchers who work in- goods and services through the rest of the terri- ternationally, condition international relations tories, which meant that it might be performed in general and cultural relations in particular. by experts and professionals and that its recipients would be inhabitants of the market-states At a time when borders are permeable and (Granados quoting Leonard, 2009). there are multiple channels of communication, the institutions that intervene must bring about and encourage this mobility of creators who carry identities with them and adapt to the transformation of the physical and virtual borders– 1. UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001). and world decision centres (Cubeles, 2001). 2. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of Diversity of Cultural Expressions Paris, 20 October 2005.

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In 1986, Mitchell already differentiated governmental rails but also on free and spon- between cultural relations and cultural diplo- taneous action from the respective civil soci- macy as while the former are descriptive and eties, as many of the problems will persist if refer to private and public initiatives, the latter we continue to identify the public term with seeks to present a favourable image. Fernan- national and governmental”. In this respect, dez Leost (2015), however, barely differenti- English Cultural Diplomacy states: “we are all ates between concepts such as “cultural diplo- diplomats now”. macy”, “external cultural action” and “external In the European field, opinions expressed cultural policy”. in forums on this issue such as More Europe: Cultural diplomacy has evolved to become External Cultural Relations, point to the idea the strategic tool for States to protect cultural that classic diplomacy does not meet current values, expressions, meanings and images to needs. The lack of European cultural dis- guarantee effective their insertion in interna- course, exclusion from debates on Cultural tional order. This concept is bound to the “soft Europe of anyone who does not speak English power” defined by Nye (1990). According to or the lack of interest from political leaders the author, this is the capacity to obtain what in culture, even though the cultural industry you want by seducing and persuading others sector is larger than the chemical industry to adopt your goals. Compared to the tradi- throughout Europe, leads us to question how tional way of performing international politics, different states select the culture that they through an established strategy exclusively in wish to show to the world. In this respect, Fré- politics, economics and military, there would deric Mártel (2012) questions who must per- be another way that would involve exchanging form the functions.3 ideas, mutual knowledge, and constant trans- If we understand cultural action to be the fer of cultural elements. (Bound, Briggs, Hold- set of procedures that involve human and ma- en & Jones, 2007). Although we might have terial resources to implement the goals of a been witnessing a decline in “soft power” over cultural policy, cultural action uses previously the last few years and the emergence of “sharp trained cultural agents and takes into account power” as mentioned by Álvarez Valencia specific audiences, aiming to build a bridge (2019), the arguments raised by Nye working between this audience and a work of culture from the concept of “soft power” have gener- or art. Cultural action can cover all phases of ated a paradigm with great scope in the media the cultural production system (production, and academia. distribution, change and use or consumption), In this context, cultural diplomacy refers to (Coelho, 2009). the source of power that the governments put In the light of this new global transforma- into action using the cultural resource (and also tion context, it is considered highly relevant the values that they prioritise in home policies to look hard at external cultural policy, the and the model defended in foreign policy) to organisations and institutions on which it de- gain prestige and win the trust of others in in- pends and cultural policies in the international ternational relations (Álvarez, 2019). context. As mentioned in the Report on Spain’s Cul- tural Action Abroad (2009), the idea that cultural diplomacy only depends on governments is already old hat (Granados, 2009). “[…] pub- 3. More Europe: External Cultural Relations () Report: Beyond lic diplomacy should run not only on state or markets: culture and creative industries in the EU’s external relations. Debate 19 September 2012 in Amsterdam.

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II. CRITICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SPANISH MODEL As far as international relations are concerned, the Constitutional Court (henceforth Spanish diplomatic representations should pro- the TC) has been obliged to define them and vide the required information and backing to give them a more precise outline. Ruling ease circulation of cultural agents, using diplo- 165/1994 had to distinguish between inter- matic and consular support services as if they national relations and international projec- were part of the same activity. Recently, new tion or relevance activities, the latter likely instructions have been sent to the Embassies’ to be covered by Autonomous Regions. Con- Cultural Offices indicating the change of role sequently, international relations that are the for the “cultural attaché” figure to become “pro- exclusive competence of the State are identi- grammers” for agents or facilitators. This recog- fied as any which imply the possibility of ar- nise the need for an update to adapt to creators’ ranging treaties, which affect the State’s for- needs. The major challenge now is to combine eign policy, and which generate international freedom of creation with the political interests responsibilities. and contexts of the country in question. Regarding this State reserve, defined as the Historically, the diplomatic service held central core, it is important to highlight that competences for Education, Economy, Poli- there are already matters that the TC considers cies, Consulates, etc. but over time these areas to be outside this scope and therefore can be have been passed on to the sector-based Min- carried out by other organisations and autono- istries which have created their own Offices. mous regions such as International Coopera- The Foreign Office has retained diplomatic, tion. In a ruling in 1994, the TC deemed that consular, cooperation functions and also cov- this did not form part of the central core of for- ers policy and representation.4 eign policy. So, Law 23/1998, of 7th July, on In reference to the cultural competences International Cooperation for Development, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, European recognises the multitude of players who take Union and Cooperation, the Spanish Interna- part in this area along with the variety of pub- tional Cooperation Agency for Development lic administrations, and in Article 3, as a prin- (AECID) is competent in this area, delegated ciple, it establishes that “the policy of inter- by the Ministry since 2000.5 national cooperation for development is part of the State’s foreign action and is based on Article 149 of the Spanish Constitution the action unit principle for the State abroad”. of 1978 determines that the State’s exclusive Here, players are actually coordinated, both in competences are international relations, de- negotiating and drafting the cooperation pol- fence of Spanish cultural, artistic and monu- icy, the Spanish Master Plan on Cooperation mental heritage against exportation and spo- in force for four years, and in the monitoring liation; museums, libraries and archives held structure. by the State, without affecting how they are managed by the Autonomous Regions. This might be a good coordination model, as there is a policy negotiated by State, Autonomy Regions and Civil Society that is coordinated ad intra and should be coordinated ad extra, based on the aforementioned 4. Article 45 of Law 2/2014, dated 25 March, on the State’s external action and service. principle of action unit abroad. Similar work 5. ��This was delegated by including the third additional pro- takes place in other areas such as innovation vision in the Law of International Cooperation for Develop- policies; the same road map is negotiated and ment, Law 23/1998, of 7th July.

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is followed jointly between the State and the that, as an example, municipal creative centres Autonomous Regions. This same coherence are the main players in cultural production.6 was recommended to perform the public Consequently, if we focus on that interna- policies within the framework of the Sus- tional projection, Central Government, Auton- tainable Development Goals and to generate omous Regions and cities in an international alliances. context, it seems logical that the scenario lacks Regarding the cultural field, the degree of coordination. Authors such as Martin and Ul- competence that ultimately corresponds to the ldemolins (2015) outline a new image outlin- State and the Autonomous Regions should be ing a federal scenario, although it seems that highlighted in the Constitutional Court’s in- they have not concluded with a second phase terpretation considering that, as has been ac- of coordination or coherence between the Au- knowledged, the matter possesses an inevita- tonomous Regions and the State. ble degree of indetermination that should be The Spanish model comprises a variety of clarified case by case (Sentence 125/1984). agents who work abroad and, as we will see In 1978, the Spanish Constitution (art.149) below, each of them has their own structure, transferred the competences to the Autono- priorities, cross-discipline aspects, their own mous Regions, so there is no state cultural personnel or their own budget. This explains policy, but the Central Government reserves the lack of coordination, fragmentation of the right to its essential designation. This is an Spain’s image, overlap of functions, duplicity essential aspect of the topic that we are cov- of actions, increase in public spending... which ering, because if culture is a competence as- is visible both in Spain and abroad. sumed by most Autonomous Regions, through This situation has led to a variety of coor- their respective Autonomy Statutes and the dination attempts since the 1990s, such as the State, residually maintaining this designa- Government Delegate Commission for Cultur- tion via article 149.2 of the Spanish Constitu- al Matters, set up in 1997, as the Government’s tion, it seems clear that if it projects culture delegate body for coordinating and boosting abroad, it does it through the territory’s cul- cultural policy or the coordination commit- ture spaces and producers, so it is necessary tee, set up in 2004, using a work methodology for the State bodies in charge of international that favours synergies between players. Subse- projection to work jointly with the regional quently, an agreement was signed between the and local structures. And they should perhaps Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation expect what some have described as “Eucli- and the Ministry of Culture, dated 19 Novem- dean geometry, according to which two paral- ber 2009, determining a Strengthened Strategy lel lines that run indefinitely will never reach to Promote Spanish Culture Abroad, setting a point of convergence”. In this respect, Es- up a Joint Work Commission that initiated the teve (1986) concludes, “this would mean not Cultural Action Plan. Last year, the Foreign so much placing a dividing line but finding a Cultural Action Plan was approved. This plan closer point to the idea of capacity rather than had already been presented a few years ago to competence”. symbolise the truce between the Ministries Nor should we gloss over that, according to Statistics from the Ministry of Culture, 90% of public spending intended for culture in the Spanish state comes from the local field, and 6. http://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudada��- no/estadisticas/cultura/mc/culturabase/gasto-publico/ resultados-gasto-publico.html

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of Culture and Foreign Affairs of the chosen cultures and, in many cases, they have set up competences, and was recovered a year ago, al- agencies for this as agile instruments to sup- though this refers to a Plan that has not been port their creators to encourage exchange, res- developed until now nor its effects deployed, as idencies, mobility, project production in inter- it had to specify sector-based and regional strat- national centres. This would include the case egies (García, 2011). In 2019, the Ministries of of the Finnish FRAME (Finnish Funds for In- Foreign Affairs and Culture presented, for the ternational Exchange), the Swiss ProHelvetia, first time and jointly, the forecast and planning IASPIS (Sweden), the Austria Cultural Forum for actions from their Ministries (Ruiz, 2019). or the Dutch Mondrian Foundation and SICA (Service Center for International Cultural Ac- In trends gleaned from compared analysis tivities). There are others which specialise in of the EU foreign cultural policies, it is seen music such as Music Export Denmark or some that most States assign management and co- that encompass tourism and foreign trade such ordination of foreign cultural policies to their as Sweden.se. respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs, many of them with regional organisations and institutions that are dependent on these ministries III. THE MULTIPLE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN and the Ministry of Culture. There are institu- FOREIGN CULTURAL ACTION tions for dissemination of language and culture such as the Goethe Institute, with a budget A whole host of public organisations work on from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs although this issue from central government (graph 1, dependent on the German Ministry of Educa- table 1). tion, with remarkable autonomy, or the Brit- ish Council that gathers together schools and According to Royal Decree 632/1987, of strengths internationalisation of its national 8th May, the organisation of the State Adminis- events and industries. tration abroad is seen as the functions assigned to promote amicable relations and develop- Regarding the great cultural power of ment of the economic, cultural and scientific France, it should be mentioned that in 2009 it relations. (art 12.e). In the case of transfer- proposed a reform to its external cultural action ring competences to the Ministry of Culture, system, strengthening the role of the Ministry the actual text states that “the Offices of At- of Foreign Affairs through Culture France, to tachés and sector-based Offices will maintain avoid dispersion and taking the Instituto Cer- their current functional dependence from the vantes as a reference model, considering it to Ministries with sector-based competence that be the ultimate instrument of cultural diploma- corresponds to its internal organisation and cy. Recently, everything has been concentrated budgetary allowance, as well as its technical from the General Board for globalisation, cul- inspection and control, without affecting what ture, teaching and international development.7 is stated in article 8 and the competences that Other countries with “minority” languages correspond to the Ministry for Public Admin- have focussed on a strong presence from their istrations in organisational matters. State Ad- ministrations can set up non-representative institutions and services abroad to develop their sector-based activities. The Council of Minis- ters will have to authorise their set-up, after 7. https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/le-ministere-et-son- reseau/missions-et-organisation-62169/organigramme-de- receiving a prior report from the Ministry of l-administration-centrale/article/direction-generale-de-la- Foreign Affairs. mondialisation-de-la-culture-de-l-enseignement-et-du

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Graph 1. Instituciones que intervienen en la acción cultural exterior

Cultural Foreign Action

Ministry of Foreign Ministry of The Affairs, European Spanish Cultural Ministry of Culture Ministry of Industry, Presidency, Relations Union and Action (AC/E) and Sport Tourism and Trade with the Cortes and Cooperation Democratic Memory

Secretary of State for General Secretary Foreign Trade International for Culture Institute (ICEX) Cooperation (SECI)

General Board of Instituto Cervantes Cultural Industries, Intellectual Property and Cooperation

Spanish International Cooperation Agency for Development (AECID)

Board of Cultural and Scientific Relations

Department of Cooperation and Cultural Promotion

Embassies AECID Network Royal Academy and Cultural of Cultural Centre Of Spain In Rome Ministries (RAER)

In relation to territorial coordination with The Ministry of Culture was restructured the Autonomous Regions, although the Min- last May. Its General Sub-Department of Cul- istry continuously works on communication, tural Cooperation disappeared, and its compe- this is not seen in the form of joint work pro- tences were added to the General Sub-Depart- grammes. In addition, the Sector Conference ment for Promotion of Cultural Industries.8 is not the most effective space, and it does not On the other hand, within the Ministry of meet very often, just twice a year. On 10th July Foreign Affairs, the General Board of Cultural 2017, a new Regulation for Organisation and and Scientific Relations launched for the “Win- Operation of the Culture Sector Conference dow Programme” for all Embassies and Cul- was approved, to adapt it to Law 40/2015, that tural Centres during the pandemic. This aims includes the change of name from the Sector to give virtual visibility to national institutions Commission. There are two work groups set up to tackle specific questions, which could make this an extra foreign cultural policy, like the Inter-territorial Cinema and Audiovisual 8. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2020- Conference-COMICA. 4860

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Table 1. Instituciones que intervienen en la acción cultural exterior

Competences Faculties of the SECI •• Encourage, manage and perform public policies for cultural development cooperation •• Management of cultural services for the AECID •• Cooperation in the field of skills training for human capital. Ministry of Foreign Management of foreign policy and international •• University and scientific cooperation towards Affairs, European cooperation for development, in compliance with development has been carried out since the Union and Government directives and applying the action unit 1920s but a stable programme emerged from Cooperation abroad principle 1940 onwards •• International relations and agreements in the cultural and Scientific field, such as Spain joining UNESCO in 1953 •• Scientific, Technological and Innovation Diplomacy (DCTI) Organisations Competences Configuration that joined SECI •• Planning and assessment of Spain’s foreign relations in the field of culture, science, technology and the environment, with other countries and with international organisations •• Coordination of Spain’s foreign relations with AECID the different ministerial departments and other •• 13 Cultural Centres set up as Foreign Administrations and public and private entities, in Cooperation Units (Spanish Agency the aforementioned fields •• 6 Associated Centres with local participation for International •• Preparation, negotiation and proposal of and presence in 16 countries (15 Latin Development agreements and international conventions, American plus Equatorial Guinea) Cooperation) organisation of the mixed commissions that •• 1,000,000 visitors every year develop them in the field of their competences and management of actions derived from them •• Assurance and coordination of Spain’s international presence in international cultural or scientific organisations •• Universally promote the teaching, study and use Instituto Cervantes of the Spanish language and encourage measures and actions that help broadcast and improve the Set up by Law quality of these activities •• 86 centres (Law 7/1991 to •• Contribute to dissemination of the culture abroad •• 45 countries from five continents create the Instituto in coordination with the other competent bodies •• 2 headquarters in Spain, the central Cervantes and from the State Administration headquarters in Madrid and their headquarters regulated under •• In its activities, the Instituto Cervantes will in Alcalá de Henares. Royal Decree fundamentally attend to the linguistic and cultural 1526/1999, dated patrimony that is common to the countries and 1st October) peoples of the Spanish-speaking community It is an institution of the Spanish Central •• Contribute to the artistic and humanistic training Administration abroad. It depends functionally Royal Academy in of creators, restorers and researchers, with the and organically on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Rome purpose derived from achieving greater Spanish and Cooperation, through the SECI-Board of cultural presence in Italy, a better understanding Cultural and Scientific Relations within the AECID, Set up in 1873 of the cultures of both countries and greater of which it forms the top management and is cultural ties between Europe and Ibero-America regulated by its specific provisions

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•• SECTOR-BASE CONFERENCE and Work Groups-COMICA. •• State Council for Performing >Arts and Music or the Heritage Council •• Instruments such as assistant for translation, Hispanex grants or Culturex grants in Promotion, protection and dissemination of Spanish Representations abroad or in International historical heritage, state museums and the arts, Centres such as Pompidou or Jeu du Paume in books, reading and literary creation, film and Paris, National Gallery in Washington or the audiovisual activities and state books and libraries, Tate Modern in London. as well as promotion and dissemination of culture in Ministry of Culture •• ICAA: maintains institutional relations both Spanish. The boost of cultural cooperation actions, and Sport multilaterally - with the European Council, in coordination with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the European Union and the Ibero-American European Union and Cooperation, international Cinematographic Authorities Conference. Plus relations in matters of culture, such as the sitting participation in decision-making bodies from on the Council of Ministers for the European Union, European and International institutions such as UNESCO, etc Europa Creativa, Eurimages, the Executive Board of the European Audiovisual Sector Observatory, the Ibero-American Cinematographic Authorities Conference (CACI), Ibermedia, European Film promotion or the European Film Agency Directors (EFADs)

ACE/Foreign cultural action •• Promote and disseminate the variety of cultural (Its Board of realities in Spain inside and outside our borders. Directors includes •• Assemble the projects from the different •• PICE_Programme for the Internationalisation representatives autonomy regions and cultural institutions of Spanish Culture: Mobility/Visitors from the Ministry throughout the national territory. •• Organisation of cultural activities and of Foreign Affairs, •• Promote projects that involve creators, scientists international co-production, commemorations European Union and cultural and creative industries abroad •• International Exhibitions and Cooperation following the geographic directives of the and the Ministry of Cultural Action Plan Abroad (PACE). Culture and Sport and the Inland Revenue)

•• Increase the base of companies that are starting ICEX (Affiliated out on internationalisation, via export or with the Secretary investment. of State for Foreign •• Help companies to make the most of the Trade, depending opportunities offered by foreign markets, •• Board of Fashion, Habitat and Cultural on the Ministry of boosting new business competition factors. Industries and an Internationalisation strategy Industry, Tourism •• Improve the knowledge and image of Spanish for the Spanish Economy 2017-2027. and Trade) Royal goods and services abroad. •• Sounds from Spain: ICEX -INAEM, AIE, SGAE, Decree 6/1982 •• Boost institutional cooperation for ARTE, -PROMUSICAE -UFI. as the National internationalisation with foreign promotion •• Icex Influencer Export Promotion organisations from the Autonomous Regions, •• Icext Next Institute (INFE), sector-based associations, the Senior Council of adopted its current Chambers of Commerce, the different bodies of name in 1987. the Spanish Central Administration and other institutions

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Carolina Foundation: That promotes cultural relations and educational scientific cooperation between Spain and the rest of the Ibero-American Community. Other organisations The House Network (House of America, Asia, Africa, Arabia, Sefarad-Israel and Mediterranean) as an instrument of Public Diplomacy whose programmes include cultural, scientific and economic activities

and creators, creating a content archive. In ad- abroad. Different players leading Spanish cul- dition, training has been proposed in webinar tural institutions and curators argue that the format or working with PlatformC. Another presence of Spanish artists abroad is not exact- way of getting involved included supporting ly strong. Spain holds major events, but there is initiatives such as ‘Frena la Curva’ (Flatten the a great deficit of international recognition for Curve), particularly in the Central American Spanish artists, even though Spanish curators region and, over 5000 cultural kits were dis- are well known for their work outside Spain tributed in Honduras. (Espejo, 2011). This problem starts at home and authorities are urged to present good pro- In the case of the ACE state company, it jects at international events, as the Spanish pa- also chose to digitalise its contents so that its vilion is rarely among the most highly praised. exhibitions taking place using virtual reality Spain has been left out of the Latin trend tools. Although the most remarkable aspect is adopted by the major American institutions support for the most vulnerable film produc- –such as MoMa–and European institutions, as tion sector, by means of a call for one million in Belgium and the United Kingdom. It is con- Euros of funding working with Netflix, the sidered that the search for international rec- Film Academy and the ICAA. Other calls from ognition is bound to fail in advance because it the PICE Programme have also made changes is always academic and flexible, and solutions to be able to develop programmes for visitors involve strengthening structural weakness. via virtual encounters. Spanish culture as we know it is not particu- Regarding major international events such larly modern, but tends to revolve around artists as Expo 2020 in Dubai and the Frankfurt Book such as Murillo, Velazquez, Zurbarán… (Pulido, Fair, changes were made to the scheduled dates, 2018) although there are isolated cases, such as delaying the opening of the Universal Expo to Rosalía or Almodovar-Banderas, who might re- 2021 and Spain will have to wait until 2022 to inforce the most traditional image already built be the guest country at the Frankfurt Book Fair. up over the years along with the Latin product label, as happened with Hispano-American IV. CONTENTS OF FOREIGN CULTURAL ACTION literature back in the day (Muñoz, 2019). Our country’s transformation process over the last For some time, the concept of Spain’s presence 30 years has radically changed Spain’s profile. on international circuits has been approached The PACE text states that, “external cultural by questioning whether Spanish art exists action will make it possible to project an im-

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age of Spain that fits our reality”. However, the 2. Start a dialogue and establish a joint image that is held of Spanish society in some work framework. We should high- places tends to reflect the stereotypes of the light that external cultural policy past, as it is a well-known fact that sometimes has not had this framework so far, as images take longer to change that what lies be- specific cultural policy has not been neath them. Consequently, we might stress that drawn up, negotiated among the dif- backing modern creation, due to its symbolic ferent agents; this requires narrow- weight, would mean updating the country’s im- ing the gap between creation and the age to its own contemporaneity without losing agents that configure it with agents sight of tradition. from the administration, setting geographic priorities, detecting real needs Critical voices have emerged over the last and the most effective instruments. few years on how to form relations in the cultural cooperation framework, highlighting the 3. Working on a common road map role of cultural management mentioned by that defines and sifts priorities for Inch (2014), Pao de la Vega (2020) or Yúdice each sector, and interweaves other (2012) from the countries where they are act- strategies to determine participation ing, or how new triangulated forms of govern- in the most interesting events, the pro- ance are being proposed from international cedures and selection criteria for cura- networks, putting centring decision-making tors, projects, actions and in selecting around southern partners. management positions for the institutions, thereby following best practices invoked by professionals and civil so- V. PROPOSALS: BUILD COMPLEMENTARY SPACES ciety. This is not a case of copying foreign models, but designing our own, The analysis performed brings up the ambiva- knowledge-based model. From there lence of two opposing models: that of cultural on, a common road map can be drawn diplomacy and foreign cultural policy, that can up showing how necessary resources manage to complement each other, as although would be distributed, reinforcing geo- it does not seem that cultural diplomacy is go- graphic points as required, both with ing to be discarded, as culture is an element of professionals in the different fields foreign policy, if we were to move forward to- and with long term agendas. wards a foreign cultural policy that would look 4. Encourage handover from the State at what happens in international creation spac- to the administrators, creators and es, this might improve the presence of creators productions from the network of in the international field. creation and production centres to A few proposals: generate alliances with other international spaces. The professionals 1. Assess the foreign cultural ac- running these centres have specific tion that is currently under way to knowledge and valid criteria to pro- find out the real results and thereby gramme a wide range of activities manage to set new objectives. Con- that can be subsequently exported sequently, we must be aware of the to other foreign centres. In addition, resources assigned, be they organi- by means of working together, it will sational, economic, programmes for be possible to get professionals in different agents involved, etc. international networks (both Euro-

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pean networks such as IETM, On The whether this is a cultural or country Move, We are More and in profes- image project, as it has been commis- sional networks such as IKT). sioned to manage the Spanish Pavilion 5. Provide information on interna- of the International and Universal Ex- tional job opportunities and open up hibitions (approved by the BIE). Con- calls from major Spanish institutions sequently, this matter could be derived to foreign talent, which requires in- to the Secretary of State for economic dependence and freedom from politi- diplomacy, España Global or to ICEX, cal changes or its time frames. as happens in surrounding countries. In relation to professionalisation, it 7. It is suggested that ICEX and España is clear that spaces run by specialised Global should focus on the specific professionals obtain better results so characteristics of the sector and/ it is proposed that management and or sub-sectors, and approach the in- administration positions should be struments that might be derived from reinforced by qualified personnel listening to the actual sector, see the with knowledge and experience in National Board for Performing Arts the matter, as well as updating State and Music or the associations rep- bodies including: Diplomatic service resenting the industry, as happened civil servants, State Economists or with Sounds From Spain and could Commercial Experts, or the optional evaluate the creation, production and organisations or Curators of Muse- distribution, recognising its econom- ums, Archives and Libraries, in addi- ic-symbolic contribution and its in- tion to working with local profession- trinsic peculiarities. als to analyse the context. Beyond the initiative, taken but not As previously mentioned, it has been performed, from the National For- observed that countries where the eign Cultural Action Plan, that comes language is not the central cultural to life as a national monitoring com- manifestation have flexible, special- mittee or political-institutional work ised agencies that are used to support group and that doubtlessly reflects a its creators’ international mobility. willingness to improve coordination 6. Specialise Spanish Cultural Action/ between intervening national public ACE as a cultural agency with agil- agents, but it remains wanting as it ity and flexibility. It could take over does not incorporate the sector and management of international cultural continues to be subject to foreign pol- events such as the Venice Biennale icy priorities. of Art and Architecture, strengthen- 8. Carrying out constant technical co- ing the entity’s cultural mission and ordination, to achieve stability and providing the necessary agility and the report on completed work, shar- resources to get the best results, with ing information, schedules and join- competitive selection according to ing forces, while it defines at each Best Practices for its management extreme how every entity involved and content selection. should act and its separates their Currently, due to the ACE’s compe- functions to avoid duplication. tences after the merger between its 9. Strengthen the Sector-based Culture state societies, we might question Conference, a space where coopera-

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tion relations are or can be articulated 11. Observe trends that are happening between the Spanish Central Admin- in the cultural institutions. Like the istration and the Autonomous Re- international boom that took place to- gions, particularly relating to defining wards decolonisation or the anti-co- broad brushstrokes of cultural policy. lonial turn in Museums such as MN- This will not be effective, unless vol- CARS, with the idea of southernising untarily, through the creation of a the museum and other exhibitions specific commission or work group; a and activities or the Matadero, the joint work space is set up for interna- work carried out from Artistic Resi- tionalisation of culture and constant dences, with programmes such as communication channels open up Conciencia Afro (De Diego, 2018). for it be distributed abroad, through Also abroad: MOMA9 with activities figures such as the Government Del- on native peoples or the arrival of the egation, depending on the Ministry South to the aforementioned Muse- of Territorial Policy and Public Func- um with exhibitions and collections tion, in charge of relations with the highlight this trend that could be seen autonomous regions and entities that at recent art events such as the Berlin are included in Local Administration. Biennial 2018: We don’t need another 10. Analyse the different existing budg- hero, with a completely African team etary programmes, to assign foreign of curators, led by Gabi Ngcobo or cultural action its own budget and the Sydney Biennial 2020,10 focussed find others regarding country image on otherness and on native peoples. for these purposes. This year PHotoEspaña features El- Over the next few years, as we per- vira Dyangani Ose as curator, work- ceive the already devastating con- ing from the book Contra la raza. El- sequences caused by Covid-19, the vira Dyangani is the curator for The Public Administrations and institu- Showroom in London. More examples tions should work towards the goal such as the Sao Paulo Biennial 2020, of structuring a stable culture ecosys- Hace oscuro más yo canto or the Sao tem, focussing on the specific char- Paulo Triennial, with three African- acteristics and perhaps incorporating Brazilian curators (Thiago de Sousa, risk management as a practice for cul- Diane Lima and Beatriz Lemos), and tural policies. The real-life situation finally Sonsbeek 2020, with Bonaven- in the different sectors should be ana- trua Soh Bejeng Kdikung as artistic lysed, and formulas sought to become director. We are witnessing a world- more competitive internationally. wide social mobilisation to defend At this time of reconstruction, when many different collectives, such as European funds are due to arrive, the Black Lives Matters movement, they should be channelled appro- feminist demonstrations, LGTB, etc. priately to be able to reach even the that the State cannot ignore, reflect- smallest structures. This is thereby ing progress in society. an opportunity to adapt the model to real needs (structure costs, encouraging associations, including social im- 9. https://www.moma.org/calendar/events/5224 pact criteria, etc.). 10. https://www.biennaleofsydney.art��

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REFERENCES Álvarez, J. (2019): Hacia un nuevo paradigma para la diplomacia cultural española. Retrieved from: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano_es/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CON- TEXT=/elcano/elcano_es/zonas_es/lengua+y+cultura/ari8-2019-alvarezvalencia-hacia-paradigma-diplomacia-cultural-espanola Bound, K., Briggs, R., Holden J., and Jones, S. (2007): Culture is a Central Component of international relations. It’s time to unlock its full potential, London, Demos-Cultural Diplomacy. Coelho, J. (2009): Diccionario crítico de política cultural, Barcelona, Editorial Gedisa. Convención sobre la protección y la promoción de la diversidad de las expresiones culturales, Paris (2005). Cubeles, X. (2012): Políticas culturales y el proceso de mundialización de las industrias culturales. De Diego, E. (2018): «El blanco no es un color», El País. Retrieved from: https://elpais.com/cultura/2018/12/06/babelia/1544117792_758016.html Declaración Universal de la UNESCO sobre la Diversidad Cultural (2001). Espejo, B. (2011): «¿Existe el arte español fuera de España?». Retrieved from: https://elcultural.com/ Existe-el-arte-espanol-fuera-de-Espana Fernández Leost, J. (2015): «Diplomacia cultural y relaciones público-privadas», Anuario de la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, no. 19. Galindo Villoria, F., Granados Martínez, P. and Gutiérrez del Castillo, R. (2009): Informe sobre la acción cultural de España en el exterior, Fundación Autor. García, J. (2011): «La cultura española tiene un plan», ABC. Retrieved from: https://www.abc.es/ cultura/abcm-cultura-espanola-tiene-plan-201104060000_noticia.html Marco, E. and Otero, J. (2012): El discreto encanto de la cultura. Nuevas estrategias para la proyección exterior de la cultura: un enfoque práctico, Editorial Arial. Martín, l. and Uldemollins, J. (2015): «Cultura y federalismo», La Vanguardia. Retrieved from: https:// www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20151121/30298967309/federalismo-cultura.html Mitchell J. M. (1986): International Cultural Relations, London, Allen & Unwin. Muñoz, A. (2019): «Rosalía y Almodóvar impulsan la creatividad española», El País. Retrieved from: https://cincodias.elpais.com/tag/rosalia_vila/a Nye, J. (1990): Foreign Policy. No. 80, Twentieth Anniversary. Organigrama de la administración central. Diplomacia de Francia. Ministerio de Europa y Asuntos Ex- teriores. Retrieved from: https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/le-ministere-et-son-reseau/missions- organisation/organigramme-de-l-administration-centrale/ Pardo, J. (1986): «Competencias del Estado y de las comunidades autónomas en materia de cultura (Comentario a la reciente jurisprudencia del Tribunal Constitucional)», Autonomies. Revista catalana de derecho público, no. 4. Pulido, N. (2018): «El arte español, un ilustre embajador de la Marca España en el mundo», ABC. Re- trieved from: https://www.abc.es/cultura/arte/abci-arte-espanol-ilustre-embajador-marca-espana- mundo-201802120131_noticia.html?ref=https://www.google.com/ Ruiz, J. (2019): «Borrell y Guirao escenifican paz en la estrategia de acción cultural exterior», El País. Retrieved from: https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/01/24/actualidad/1548344344_436298.html Vich, V. (2014): Desculturizar la cultura, repensar las políticas culturales, Siglo XXI Editores. Yúdice, G. (2002): El recurso de la cultura. Usos de la cultura en la era global, Barcelona, Editorial Gedisa.

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Mariano Martín Zamorano

Spanish cultural diplomacy has evolved from a system revolving around the Ministries of Fo- reign Affairs and Culture to an institutional structure where local governments and Autono- mous Regions are highly relevant. This policy has led to forming different sector-based and public-private governance frameworks, that pursue specific identity, social development or business goals. This chapter analyses this complex structural framework, its multiple lines of action and its main digital platforms, from a constructivist perspective to evaluate the capacity of this system to channel territorial needs and demands from the Spanish cultural sector and propose improvement measures in a context dominated by the current global pandemic.

Key words: cultural diplomacy, Spain, social players, urban paradiplomacy, digital cultural diplomacy.

I. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY: DEFINITIONS AND ideas, information and other forms of cultural MODELS heritage between countries and their peoples to “promote mutual understanding” (Cum- Public diplomacy defines relations deter- mings 2003, p. 1) or encourage “‘national in- mined between governments and persons terest’, that is so difficult to define” (Arndt abroad (Mannheim, 1994). It mainly consists 2008, p. 31). of communicative actions, such as TV cam- Currently, cultural diplomacy is charac- paigns on foreign media or major events with terised by a multiple players intervening on international projection, intended to generate different scales and from all levels of govern- positive foreign interest in a nation (Leonard, ment (Mesado i Jardí, 2008). This policy as- 1997). Cultural diplomacy is generally located sumes a complex relationship with domestic as the greatest sub-area of public diplomacy cultural action. For example, many activities (Mark, 2009). Named as such in the 1960s, this designed as part of cultural diplomacy were policy has a variety of focus points, reflected formalised in the country of origin, such as in its differing national models (Wyszomirski, the photography exhibition After September, Margaret, Burgess, Christopher, Peila 2003). opened in New York, that travelled around 60 It has been defined as the official exchange of countries (Kennedy, 2003). This unclear field

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of action, subject to the States’ foreign agen- II. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN SPAIN SINCE THE da, welcomes participation from the govern- TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY ments of a nation, its business owners, artists or emigrates. In fact, a record of increasingly The decentralisation of public administration important external cultural activity is what is that took place during the democratic transi- known as cultural paradiplomacy, consisting tion was also demonstrated in the swift diversi- of the international cultural action carried out fication of the apparatus of foreign cultural ac- by regional and local governments (Zamora- tion at both state and sub-state level. Along the no, Mariano Martín and Rodríguez Morató, same line, this policy gradually abandoned the 2014). centralist and racist agenda of Francoist cultural diplomacy, based on the concept of Spanish- Therefore, this is a field which is a prac- ness1 (Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla, 1991). tically extensive as it is theoretically vague (Topic´, Martina, Sciortino 2012). However, The Ministry of Culture was set up in 1977, it should be considered that as international soon to become an important player in external representation, governments prioritise a set cultural policy. Cultural diplomacy broadened of artistic, intellectual and cultural goods and its horizons and expanded its bilateral cultural activities considered to be distinctive and cooperation channels. Further innovation in easy to disseminate abroad. These foreign this period lines in the appearance of a strate- cultural exchange policies, framed within a gic line of foreign relations focused on cultural specific strategy, can be defined as cultural development cooperation (Huguet, 2010). (para)diplomacy in a determined historical This, aimed fundamentally at Latin America, context. replaced the prior Spanishness project. Within this framework, the Spanish International Co- Among the varying elements that influ- operation Agency (AECID) was set up in 1988, ence cultural diplomacy models, there are its overseen by the Spanish cultural network in national historical directions - more interven- Ibero-America. tionalist and centralist in the French case and narrow (at arm’s length) in the English case During the third socialist term of office - or the productive basis of each territory in (1989-1993) and after the country joined the the creative field; today highly determined by European Community, a new international COVID-19, for example, in the government’s agenda was drawn up, leaning towards trans- capacity to promote artistic mega events as forming Spain’s image and developing its econ- a strategy for international projection. Cul- omy. The Instituto Cervantes (IC) was set up tural diplomacy trends are also prescribed by in 1991, given flexibility regarding how it pro- certain political rationalities that have been jected national heritage, although always em- prevalent over the last few decades, leading phasising the Castilian Spanish language and to more corporativist governance frameworks Spanish culture that was produced in this lan- or more open to social participation. They guage (Noya, 2003). This would encompass ar- include more instrumental and propagandist tistic, linguistic and patrimonial dissemination perspectives such as focused on generating in five continents and in American countries what is known as soft power or using culture outside the field of the AECID (14 centres). to support the territorial brand (branding), and other constructivist types, that make values and cultural goods primary ends for the 1. ��This concept defines Latin America as an evangelised so- political action (Villanueva, 2007). cio-political space, civilised by the Spanish Empire, that has been characterised by its historical and religious unity.

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Once in the 21st century, Spanish foreign diplomacy plus cultural cooperation for devel- policy was characterised by certain instability, opment (De Benito, 2012). within the framework of the different approxi- Currently, cultural diplomacy depends to a mations the different left- and right-wing gov- large extent on the MAEC which is bound to ernments have given it. During the second term the High Commissioner for Brand Spain, the of office for the PP government (2000-2004), IC and the AECID. On the other hand, there international cultural policy was redirected is the Ministry of Culture and Sport (MCD) towards economic diplomacy and branding that works on external cultural policy from (Sánchez Mateos, 2001). With this in mind, different departments and also from cultural three state societies were set up for Interna- facilities such as the Prado Museum or the tional Exhibitions (2000), Foreign Cultural Reina Sofia Museum. In addition, there is the Action (2001) and Cultural Commemorations aforementioned AC/E that has input from (2002). The “Marca España” (Brand Spain) both Ministries. Finally, there is the ICEX that public diplomacy project was also launched, has an area devoted to exporting the Spanish and its cultural activities were dominated by cultural industry and other public autonomous a Spanish-speaking centralism (Huguet 2010; organisations or public-private agencies. The Rius Ulldemolins, Joaquim, Zamorano 2015). PSOE, currently in power, has remarked upon From 2004 onwards, the socialist govern- the need to develop cultural diplomacy. In the ment’s foreign cultural action took a new turn context of COVID-19, the strategy backs digi- towards cultural cooperation, although main- tal cultural diplomacy, for example, by means taining its national branding project. However, of “digitalisation of Cervantes all over the within the framework of the “austerity” poli- world”.2 cies that followed the financial crisis in 2008, the system was reconfigured and rationalised. The Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of III. THE ROLE OF SUB-STATE PLAYERS: CITIES Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (MAEC) then competed for control of the competences and Over the last few decades, cities have not only resources from foreign promotion (Ruiz Man- been consolidated as top level cultural players tilla 2008), coming out in favour of the MAEC on a territorial level but they have taken on a in 2010. The National Plan for External Cul- strategic role in international cultural action tural Action (PACE) was subsequently drafted (Harvey, 1989; Zamorano and Rodríguez Mor- and Spanish Cultural Action (AC/E) was set ató, 2014). The growing internationalisation of up, as an entity with participation from the consumption and cultural production and the Ministry of Culture (MEC) and the MAEC, importance given to urban branding in creative that merged the three pre-existing companies. city projects (Vanolo 2015), are just some factors that have influenced this phenomenon. After the early elections in 2011, within the framework of the new PP government, the In the case of Spain, although “internation- Minister of Foreign Affairs General Board of al relations” are a competence of the central the Media and Public Diplomacy (BOE of 31 government (Art. 149.1.3 of the CE), both the December 2011) and the National Plan for constitutional framework and the foreign ac- Foreign Cultural Action was blocked (Fernán- dez Leost, 2012). Relaunch of the Brand Spain project involved going into greater depth on 2. Please see: https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_ the process of reducing artistic and scientific cervantes/prensa/2020/noticias/visita_ministra_AA_EE.htm (visited on 27th June 2020).

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tion model determined in 1978 have brought Culturas (2004) or the many different lines of about development of foreign policy for cities promoting the cultural industry international- and regions (Pérez González 1986). Based on ly. Characterised by clear multi-level articula- its broad competences in culture and as the tion, the ICUB has worked actively with other Constitutional Court gradually opened its in- state governments, with organisations such as terpretation of Art. 149 ( Sarmiento Méndez, ICEX and with international entities such as 2010), regional and local governments have UNESCO. It also played a key role in setting up been setting up their own mechanisms for in- international projects such as Agenda 21 for ternational cultural policy (Galindo Villoria, culture. Granados Martínez and Gutiérrez del Castillo, The city’s internationalisation model, with- 2009). in the creative city project, adopted in previ- In this scenario, a variety of cities have de- ous decades, is currently being questioned. veloped institutional instruments and specific The coalition led by Barcelona en Comú has programmes in international cultural policy. continued to redirect this process towards de- Below we will briefly analyse the foreign cul- veloping local culture (Rius Ulldemolins and tural policy of four cities with particularly un- Gisbert, 2018). equal governance frameworks, degrees of development and directions: Barcelona, Seville, 2. The cultural paradiplomacy of Seville Valencia and Bilbao. Seville is another Spanish city with an interna- 1. The cultural paradiplomacy of Barcelona tional brand that has developed specific strategies for foreign cultural projection. Since the Barcelona City Hall is a paradigmatic case of Expo in 1992, its artistic and historical her- local cultural paradiplomacy in Spain (Zamo- itage, including flamenco, has become even rano and Rodríguez Morató, 2014). This began more relevant for international consolidation during the PSC government (1982-1997) and of the image of Andalusia and the country as coincided with the preparations for the 1992 a whole (Marzo 2005). The city is also a cen- Olympic Games. In 1988, the City Hall set up tre for the regional editorial and audiovisual Olimpiada Cultural S.A. (OCSA), a public-pri- industry. On this basis, successive PSOE gov- vate association that organised an ambitious ernments in City Hall (1999-2011) proposed programme of activities with international Seville as the first City of Music in the con- projection (Moragas i Spa, 2008). The inter- text of the UNESCO Cities Network (2006), nationalisation process bound to the Olympic and flamenco as Intangible Cultural Heritage urban regeneration project would lead to a va- (2010). riety of transformations in what was known as The city’s Institute of Culture and the Arts the “Barcelona Model” of cultural policies, ini- (ICAS), set up in 2005, has secured interna- tially characterised by social inclusion. tionalisation powers, with specific emphasis Since 1995, the Barcelona Culture Institute on the world of music and the cultural in- (ICUB) has taken a central role in interna- dustry in general (ICAS 2016). It has thereby tional cultural policies. This organisation was determined different international cycles or designed by a team working to obtain Barcelo- programmes such as the Sevilla Piano Inter- na’s nomination for “European City of Culture national cycle or foreign promotion of the 2001”. From its international promotion area, Ancient Music Academy at the University of it worked on projects such as the Fórum de las Seville (AMANT).

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City Hall and the state organisations for 4. The cultural paradiplomacy of Bilbao cultural diplomacy have regularly worked together. For example, through PICE, AC/E sup- The city of Bilbao’s cultural policy has been ported the Seville European Film Festival 2019 clearly influenced over the last few years by organised by ICAS. Furthermore, the Monkey the PNV governments’ internationalisation Week festival–among other events–was as- project. Building the Guggenheim Museum sisted by the Andalusian External Promotion (1997) was a turning point towards the crea- Agency and AC/E to enhance its internation- tive city model in its cultural policies (Martín- alisation task (AC/E, 2017). ez de Albeniz, 2012). Currently, the Museum remains a central space for foreign projection in the region (Cultura, 2019, p. 4). In this re- 3. The cultural paradiplomacy of Valencia spect, the foreign cultural policy was intended From the PP government (1991-2015), Valen- to strengthen the urban brand in key markets. cia City Hall deployed a cultural branding and Just like in Barcelona, the City Council, foreign projection strategy based on major in- that joined the Agenda 21 for Culture in 2005, ternational events and new cultural facilities takes an active part in international forums, (Linheira, Rius-Ulldemolins and Hernàndez, including Eurocities or the UNESCO Network 2018). This process revolved around the City of creative cities, among others. It has also of Arts and Sciences, opened in 1998. How- continuously taken part in inter-regional col- ever, the City Council also helped organise laboration, such as the Pyrenart cross-border events such as the America’s Cup (2007, 2009) cooperation project. Jointly funded by the and the Formula 1 world championship (since European Fund for Regional Development, it 2008). This foreign cultural policy with an intends to promote internationalisation of the entrepreneurial leaning would be articulated performing arts in the Pyrenees (Spain, France with the Brand Spain project in the early 21st and Andorra). century (Marzo, 2005). The City Council’s culture area has also However, the City Council’s Culture De- developed other internationalisation mecha- partment has been focussing its work on local nisms locally, such as promoting the town’s resources, including management of museums, mural art, that includes works by internation- libraries and the city’s popular heritage. On ally known artists. In 2019, the municipal gov- the other hand, it has recently backed a model ernment (PNV and PSE) approved its “Inter- aimed at projecting basic culture by means of national Action Strategy 2030”. It proposes reconnecting local policy with regional and strengthening economic and social develop- state areas. In 2016, after the new government ment using the city’s cultural assets with global of the Valencian Community came into power, projection, in line with the creative city model. led by the PSOE, the cultural area designed an “Internationalisation Plan for the Cultural and Creative Industries” and forged contacts IV. SOCIAL PLAYERS: CIVIL ORGANISATIONS with the IC, the Institut Ramon Llull (IRL) and AND THE DIASPORA AC/E (Viñas, 2016). Within this framework, the City Council, led by Compromís, jointly Spanish cultural diplomacy has historically organised actions such as the “1st Internation- enjoyed dynamic participation from civil social Dramatic Arts Sessions” for Valencia with ety and the diaspora (Lida, 2019). On the one support from AC/E. hand, the neo-colonial external cultural policy since the 19th century has backed the Span-

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ish language and science by promoting differ- foreign markets following collective criteria ent associations abroad, particularly in Latin with a territorial brand. America (Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla, 1991). The players and entities that make up these On the other hand, nationalist movements in networks achieve an unequal degree of articu- Galicia, Catalonia and the Basque Country car- lation with the public administrations. Since ried out dynamic international cultural action, 2014, the Programme for Internationalisation creating spaces for their communities in other of Spanish Culture (PICE) from AC/E has been countries. financially and logistically supporting Spanish External cultural action projects have been companies and artists through financing for deeply transformed over the last few decades. visitors and foreign mobility. Analysis of ter- These initiatives include a variety of mecha- ritorial distribution of all the funding assigned nisms and fields relating museums, artists, to foreign mobility between 2014 and 2019,3 teams or cultural companies with public ad- shows us how they are mainly condensed into ministrations. These relations tackle both civic the Autonomous Regions of Madrid (1114), and sector-based diplomacy on Spanish soil Catalonia (861) and Andalusia (495), followed and diaspora diplomacy abroad, and they can by Galicia, Basque Country, Valencia and Cas- be divided into four groups. tilla y León (over 150) (graph 1). This distribution of resources bears some correlation with Firstly, there is a series of associations the population density of each Autonomous and internationalisation projects for regional Region and with territories boasting greater cultures that are developed in each territory industrial production. However, it also reveals under the stamp of identity projection and clear asymmetry in sector-based inclusion in protection. This framework encompasses vi- different territories throughout the country. brant social participation from activists and interest in consolidating the national image Thirdly, we find a range of non-govern- abroad (Zamorano, 2016). This also includes mental entities developing international cul- organisations intended to strengthen heritage, tural action from a perspective of cultural de- mainly by promoting the language but also velopment cooperation. Diplomats, cultural the arts. In the Catalan case, for example, this administrators or artists can all work on the covers a wide fabric of institutions that have historic Spanish project in this field. They are worked with the Catalan Generalitat, including actively bound to the AECID but also to in- the PEN Català, Patronat Cat Món or UNESCO- ternational cooperation agencies from many CAT. autonomous regions, such as Andalusia or the Basque Country, with local and provincial gov- Secondly, there are many companies and ernments. This direction of cultural diplomacy non-governmental organisations that group corresponds to specific dynamics for territo- together artists, cultural or intellectual me- rial insertion abroad, frequently more exposed diators and whose internationalising activity to local social participation. In this mould, as is established within a rationality bound to an example, in 2019 the AECID financed,4 the sector-based development. This is also framed within a wide range of structures that intend to project the arts or heritage from a social or corporate perspective. These entities oversee 3. Retrieved from: https://www.accionculturalpice.com/ disseminating works, facilities and seek to at- pice-cm/dinamica/distribucioncandidatos.html (visited on tract cultural consumers. They also determine 13 January 2020). mechanisms to project the cultural industry in 4. ��Subsidies from the Spanish Agency for International Coop- eration for Development. Royal Decree 390/2019, of 21 June.

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Graph 1. Territorial distribution of PICE funding for foreign mobility (2014-2019)

Andalusia Aragón Castilla y León Castilla-La Mancha Cataluña Madrid Valencia Extremadura

Source: own work based on PICE.

“Parque de España” Cultural Centre in Rosario Promotion Service, the Catalan policy with (Argentina) or the Nicaraguan Spanish Cul- these communities regulated in the Autonomy ture Institute. Statute of 2006 or the funding for the Andalu- sia Junta given to the Andalusian Communities Finally, diaspora players represent a fun- settled abroad. The scarce generational relief damental dimension of current external cul- and limited programming updates for these tural policy. Associations for flamenco, col- historical spaces have been the main problems las de diables or literary clubs are just some addressed by the administrations in their rela- organisations that historically bring together tions with them. Spanish people. Significant emigration over the last decade led to generational renewal of these spaces that also presented new de- V. DIGITAL CULTURAL DIPLOMACY: ROLE AND mands. However, it should be mentioned that SITUATION IN SPAIN the incidence of foreign cultural policy is limited in cities where there is no representation In 2015, the European Parliament emphasised from either the consulate or the IC/AECID. It the strategic role of digital cultural diplomacy is based on the “Spanish Language and Cul- to develop the EU’s soft power.5 This follows ture Programme” and on subsidies received the distinguishing features set the same year by Spanish associations from the Ministry of by the Digital Diplomacy Plan developed by Employment and Social Security (regulated in the MAEC. The need to back artistic and cul- Order ESS/1613/2012), to encourage national culture. On the other hand, different autonomous regions have used their historical instruments to link themselves to these populations, 5. See communication from the Parliament: https://eur-lex. europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/HTML/?uri=OJ:C:2015:4 including the Galician Xunta’s Communities 34:FULL&from=DE (visited 16th January 2020).

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tural activities and events with an online strat- Graph 2. Twenty hashtags and words most used egy, essential for Spanish cultural action (Ex- in Twitter by IC, AECID and AC/E teriores, 2017), has been strengthened due to the current worldwide pandemic. The diversity of public and private players @InstCervantes #CajadelasLetras #HermanosMachado mentioned in the previous section, developed #NuncaNosFuimosIC #Españaestáenloslibros its own virtual promotion supports in a net- #Lahoradelaverdad #TiempoDeActuar work with the public administration. In this #VicenteMolinaFoix Instituto, Cervantes, Reloj, #BuzóndelosMachado #LeónFelipe section, we will present a brief digital ethnog- García, Montero, español, #CCSE #80AñosExilioRepublicano raphy intended to frame the digital cultural homenaje, Luis, exposición, #Galdós2020 #Españolaspordescubrir “el, calendario, coloquio, #LosGaleotes #CambioClimático lengua, poeta, Madrid, diplomacy system. Firstly, we will process the presentación, aviso, torno, #ÁngelesMora #AntonioMachado last 600 Tweets6 published by the IC, AECID legado, enero #Cop25Madrid2019 #CursosIC #ELE and AC/E accounts on 15th January 2020. Examining the online activity of the main in-

stitutions from the cultural diplomacy system @AECID_es helped us visualise the axes of its communica- #AECID #SomosCooperación tion strategy, its programming priorities and #Yotambiénpinto #COP25 its recent transformations. Table 1 shows in- #SomosCultura #España mujeres, violencia, #SomosIberoamérica #Agenda2030 tense activity from the IC and the AECID that desarrollo, cooperación, #cooperación #ODS #Enredados #25N mundo, programa, niñas, #somosCooperación #desarrollo #ddhh have dynamic interaction with its followers. personas, cultura, proyecto, #Hoy #FCAS #AméricaLatina género, países internacional, #TiempoDeActuarcambioclimático agua, humanitaria, gracias, gracias!, Española, Table 1. IC, AECID and AC/E Twitter accounts, directora followers, retweets and likes

Followers Average Average Account (thousands) retweets likes @ACECULTURA @InstCervantes 210 8.9 20.13 #ElViajeMásLargo #ExpoSpain2020 #Vcentenario #SpainFrankfurt2021 @AECID_es 51.3 5.4 14.1 #CentenarioGaldós #exposición #Expo2020 #ACEcontenidos @ACECultura 25.4 3.4 6.9 #ACEartesvisuales #Recomendamos #IVueltaAlMundo #LasArtesDelMetal Source: own work. Cc, puedes, plazo, artistas, #ayudas #AlmaTierra #Visitantes exposición, proyecto, obras, #PérezGaldós #TiempoDeActuar España, enero, visitar, #Cultura #traducción #cultura febrero, motivo, años, apoya, Regarding the communicative and discursive abierto, expo, ayudas

direction of each account, Graph 2 shows how, Source: own work. while the IC is focussed on culture in Spanish and the projection of national literary or artistic heritage, AECID has a clearly social profile, where culture is bound transversally to its cooperation work in different fields, such as ecology When analysing the Twitter accounts of or gender. Finally, AC/E presents a more opera- the two most important linguistic-cultural pro- tive focus, bound to the projection of Spanish jection organisations for the autonomous re- culture from a sector-based perspective. gions, the IRL and the Instituto Etxepare (IE) (table 2), it is seen that @IRLlull and its impact are similar to AC/E, while IE has a more modest profile. 6. We use the twitter analytics software called Burrd.

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Table 3. IRL and IE Twitter accounts, followers, Graph 3. Twenty hashtags and words most used retweets and likes in Twitter by IRL and IE

Followers Average Twitter Average likes (thousands) retweets @IRLlull 18.5 3.6 9.5 @IRLlull #FestivalVagamondes @etxepareES 1.6 0.8 1.7 #PremisRamonLlull19 #XarxaLlull #Tabadoul19 #Mulhouse Source: own work. #CorrentesdEscritas #maralatrio #PremisRamonLlull2019 #Lesfitesnetes Avui, catalana, cultura, #Tabadoul #catalanculture convocatoria, literatura, #Vagamondes20 #Vagamondes festivalllulll’, enhorabona, #LiveRadio #tabadoul #xarxallull As observed in graph 3, both accounts dem- novetat, concessió, subvencions, gràcies, #RebotaRebotaYEnTuCaraExplota onstrate their national nature, focussed on pro- resolución, residencia, #recomanem #BiennaleArchitettura2020 ramón, published, català, #NitdeSantaLlúcia jection and linguistic protection, promotion translation, llengua, cultural of major festivals or funding, and exchanging with other sub-state nations. In terms of networks, whilst the 10 most @etxepareES #ScotlandGoesBasque #Klika #Korrika frequent tags correspond to well-known char- #BasqueCulture #MakeYourFringe acters from culture in Castilian Spanish, such #Kimuak #DíaInternacionaldelEuskera #GlobalTraining #Atlantic1050 #BasqueAudiovisual #QuebecEuskadi as Ismael Serrano or Almudena Grandes, AC/E Vasca, euskera, vasco, maintains a more active link with the Minis- festival, mañana, año, #connectingcultures #basqueaudiovisual cultura, etxepare, concurso, #QcPaysBasque #EdBookFest #DBFest 19 try of Culture. The accounts for cultural del- vídeo, korrika, convocatoria, #Espanoramas2019 #HQPC #KregoMartin euskal, vascas, internacional, #ChejovvsShakespeare egations abroad interact assiduously with @ plazo, Edimburgo, cursouniversidad InstCervantes and @AECID_es, although this depends on their national character. Conse- Source: own work. quently, the sub-state accounts being analysed mainly revolve around regional players and institutions or sub-state peers. Beyond official institutions, many organisa- Digital cultural diplomacy has become a tions from the tertiary cultural sector, artists crucial instrument for this policy in the current or companies with global projection promote context. The public institutions are seeking to their action internationally as a national or channel the affected live arts activity through territorial concept. Initiatives such as Dance its virtual networks. One reference regarding From Spain, developed by the Federación Es- the impact of COVID-19 in this respect is the tatal de Asociaciones de Compañías y Empre- increase of activity in Twitter between April sas de Danza/ State Federation of Dance Com- and June 2020. Using an analysis on Twop- pany and Business Associations (FECED), are charts7 of tweets sent out by @InstCervantes, developed as specific instruments for digital @AECID_es and @ACECultura from 2018 to cultural diplomacy. This refers to an online 2020, an exponential increase can be seen over catalogue of Spanish companies and shows the last quarter. In the case of AECID, it goes that was set up in 2012. The initiative has been from 161 tweets in June 2018 to 195 in June supported by the AECID and the Instituto Cer- 2019 and 1900 in the same month in 2020. vantes, among other organisations. The Dance AC/E follows a similar pattern, with 3329 From Spain Twitter account has AC/E among its three most linked accounts in the period being analysed. 7. Please see: https://twopcharts.com/

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tweets in June 2020, 354 in June 2019 and 390 been strengthening specific cooperation net- in June 2018. Only the IC shows a minor activ- works. Certain social transformations and re- ity increase, with 520 tweets in June 2020 and cent policies have led to its reorganisation. On a biannual average of 364. the one hand, new emigration, ageing among historical communities abroad and new technologies have questioned the model for rela- VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS tions between the administrations and emigrants. On the other hand, locally, there is a The structure of Spanish cultural diplomacy noticeably growing internationalising demand is fragmented. The dynamics of collaboration from companies and artists who suffered from and conflict between the MEC, MAEC, the cuts after 2012. This phenomenon has been autonomous regions and diverse local govern- partially tackled by AC/E that is refocussing its ments and the emphasis from the different activity due to COVID-19 although its funding right- and left-wing governments regarding has been relatively centralised in Madrid and external cultural policy, have made their mark Barcelona. The different networks integrated on the country’s symbolic projection abroad. in cultural diplomacy share certain discursive In this respect, the constitutional, regulatory directions and also revolve around certain and administrative dependence of this activity nodes. In this respect, our digital ethnography should be highlighted in relation to the territo- reveals a certain atomisation of the digital cul- rial cultural policy system. tural projection determined by national and Our brief review of the role of cities in market factors and an acceleration of digital cultural paradiplomacy firstly demonstrates diplomacy in the last few months due to the a certain asymmetry in institutional develop- current situation. ment. Whilst some cities, such as Barcelona, In order to address this scenario, the follow- have given greater autonomy to international ing new political measures have been proposed action, other have developed it less system- from a constructivist and federalist focus: atically or as an axis crossing through local cultural policy. Certain differences are also demonstrated in the international projection 1. Central government model and in the degree of articulation of the 1. Promote federalisation of foreign cul- vertical governance of this policy. These dif- tural action by means of a reactivated ferences are explained by diverse factors such Sector-based Cultural Conference - as each city’s sociocultural inequalities, the na- with participation from both Minis- tional character of some autonomous regions tries (MAEC and MCD), in order to being analysed and their creative city policies, increase the spaces for and means of including strategies such as major facilities or intergovernmental cooperation, pri- spectacular events. While linguistic projection oritising the social and sector-based has remained more subject to regional paradi- demands. plomacy, cities have directed themselves more decidedly towards creation and the urban 2. Develop strategies to solve the prob- brand. lem of centralisation of the support for cultural internationalisation in A huge range of social players participate in Madrid, Seville and Barcelona, such this framework of cultural diplomacy. Organi- as segmenting the PICE and other sations that act under sector-based, nationalist programmes to support internation- or foreign development cooperation logic have

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alisation of the arts depending on diplomacy, working with autonomous provincial quotas. regions, cities and State organisations. Multi-level strategies: 2. Autonomous regions and local governments 3. Support artists, emigrants and other players from the diaspora by means Set participative and bottom-up mechanisms of diversified strategies abroad. Map to define and design local and regional interna- the multi-level framework of foreign tionalisation programmes. cultural representation - consulates, centres, actions - in all countries. On Use local and regional governments’ prox- this basis, broaden and reconfigure imity to the cultural players as a device for the consulate attention and the cul- identifying needs and political coordination. tural service to citizens abroad, also Create Regional Boards for International Cul- including mechanisms from the au- tural Policy, with representation from the sub- tonomous regions and online for this state Culture Departments and foreign action purpose. agencies, as well as local governments, social 4. Strengthen the role of AECID and IC and sector-based entities. and its foreign networks, in its direct Enable new cities to become members of relations with Spanish and non-Span- Agenda 21 for culture–reproducing the expe- ish communities abroad. riences from Telde and Sant Cugat de Vallés–8 5. Increase digital diplomacy resources and use this network as an international cul- for all cultural diplomacy organisa- ture cooperation mechanism. tions, with a coordinated strategy and a long-term schedule. 6. Develop a training programme for 8. Complete list of Spanish member cities available on: human resources in Spanish cultural http://www.agenda21culture.net/who-we-are/members (visited on 2nd February 2020).

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Moragas i Spa, M. (2008): La Olimpiada cultural de Barcelona en 1992: luces y sombras. Lecciones para el futuro, Barcelona, Centre d’Estudis Olímpics UAB. Noya, J. (2003): «Luces y sombras de la acción cultural exterior», Real Instituto Elcano, no. 66, pp. 1-7. Observatorio Vasco de la Cultura (2019): Internacionalización de la cultura. Donostia. Pérez González, M. (1986): La acción exterior del Estado y las autonomías: desarrollos en la práctica es- tatutaria. Cursos de Derecho Internacional de Vitoria Gasteiz, País Vasco, Universidad del País Vasco. Rius Ulldemolins, J. and Gisbert, V. (2018): «¿Por qué las políticas culturales locales no cambian? Constricciones del modelo urbano, inercia en la gestión y batallas culturales en los ‘Gobiernos del Cambio’ en Madrid y Barcelona (2015-2018)», Revista Española de Ciencia Política, pp. 93-122. Rius Ulldemolins, J. and Zamorano, M. M. (2015): «Spain’s Nation Branding Project Marca España and Its Cultural Policy: The Economic and Political Instrumentalization of a Homogeneous and Sim- plified Cultural Image”, International Journal of Cultural Policy, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 20-40. Ruiz Mantilla, J. (2008): «Cultura / Exteriores: segundo asalto», El País, December 18. Sánchez Mateos, E. (2001): «Camino viejo y sendero nuevo: ¿España, hacia una política exterior global?”, Anuario Internacional CIDOB 2000, Barcelona, Fundació CIDOB. Topic´, M. and Sciortino, C. (2012): «Cultural Diplomacy and Cultural Imperialism: A Framework for the Analysis», in S. Topic´ and M. Rodin, Cultural diplomacy and Cultural imperialism: European perspective(s), Frankfurt, Peter Lang, pp. 9-18 in Vanolo, A. (2015): «The Image of the Creative City, Eight Years Later: Turin, Urban Branding and the Economic Crisis Taboo», Cities, vol. 46, no. 1, p. 7. Villanueva, C. (2007): Representing Cultural Diplomacy: Soft Power, Cosmopolitan Constructivism and Nation Branding in Mexico and Sweden, Sweden, Växjö University Press. Viñas, E. (2016): «Amoraga Activa El Plan de Internacionalización de La Cultura Valenciana», Valencia Plaza, June 14. Wyszomirski, M., Burgess, C. and Peila, C. (2003): International Cultural Relations: A Multi-Country Comparison, Ohio, Center for Arts and Culture. Zamorano, M. M. (2016): «Comunidad imaginada y gobernanza en la acción cultural exterior de cata- luña: entre la participación social y el corporativismo», Debats, vol. 130, no. 1, pp. 49-63. Zamorano, M. M. and Rodríguez Morató, A. (2014): «The Cultural Paradiplomacy of Barcelona since the 1980s: Understanding Transformations in Local Cultural Paradiplomacy», International Journal of Cultural Policy.

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Juan Luis Manfredi Sánchez

Cultural and creative industries contribute to the global imaginary by producing entertainment content and information services, particularly digital activity. In particular, public media emerge as benchmark informative markers by providing context to global news and they are essential agents in cultural diplomacy by providing explicit support for cultural industries. In short, the new ecosystem on the net requires an in-depth review of external cultural action so the new government’s foreign policy can make the most of cultural strength. Because in a global ecosystem, culture in Spanish is a safe asset.

Key words: publicly owned media, Instituto Cervantes, public diplomacy, country brand, image abroad.

I. GENERAL ASSESSMENT: CULTURAL AND This dynamic explains the growing profes- COMMUNICATION INDUSTRIES IN THE NEW sionalisation of public diplomacy and cultural INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION DISORDER cooperation. The novelty of digital networks lies in systematic use of the instruments in Advertising, literature and cinema, journal- the design and performance of the country’s ism, travel and tourist experiences, social international strategy in accordance with media, sporting events, museums or mass some pre-set interests and with global scope, consumption brands are the instruments of in real time. Chinese investment in content choice to shape international communica- for audiovisual platforms, Russia’s art collection and build spheres of influence. The glo- tions that travel all over the world, crowning balisation of trading goods and services has Mexico’s audiovisual culture with five awards converged on the digital culture of platforms, from the Film Academy for best director, the new media and mobile technology. Conse- architecture of global construction in Quatar quently, there has been a multiplication of or Spanish and Italian football in Saudi Arabia country initiatives to manage the internation- are current references for how a growing num- alisation of the communication and culture ber of countries have joined this dynamic with industries. the acknowledged aim of influencing disorder

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and promoting their own interests and values. macy does not just consist of setting up and In terms of information, Russia Today, Canal opening centres or own spaces, but of integrat- France International or the Xinhua news agen- ing cultural products and services into local cies have transformed the journalistic ecosys- networks. So, cultural cooperation transfers tem. Regional governments, cities or private unique experiences through art, history, ar- interests have launched themselves into this chitecture, science or gastrostomy beyond the power dynamic through cultural and symbolic interests of trade relations. The cultural indus- production for a wide range of reasons. In the try’s success abroad revolves around recipi- current scenario, there is no single model for ent institutions and audiences perceiving the foreign action nor any one dominant player, al- other’s creativity as a value in its own right and though cultural industries and publicly owned mutually beneficial. The creative industries media hold a relevant position. Here begins feed an aesthetic sense of cultural diplomacy, the challenge of internationalising the Spanish a criterion of its own using innovative expres- cultural and creative industries. sions, including criticism of political power. The information helps build the imaginary, II. CURRENT ANALYSIS. CULTURAL CONTENT and not just the political news. The study by WHEN CONSTRUCTING THE INTERNATIONAL the Royal Elcano Institute demonstrates that IMAGINARY football represented around 36% of all news that appeared in the international press in In academic literature, there are a whole host 2017 and 2018. The Catalan crisis was rele- of classifications, typologies or approxima- vant, above all in September and November of tions to the phenomenon of public and cultural 2017. News on the arts, shows, music or books diplomacy. It consists of excising influence by falls a long way behind in absolute terms, as means of communication strategies, culture, can be seen in graph 1. Typical political news education, new services and entertainment, is not so relevant, while the category of art and deployed by an institution that intends to in- culture suggests room for improvement. fluence public opinion. Culture, educational During the Partido Popular’s term of of- services and international audiovisual broad- fice (2011-2018), international news activity casts are three of the best acknowledged con- was relegated, and frozen out of news cycles cepts, along with active listening or promotion to be able to contain the economic and consti- of interests. Cultural cooperation generates tutional crisis. The absence of relevant spokes- other opportunities through public-private al- persons in influential matters (economic re- liances, capturing private investment, partici- cession, Brexit and Gibraltar, Catalan crisis) pation from non-profit-making international is demonstrated by the lack of interviews in organisations in field projects, the role of the the international media, low profile at official diaspora abroad, educational programmes and summits or apathy towards correspondents other instruments open to third parties. authorised in Spain. Cultural industries are the primary element The report is completed by assessing the of the imaginary to the extent that they shape mission of publicly owned media because country’s tastes, opinions or perceptions. Con- RTVE, the EFE agency and the FORTA media sumption of audiovisual contents, literature or are instruments for cultural action to the ex- the digital culture is a social, collective deci- tent that they provide high quality, benchmark sion, far from conventional political or diplo- information. Faced with growing demand from matic activities. Consequently, cultural diplo- Spanish speakers, the news offer must be com-

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Graph 1. Information on Spain in 2017 and 2018 (by topic axes)

300.000 283.514

250.000

200.000

150.000

100.000

48.623 50.000 27.828 15.002 12.633 6.563 5.936 0 Football Catalan crisis Art and shows Travel Music Cinema Books

Own work with data extracted from the Real Instituto Elcano..

plementary to the English-speaking domain of exploited properly right now, when it seems television and news agencies. However, invest- that there is a margin in the journalistic for- ment has dropped, along with strategic jour- mats, chain programmes or radio programmes nalism capability. Delegations in La Havana for podcasting. and Buenos Aires have been merged, and then The second aspect is the impact of cultural subsequently separated. FORTA members audiovisualisation. Faced with the weakness have closed delegations or outsourced news of the cultural and audiovisual industry fabric, production. public media can act as sponsors for a network The contribution would have to involve activity. This is not a case of financing or open- different elements: information and the cul- ing up new windows or supports, but acting as tural content. Firstly, publicly owned brands an axis for independent distribution, backing have to build a reputation as bastions of high Ibero-American networks for co-production quality news, with solid news posts, analysis and creating an Ibero-American cinema brand. from a Spanish and European perspective of The current dispersion of offers in Spanish the global events, interviews in Spanish with reduces the value of the audience, makes in- world leaders and providing context and analy- dustrialisation difficult and weakens foreign sis of the international news. In terms of pro- expansion. Public media can be the catalyst to duction, the international area is expensive curb the cultural industry’s permanent imma- and not particularly profitable, but it gener- turity through regulatory (co-production obli- ates greater reputation. Prestige of the public gation) or symbolic decisions (broadcasting an media is the foundation for other cultural and experimental film on international channels), audiovisual products, insomuch that operators but above all through the audience’s demand from the Ibero-American region can reference for content and education. Due to fragmenta- quality information to one of the three brands, tion of platforms and prior marginal experi- RTVE, EFE or FORTA. This line of cooperation ence, RTVE and FORTA can drive the cultural through journalistic production is not being expansion in accordance with their capacities

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or interests. The institutionalisation of refer- narrative construction that is used to explain ences thereby acts as an archive of audiovisual, Spain’s position in the international (dis)or- musical or cultural products that lengthens der, positioning it in the global arena and giv- the product life cycle, improves positioning in ing meaning to national political discourse. search engines and affects the viewer’s final The skill to handle management of the flows decision. The extensive nature of the patri- of international news must appear on the for- monial, architectural, creative or gastronomic eign cultural action agenda, as an intrinsic part assets of the Ibero-American community rep- of the task and not as a mere add-on. In terms resents an opportunity for the cultural indus- of journalism, digital communications have try. They are basic assets in creating cultural multiplied the weight of mediated diplomacy, trends that, when supported in the audiovisual which is disputed in the sphere of the media. industry, multiply their final value and their This is not a case of tweeting each decision or cooperation capability in the digital networks. foreign political action but including a concat- enation of messages in the benchmark inter- Ultimately, the plurality represented by national media with spokespersons explicitly FORTA public media should be exploited to authorised to influence public opinion. This is show the actual internal linguistic and cultur- culture, but also economic information, social al diversity that opens up new scenarios and analysis, methods for ecological and energy markets. The Catalan and Basque languages transition, among other relevant areas. Aware- cannot be limited to the market criteria, but ness of diplomacy is raised on a playing field they should be supported as expressions of that combines a global audience with interac- our own culture with huge cultural weighting. tivity, dissemination of messages and language The opportunity of the networks makes sense frames. This focus steers clear of the institu- when exports travel in digital format and are tional advertising to address how messages are aimed at a foreign audience. In the case of Gali- constructed, use digital channels, lever pres- cia, it is easier for language to open the door to ence in top level events (European and Ibero- internationalisation and foreign expansion to- American summits) and combine it with the wards a Portuguese-speaking audience. Other presence of other political players and social formulas that have been tried and tested in the leaders. This is not a case of imposing a mes- past to put contents in satellite television for- sage but facilitating readers’ comprehension of mats seem to be less interesting today to the the direction taken by Spain’s foreign policy extent that the distribution costs distract from and interests. the production, affecting its quality. As budgets drop, backing digital concept should make production and innovation easier in these oth- III. DRAFT OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL er languages. GOALS FOR CULTURAL CONTENT At a time of hyper-consumption of audiovisual and cultural materials, international In January 2019, it was announced that the For- content expansion can contribute to this new eign Cultural Action Plan (PACE), cancelled in focus on Spanish action with political attrib- 2012, would be reinstated although it has not utes. Issues regarding climate change, histori- been specifically updated publicly. Available cal memory and identity policies, equality or information indicates that 157 million Euro foreign feminist policy are well received in the will be provided by means of coordinated ac- international press, if declarations are accom- tion between the Ministry of Culture, Minis- panied by specific measures. This is a strategic try of Foreign Affairs, the Spanish Agenda for International Cooperation and Development

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Graph 2. Foreign trade in cultural goods 2009-2018 (in million Euros)

2.500 2.324 2.147 2.032 1.919 2.000 1.764 1.663 1.564 1.606 1.575 1.542 1.502 1.525 1.471 1.427 1.500 1.395 1.269 1.283 1.293 1.286 1.324

1.000

500

0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Imports Exports

Compiled by author with data extracted from the Annual directory of cultural statistics (Ministry of Culture and Sport, 2019).

(AECID), the Instituto Cervantes and the pub- nised European indicators for foreign trade of lic company Acción Cultural Española (AC/E). goods linked to culture per country sheds light The Ministry of Culture has the sector-based on the economic magnitude of similar coun- strategies, while the Foreign Ministry identi- tries. 0.6% (2016) and 0.7% (2017) of the total fies the priority geographic areas. Eleven coun- percentage of Spain’s exports place this eco- tries have been highlighted as priority: United nomic activity in a range that is similar to Den- States, United Kingdom, Germany, Morocco, mark, Germany, Austria or Greece although far Portugal, France, Russia, Japan, China. Mexico from France (1.8%-1.6%) and Italy (1.8%) or and Cuba. It is surprising that Brazil does not even Poland (1.4%). Universities, arts centres appear on this list. The sectors include educa- and communication industries with a techno- tion, audiovisual communication, performing logical base will have to work together on in- arts and visual arts, plus books and the press. ternationalisation of digital cultural contents Digital culture appears as a cross-discipline el- and on the net. The third economic function ement. seems to be bound to the review of the tourism model. The total cost of cultural activities The economic analysis of the situation ex- (tickets, visits, shows, gifts) stands at 13,341.1 pressed in graph 2 offers three lessons to pre- million Euro, 585.5 million Euro less than in pare a strategy for cultural industries. Exports 2017. The digital dimension (apps, gamifica- have grown systematically, but they have not tion of experiences, online videos, educational managed to close the gap from 2012 and 2013. content) is presented as a growth opportunity. In total, the export account stands at 2,031.7 million Euro, whilst imports represent 2,147.3 The economic figures are poor for an au- million Euro. Secondly, the possibility is per- diovisual ecosystem that has an increasing ceived of growth in educational services, teach- number of devices, networks and platforms. ing Spanish as a Foreign Language and content There is more demand of all types, but it is production. The compared study of harmo- not covered by content produced in Spain, ei-

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ther because it does not reach the distribution there is backing for co-production with Ibero- channels or because the size of the cultural American partners. This decision is in line with company does not allow this expansion. Even the Spain-Colombia Culture Focus and Spain- worse, public policies for building a culture Mexico Culture Focus programmes, bilateral industry with natural development within the projects awarded 20 million Euro. There are heart of the Ibero-American space, have not new lines of work, such as executive presence caught on in the two recurring dimensions. in UNESCO, developing a specific plan for sci- In terms of international cooperation, the entific diplomacy or heritage management, drought from the Spanish Agency for Interna- and other measures (cultural programming, tional Development Cooperation reduced the or grants). Audiovisual creativity requires sup- catalogue of cultural actions and the produc- port to industrialise the tasks of promotion, tion, promotion or distribution initiatives for distribution and working in a network, not just creative projects. Docfera or Hamaca Media the creativity of the script. Without solid au- & Video Art have not been successful mecha- diovisual markets, the cultural content is lost nisms for distribution and exchange of cultural in terms of offer, because it is competing with and audiovisual experiences. The former has blockbusters. In terms of demand, because the disappeared while Hamaca remains a non- audience does not have easy access to it or on profit-making association. The second dimen- the same platforms. sion is industrial; with no explicit economic Strategic backing from the Instituto Cer- support, proposals do not become centres of vantes consists of consolidating the current cultural production and creation. This lesson network and setting up new headquarters in should be considered in the new plan. In prac- Sub-Saharan Western African and the United tice, the digital dimension should be a priority States. There is an intention to improve the in cultural cooperation as there is margin for network of associated universities and ad hoc substantial growth. linguistic certifications. It had a budget of 129 On the horizon, there is the Frankfurt Book million in 2019, up by 4.9%. The networked Fair 2021, where Spain will be guest of honour. collaboration with publicly owned media is the Four million Euros have been allocated to this natural window for broadcasting cultural con- literary activity. Along with exporting books tent for global audiences because it combines and press, it is useful to broaden the resources production with global distribution. RTVE, awarded for digital experiences linked to the in particular, should be the archive for educa- culture industry. Digital content underpins tional and cultural resources in Spanish, in the editorial demand and creates complementary same way as the BBC World Service amasses services on a worldwide scale. The digital as- videos, podcasts or contents in English for its pect facilitates innovative backing for formats global audience. and products, plus support for actual cultural The assessment outlines the goals of the and linguistic diversity. Digital services are PACE in harmony with the actual goals of available for global audiences with less restric- foreign policy and internationalisation of the tions and should create added value for the economy and business. It would be desirable reading experience. to see Culture among the priorities of the new In the field of cinema, the PACE promises cabinet. The following lines of action are pro- 2.5 million Euro to take part in the usual inter- posed for this, in harmony with strengthening national festivals and in distribution. Through the cultural industries and the work of public the Film and Visual Arts Institute (ICAA), media.

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• Discard the country brand focus: Far dicates that there is a margin of growth from the most utilitarian aspects (lists, in the exports and in the actual balance rankings,), cultural cooperation should of trade. France accumulates almost lever creative industries for their inter- one third of the exports, while other national expansion. Through creative strategic countries are marginal with content (fashion, design, architecture, around 2% or less of the trade balance cinema, gastrostomy), innovation and representation. This starting point re- professionalism values are projected quires specific measures. towards other economic activities and Exports to Latin America have less relative export of goods and services. weight, despite the ease of the language. The ed- • Language as an economic activity: Nine ucational services sector represents a differenti- out of the eleven identified countries ated opportunity, that includes other economic present an intensive demand for Span- activities (tourism, consumption). Spanish uni- ish as a Foreign Language that leads versities should broaden their programmes and to extending the educational services enrolment for Ibero-American students. The (physical and digital learning material), United States is a specific market that offers the internationalisation of universities (at- advantage of contents intended for Latin Amer- tracting foreign students) and creation icans, that is not demographically or culturally of fresh digital services (apps, games, homogeneous. There is the language link, creat- translations, promotion or broadcasting a point to enter the market, but this requires ing content). The data from table 1 in- explicit adaptation to local uses.

Table 1. Imports and exports of cultural goods as a percentage of their total

Imports Exports

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Germany 16.5 10.7 11.4 8.7 7.8 3.5 3.7 2.8 2.3 2.1

Portugal 5.0 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.5 14.3 11.6 10.3 9.1 8.1

France 6.4 7.7 6.8 7.4 6.9 20.0 19.9 27.2 32.3 34.9

United 7.2 8 6.4 5.2 6.4 6.4 6.8 5.3 4.5 3.9 Kingdom

USA 3.1 4.6 3.8 2.3 2.7 8.4 8.8 8.9 7.3 8.1

Morocco 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.5

Russia 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6

Japan 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.5

China 23.9 25 27.6 38 42.9 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.3 1.7

Mexico 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 6.6 7.0 6.0 5.1 5.2

Source: compiled by author with data extracted from the “Annual directory of cultural statistics” (Ministry of Culture and Sport, 2019).

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• Naturalise the digital transformation. with growing economic nationalism, To date, proposals have been seen with it is likely that audiovisual coopera- international content that add the digi- tion will become a bridge, spanning tal dimension as a cost centre and not players from different countries, keen as an actual action axis, whose content to reduce costs and generate econo- is created with international intentions. mies of scope. Platforms, mobiles or new news me- 2. Socially, physical distancing and the dia are examples of how the devices drop in ticket sales provides an op- require content with a cultural matrix. portunity to expand digital experi- Here they should value the role of the ences. Content production deserves singular events (fairs, exhibitions, an in-depth review by the cultural sporting events) and the digitalisation institutions. Podcasts with interviews of the tourism industry to create cul- and reports on art shows, the virtual tural content and services. reality applied to enjoy the experi- • Cultural cooperation and country val- ence at home, videogames, long texts, ues. Deploy actual development co- fun on social media or new narratives operation elements and Agenda 2030. (Tik Tok and the like) fatten a list of These are ideal actions to coordinate digital cultural production with spe- the community dreamed up with Por- cific demands that cover an audience tugal and Ibero-America through cul- that will not be able to take part in the ture. They are easy audiences to gener- direct experience of the visit. This ate economies of scale and scope. digital initiative directed towards the user experience runs alongside the times when public and private institu- IV. COVID-19 AND ITS EFFECTS tions work together. Public museums, radio and television stations, private This was where COVID-19 came in. The pan- collections, journalists or experts can demic has accelerated the restructuring pro- facilitate transfer from physical to cess and change in leisure patterns, cultural virtual reality. consumption and digital screens. Entertain- 3. In journalism there is renewed in- ment and culture are digital, not just an exten- terest in the news business based on sion or a bi-product of the primary activity, facts and new items. Projects have but an autonomous structure where the citizen multiplied to disseminate scientific organises his or her cultural diet. and health-related information re- The transformation will have immediate ef- garding the spread of the propaganda fects. Here are four vectors to explore: virus. The informative marker of pub- 1. In the economic field, the trend to- licly owned media, thanks to remain- wards deglobalisation–reducing flows ing networks of correspondents, has and commercial exchanges–has be- facilitated informative leadership. come a structural reality. Fewer trav- This is a clue to how the audience ellers, fewer visits to museums or responds when the journalistic mis- theatres, less demand for products sion falls into line with the news and and more digitalisation of services. public service. In addition, the pan- Leisure time is redirected to screens, demic must stimulate - and not delay, that will need to renew content. Faced European and international journalis-

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tic cooperation projects, such as ex- been slashed. This is the starting point, so the change of items, analysis, content and best must be made of the situation to redirect sources. In the digital journalistic ex- the cultural action plan, reinforce cultural in- pansion, a window has been opened dustries’ foreign expansion and obtain public for cooperation in Ibero-America. Af- resources for this foreign policy goal. These ter a few years in retreat, it is impor- three interlinked goals structure proposals tant to recover the vocation providing and recommendations so that the cultural and news in Spanish worldwide. creative industries might become international 4. The fourth aspect is the consolidation cooperation agents in line with foreign policy. of the digital tsunami based on facts. The new coalition government, that has oft re- Cultural content, already belonging peated the need to strengthen the economic to an experience-based rather than dimension of diplomacy, will have to define material economy, plays the role the role played by culture in this project. of creators, connectors and broad- The cultural industries represent the prac- casters of the digital economy. This tical vehicle to find affinities with new demo- would thereby involve abandoning graphic segments, activate purchasing deci- the cultural product or industry fo- sions and improve the country image. The cus, over-exposed to the physical link return of the investment in cultural contents to the territory, to create, produce is extended to other services and increases the and distribute service. It implicates value of the exports by means of the “coun- re-engineering internal (creative) try of origin” effect. Through art, literature or and external (infrastructures) pro- tourism, political diplomacy and exports grow. cesses. In both cases, this requires a The commission consists of promoting an in- serious public investment to provide dustrial content policy with the aim of levering connectivity among territories and Spain’s reputation in new areas of economic citizens with less purchasing power and industrial business. and encourage education with complete digital skills. Promotion of cultural industries, origi- nating from an international vocation, must To sum up, the pandemic will reduce the encourage a framework of companies and conventional economic activity with foresee- services adapted to the digital environment. able effects on destroying employment in the There are two possible meanings of online cultural industries. However, this should be cultural content. They are on the net because the pretext to reformulate audiovisual and cul- they work with articulated projects that allow tural policies on a lasting digital matrix. This is scalability with support from ICEX and similar the moment. institutions. And, secondly, they are online because the net is now the global audience connected through digital devices. V. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS A range of proposals are suggested in this The lost decade is a fact analysed in the suc- dynamic for a strategy of creative cultural con- cessive reports by Fundación Alternativas on tent and industries online. They are as follows: the state of culture. Foreign backing has been 1. The cultural industry is a profitable in- affected to a greater extent as cultural activity vestment for foreign action. Faced with centres have been closed, personnel have been the dominance of English-speaking reduced in destinations and the budget has

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initiatives, there is room for diversifi- Culture and Ministry of the Economy cation in consumption of audiovisual through ICEX. contents, university and non-regulated 4. It is urgent to act on internationalisa- teaching, consumption of music and tion at source (coming up with ideas editorial products. From the digital and creating cultural products and perspective, consumption on platforms services), encouraging technological gathers together fiction, videogames, competition, protecting intellectual literature or journalistic information all property rights, forging agreements on the same device. Not only are digi- with educational and cultural institu- tal contents consumed because of their tions to give them specific content for cultural or symbolic nature but because their annual programming and develop we need to share their contents, recom- a shared graphic communication line mend them, make expressions viral and of work equivalent to what has been extend the product to other economics deployed in tourism (I need Spain!). of scope and scale. Latin America is 5. Working together on line encourages the natural territory for cultural brands broadening the catalogue of cultural and symbols. industries subject to internationali- 2. In terms of organisation, cultural co- sation: this is not just curricular in- operation online calls for social par- formation on architectural heritage ticipation, private initiative and the or Don Quijote, but it is advisable to use of new public entities. Foreign create a visitor experience for both cultural action does not fit the logic nationals and foreigners by adapting of hierarchies or anchors but suits new uses (environment and virtual the interest of the recipient audiences reality, connection with social media, that the cultural content and services content on audiovisual platforms). are intended for. The strategy must This requires an industrial policy in be directed towards them with ex- creating, producing and distributing plicit support from the public audio- digital content called on to occupy a visual media. preferential space in leisure and com- 3. The digital experience must make a munication in other own activities, major bid to extend internationalisa- such as gastrostomy or architecture. tion. It is recommended to reinforce The Instituto Cervantes and cultural the business structure of the cultural centres abroad are the natural part- producers and of communication. ners to grow these initiatives, with- Internationalisation is concentrated out needing to increase investment in on consolidated players and sectors property assets. (film producers, journalistic com- 6. In relation to the public media, RTVE panies). It consists of identifying and the FORTA partners have to con- the markets with the best consumer tribute to cultural content for cultural profile for cultural contents in Span- diplomacy by sustained production ish (Brazil, France, United Kingdom, of journalistic information on Spain China, United States just to men- and its interests, as well as diverse tion the five most fundamental) and content and experiences (Way of St deploy an internationalisation plan James, Basque cuisine, Romanic art, working jointly with the Ministry of folklore, flamenco, wine, just to men-

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tion the most obvious). In the audio- is concerned, the cultural dimension visual distribution networks, high is a positive factor in Spain’s interna- quality content on up-to-the-minute tional prestige (cities, art, heritage, culture, leisure and entertainment is museums, Xacobeo), so that it can well received, while political news is be used to frame other economic or associated with propaganda values. social policies in accordance with for- As far as international information eign policy interests.

REFERENCES

González, C., Martínez Romera, J. P. and Sánchez Giménez, J. A. (2020): La presencia de España en la prensa internacional: ¿de qué se habla cuando se habla sobre España, Madrid, Real Instituto Elcano de Estudios Estratégicos e Internacionales. Marco, E. And Otero, J. (2012): El discreto encanto de la cultura. Nuevas estrategias para la proyección exterior de la cultura: un enfoque práctico, Barcelona, Ariel. Ministry of Culture and Sport (2019): Anuario de estadísticas culturales, Madrid. Miskimmon, A., O’Loughlin, B. and Roselle, L. (eds.) (2017): Forging the world: Strategic narratives and international relations, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. Nicholas, J. (2019): Public diplomacy. Foundations for global engagement in the digital age, London, Pol- ity Press. Pamment, J. (2016): Intersections between public diplomacy & international development, Los Angeles, CA, Figueroa Press CPD Perspectives on public diplomacy. Rivera, T. (2015): Distinguishing cultural relations from cultural diplomacy: The British Council’s relationship with Her Majesty’s Government, Los Angeles, CA, Figueroa Press CPD Perspectives on public diplomacy. Salzburg Global Seminar (2012): Public and Private Cultural Exchange-Based Diplomacy: New Models for the 21st Century, Salzburg, Salzburg Global.

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José Andrés Fernández Leost

During the 2010s, international politics experienced an abrupt transformation that affected how we understand, create and share culture. The crisis unleashed in early 2020 by the COVID-19 pandemic is probably helping to accelerate the disruptive trends. The European cultural strategy must intensify the agreed work frameworks, based on coordination between cultural institutes, strengthening the EUNIC network and the boost to its cultural diplomacy platform. In addition, horizontal exchange of experiences is profiled as a new method of cooperation inspired by interculturality practices. For Spain, the challenge revolves around refining its own model, where institutional assignments are clearly marked out. Any approach will have to include reformulating new humanism in terms of technology.

Key words: International Cooperation, digitalisation, cultural diplomacy, foreign policy, Eu- ropean Union.

I. THE EUROPEAN AGENDA Without forgetting the need to cooperate with third party countries, the aims of these A precedent was set for drafting a cultural agendas focused on boosting the sector’s econo- strategy in the European Union–protected mic dimension, adapting to the impact of digital by backing from creative industries, heritage disruption, easing business access to funding, management and intercultural dialogue–in providing intra-European cooperation spaces– 2005, when the EU signed the UNESCO Con- to fight fragmentation–and generically, stren- vention on the Protection and Promotion of gthening the EU’s identity, under the slogan: the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. Two “Unity in diversity.” Along this line, the Com- years later, the European Commission defined mission presented the Communication of a new a Common Agenda (2007) that led to the Cul- Agenda in 2018 that gave continuity to previous tural Programme (2007-2014), followed by the Creative Europe Programme (2014-2020), en- dowed with 1,462 million Euro.1 ration and mobility activities, the Ariane programme (1995- 2000) to promote the publishing industry and reading or the Raphael programme, set up in 1997, to disseminate and conserve cultural heritage. They were all absorbed by the Culture 1. Nor should we forget previous initiatives, such as the Ka- 2000 programme that was the first EU Framework program- leidoscope programme in 1996 that included artistic coope- me on this matter (2000-2007).

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work, even highlighting the relevance of some protectionism, a boom of populist leaderships relatively new questions, determined by the in- and perhaps the most remarkable in terms of ternational context: the repercussion of culture culture, economic digitalisation. The Internet on democratic principles and social cohesion, has actually become the main provider of crea- the push to take on the field of international tive content, intensifying the democratisation relations or overlap with further education and of art, modifying its consumption–from buying innovation (European Commission, 2018a). to renting–or opening new debates between open access and intellectual property rights.3 This final aspect is worth looking at in closer detail due to an approach that brings arts This process has not been risk-free, as cul- studies closer to technological-scientific dis- tural production has been increasingly con- ciplines (STEM), and due to the forecasts for centrated in the hands of major technological the next budgetary cycle (2021-2027): the companies that provide services, applications Erasmus+ programme would double its cu- and contents, subjecting the market to its al- rrent allocation, a total of 14,700 million Euros gorithms and strengthening an oligopoly that and the Horizonte Europa research programme often breaches competition and privacy rules. would rise from 80,000 to 100,000 million Eu- Despite European backwardness, tempered by ros. The new Creative Europe Programme, in the Commission’s sanctions on tech giants, its turn, would administer an amount of around cultural industry grew by 4.6% between 2008 1,850 million Euros.2 and 2016, and the sector’s links with innovation and knowledge can provide new opportu- In parallel, the aforementioned Commu- nities or, at least, protection against work auto- nication highlighted the sector’s strong per- mation. Furthermore, the EU still brandishes formance, reflecting how in 2016, the EU em- its democratic culture as the most appropriate ployed 8.4 million people in culture, while the for economic development. Doubtlessly, glo- trade excess in cultural goods rose to 8,000 bal instability continues to make an impression million Euros and, altogether, culture repre- on a space in “existential crisis” after Brexit, sented 4.2% of the EU’s GDP. However, aside whose societies are also witnessing growing from the figures, jewellery leads cultural trade, ideological polarisation. The election results while American films still grab two thirds of from 2018 in France and the Netherlands and the film market (European Parliament, 2019), the May 2019 elections partly cushioned these the appeal for a changing global panorama is trends, and the Commission began a new term perhaps the most interesting aspect. of office under the flag of a New Green Deal Certainly, during the 2010s, international that reiterated the global goals of Agenda 2030 politics experienced an abrupt transformation and the Paris Agreement. that affected not only how we understand, Now, the impact of COVID-19 and the eco- create and share culture, but also the EU’s pla- nomic repercussion of the “great shut-down” ce in the world. The consequences of the 2007 generates a scenario of geo-economic uncer- crisis led to a period marked by a decline in tainty that jeopardises the Union’s solidity. multilateralism, Asian emergence, the return to

3. In this respect, we should mention the controversy due 2. As seen below, these quantities should be resized within to taking on the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single the framework of the EU’s post.-pandemic initiatives after Market in March 2019, so that creators might obtain an inco- the arrival of the coronavirus (COVID-19) on the continent me from the use of their products on the internet, and contri- in late February 2020. buting to regulatory harmonisation of a single digital market.

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After some initial “stuttering”, the crisis–that Two years later, this suggestion took insti- might represent an 8% drop in the EU’s GDP– tutional shape with the Joint Communication is now considered to be a window of opportu- to the European Parliament and Council from nity, above all if the Next Generation program- the High Representative (HR) of the EU for me goes ahead. This is a proposal to recover Foreign Affairs and Security Policy: “Towards half a billion Euros, suggested in May by Ger- an EU Strategy for International Cultural Re- many and France that–apart from the multi- lations” (European Commission, 2016). Re- year budget of 1.1 billion for the 2021-2027 cy- volving around three axes–socio-economic cle–is added to the pre-approved aid: the ECB sustainability, bound to creative industries; package (1.35 billion Euro), the MEDE cre- promoting peace, connected to intercultural dits (240,000 million Euros), the SURE loans dialogue, and backing heritage–the text encou- (100,000 million Euros) and the BEI funds raged use of “existing cooperation frames and (200,000 million Euros) (Steinberg, 2020). financing instruments” such as the Develop- The relevance of the Next Generation initiative ment Cooperation Instrument, the European stems from a set of conditions that are a far cry Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights from austerity, linked to the reforms meeting or the Instrument contributing to Stability and criteria bound to green, digital and inclusive Peace. goals. This emphasis, that explicitly leads to a This appreciation reveals how, without budget increase of 13,000 million for Horizon- affecting its purpose of avoiding duplicated te Europa could be used by the cultural sector.4 tasks, the strategy did not provide more resources than introducing an element of na- II. THE DIPLOMATIC STRATEGY rrative congruency and was still signed up to international cooperation funds. In itself, this The European External Action Service (EEAS) remains congruent with the transverse nature must play a decisive role as it is the home of of culture, and its inclusion within the notion cultural diplomacy deployment. Shortly after of development (Sen, 2004). Now, the lack of it was set up in 2010, the Parliament appealed a Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) de- for the need to coordinate a common external dicated to the sector (Martinell, 2017), along culture strategy, which led to drafting the re- with restructuring of financing exercises for port: Preparatory Action for Culture in EU Ex- the EU’s external action planned for the 2021- ternal Relations (2014) Even back then, in the 2027 cycle (that merges the aforementioned wake of the soft power concept, cultural diplo- instruments) opens up a dual reading: the pos- macy had been consolidated as a key resource tponement of culture as an external priority, for western ministries and it began to spread tinged with its potential importance in techni- worldwide. As a reflection of this situation, the cal management frameworks. Mutual learning Preparatory Action proposed that the EU should or horizontal exchange of experiences is actua- set up a strategic framework, funded in coor- lly profiled as a new way of cooperation inspi- dination with EEAS, the Commission and Del- red by interculturality practices. egations outside the EU, to project its values Otherwise, the HR’s Communication kept a and create and share culture with third party final section for proposing an agreed work fo- countries (European Commission, 2014). cus, based on coordination of cultural institutes (Goethe, Camões, Cervantes, Alliance Françai- se…), the consequent strengthening of the EU- 4. Please see: https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/eu-budget/ NIC network and the activation of an online eu-long-term-budget/2021-2027_en

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cultural diplomacy platform (already up and to raise false expectations; planning its future running: https://www.cultureinexternalrela- sustainability and precisely introducing a focus tions.eu/). While waiting for the progress that on mutual learning that mitigates application might come from the new HR’s management, of unilateral work frameworks and models.5 along with the Von der Leyen Commission, we Finally, from a more generic perspective, it should remember the recommendations that, is worth mentioning the report presented by in their reports on the matter, were presented the KEA in September 2019, Culture and crea- by several study centres, still in force despite tive sectors in the European Union, with a view the hardships of the pandemic. to the 2020-2030 decade. Initially focused on reviewing the state of the creative industries, III. THINKING OF THE FUTURE it acts on aspects we have already mentioned: impact of the Asian emergency and digital dis- Back at the start of 2016, the KEA European ruption, erosion of multilateralism, innovative Affairs highlighted the need for cultural in- resilience, cultural concentration in the hands stitutes to work together more closely, partly of tech giants, etc. In the same way, it retrieves moving beyond their national profiles, to make problems that remain unresolved, referring to up for the EU Delegations’ working limitations the instability of cultural jobs or the difficulties (KEA, 2016). This focus, seconded by an infor small companies to get funding, particu- frastructure that covers more than 1,200 cen- larly within the aforementioned “technological tres outside the EU and manages 2,300 million convergence” context. In turn, it paints a pic- Euro per year, could enlarge the scope of its ture of the attention given to the threats from external action, whenever it has a clear, de- artificial intelligence (AI) in terms of both fined mandate, endorsed by the Commission cultural production and consumption (making 6 and the EEAS. However, for the time being, habits uniform or prescribing tastes). this conjunction has barely made a difference, However, perhaps the most relevant consists beyond announcing the opening of French- of the prospective panorama that it presents German cultural headquarters, agreed in the with a view to 2030, opposing ideal and pessi- Treaty of Aachen on Cooperation and Inte- mistic scenarios in the economic, technological, gration, signed bilaterally in January 2019 be- work or environmental fields. By simplifying its tween the two nations. results, it is possible to think of a competitive Along the same line, it is interesting to quo- cultural Europe on the one hand, that will boost te the analysis drawn up by the Goethe Insti- social inclusion and environmental awareness, tut and the British Council, Culture in an Age and will also include blockchain in its business of Uncertainty (2018), as a demonstration of a model, encouraging financing thanks to the joint paper that, in turn, looks in greater depth transparency that it guarantees. As a counter- at the impact of their activities in the field. The position, one pessimistic trend is profiled whe- report, based on the repercussions of a series of programmes launched in the Ukraine and Egypt (Active Citizens, Kulturakademie Ägyp- 5. A focus can also be found on the institutional practices, ten, etc.), has the virtue of identifying difficul- rather than on the conceptual development of a “European ties faced by cultural initiatives depending on narrative” in Higgot, 2017. 6. Without affecting the opportunities that it generates, each country’s idiosyncrasies. Consequently, particularly in the videogame industry. Even more so, some among other suggestions, it recommends analysts positively bring up the possibility of a dual cultural clearly defining each project’s goals so as not filter that combines algorithms and expert judgement, in what they call smart curation (Martel, 2015).

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re the influence of the digital giants will under- written word shaped the appearance of a pu- mine the European legislative framework, the blic space that helped consolidate European EU’s diversity will lead to social polarisation democracies. In the 20th century, mass me- and even freedom of speech will be in danger. dia, along with the cultural industries, revolu- Within the field of international relations, in tionised this space, to the extent that WWII turn, a vision where a more united Europe will and the Cold War recognised its ascendency bring about the operation of its cultural diplo- on collective imaginations. Questioning of this macy, exercising intercultural dialogue and pa- power, driven by the mid-century critical thin- cific resolution of conflicts will come up against king, has however spread lack of trust among a world where European values have lost their citizens regarding traditional sources of infor- clout and artistic mobility has been cut off. mation, further boosted in the 21st century by social media. Consequently, digitalisation has Once again, the effect of COVID-19 has blu- represented a new revolution of public space, rred the image of these projections although with implications on several planes: i) modi- perhaps above all it acts as a “trend accelerator” fication of the business model, as platforms (more digitalisation, more business concen- get richer thanks to commercialisation (also tration and, for the time being, less mobility), political) of their users’ mass data, and ii) the so that the efficacy of the responses will con- production and consumption of information, dition the propensity towards one of the two turning individuals into customised creators scenarios. No matter how this works out, it is and recipients, increasingly enclosed in frag- imperative, as the actual report concludes, that mented niche markets. professionals intensify their training in technological skills and that there is close interac- Due to its viral impact, this excessive logic, tion between the arts and STEM disciplines.7 similar to–or rather more integrated in–what At the same time, standards must be set that creative industries reproduce, rekindles polari- prevent AI from reducing creative diversity. sation and, consequently, the deliberate intro- Take heed as well how the relevance given to duction of fake news presented under the ap- new technologies also affects the field of infor- pearance of truth. In a globally interconnected mation, intimately linked to the cultural terra- world, this has enlarged the geopolitical battle in and public diplomacy. The transformation ground and from there a margin of opportu- of the global communication ecosystem (Badi- nity, or vulnerability, that the EU might expe- llo, 2019), also led by digital companies, has rience. For now, the EASS has drawn up a plan a direct effect on the EU’s place in the world to fight fake news that the Commission adop- order and the appeal of its democratic values. ted in 2018. This lays down recommendations like those mentioned above: promoting best It goes without saying that the invention practices, encouraging education and media of the printing press and distribution of the literacy, etc. (European Commission, 2018b).

IV. THE ROLE OF SPAIN: COMBINE PROJECTION 7. Conclusion backed by the latest studies for the European Parliament, regarding: “the relationship between technology, AND COOPERATION science, arts and culture is getting increasingly closer in the digital age” (Pasikowska-Schnass, 2020). This ties in with Nobody is hiding the fact that Spanish cultural what is already known as “knowledge diplomacy”, a concept diplomacy is living through unusual times, as invented by professor Jane Knight (British Council, 2018) that condenses most dimensions of soft power (scientific, a result of the anomalous political period in academic, cultural, technological, even cooperation) by bin- the country since halfway through the decade. ding it to the requirements of digital literacy.

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After the 2011-2015 term of office, marked that runs according to a hierarchy, or the Bri- by adjustment measures to public spending, tish system with its economic self-sufficiency the timid strategic boost–presented in the and flexibility, Spain needs to hone its own Plan Cultura 2020 (Secretary of State for Cul- profile that, moving beyond stereotypes, is ture, 2017)–has lacked continuity, just like the identified with a clear (not monolithic) and budget increases, which–although reassigned– foreseeable image, clearly marking out institu- still depend on the framework laid out in 2018. tional assignments. The purpose of recovering In this space of time, the sector has undergone the PACE (announced in February 2019), still similar issues to the rest of Europe: business a good symptom, faces the unknown quality of atomisation, financing difficulties, adapting to being tried out ten years after it was designed. the digital environment, etc. (Álvarez, Vázquez From experience, configuration of a model and Gutierrez, 2019). that combines external projection and international cooperation initiatives would be the From the institutional point of view, the most logical. least encomiastic aspect revolves around bloc- king a model that still has to be properly con- Finally, it is unavoidable to connect analysis figured. Without being entirely dismantled, of the Spanish case with how it breaks down the operating framework remains disjointed, in Latin America. Progress in construction after abandoning the External Cultural Action of an Ibero-American knowledge space gives Plan (PACE) from 2010. Consequently, coor- “Spanish-style” diplomacy some continental dination between the system’s main players span, although its scope is going through cri- (Instituto Cervantes, AECID and AC/E), both tical times. Demographic trends point towards with each other and with the ICEX, Turespa- a zenith in the dissemination of the language ña, RTVE, the academic sphere or the auto- that might begin to drop off in the next few nomous regions remain unresolved. Let’s not decades. This is added to a proliferation of forget that, within this disperse structure, in national approaches on the continent (Bonet, 2012 the High Commissioner for Brand Spain Négrier and Zamorano, 2019), doubtlessly was brought in, rechristened in 2018 with the legitimate although likely to fragment a pan- name “España Global”, and institutionalised as hispanic perspective, the same or more than a Secretary of State in the Ministry of Foreign situation where regionalism (from the CELAC Affairs. The initiative, inspired by a rebranding to the Pacific Alliance) has seen better days. strategy–in the short term and aimed at attrac- At this point, it is worth remembering the lack ting foreign investment–thereby now invol- of progress on the agenda that was outlined ves adopting a diplomatic-public perspective, in the 22nd Ibero-American Summit (SEGIB, in the medium term, that has gained strength 2012); this paralysis was certainly mitigated since the Ministry was restructured in January by the reactivation–after the Veracruz Summit 2020, integrating prospecting and information 2014–of a project intended to boost scientific- on foreign matters. academic mobility and reinforce innovation, but border closures due to the pandemic might As we wait to see this diplomacy’s new ap- put this at risk. proach, the challenge revolves around orches- trating a system defined according to an auto- In any case, it is advisable for Spain to con- nomous and professionalised architecture, not tinue contributing to the articulation of joint superimposed on the fluctuations of political initiatives (opening Cervantes/UNAM head- cycles. In the same way that the French case quarters in the USA, coordination of the Lan- is characterised by its rayonnement (radiation), guage Academies, etc.) that are also based on

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a common axiological support. Perhaps this cing organisational autonomy or exploiting is where the country can give the most to the the international dimension of public media. EU, working towards strengthening Euro-Latin In all, this proactive outlook should be com- American relations. In this respect, the refe- bined with a reactive approach, coordinated rence document is the Communication from on a European scale, that stands up to the oli- the Commission and the HR: “The European gopoly of the platforms, the prescription of Union, Latin America and the Caribbean: joi- algorithms or the monetisation of personal ning forces for a common future” from April data, in accordance with the reformulation of 2019, highlighting that it is essential to size up a new technological humanism. The EU’s re- strategic commitments to defend shared values. gulatory and insightful baggage can make it a pioneer in “ethically guiding the human use of smart systems” (Cortina, 2019). From there, V. CONCLUSIONS cultural strategies are positioned to incorporate reinforced mechanisms for supervision As a conclusion, it might be futile to suggest and balance in the light of growing influence a set of recommendations in circumstances from automating digital contents. And this in with uncertain politics and economics, dou- so much that they have not only come to modi- bled down by the repercussions of COVID-19. fy production and business formats but due to Almost as soon as her term began, the Von der their impact on sensitive perception, cognitive Leyen Commission has had to address the ur- capacity or the behaviour of citizens, appro- gency of a crisis whose future is still uncertain, priate to design a technologically predetermi- and close a financial framework (along with ned society.8 the aforementioned instruments) that will only be applied from 2021. Likewise in Spain, The decanting of the different ideas dotted the session to open the 14th Legislation took throughout the text suggested achieving, in the place on 3rd February, less than a month and short and medium term: a half before decreeing a “state of alarm” that 1. Immediate activation of financial lasted until the end of June. In this way, the first measures aimed at boosting the sec- general budget to be approved by the Govern- tor again (partly already launched),9 ment will already correspond to 2021 and will accompanied by an approach that is not be (as planned) the first post-crisis, but it likely to make use of European reco- will be determined by the agreements that are very funds after COVID-19. reached in the EU, in a context of economic 2. An institutional update of the PACE recession that was already being slowed down that drafts a precise governance sys- by deglobalisation and the technological-trade tem, both from an organic point of war between China and the USA. This comes alongside the impact of a ministerial reshuffle that affects the manage- 8. Far from dystopian speculation, such a possibility is on its ment of several cultural institutions and that way (Zuboff, 2019). Faced with this challenge, on 19th Fe- will probably influence the direction taken by bruary, the European Commission published a White Paper their programmes. However, this panorama on artificial intelligence to create a regulatory framework on the subject of data management, that ensures the deplo- also makes it possible to propose ideas, many yment of reliable AI, focussed on human beings (European of which dredge up purposes from the past: Commission, 2020). intensifying public-private collaboration, re- 9. By means of Royal Decree-Law 17/2020, of 5th May, that questing inter-institutional coordination, bra- approves measures to support the cultural sector and in terms of tax.

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view and in terms of time, so that it 5. A reinforcement of the positioning of sets work timelines per period. the language in international organi- 3. A new approach in line with the goals sations: the proposal for a multilate- for external cultural action, that de- ral cooperation instrument (Badillo, fines a series of specific and realistic 2017) should be mentioned in forums goals, for the 2020-2030 decade. such as the Ibero-American Summit. 4. A budgetary boost for the Instituto 6. Opening up to agents and operators Cervantes, the AECID and AC/E, that from the technological-scientific field in percentage terms is an approxima- who are helping reinvent creative in- tion to the public investment that is dustries: Secretary of State for Digi- made in countries such as France or talisation and Artificial Intelligence, Germany.10 CSIC, Ministry of Science, etc. 7. Backing technological training for cultural administrators that updates their skills so they can work agilely, transparently and neutrally in the 10. In 2018, this country gave 1,877 million Euros to cultural light of the opportunities, and threats, and educational politics abroad (German Federal Govern- ment, 2019: 40). within the new digital environments.

REFERENCES

Álvarez Rubio, B., Vázquez Bello, C. and Gutiérrez Sánchez de León, Á. (2019): «La promoción de las industrias culturales y creativas como herramientas para la acción exterior de España», ARI, no. 113, Madrid, Real Instituto Elcano. Badillo, Á. (2017): «Una cooperación multilateral para el español», Blog Real Instituto Elcano, 5 de oc- tubre de 2017. Retrieved from: https://blog.realinstitutoelcano.org/una-cooperacion-multilateral- para-el-espanol/ Badillo, Á. (2019): «La sociedad de la desinformación: propaganda, fake news y la nueva geopolítica de la información», Documento de trabajo no. 8, Madrid, Real Instituto Elcano. Bonet, L., Martín Zamorano, M. and Négrier, E. (2019): «Política y diplomacia cultural en las relaciones euro-latinoamericanas y caribeñas: génesis, discurso, praxis y prospectiva», in: L. Bonet and H. Schargorodsky (eds.), Retos de las relaciones culturales entre la Unión Europea y América Latina y el Caribe, Colección Cuadernos de Cultura no. 5, Quaderns Gescènic. British Council (2018): «Knowledge Diplomacy: A bridge linking international higher education and research with international relations», Discussion paper, British Council’s Cultural Relations research series. British Council and Goethe Institut (2018): Culture in an Age of Uncertainty. The value of Cul- tural Relations in societies in transition, London/Munich. Retrieved from: https://www.goethe.de/ resources/files/pdf165/culture_in_an_age_of_uncertainty.pdf European Commission (2014): Preparatory Action: «Culture in EU external relations», Brussels. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/culture/library/publications/global-cultural-citizenship_en.pdf

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European Commission (2016): Joint communication to the European Parliament and Council: «Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations», Brussels, 8.6.2016 JOIN(2016) 29 final. European Commission (2018a): Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European economic and social Committee and the Committee of the regions: «A New European Agenda for Culture», Brussels, 22.5.2018 COM(2018) 267 final. European Commission (2018b): Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European economic and social Committee and the Committee of the regions: «Action Plan against Disinformation», Brussels, 5.12.2018 JOIN(2018) 36 final. European Commission (2020): White Paper: On Artificial Intelligence: «A European approach to excellence and trust», Brussels, 19.2.2020 COM(2020) 65 final. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/ info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf Cortina, A. (2019): «Ética de la inteligencia artificial desde Europa», El País (6/6/2019). Retrieved from: https://elpais.com/elpais/2019/06/05/opinion/1559729489_306891.html Federal Government of Germany (2019): Bericht der Bundesregierung zur Auswärtigen Kultur und Bildungspolitik für das Jahr 2018, Berlin. Higgot, R. (2017): «Enhancing the EU’s International Cultural Relations: the prospects and limits of Cultural Diplomacy», Policy Paper 3, El-Csid. KEA (2016): European cultural institutes abroad, Brussels, Research for CULT Committee, European Union. KEA and PPMI (2019): Culture and creative sectors in the European Union: key future developments, challenges and opportunities, Brussels, Research for CULT Committee-European Parliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies. Martel, F. (2015): «Le critique culturel est mort. Vive la smart curation!», Slate, September 5. Re- trieved from: http://www.slate.fr/story/106131/critique-culturel-est-mort-vive-la-smart-curation Martinell, A. (2017): «Los ODS no incorporan la cultura», El País (18/04/2017). Retrieved from: https://blogs.elpais.com/alternativas/2017/05/los-ods-no-incorporaron-la-cultura.html European Parliament (2019): «The Promotion of European Culture», European Parliament Research Service, Brussels. Retrieved from: https://what-europe-does-for-me.eu/data/pdf/focus/focus17_ es.pdf Pasikowska-Schnass, M. (2020): «Digital culture − Access issues», European Parliament Re- search Service, Brussels. Retrieved from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ BRIE/2020/651942/EPRS_BRI(2020)651942_EN.pdf Secretary of State for Culture (2017): Plan Cultura 2020, Madrid, Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport. SEGIB (2012): «La diplomacia cultural en Iberoamérica. Los trazos de una agenda». Retrieved from: http://www.minculturas.gob.bo/images/stories/infvaexterior/Diplo_Cultural.pdf Sen, A. (2004): «How Does Culture Matter?», in V. Rao y M. Walton: Culture and Public Action, Stanford University Press. Steinberg, F. (2020): «Algunos apuntes sobre el fondo de recuperación europeo», Comentario Elcano 22, Real Instituto Elcano. Zuboff, S. (2019): The Age of Surveillance Capitalism, London, Profile Books.

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Alfons Martinell Sempere

This article analyses Spain’s foreign cultural policy, its historical background since Franco’s time and the reality of its current structures as a basis to present a set of proposals and insights to reformulate strategic guidelines. It thereby proposes to adopt the country’s mul- ticultural and linguistic reality and the system of competences among the different public administrations in the field of culture, and address the urgency required to make decisions in this field, to help the country’s cultural life meet the challenges of modern dialogue with other cultural contexts.

Key words: cultural policies, external cultural action, cultural diplomacy, cultural institution- alism, cultural cooperation, culture and development.

I. BACKGROUND: FROM “SPANISHNESS” TO the dictatorship, traditional diplomacy in the CULTURAL COOPERATION field of culture was limited to activities by diplomatic representations. The institutionalisa- When analysing and studying cultural institution process began by setting up the Institute tionalism, historical evolution becomes greatly of Hispanic Culture in 1945 to forge a special important, because there is a certain tendency relationship with Latin American countries towards preservation or maintenance of tradi- thanks to a common language and relations tional models if there is no willingness to in- with former colonies. Subsequently, setting up troduce meaty political and legislative change. the Spanish Language Academies Association Cultural action abroad has always been consid- (1951) and the International Congresses of the ered a classic tool for foreign policy that can Spanish Language reflect the predominant role become relatively important depending on the of the Spanish language in cultural relations in political priorities of left- or right-wing gov- this period. ernments, which can lead to conceptual inno- Different elements were included in the vations, setting up new institutions and chang- concept of Spanishness for a foreign cultural ing the budget to reflect their intentions. policy, in the very midst of Spain’s isolation Providing some background will give us and autocracy, that would govern Francoism’s a better idea of the current situation. During policy in this field for decades. Also, the boost

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from an ad hoc regional multilateral organisa- and Scientific Relations. This structure co-ex- tion provided the incentive to set up the Or- isted for a time alongside similar functions in ganisation of Ibero-American States (OEI) in the Ministry until law 24/2001 that unified the 1949 as a multilateral platform whose goals in- functions of the two units into a single board cluded culture. In this period, it was managed with two functions: competences in the Min- by the Board of Cultural and Scientific Rela- istry’s foreign cultural promotion in coordina- tions between 1945 and 1951 within the struction with the international structures of other ture of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This Ministries and culture in development coop- organisation survived almost entirely through- eration (Martinell, 2019). out Franco’s time, incorporating the Hispanic- This configuration defines the Ministry of Arabic Institute during its later stages in 1974 Foreign Affair’s policy despite how culture was as another element of the relations with North treated in the Spanish Constitution and the Au- African countries and broadening spaces with tonomy Statutes (Prieto de Pedro, 1995) with shared historical background. Throughout this the corresponding decentralisation processes stage, Spanish cultural action was greatly limit- and transfer of culture competences to the ed to promoting the Spanish language and cul- autonomous regions. The structure has a clear ture and was limited to geographic areas with centralist bias (competence in foreign policy) shared colonial relations or backgrounds. but it does not determine interaction with the One of the first actions in the democratic country’s new territorial situation. period (1979) was to set up the Ibero-Ameri- can Cooperation Institute (ICI) that integrated the former organisations into its cultural pro- II. CONFIGURATION OF ASN OWN MODEL grammes, and initiated setting up a network of cultural centres abroad (Latin America and External cultural action or policy is shaped Equatorial Guinea) among other new lines of in each country, as a consequence of its his- action, giving culture an international develop- tory, its international relations, including the ment cooperation perspective alongside the former colonies or the role of its language or Ministry of Foreign Affairs Board of Cultural other contextual variables. and Scientific Relations with functions leaning What we might call the Spanish model has more towards promoting culture abroad. The already been analysed in different papers1 and Instituto Cervantes was set up in 1991 as the other articles in this Report. The reality of the first act of institutionalisation of the demo- Spanish external cultural action structure is the cratic governments in external cultural action result of the slow evolution of its institutional- to match institutes from other European coun- ity with periods of inaction or preservation of tries, based on the value of the Spanish lan- the status quo and others that incorporate new guage and culture throughout the world. values and policies. It is characterised by the It was not until the late nineties (1998) that conjunction of the three dynamics (Martinell, the Spanish International Cooperation Agency 2014) reflected in the following graph. (AECI) was set up in accordance with Law Within the general framework of inter- 23/1998 on International Cooperation that in- national relations and cooperation between corporates culture as an important axis. This is demonstrated in its organisation chart that defines two territorial boards (Ibero-America and Africa) and the General Board of Cultural 1. Íñiguez (2006), Marco-Otero (2012), Noya (2007), among others.

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Graph 1. Foreign cultural action: Inter-relations the relationship between countries and soci-

International relations eties to assume joint needs and knowledge. It facilitates knowledge and respect between different cultures following the principles of the Cultural 2 diplomacy 1966 UNESCO Declaration “The nations shall Foreign endeavour to develop the various branches of Cultural Action culture side by side and, as far as possible, simultaneously, so as to establish a harmonious balance between technical progress and the

Cultural action International intellectual and moral advancement of man- Development cultural kind”. International cultural cooperation sets cooperation cooperation much broader goals for States’ external cultural action and claims mobilisation of broad sectors of society for these purposes. It becomes International cooperation an important value in the processes of interna- Own research. tional integration and living together. The CCI becomes highly important and an extension of a globalised society, due to widespread mobility of persons and cultural agents in modern contexts. States, the cultural dimension can be understood in the three major areas that remain in- Cultural Development Cooperation falls trinsically linked but that act according to dif- within the international commitments in ferent dynamics and purposes: policies for official development assistance (ODA) from the contribution made by differ- External Cultural Action can be considered ent fields of culture to setting up equality sys- as the set of programmes and institutions that tems between cultures. The cultural dimen- act within foreign policy to promote generic sion of the development and the fight against projection of culture internationally. Run by poverty are inserted in the value of cultural the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and coordinat- life as a condition and contribution to human ed with other ministries, mainly Culture, it as- development. Its function in international co- sumes the responsibilities of a foreign cultural operation is based on the principle of solidar- policy. Through the attaché offices in diplo- ity between cultures and the defence of cul- matic representations and various specialised tural diversity as world heritage (UNESCO, organisations, it assumes the responsibil- 1996). Helping less advantaged countries to ity of promoting Spain’s culture (or cultures) consolidate their own cultural systems and throughout the world. It maintains bilateral their cultural diversity and maintain basic relations with other diplomatic representa- cultural institutionality. All manifestations tions for topics of common interest and mu- of cultural life provide elements to govern- tual recognition and it is present in multilateral ance and social cohesion in its political di- organisations related to the field of culture. It mension and contributes to socio-economic is currently related to Cultural Diplomacy, an development. extremely broad concept with a range of ac- ceptances (E. Marco and J. Otero Roth, 2012). International Cultural Cooperation is con- 2. UNESCO (1966): Declaration of Principles of International figured within international cooperation as Cultural Co-operation.

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The current situation of foreign cultural plus acknowledgement or innovation from policy maintains an action unit from these other countries and the European Union. three major conceptual areas that, as we brief- Among these three areas, we find the eco- ly presented, are the result of the actual poli- nomic dimension of culture in international re- cies evolving and their institutionalisation pro- lations due to its impact on GDP, foreign trade cesses. of cultural goods, imports, or setting up inter- Making the most of the interactions and in- national companies on Spanish soil; the same terdependencies of its contents leads to great goes for all cultural joint-production processes efficacy from a joint management of foreign among cultural agents (public, companies with policy funds and official development as- social interest entities) that affect the cultural sistance in accordance with the definition of sector’s economic results. partner countries in the master plans. This The following table shows us the differ- unit makes a more efficient model possible in ences and interdependences between the areas accordance with the limited resources avail- that reflect the complexity of a modern vision able. This model maintains some mistrust or of foreign cultural policy: criticism, but it has demonstrated its efficacy,

Table 1. Complex dimensions of External Cultural Action

International Cultural Solidarity, Culture and Co-production and Markets Foreign Cultural Policy Cooperation Development for cultural goods

•• Principle of solidarity •• Joint action agreements •• Joint action agreements in •• Foreign Cultural Action between cultures based on •• Acknowledgement of the private sector •• Cultural Promotion cultural rights otherness •• Internationalisation of •• State Structures •• Commitments on world •• Acceptance and cultural goods and services •• Cultural Diplomacy problems (wars, conflicts, acknowledgement •• Market dynamics and •• Presence of culture in the disasters, migration, etc.) between cultures profitability of the culture world •• Assistance for less •• Intercultural dialogue •• International fair trade of •• Bilateral cultural relations advanced countries to •• Acceptance of Cultural cultural goods •• Governmental and maintain their cultural Diversity as world heritage •• Regulation and territorial coordination systems •• Cooperation between civil deregulation of cultural •• Country brand •• Including culture in societies from different markets •• International agreements development cooperation cultures •• Assistance for •• Presence of multilateral •• Wish to compensate •• Cultural exchanges internationalisation of organisations inequalities and reduce •• Prominence of cultural cultural productions •• Specialised institutions poverty agents •• Cultural co-productions in •• Assistance for •• Commitments from culture •• Cultural relations with an international field internationalisation of to the ODS and the Agenda cultural organisations •• Consolidation of an creation and cultural 2030 •• International networks of international cultural production •• Help to maintain cultural cultural cooperation sector diversity

Own research.

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III. MYTHS AND REALITIES OF INTERNATIONAL 2002.3 Progress has only been made in setting CULTURAL COOPERATION up new autonomous organisations that are to a greater or lesser extent related to the Insti- The traditional function of cultural action to tuto Cervantes, Cultural Centres, Houses,4 etc. serve official diplomacies for relations and co- but without making the adjustments required operation between States has been affected by by the context. Furthermore, budgetary cuts including a whole host of cultural agents who act during the 2008-2014 recession limited inter- in the sphere of international relations and that national cooperation drastically with strong question the exclusivity of the State in these re- repercussions on all external cultural action sponsibilities, as in practice they act on the side- that survived on the bare minimum. lines or in parallel to the official structures. In this respect, we consider it advisable to This phenomenon has grown due to mobil- set some challenges and proposals for the fu- ity and societies’ ability to communicate in glo- ture that are perceived as necessary to improve balisation, understanding international cultural adaptation to current and future contexts. relations as a vehicle for mutual exchange and Some of them have been recurring over the recognition between people, countries and their years, and others are arising to tackle political cultures. This new cooperation is shaped from urgencies that should be adopted as soon as shared actions and the creation of a field of two- possible as they emerge in a period of struc- way cultural flows aimed at understanding other tural maintenance, poorly adapted to new re- cultures and cultural relations between civil so- alities and needs. cieties (in the field of business, artistic groups, institutions, non-governmental organisations, Situate foreign cultural policy within the country’s etc.). These dynamics are difficult to control real situation and monitor and they create a reasonably cha- otic scenario, as reflected by its high complexity 1. Take an in-depth look at defining the when it takes place in democratic environments, cultural competences included in the with respect for cultural freedom. Law on State External Action and Ser- In this context, a State policy should be put vice (2014) to provide a better back- in place which accepts that it cannot manage bone to the work of a range of players or control these processes, but it must create who are involved in external cultural a framework for its circulation and exchanges. action. Analyse the best future model This suggests that the foreign cultural policy with wide-ranging participation from should accept a new mission to serve the dy- social agents so that this is not just a namic nature of the cultural sector, the crea- distribution of competences. Deter- tors, the cultural market and civil society as mine a budget level and a prospective the major players in promoting culture. forecast to recover pre-crisis levels as soon as possible. 2. Coordinating cultural action in foreign IV. A SECTOR THAT NEEDS CHANGES AND policy, as a State policy, requires tra- ADAPTATION

Despite changes in Spanish society, and on international stages, the structural model based 3. Law 23/1998 on international cooperation and unification on Spain’s external cultural action has not of functions from law 24/2001. 4. The first ‘Cultural Houses’ in America and Asia were joined changed since competences were unified in by Arabic, Mediterranean, Sephardic centres, etc.

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ditional approaches to be refreshed, risk of atomisation and dispersion can considering that most culture com- make the system less effective, and petences have been transferred to the greater coordination is required plus Autonomous Regions. This reality concurrence based on internal co- requires political structuring, non-ex- operation and a process of compart- istent so far, to relate the action unit mentalising information and evolving abroad and the territories of the coun- towards forms of co-management, to try that provide their cultural life and avoid duplications and ensure greater production to the whole function. As general synergy. maintained in art. 25. 3,5 “External Ac- 4. Currently, cities represent top level tion for culture will facilitate defence, cultural capital due to their capacity promotion and diffusion of cultures of to produce and broadcast culture and the nationalities and regions that make as drivers of image creation and sup- up the Spanish nation, within the pliers of cultural goods and services framework given in article 149.2 of the for external cultural action. What Spanish Constitution”. Circumstances has been called local diplomacy is an that would require a political agree- example of its potential, but it could ment to set up coordination mecha- be much greater if wider goals were nisms such as a Territorial Council or merged. We should not forget that lo- Delegate Commission for these topics cal administration represents more with participation from all Autono- than 64.2 %7 of public spending on mous Regions. The current structure culture in Spain. So, it is essential to maintains a centralist outlook without include cities in the international cul- considering the evolution of the com- tural cooperation agenda to get better petence transfer process proposed in results, as they drive image creation the Autonomy Statutes and a closer and international appeal. In the same look at the aforementioned article way, as top-level cultural players, 194.2 that proposes the principles of they can find acknowledgement and cultural communication in the Carta support for culture internationalisa- Magna as a mechanism of territorial tion tasks that they are already per- agreement.6 forming, albeit in their own way and 3. Similarly, the existence of many dif- in isolation. ferent governmental units and autonomous organisms related to external Recognise the importance of participation from cultural action, in the form of Founda- social and cultural agents tions, Institutes, Consortiums, Public companies, etc. expresses the breadth 5. The complexity of the field of inter- of functions and instruments created national cultural cooperation, in con- for this same purpose. However, the temporary contexts, requires high participation and implication from social and cultural agents from dif- 5. Law 2/2014, dated 25 March, on the State’s Foreign Action and Service. 6. The Constitution’s definition of cultural communication is interesting in the preamble to Law 10/2015 of 26 May to 7. 3,270 million Euro. Anuario de Estadísticas Culturales 2019, safeguard Intangible Cultural Heritage. Ministry of Culture and Sport.

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ferent origins and levels. Mobilisa- Remain present in the international community’s tion includes the private sector, civil major commitments society and the different levels of administration, as well as the cultural 7. Maintain a policy of commitment to organisations or companies, creators, Human Rights and more specifically artists, actors, etc. that interact dy- applying article 15 of the International namically in the field of international Covenant on Economic, Social and cultural cooperation action from dif- Cultural Rights from 1966 (ICESCR) ferent positions and interests. Most to defend cultural rights and how they of these initiatives are run out of are applied to international cultural their own interest and resources, but cooperation.8 In this field, Spain rati- these players should be given a writ- fied the optional ICESCR Protocol9 in ten proposal that is clear and explicit 2010 that commits the country to pe- regarding available public resources riodically presenting a report on the and the different governmental and application of this Covenant in Spain. non-governmental players in this ac- These reports require participative tion. Therefore, the need is perceived processes to increase their content to have some type of Plan or Strate- level and show that they reflect the gic Agreement for cultural coopera- country’s cultural diversity. Along this tion and internationalisation that will same line, papers and reports from the make it possible to identify assets, United Nations Special Reporter for design well-defined strategies and a the sphere of Cultural Rights10 provide road map for society’s essential par- different elements to be incorporated ticipation in this common purpose. into the consideration and form of in- 6. Accept that this large number of so- ternational cultural cooperation. cial players in the international cul- 8. Spain was one of the countries that tural cooperation processes exceeds supported the 2005 Convention to pro- the State’s traditional function. A tect and promote diversity of cultural change in paradigm is perceived to expressions with contributions within be necessary to make politics the fa- the framework of multilateral coopera- cilitator of the processes and flows tion with UNESCO. The principles and for international cultural cooperation values of this Convention are incred- instead of more managerial positions ibly important for worldwide cultural in these processes that are difficult governance, bilateral cultural relations to monitor because of their size. We and the contents of the international have to accept that this field works due to energy and multiple exchanges that are impossible to control, as its dynamics generate a certain chaos 8. United Nations. Economic and Social Council. Committee and disorder in an environment of of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2009): General ob- cultural freedom and democratic re- servation no. 21 Right of all persons to participate in cultural life (article 15, paragraph 1 a) of the International Treaty for spect for cultural participation. Con- Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. sequently, the State must find a new 9. https://www.ohchr.org/SP/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ role in how these processes work in a OPCESCR.aspx globalised society. 10. https://www.ohchr.org/SP/Issues/CulturalRights/Pag��- es/SRCulturalRightsIndex.aspx

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cultural cooperation programmes. necessary to raise awareness and en- Consequently, it is essential that for- courage the cultural sector to become eign cultural policy plays an active part more involved in this agenda for the in the UNESCO International Fund for international community to move Cultural Diversity (IFCD) and com- forwards in applying sustainability mits to presenting “periodic reports” principles in cultural institutions. every four years on the policies and measures that they have adopted, and The challenge for more effective and professional the challenges found in applying the management Convention with broad participation from cultural agents. 11. Assuming more responsibilities for 9. Regarding a multilaterality policy in making foreign cultural policy more the field of culture, it is important effective requires capabilities adapted to maintain the long-standing prior- to the new needs for international cul- ity relationship with the Ibero-Amer- tural management. Defining profes- ican region with major successful pro- sional profiles necessary for the differ- grammes11 in cultural cooperation that ent functions that this policy requires have been test benches for organisa- in the current international context. It tion methods and cooperation mod- is essential to plan specialised train- els on other latitudes. And within the ing at different levels and an access field of the European Union, progress or selection system that will provide should be made in the joint strategy civil service or outsourced personnel that the Council and the European Par- to suit the chosen goals. It is neces- liament set in 2016 that became an im- sary to overcome the low professional portant road map for greater synergy requirements to hold cultural man- and cooperation for EU countries with agement responsibilities, as if anyone third parties in matters of culture.12 could automatically have these com- 10. Maintain the cultural commitment petences in this field of foreign poli- in development cooperation in ac- cy. In the same way, it is advisable to cordance with the background and provide general and specialised skills the contributions from the Spanish training in the private cultural and arts Strategy for Culture and Cooperation sector in the internationalisation func- Development (MAEC, 2007) with tions of their projects. clear impacts and practices. Situate 12. Devise strategies to define an image of this dimension among the Agenda Spain’s culture(s) abroad using vari- 2030 Sustainable Development Goals ous tools for Internet presence and as an essential axis for the foreign social media that make it possible to cultural policy. In this direction, it is show what the country’s cultural life and arts are really like. For this purpose, a more proactive stance is advisable that involves the private sector 11. ��Summit Programmes such as Ibermedia, Iberescena, and civil society in the structures at Ibermuseos, etc. https://www.segib.org/cooperacion- different levels of public administra- iberoamericana/cultura/ tions. Achieving greater visibility for 12. EU�� (2016): Towards an EU Strategy for International Cul- our cultural expressions in global ture Cooperation.

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contexts requires participation from though it is still early days to analyse its effects all cultural agents, but the State must thoroughly, we might make a few points. provide some channels and support. 15. It is clear that international coopera- 13. To better separate political and artis- tion work will be concentrated on tic decisions, it is recommendable to getting vaccines and treatments for create commissions or councils of ex- COVID-19, but these emergencies perts to assess the artistic and techni- should not bypass other economic, cal decisions in the field of attending social and of course cultural impacts. international events. In this way, de- A broad, complementary outlook cisions are prioritised and excessive should promote recovery among all politicisation of opinions on creative sectors, including culture, by identi- projects can be avoided. fying the repercussions of this crisis 14. External cultural action requires a in the short and medium term. clear position on promoting creation and cultural production so it may be Most governments act urgently to guarantee incorporated into international cul- citizens’ basic services without considering cultural markets. Globalisation and its ture to be an essential public service. However, markets have a positive and negative citizens, from different walks of life and on all effect on the actual cultural system, continents, have managed to find a way to meet which requires internal and external their cultural needs and keep their cultural life instruments to be regulated or miti- active. This demonstrates the importance of gated. International cultural coopera- cultural and creative activities to coexist with tion involves setting up conditions so lockdown and loss of mobility. The crisis, in that cultural goods and productions cultural life, was overcome in private: families can enter international markets with and communities over the internet and access equal opportunities. Continue moni- to local, national and global cultural content. toring the World Trade Organisation This demonstrated a new social gap between agreements to protect cultures and people, collectives and territories that do not minority cultural forms in the light have access to information society resources. of extremely broad free market pro- This explains why goals and resources must cesses. Keep an eye on the free trade be maintained for the cultural dimension of de- treaties, between different parties, so velopment in the Official Development Assis- that cultural production is protected. tance in general and in bilateral and multilateral Promoting markets for culture and cooperation when updating the Agenda 2030 the circulation of cultural products and the ODS. In this respect, new needs and represents an important factor for problem issues could be spotted and included in the survival of our creativity, affect- international cultural cooperation and culture’s ing sustainable development. commitment in the post COVID-19 processes.

In the post COVID-19 scenario V. CONCLUSION The Coronavirus pandemic emerged as we A country’s external cultural action is shaped were publishing this work, with all its relevant as a broad field of action like its own internal consequences in citizens’ cultural life and cultural system, as the relationship between repercussions on international relations. Al-

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local and global aspects has narrowed greatly external cultural action has mechanisms to over the last few decades. Consequently, it is enable the concurrence of contributions and advisable to come up with thorough foreign determine how they might complement each cultural policy reforms in our current society. other. This requires acceptance of the diversity of contents and forms of expression that The complexity of the very fields of culture make up a country’s cultural life and it should compounds the internationalisation of all its move in international circles. dimensions that characterise contemporary cultural management. In line with these insights, we have presented some proposals to demonstrate the need to Accepting the need to coordinate between bring this field of cultural policies up to date. players is essential to define a cultural policy, As can be appreciated, the urgency of decision- as it is impossible to manage from just one making is clear so as not to miss out on events part of the system, understanding that the best that are always evolving and changing.

REFERENCES

Badillo, Á. (2014): Las políticas públicas de acción cultural exterior de España, Madrid, Real Instituto Elcano. British Council (2012): The Power of Culture to Change Lives. Why culture should be at the heart of efforts to tackle some of the key challenges facing the international community, London. Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla, L. (1988): Diplomacia franquista y política cultural hacia Iberoamérica, 1939-1953, Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Centro de Estudios Históricos. DEMOS (2007): Culture is a central component of international relations. It’s time to unlock its full potential, London, Demos. European Commission (2016): Towards an EU Strategy for International Cultural Relations. European Commission (2017): El nuevo consenso europeo en materia de desarrollo «Nuestro mundo, nuestra dignidad, nuestro futuro». Íñiguez, D. (2006): «La acción Cultural exterior y la eficacia del poder blando», Revista Política Exte- rior, no. 111. MAEC (2007): Estrategia de Cultura y Desarrollo de la Cooperación Española, Madrid, MAEC. Marco, E. y Otero Roth, J. (eds.) (2012): El discreto encanto de la cultura, Barcelona, Ariel. Martinell, A. (2006): Hacia una nueva política cultural exterior, ARI no. 127/2006 Madrid, Instituto Elcano. Martinell, A. (2014): «La cooperación cultural internacional por un nuevo marco de gobernanza», in Informe sobre el estado de la cultura en España. La salida digital, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas, pp. 115-131 Martinell, A. (2019): «Cultura es Desarrollo en la cooperación española», Revista Española de Desar- rollo y Cooperación, no. 44, pp, 123-134 Noya, J. (2007): Diplomacia pública para el siglo XXI, Barcelona, Ariel. Prieto de Pedro, J. (1995): Cultura, culturas y constitución, Madrid, Editorial Centro de Estudios Culturales. Unesco (1996): Nuestra diversidad creativa, Paris, Unesco. Unesco (2005): Convención sobre la protección y promoción de la diversidad de las expresiones culturales.

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María Angeles Querol

After clarifying the concept of archaeological heritage within the context of cultural heritage, the history of its management is analysed and the preventive archaeology model is presented, consistent with using territorial planning to declare reserve areas and caution areas and thereby avoid or minimise any surprises or emergencies. This report argues the need to modify the social consideration of archaeology and archaeological heritage, which is reasonably negative right now, and the urgency of devising the right public policies to highlight archaeological sites in rural settings, making it essential for citizens and town councils to actively take part.

Key words: cultural heritage, urban planning, visitable sites, citizen participation, town council.

I. ON THE SPECIAL NATURE OF consequently, out of the millions of tangible ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE and intangible human works, past and present, only a few thousand are cultural heritage. As the expression “heritage” and “cultural her- Archaeological heritage is part of that itage” is often used right now as a synonym context, defined as the set of remains whose for “culture”, it seems a good place to start by search, study and research uses archaeological recalling an agreed definition of cultural her- methodology, based on prospecting, discover- itage (Querol 2010, p. 11): movable, immov- ies, stratigraphy and excavations. able or intangible elements inherited from the past (and the past might be yesterday), that we This makes them quite special cultural have decided to protect as our distinguishing goods. They are not living, have little to do features, or as tourist resources. They are the with current society, they are not in use and result of human activities or the actual human no memory is kept of them, with some excep- activities: a building, a modified landscape, a tions. Time has hidden, buried, submerged city, a former cemetery or the traditional way them so that, on the whole, they have to be of braiding corn. No matter how much we like “discovered” to be studied. The search, discov- an object or custom, it only becomes cultural ery and excavation are done in a special way, heritage if it was invented or declared as such; based on observing and recording remains

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in their contexts, and that special method is it would be destruction for destruction’s sake, learnt by studying archaeology. Therefore, ar- because even the best performed excavation is chaeology makes archaeological heritage. always destructive. In the western world, where it was invent- In addition, archaeological heritage cur- ed, archaeology is currently defined as the sci- rently presents many problems and whether ence that reconstructs past societies by means these issues are resolved or forgotten will of studying its remains. It is not important if doubtlessly affect its future. In this article, we the past is near or far; as long as there is his- are only going to address the three most rel- torical interest on one hand and, on the other, evant: what we now call preventive archaeol- remains, then archaeology can work as a sci- ogy or preventive management, the necessary ence to construct Human History. positive social impact that, as we will see, is tied to a wide spectrum of questions such as Archaeological heritage has many special dissemination, education and use of archaeo- characteristics which make it stand out from logical heritage to develop non-urban areas. the rest of cultural heritage. The three most important are their public domain, the long To start, and before entering into these as- series of conditions that the competent admin- pects, it seems appropriate to present a potted istrations determine to comply with the above, history of archaeological heritage management and the need, in terms of their protection, for in our country. a preventive management policy that is based on territorial planning or urban development. II. A WEIGHTY INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST: This last matter is addressed in a section of EMERGENCY ARCHAEOLOGY this paper; regarding the first two, the situation is simple: the 18 laws in force on cultural or Throughout practically its entire history, the historical heritage make it clear that archaeo- fundamental aim of archaeology has been ex- logical remains, whether they have been exca- cavation of new sites to thereby increase both vated (extracted) or not, are public property. historical knowledge and the wealth of muse- Whether they are found on private or public ums and collections. Our fields were thereby ground, under territorial waters or under cit- filling up with reasonably romantic and ruin- ies, they are therefore public domain. ous spots, but in the last half a century, the Complying with this premise means that situation has been changing: on the one hand, the competent administrations–18 in total as we realise that archaeological sites are not in- previously mentioned–have to equip them- finite, although they are numerous in this part selves with many coercive measures to prevent of the world, that in many cases opening up poor use or pillaging of archaeological remains, these ruins properly to the public contributes, from appropriation, exporting or illegal trade by means of tourism, to the economic devel- to unauthorised excavations. Today, we know opment of villages; and on the other hand we that a dig requires authorisation from the au- also understand that the integrity of the sites is tonomous region where the site is located, and greatly threatened by earth movements caused this administration will only provide the per- by the current building works, above all large mit if sufficient professional guarantees are scale building projects. presented, if the applicants have the appropri- The autonomous regions, main administra- ate financing and if the intervention is consid- tors of archaeological Heritage through their ered to be scientifically necessary–otherwise culture departments, since they took on these

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competences in the 80s, have attempted to now revoked, already provided an interest- impose that, before carrying out any work or ing new aspect: the company promoting the earth movement in places suspected of con- building work has to pay to draw up a study taining archaeological remains, an archaeologi- on the archaeological value of the plot where cal dig should take place to, at least, “save” the the work will take place, whenever remains knowledge that these remains could offer; but are suspected there. This study will take place experience has given the people in charge a di- prior to awarding the licence, and in the light lemma: if a site is excavated, it is destroyed; if of its results, the culture administration will it is not excavated, no information is obtained determine its conditions. and it is also destroyed because the building Practically all the laws that were published work is carried out. since would develop this line, but what we Before that time, there was only one com- could not see at the time was that this interest- petent administration to oversee authorising, ing initiative was of no use if the culture ad- financing and publishing archaeological in- ministrations were not also capable of modify- vestigations, carried out by university profes- ing the planning, stopping the works, avoiding sors, museum staff or members of the CSIC, them or simply compensating the loss of build- almost entirely independently of the heritage ability which is the price to pay for preserving needs of cultural goods, the dangers posed by the site. Little by little, we began to understand urban development or ever more numerous that site’s land had to be protected way ahead public building works, with very scarce social of building project approval. incidence. If building work or earth move- In this context of change, Spain joined the ments exceptionally revealed monumental or EU in 1986, leading to the implementation of highly significant archaeological remains, staff Environmental Impact Assessments, where ar- from the provincial Museums oversaw “rescu- chaeology teams are brought in to prospect the ing them”, always behind the machines and affected land and, when appropriate, carry out working on what are known as “archaeologi- the “rescue” excavations before building work cal emergencies”. Of course, archaeology was destroyed the sites. And although the autono- a long way from being a business activity; nor mous regions accelerate making archaeological was it acknowledged socially as a profession, charts or “risk charts” to find out what they but as a hobby that anyone–particularly if they have and even what they suspect, the rate of were rich–could access. public and private building work was too great In 1985, some changes took place: there to keep one step ahead. More and more teams were now 18 competent administrations; the were contracted, more and more sites were de- number of jobs increased related to managing stroyed, thankfully many of them after excava- cultural heritage in general, public works and tion. Museum storerooms filled up; there was earth movements multiplied and, at the same barely any time or budget for the materials to time, new generations of people trained in be restored and exhibited or published, with archaeology–with History degrees–joined as- a few exceptions (Martínez Díaz and Querol, sociations and formed colleges to promote the 2013). professional archaeological practice. Back in those days, a series of labour move- Another important detail is that cultural ments began that, with some difficulty, man- heritage standards began to be published by aged to get archaeology recognised as a spe- the Autonomous Regions from 1990 onwards cialised professional activity with its own code and the first of them, for Castilla-La Mancha, of ethics. In fact, and as a new educational

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aspect that began in 2009, there are currently III. PRESENT AND FUTURE OF four Spanish public universities that offer a ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: degree in archaeology, which did not exist be- PREVENTIVE ARCHAEOLOGY fore (Ruiz Zapatero, 2010). Archaeology companies and archaeological services multiplied After considering the previous arguments, we so that archaeological heritage was worked on can see that archaeological heritage has been from three fronts: academic, private compa- managed in our regions, which is consistent, nies and public administrations (Querol and as we have seen, with increasing the number Martínez Díaz, 1996). of excavations to “save” sites before they are destroyed by a building project, a further step Nowadays, most archaeological activities– is required to modify its goals, strategies and excavations and prospecting–performed on procedures. This is how preventive archaeol- our territories is caused by the need to “save”, ogy emerged, defined as the set of activities “document” or even “release” that land where intended to avoid or minimise the damage to the existence of sites are suspected and where public or private works in archaeological herit- building work is going to take place and they age (Martínez Díaz, 2007; Martínez Díaz and are financed by the companies promoting this Castillo Mena, 2007; Martínez Díaz and Quer- work. These activities are not so much re- ol, 2013; Querol, 2010 and 2020; Querol and search or academic, they do not obey needs Castillo Mena, 2013). for historical knowledge, but the whims of building work or earth movements. There are The great challenge for competent adminis- still large sites such as Atapuerca or Numancia trations is twofold: on the one hand, we have to where they are still digging, not due to a need find out about and assess archaeological herit- imposed by building work, but for research age before planning takes place on its land; this purposes; but they are few and far between, is the only way to avoid intervention and intro- although their social repercussions are wide- duce its conservation or its investigation and spread. restoration of value in the planning at the right time. On the other hand, society itself, through The percentage of “emergency” excava- education and information must feel positive tions caused by building works and carried about conserving remains from the past, seeing out by archaeology companies was rather it not as an imposed burden but added value. impressive in the years before the latest economic crisis. Just in the Region of Madrid, as Preventive archaeology procedures are an example, and to quote published data, 277 simple: making the most of the mandatory En- interventions took place–digs and prospect- vironmental Impact Assessment prior to any ing, both in archaeology and in palaeontol- new territorial planning or modification of the ogy–in 2002 and 408 in 2003 (Castillo Mena above, archaeological prospecting must be car- 2007). It is worth mentioning that an increase ried out to find and characterise existing or in the number of digs, without a consequent suspected sites, so that the definitive planning increase in publications or exhibitions and so clearly states “archaeological reserves”–known also no increase in historical knowledge, is not sites, partly excavated or not, lacking particular exactly a good way for archaeological heritage scientific value, that should be treated as natu- to win any fans. ral parks and will not be affected by any building work. The planning should also show, and This accelerated destruction process had to of course in greater numbers, “archaeological slow down and even be avoided; we now have a cautions”–that have different names in each tool to do this: preventive archaeology. Autonomous Region–where, before approving

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any building site project that affects them, the to stop building work or modify projects that Environmental Impact Assessment must pro- were already approved, that society does not vide a more in-depth study on the place so that receive the negative message from archaeol- Culture can make decisions: either it becomes ogy, concerning building work–so often using a Reserve and therefore the work is modified– public money – that is stopped so that the Ar- new outlines, inclusion of sites, etc., or it is chaeological teams can finally remove and lib- excavated before the building work to “save” erate the plot from this burden. In short, there the historical documentation, etc.,–in the old should be no more surprises and emergencies, ‘emergency’ style–or nothing is done because both so expensive for the economy and for the site is not worth it. how society considers archaeological science. It is a great help if this entire process can Regarding this last factor, let’s not for- be performed as quickly as possible, with the get that the true nature of archaeology is not lowest costs and the greatest success, and that studied in compulsory education or in most culture has the archaeological charts or inven- university degrees. Nor is archaeological herit- tories updated, the more important sites al- age–or cultural heritage of course–and only in ready included in the planning and its techni- this century have master’s courses emerged to cal personnel trained in this process; another teach these topics in a handful of universities basic question is to have evaluation and clas- (Querol, 2020). sification systems that can argue for or against On the other hand, and secondly, although conservation. The final decisions will depend potentially more importantly, society barely on a wide range of questions: informative po- stops to think when it comes to choosing be- tential, singularity or significance in the gen- tween a new road, train line, station or any in- eral context, state of conservation or potential stallation or building and conserving an archae- degree of deterioration, scientific investment ological site. This same society protests and required to use it, level of legal protection, etc. demonstrates against interruptions to building Culture must put forward convincing argu- work caused by the need to free up plots with ments if they wish to “win the battle” of con- an archaeological burden; not to mention the serving the archaeological sites that they con- negative idea that the construction companies sider the most important and with the most must have of archaeology, as they have to stop possibilities for the future. jobs they have already started, with all the cost In all cases, we have experience, negative that this represents. for archaeological heritage, from past decades– So, a positive view of archaeological herit- and from the present of course: in the “fight” age, so necessary for its conservation, involves between public building work and conserva- the design and implantation of a policy agreed tion of an archaeological site, the former al- between the Autonomous Regions, whose ways wins. Therefore, preventive archaeology main points we will look at in the conclusions. attempts to conciliate both questions: conservation of the archaeological sites considered to be more important or singular should be com- IV. THE COUNTRYSIDE: POTENTIAL ECONOMIC patible with the building work, modifying the DRIVERS latter or making integrations. And, above all, this new way of managing archaeological her- In these fields, the classic formula was “visit- itage claims that there are no surprises, that able sites”, meaning, places that may or may the construction companies should not have not have been adapted or have information

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panels, with or without an educational aspect, initiatives, lack of coordination or some type that usually are free to access. Our fields are of general administrating master plan and scar- packed with these “ruins” that sometimes we city of studies on the social and economic im- understand and sometimes are incomprehen- pact of opening these sites. sible, depending on our level of training. A What we are seeing is that, in most cases, lovely, documented history of this topic, in archaeological tourist resources are located in quite an international context, can be seen in the middle of nature, so the experience is com- Diaz-Andreu, 2014. plemented with what it contributes to rural In 1986, the Ministry of Culture General tourism and ecotourism (Moreno and Sariego, Sub-Board for archaeology presented as “Ar- 2017). We thereby enter the field of what is chaeological Parks Plan” (VVAA, 1993). In known as “archaeological tourism” or “archae- theory, it was conceived as a support initiative, otourism”, a modality that presents cultural both technical and economic, for Autonomous and tourism activities, products and services Regions to run comprehensive actions on sites where archaeology is the main ingredient declared as Archaeological Cultural Interest and the reason for taking the trip (Tresserras, Zones, of great interest and well conserved, in 2004). Trigueros (2016) talks about its advan- order to turn them into visitable areas prepared tages as an alternative to seaside holidays and to get high social profitability. From these con- the advantage for developing regions; other clusions back then, the most difficult and ex- papers address this tourism speciality in terms pensive aspect referred to the infrastructure, of how it relates to sustainability, complaining that needed both personnel and maintenance. about the absence of an active policy so that the income from this type of tourism might This plan, doubtlessly along with many improve the tourist experience and finances, other phenomena that cultural heritage and or at least completes the financing, of the fun- its management brought to light at that point, damental tasks of conservation, research and represented an incentive for the Autonomous documentation (Moreno and Sariego, o. c.). Regions where initiatives began to multiply: the Archaeological Parks in the Canary Is- There are very few publications that ex- lands–such as Gáldar, the Castilla-La Mancha plain the real economic impact of these initia- Network of Archaeological Parks–Segóbriga, tives. In 2007, Morére and Jiménez published Carranque, Alarcos, Recópolis, Minateda; the the results of a series of surveys held among many varied Castilla y Leon Archaeological the Autonomous Regions on visitable sites, Classrooms (Del Val and Escribano, 2004), their features and their social and economic of which probably the best known as they are consequences. They even managed to distin- also UNESCO World Heritage Sites are Ata- guish Communities with many initiatives and puerca and Las Médulas; the archaeological results, such as Cantabria, and others at the op- heritage Networks such as in Galicia (Tallón et posite end of the scale such as Valencia. How- al., 2004), Andalusia–RECA–(Pazos, 2018) or ever, their conclusions were not particularly Madrid; or the so-called “archaeological paths” positive: as they stated, this was an incipient, such as La Plata, from Seville to Astorga… barely understood market, in general poorly structured and not reflected either in strategic We should also highlight the six conferenc- plans or the actual standards on Museums or es held on museumization of sites, that began Tourism. in 2002; the last was held in Toledo in 2010 and published in 2013 (VVAA, 2013). The What we can deduce, because we bear conference reports demonstrate the wealth of the brunt of it, is that the last economic crisis

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clearly affected many of the initiatives that it Historical Heritage are careful to give listed: the archaeological parks in Castilla-La town councils competences, perhaps Mancha were closed for several years, the ar- fearful of initiatives that might be chaeological classrooms in Castilla y León suf- dangerous for the property’s integri- fered from lack of funding for maintenance, ty; but this timid formula has already the Galicia network never even took take shape born fruit, good and bad. Now the and management of the archaeological parks actual citizens have to get involved in the Canary Islands have had their ups and directly regarding how their archaeo- downs. This leaves one very clear question: if logical goods–cultural in general–are these places had represented a real economic managed within the context of use drive for the towns, if the local communities and management of the environment had been really implicated in these initiatives, which is home to archaeological sites. these problems would not have happened, or Local administrations are closest to at least not so clearly as to cause their closure the citizens, requiring that, in one or deterioration. It remains to be seen if the way or another, the town councils consequences of the COVID-19 crisis will go take on competences and perform the same way or if, making the most of the them. previous experience, the Autonomous Regions 2. Modification of public policies re- are going to use the occasion to clarify their garding management of archaeologi- intentions and coordinate their initiatives. cal heritage, based so far on the existence of “emergencies” and “rescues”. The Autonomous Regions’ cultural V. CONCLUSIONS heritage Boards should assume the principles of preventive archaeology Although much has already been done in this that have been explained here, mak- context, the moment seems to have come for ing the most of compulsory territorial in-depth analysis on the outcome of the initia- planning and the equally compulsory tives and to rethink the action models, high- environmental assessments to intro- lighting the fact that, in the chapter on man- duce Reserve Zones and Caution Ar- aging archaeological sites, the ideas and use of eas in our cities and fields. This will at parallel public policies (environmental assess- least manage to rule out any archaeo- ments, territorial planning, sustainable tour- logical surprises that so many con- ism) are much more important than budget in- struction companies get as the affect- creases. The analysis leads to some important ed company, adding negative points specific proposals: to the social impact of archaeology. 1. Citizen participation. It is not possi- 3. Design a reasonable structure that ble to keep working on archaeological the different Autonomous Regions heritage policy–actually cultural her- agree on concerning sites open to itage as a whole–without including the public or whose value has been citizens, who should be the force that restored. The 1990s saw a multipli- guarantees the appropriate choice cation of often-repeated initiatives and maintenance of archaeological that then were neither continued nor sites open to the public, both exist- maintained, disappointing rural soci- ing sites and any that might emerge eties that had pinned their economic in the future. The rules for Cultural or hopes on them.

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4. Commitment from the actual com- 5. Introduction in compulsory educa- petent administrations to provide tion of a concept adapted to cultural incentives for periodic jobs to assess heritage and, within it, archaeology initiatives to open sites to the pub- and archaeological heritage. lic. This would obtain data that could correct or redesign these initiatives.

REFERENCES

Castillo Mena, A. (2007): «El anuario de actuaciones arqueológicas y paleontológicas de la Comuni- dad de Madrid. 2002 y 2003: análisis de cifras», Actas de las segundas jornadas de Patrimonio Arque- ológico en la Comunidad de Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, pp. 163-179. Del Val Recio, J. and Escribano Velasco, C. (2004): Guía de Lugares arqueológicos de Castilla y León, Junta de Castilla y León. DíazAndreu, M. (2014): «Turismo y arqueología. Una mirada histórica a una relación silenciada». Anales de Antropología, vol. 48, no. II, pp. 939. Martínez Díaz, B. (2007): «Tres años de gestión del Patrimonio Arqueológico en la Comunidad de Madrid (noviembre 2002- noviembre 2005», Actas de las Segundas Jornadas de Patrimonio Arque- ológico en la Comunidad de Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, pp. 139-155 Martínez Díaz, B. and Castillo Mena, A. (2007): «Preventive Archaeology in Spain», European Preventive Archaeology, Papers of the EPAC Meeting 2004, Vilnius, Council of Europe, pp. 187-208. Martínez Díaz, B. and Querol, M. Á. (2013): «Arqueología preventiva», La materialidad de la Histo- ria. La Arqueología en los inicios del siglo XXI, Akal, pp. 143-175. Moreno Melgarejo, A. y Sariego López, I. (2017): «Relaciones entre turismo y arqueología: el turismo arqueológico, una tipología turística propia», PASOS, Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, vol. 15 no. 1, pp. 163-180. Morére, N. and Jiménez, J. (2007): «Análisis del turismo arqueológico en España: un estado de la cuestión», Estudios Turísticos, no. 171, pp. 115139. Pazos, M. Á. (2018): «Aproximación al patrimonio prehistórico en Andalucía. Desde la protección a la custodia», Administrar y proteger: 25 años de tutela del patrimonio prehistórico desde las administraciones públicas. Memorial Luis Siret I, pp. 333-346. Querol, M. Á. (2010): Manual de gestión del patrimonio cultural, Akal. Querol, M. Á. (2020): Manual de gestión del patrimonio cultural, 2.ª ed., Akal. Querol, M. Á. and Castillo Mena, A. (2013): «Arqueología preventiva y patrimonio mundial. El ejemplo español como base para el cambio en el ejercicio de la gestión arqueológica», Actas del Primer Congreso Internacional de Buenas Prácticas en Patrimonio Mundial: Arqueología, JAS Arque- ología, pp. 51-66. Querol, M. Á. and Martínez Díaz, B. (1996): El patrimonio arqueológico en España, Alianza Univer- sidad Textos. Ruiz Zapatero, G. (2010): «Cómo nace un nuevo título universitario: el Grado en Arqueología», in M. Á. Querol, Manual de gestión del patrimonio cultural, Akal, pp. 504-506.

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Tallón Nieto, M. J., Rodríguez Puentes, E., Infante Roura, F. and Rey García, J. M. (2004): «La red gallega del patrimonio arqueológico», RGPA Cuadernos 1, Xunta de Galicia. Tresserras, J. J. (2004): «El arqueoturismo o turismo arqueológico: un paso más para la valorización del patrimonio arqueológico», Boletín GC: Gestión Cultural, no. 9, pp. 2-7. Retrieved from: www. gestioncultural.org Trigueros, C. (2016): «La arqueología como factor de desarrollo del turismo local», International Jour- nal of Scientific Managment Tourism, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 355-368. VV. AA. (1993): Seminario de Parques Arqueológicos 1989, Ministry of Culture. VV. AA. (2013): VI Congreso Internacional de Musealización de yacimientos arqueológicos y patrimonio. Arqueología, patrimonio y paisajes históricos para el siglo XXI. Toledo 22-25 de noviembre de 2010, Consorcio de la Ciudad de Toledo.

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Jorge Fernández León

In the midst of the urgent debate on ‘Deserted Spain’ and depopulation, a general brief examination is made of the current state of existing local cultural capital, its material and human resources and several of its initiatives, finishing off with some indications regarding its possible present and future role in recovering the vital space of the rural world to give its citizens a dignified life.

Key words: cultural services, cultural heritage, collaborative culture, festivalisation, living arts.

PREFACE: CULTURE AND RURAL SPACE AFTER We are a long way from quantifying the THE PANDEMIC: A FAST-PACED PANORAMA global consequences of COVID-19 for the rural world in economic, social and cultural terms. The pandemic has transfigured everything In any case, the impact is going to seriously af- that crossed its path. Culture, its digital con- fect its entire population, particularly persons sumption and its value as entertainment, sup- and families with fewer resources, multiplying port for learning or knowledge, have found survival needs for thousands of them, mak- a place for themselves over these last few ing it difficult to access employment, limiting months as a way of making lockdown bear- their real rights to access basic services such able, in cities and often in the country, offer- as food, energy sufficiency, nurseries and care ing products, frequently free of charge, that for the elderly. would have cost time and money to enjoy in real life, from attending live concerts or shows Security and population control measures to digital reading. However, this phenomenon brought in after lockdown will remain in force has only emphasised the digital gap for people or, in the worst case, they will be strengthened who do not have access to the net from their and informal economy sectors or small family homes. And many of Spain’s rural communi- businesses will experience the same problems ties continue to find good quality access hard as people who have worked in entire sectors to come by. of unstable employment, from hospitality to culture.

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The resulting panorama will not bear a I. INTRODUCTION: MARKING OUT INVISIBLE great resemblance to the last great crisis a dec- SPAIN ade ago. Budget tensions and limitations to public resources to address this type of scenar- The great transformations of the productive io will mean that local institutions will have to systems and their implantation in the territory severely remodel their priorities and reorgan- make it possible to talk authoritatively in Spain ise their functions. today about an environment that is partly increasingly agropolitan (Izquierdo, 2019) and Predictably, temptations will also arise partly dangerously empty, where culture plays in our surrounding area to make the most of a barely relevant role in the GDP although it this climate of fear, increasing violence and is occasionally significant in community prac- unease among citizens to determine mecha- tices and in citizens’ quality of life. nisms among these priorities for better social control, extension or generalisation of elec- This text is neither long enough nor its tronic surveillance systems and measures that scope wide enough to give a detailed analysis restrict individual and collective freedoms in of the complex situation of life in rural Spain, force so far. but a human and material framework should be determined for the work, and fields should Consequently, this tension between rights be marked out to emphasise when approach- and control finds an unexpected protagonist ing the state and the impact of cultural matters in the countryside. Depopulation makes social in the life of communities that are not domi- distancing easier, it lowers the cost of living, nantly urban. it is a space for productive sustainability and living longer, it makes living together easier To firstly determine the population that is with a less stressful pace of life, it broadens the affected, several sources have been used that value of emotions and multiplies opportunities do not exactly agree with each other. The to face up to major transformations that are Countryside Report by the Economic and So- doubtlessly going to take place in the world of cial Council (CES, 2018) states that, according culture with dignity. This goes for the people to the National Statistics Institute, rural towns that live there and people who are going to see are towns with less than 10,000 inhabitants; we themselves expelled from the pre-pandemic have also consulted the standard that establish- cultural system. es population minimums to define a territory as rural, Law 45/2007 for sustainable develop- It will therefore be necessary to clamour ment of the countryside,1 which in article 3, for insight and dialogue from institutions, or- determines that the countryside refers to ter- ganisations and activists regarding this future ritories with less than 30,000 inhabitants and of changes and immediate priorities to make a density of less than 100 inhabitants per km2. the most of these competitive conditions in the countryside. And this future should either Article 29 of this standard also provides a be tackled transversally and inclusively or we series of proposals to encourage networks of will certainly see the wilful attempt to get back cultural spaces, protection and reuse of herit- to normal fail, breaking up former cultural age, encouraging the creation of new public li- services and initiatives, whether they were fi- braries and favouring public-private plans for nanced with public money or not. Some of the proposals put forward in this text point to possible ways of making this possible. 1. https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2007/BOE-A-2007-21493- consolidado.pdf

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cultural action. The same Law determines that the European Union in 2015. As summarised a small town has less than 5,000 inhabitants, a in their study on the Spanish situation, F. Go- dimension that coincides with what is includ- erlitz (2015, pp. 293 and beyond) states that ed in the Local Regime Bases Law,2 which in our demography is spasmodic in that while the article 26 determines that the minimum cul- large towns are growing, smaller towns tend to tural service for populations over 5,000 inhab- disappear; inland, with the exception of Ma- itants is a public library. However, when defin- drid, is emptying and the peripheries are being the population limit, it was decided to use coming saturated, even crossing over munici- an intermediate factor due to its importance, pal limits and generating worrying territorial also determined by the aforementioned law, imbalances. due to the Provincial governments’ obligation These imbalances are a great present and to equip towns with under 20,000 inhabitants future dilemma for a large part of the centre with minimum cultural services (libraries). and north of Spain; a situation that is worsened This measure includes almost fourteen and a by ageing populations, scarcity of women and half million people. immigration that does not make up for these The study population thus determined, losses on its own. The future of rural towns, having very concisely mentioned the general due to the great diversity of sustainability con- conditions for developing cultural life in the ditions that can be detected, therefore raises countryside, data is examined relating to the a challenge for public policies where cultural dimension and functioning of these basic ser- policies can play an important role due to their vices, libraries and rural reading programmes, plasticity and resilience. the phenomenon of rural museums and the Spain’s adaptation policies after entering weight of heritage resources, the diversity of the European Union have brought about a the initiatives for live creation and some of change that has far from benefited the equilib- the other processes to reactivate cultural life rium of non-urban territories; in addition, the linked to artistic creation and sustainable de- last great recession widened the town-country velopment of the territories, to conclude with cultural gap, encouraging an economic image a series of proposals to help improve the role of rural life as devoted to urban masses to enjoy of culture in recovering rural communities. cultural constructions such as the “countryside” or “nature”, subsidising hospitality and II. PRODUCTIVE MODELS VERSUS TERRITORIAL turning culture and ecosystems into heritage. BALANCING Rural and urban are nowadays further ways of giving meaning and fresh meaning to roles for According to a recent paper by J. Recaño,3 in a productive model based on assigning idyllic 2016, 60% of our towns had fewer than 1,001 functions to the former, as goods that compen- inhabitants, took up 40% of the surface area sate the sometimes-unbearable flow and pace and barely amassed 3.1% of the population. of city life. 19 provinces were among the least dense in The culture created and disseminated by the media from urban spaces through its different supports, from painting and literature to cinema or differentiated gastronomy, with 2. https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/1985/BOE-A-1985-5392- their messages multiplied on screens, has consolidado.pdf made an active contribution to generating that 3. https://ced.uab.cat/PD/PerspectivesDemografiques_007_ collective imagination that is, in turn, an effec- CAST.pdf

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tive factor for localised production of wealth, sponding to the 2018-2019 period,5 groups to- through providing incentives, even subsidised, gether many different types of town that might for new forms of tourism as “experiences” and be semi-urban with twenty to fifty thousand also as a distinction. inhabitants, often boasting a library, one or more theatres or cultural centres, a museum This culture often reproduces the classic and art schools, along with over 6,800 town roles of heterodominant societies, disregard- councils that do not exceed 5,000 inhabitants ing the specific weight of gender and its im- and so do not even have to be provided with balances in rural economies. Furthermore, it cultural services. The SGAE studies do not moves between the growing flow of affluence provided a detailed breakdown of their results. among young families in peri-urban environ- Details of the smaller towns are not accessible ments in the large and medium-sized Spanish and therefore it is practically impossible to cities and the continuous regression of data perform a quantitative analysis. We have no on deserted Spain, from the north in Galicia, record of Cultural Centres or municipal cul- Asturias or Cantabria and including both Cas- tural facilities, or any data on their use. To get tilla regions and what is known as the Iberian at least a record of the number of museums Siberia, far from dynamic cities and in need and local visitors centres, we have to enquire of solutions for basic issues concerning edu- in the Ministry of Culture and Sport’s General cation services, health, communications, jobs Directory of Museums and Collections.6 How- and access to the actual land, if they want to ever, it is possible to find a detailed territorial live off it. In the words of Elisa Oteros-Rozas, breakdown of the network of fixed and mobile this “is not going to just be solved among the public libraries, whose conditions and short- daughters and grand-daughters in the villages. falls will be mentioned later. Even if they all wanted to come back, which is not the case, this would require a lot more This lack of specific information from small “neo-rural” people and “deep cultural and po- and medium-sized towns makes it ever more litical changes.” She goes on to mention that it necessary to draw up an accurate overview will be necessary to transform ways of life and of cultural matters in rural Spain that affects living together, as the urgent recovery of “local more than 60% of the national territory and al- / traditional agrofood and land management most fourteen and a half million people in our wisdom, respecting each person’s pace of ad- country, to work together more effectively to aptation and with a great deal of generosity.”4 address urgent solutions from public cultural policies to the serious problems of these at- risk territories. III. FORGOTTEN, RESILIENT, UNEQUAL CULTURAL SERVICES However, it might be concluded that these invisible networks continue to sustain liv- The quantitative data on cultural services for ing cultural activities throughout almost all small and medium-sized towns is lost when we of Spain. Nevertheless, as we mentioned, it is want to look at detailed figures. The Survey of undeniable that separate data on cultural con- Cultural Habits and Practices in Spain, corre-

5. https://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr:1712f192- 4. In a dialogue on Deserted Spain included in the focus study d59b-427d-bbe0-db0f3e9f716b/encuesta-de-habitos-y- from the FUHEM journal mentioned in the bibliography. practicas-culturales-2018-2019.pdf Please refer to https://www.fuhem.es/2019/11/13/dialo- 6. http://directoriomuseos.mcu.es/dirmuseos/mostrarBusqueda go-espana-rural-vaciada/ General.do

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sumption for the 2018-2019 period only man- IV. CULTURAL LIFE STARTS WITH BOOKS ages to differentiate the block of towns with under 50,000 inhabitants, constant data if we Only data from libraries allows us to take a compare it with data for provincial capitals and more detailed look at the state of the cultur- major cities. There are therefore clearly grow- al offer and its deficiencies among the 7,719 ing difficulties to access the internet and the towns of this other country where more than digital environment, inversely proportional to 30% of the Spanish population lives. Data from the number of inhabitants in a town, difficul- the national network of libraries and reading ties that affect both access to service platforms centres corresponding to 20177 indicate that and digital libraries and digital consumption of there are at least 3,065 towns that do not even culture. In addition, these populations find it have direct library service points and that a to- more difficult to visit museums, libraries, exhi- tal of 1,498,840 inhabitants do not have either bitions or concerts and they demonstrate this fixed or mobile access to any reading sources. by doubling the number of people in urban In other words, more than 3.2% of the Spanish spaces who argue that they do not participate population still does not have a basic cultural in culture because there is no accessible offer service. Out of these 3,065 towns, 759 are in of cultural services nearby. Castilla y León, 509 in Aragon and 504 in Cata- lonia. There is a negative difference of more than 5% (20.7% as opposed to 26.4%) among users However, the reading services in that other of public reading services in rural areas and Spain cannot be understood without the exist- urban areas. 53.5 % of these potential rural ence of the network of library buses, mobile users do not even enter a library once a year, public libraries, created during Spain’s Second compared to 46.8% of people living in cities. Republic(*) as part of a pioneering cultural We can see this same difference in the data on policy for dissemination and democratisa- attending performing arts shows where people tion, that has sustained and widened its ser- living in rural environments score 9 points less vices in many of these territories, managing to (27.3% compared to 36.4%). reach more than eleven million potential users in 1,956 of these towns. This network, with The same happens in all categories of the a total of 76 units on the road, is distributed study of cultural habits and consumption, but unequally through the affected communities, despite major difficulties, people who live in present in ten autonomous regions and man- this deserted Spain continue demanding and aged either by regional governments or by pro- consuming in quantities that are not so far off vincial governments or some town councils. the urban communities. And they would con- Castilla y León leads the effort in number of sume much more if more resources were ac- services with 30 units on the road, followed by cessible. Unequal networks that are upheld or Catalonia with 12, Madrid with 10, Castilla-La switched off depending on the priorities and Mancha with 10 and Murcia with 5. It is tell- sensitivity of the current government and that ing that dominantly rural communities in the maintain activity in many small populations north such as Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, the thanks to the efforts of thousands of public Basque Country, Rioja or Navarra do not have and private professionals from cultural inter- a single unit of this service. mediation, that assume culture as a personal commitment to the communities where they live together. 7. http://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/cultura/areas/bibliotecas/ mc/ebp/portada.html

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Despite all this, the chance to access read- us a friendlier face of the great job that our ing remains denied for a significant number of library professionals have performed to be citizens. Cuts in the culture budget after the able to get better results, and not just state in 2008 recession have seriously affected provi- their annual reports how the budget cuts, for sions for library funds, particularly purchas- example, had reduced the growth of their col- ing new items. Data from the FESABID report lections”, as mentioned by (FESABID, p. 3) (2019) on the situation in the public libraries Gloria Pérez-Salmerón, president of Stitching in Spain indicates that collection renewal was IFLA Global Libraries. significantly set back between 2010 and 2016, as by the end of this period only 3.4 million documents had been added to libraries, 35.8% V. LOCAL MUSEUMS AND ENDANGERED less than in the first year of the study. This HERITAGE drop particularly affected audiovisual, elec- tronic and sound material but also book pur- Our country has made an enormous effort chases. As stated in its executive summary over the last few decades to save its tangible (page 6) “In the chapter on running costs, it is and intangible heritage. However, just as this the purchases that are facing the greatest im- situation in urban areas has benefited from in- pact during the economic crisis. Between 2010 vestments and attention from the best resourc- and 2016, a drop of 47.7% was seen in this es from administrations and institutions, rural spending chapter, going from 55.7 million in heritage still leaves a lot to be desired in many 2010 to 29.1 in 2016”. Public libraries in rural cases of cataloguing and sufficient preserva- Spain have doubtlessly been the most affected tion. The historical heritage protection laws by this situation and this weakness in the offer and the new standards that include industrial is affecting their future. heritage alone cannot stop the damage to many endangered elements and traditions. However, The same document also refers to the despite all this, a growing network of initia- great change that took place in these basic tives covers, albeit unequally, the cultural goals services: the arrival of the growing use of so- throughout the countryside. cial media in the libraries and the multiplication of the portfolio of new services through From the list of around one thousand five channels such as Twitter, Facebook, What- hundred museums and heritage centres in sApp or Instagram. However, it indicates that the Directory of Museums and Collections in the undoubted use of these tools, that have Spain, almost half, 742, are located in towns helped to generate dynamics among read- with a population under 20,000 inhabitants, ers and institutions creating ties and active 130 of them in Castilla-La Mancha, 109 in reading and exchange communities, generat- Castilla y León, 104 in the Valencian Commu- ing more personalised answers and flows of nity, 52 in Aragon, 43 in Catalonia and 40 in intercommunication between libraries and Asturias and a few more in Galicia. The ma- their users, is dragged down by the clear jority sprang from institutional initiatives, but lack of general and separate data that would they also maintain a healthy number, over one help assess and improve the lending service hundred, that came about thanks to citizen ini- both for usual tasks and for these new local tiatives or private sponsorship. This includes services “... There is no useful data in these centres devoted to anthropology and ethnog- media, which leads to a serious call for rede- raphy, culture and popular traditions, artistic fining the official indicators that we are us- creation, historic and industrial heritage care, ing. Indicators that (…) might have shown preserving the memory of outstanding collec-

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tives and people, music, books, scientific cul- Out of a national total of 28,821 goods reg- ture, natural heritage, crafts..., dozens of top- istered in Spain (2015), these are the Autono- ics often addressed by people who care deeply mous Regions with the largest rural territory about it but lack the greater endowment of ma- (Table 1). terial and human resources. The activity programmes and the recovery Table 1. Goods declared to be of cultural work developed by this informal network of interest institutions maintain and, in many cases, feed Community Movable Immovable Total the symbolic collective imagination and local pride in their communities. They invent and Andalusia 3,155 4,930 8,065 renew their discourses through growing ac- Aragón 659 7 666 tivity, with scarce funds available and often Asturias 299 4 303 appealing for collaboration from citizens and Cantabria 266 24 290 attracting visitors to keep them going. How- Castilla y León 1,266 134 1,400 ever, the lack of material conditions for sus- Castilla-La Mancha 731 82 813 tainability occasionally obliges them to make their mission public to the pressure of tourism, Catalonia 2,193 565 2,758 becoming small theme or leisure parks and Extremadura 202 233 435 often betraying their initial goals. The actual Galicia 690 382 1,072 trends of the developmentalist discourse, so pressured by the immediacy, puts the public Source: MCD, Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Bienes Culturales. No data for La Rioja, Ceuta and Melilla. service mission at risk and the sense of these valuable facilities for the territory’s sustainable future. This heritage includes monuments and museum elements, languages and forms of Spain, with 47 acknowledgements, was the expression and oral tradition, documentary third country in the world in 2019 with the collections, etc. with very fragile tangible and most places catalogued as UNESCO World intangible wealth. A large part of it is located Heritage Sites and Castilla y León was the re- outside the cities and, despite wide-reaching gion with the highest number in the world (8). state and regional regulations to protect and However, if we take a look at the List of Mov- catalogue it, irrespective of whether it is in able and Immovable Goods declared to be of private hands or not, its maintenance is ex- 8 cultural interest, picking the Regions with the pensive and requires resources that often do greater proportion of rural territories, the fig- not arrive as swiftly as needed. As denounced ures multiply exponentially. Independently of by organisations that are barely suspected of the different criteria used by the territorial au- activism such as Hispania Nostra through ele- thorities to define degrees of local or regional ments such as the Heritage Red List, there are protection, data from the protected heritage constant cases reported of endangered herit- places is overwhelming. age in all territories, although especially affecting elements located in rural areas that are less visible to the media. If protection of the material heritage is insufficient, the survival of intangible culture, 8. http://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/cultura/patrimonio/ protected and recognised after the UNESCO bienes-culturales-protegidos/consulta-de-bienes-muebles/ sobre-muebles.html Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intan-

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gible Cultural Heritage in 2003,9 it is even fur- sions of the world in small communities (...), ther endangered. The Spanish list of intangible they are conceived as ritual or repeated short cultural heritage recognised by UNESCO com- term events where members of the commu- prises 19 elements and there is a wide-reach- nity take part to assert and celebrate different ing regulation to define and protect intangible social, religious, ethnic, national, linguistic or cultural heritage that includes many elements historical ties,” However, since the end of the of that cultural capital nationally, regionally last century this original function has given and even locally. However, it will be the citizen way to the global process of festivalisation, organisations closest to the communities that conceived as a purely commercial appropria- will make them possible, in a context of recov- tion and resignification that transforms these ering local cultures and helping them survive. community rituals into goods designed solely As stated by Professor González Cambeiro to vitalise tourism and the service economy. (2017), “the presence of favourable regulations This unifying mechanism has come across is the cause and, in turn, the consequence of a more transforming and inclusive response in many of these projects but we can be sure that, many Spanish festivals held in rural environ- even in an appropriate context, the initiatives ments, just like many places in Europe and in from all these groups, and fundamentally from the rest of the world over the last two decades. the protagonists of intangible heritage (...), are As mentioned by Gibson and Connell (2012), often one step ahead of the legislation”. these events might be extremely important to sustainably revitalise their environment, as VI. LIVE ARTS: COLLABORATION AS OPPOSED well as promoting flows of visits. They have TO FESTIVALISATION therefore become a phenomenon with a certain economic importance for the places where Recognising the existence of a small num- they are held and they form part of the cultural ber of resilient professional cultural projects, landscape of many Spanish towns today, creat- stage or music productions with undeniable ing ties and developing community bonds, in links to their communities, located for dec- addition to business, generating appropriate ades in Spanish rural environments, their environments to recover other forms of cul- singular nature makes it hard to analyse their tural expression and attracting the attention of impact in terms of cultural capital. Instead, it creators who often find ideal working condi- is necessary to mention a phenomenon that tions in these territories with more sustainable has been widely reported in the media: artistic production costs than in cities. festivals linked to rural environments and/or In this way, some events have been cre- natural spaces. As mentioned in its introduc- ated and consolidated on the cultural agenda tion (page 1) the authors of a detailed study that exceed traditional dissemination in their on the function and efficacy in the territory concept and function and that, with varying (Bennet et al. 2014), “Historically festivals, degrees of success, delve deeper into insights carnivals and fairs have been an important and shared processes. These are initiatives that part of social and cultural participation, used usually include music and often theatre, cine- to articulate and communicate shared values, ma and the visual arts, gastronomy, craftsman- ideologies and mythologies central to the vi- ship and traditions that highlight everything that is good about the rural world and they are being used to breathe life into the local econo- 9. http://portal.unesco.org/es/ev.php-URL_ID=17716&URL_ my in the areas where they are held. DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

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Suggestive projects such as the Razón Val- sustainability and with different degrees of ley festival / Music for depopulation, that implication in their environmental commit- promotes the El Hueco collective in Soria, an ment, developing projects in networks, many active group of anti-depopulation supporters, of them collaborative, where they seek to ex- or the BoinaFest in Arenillas in Soria, are just plore and experiment with bonds and trans- two of hundreds of living and growing ini- fer knowledge between the values of the tra- tiatives on a busy map of events that go from ditional culture and the initiatives of modern well-established events such as Sonorama Rib- creation. An important group of these col- era in Aranda de Duero, or the megafestival lectives and institutions are brought together ResurrectionFest in Viveiro (Lugo) to other in a recent publication, Creative Responses to more modest events such as DemandaFolk in Sustainability. Spain (2019), with multidisci- Tolbaños de Arriba in Burgos, LeturAlma in plinary projects as diverse as the Fundación Letur (Albacete), AbabolFestival in Aladrén Cerezales Antonino y Cinia in León, one of (Zaragoza), Poborina Folk in el Pobo (Ter- its best known dialogue and meeting spaces, uel) or Biosegura, in Beas del Segura (Jaén), festivals such as Langaia in Lanzarote and Ma- to name just a few. New cultural assets resolve drid, Paca Proyectos Artísticos in Asturias, around them bound to visions of the rural or El Arreciado in Toledo. They are all linked world that are increasingly far from the colo- through an informal network of 54 centres, El nising urban gaze. Cubo Verde, that amasses initiatives and promotes encounters and exchanges of knowledge around different ways of living through VII. NEW ARTISTIC PRACTICES AND THE RURAL artistic practices. WORLD One of its most constant members and dif- Traditional criticism and insight around the fusers, Fernando García-Dory, founder and role of art in the rural environment has been promoter of the Campo Adentro strategy, seeping into Spain around a growing bubbling describes it as follows, “Ours is not a bucolic pot of initiatives that come from insight and philosophy based on a return to the landscape, action that, since the end of the last century, to Nature, but a conceptual manoeuvre to give have been promoted by different countryside art a real use and that is transformed into a organisations and institutional initiatives. The tool that backs ecological balance and social recovery of proximity values in an increasing- change. This inevitably involves recovering the ly glocal environment, along with increasingly relationship with the countryside.” greater access to the internet, has multiplied With this same commitment, we can high- the presence of cultural activists in rural enlight the continued work of small institutions vironments who, using a definition by Félix committed to art and rural life, such as the Guattari (1991), assume their presence in Museu de la Vida Rural from the Fundación the territory as a commitment to something Carulla en L´Espluga de Francolí (Tarrago- similar to a “new type of eco-philosophy, both na), whose programming constant includes practical and speculative, ethical-political and projects from this perspective. Also urban aesthetic, (that) must substitute the old forms spaces such as MediaLab Prado, the CDAN of religious, political, associative commit- in Huesca and other institutional initiatives ment, etc.”. maintain growing links with this innovative Many of them are bound to a strong en- current. vironmentalist conviction, concerned about

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VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: ronments; in Spain, institutions such as the NEW ROLE OF CULTURE IN THE RURAL Ombudsmen (2017) or the Economic and So- ENVIRONMENT cial Council (2018) have examined the state of the countryside and its problems, identify- The presence and functions of culture and cre- ing some cultural initiatives that might bring ation in the rural environment form part of a some alleviation. The same happens within debate that remains marginal in Spain and in the framework of the Spanish Government’s the European Union. However, an increasing general action, particularly in work begun four number of projects linked to them have found years ago by the current Ministry of Culture funding in programmes allocated funds for the and Sport with the Culture/Countryside En- countryside (FEDER and others). Both Euro- counters11 within the framework of the Cul- pean and Spanish institutions have begun to ture/Citizenship programme that brought observe, at least, what the present and future together hundreds of representatives from in- role of culture will be in sustaining and recov- stitutions and projects that tie culture in with ering the assets that might make it possible for rural areas. This context gives importance to the countryside to survive a recession. These the conclusions12 reached in the First Forum ever-growing concerns and interests will be- on Culture and Rural Areas, that took place come more acute after the predictable conflicts three years ago under the “Processes for social, derived from Brexit and new financing of the economic and demographic transformation” Common Agricultural Policy, so relevant to in- section at the Cerezales Foundation and that crease the presence of culture in the reconfig- has been the work guide for successive minis- uration of a decreasing or adjusting model that terial Encounters to date. should not damage any more communities and should stop the demographic bleed-out. This commitment, plus the efforts of citizen platforms linked to the countryside and its peo- However, there is some middle ground to ple’s protests such as the Spanish Rural Devel- explore. In its Cork Declaration 2.0, in 201610, opment Network13 or the Rural Platform and its “A Better Life in Rural Areas”, the European Art and Rural Medium Commission,14 to name Union highlights two highly relevant goals for just a few, as well as the commitments made by culture. The first is that “Particular attention tertiary sector Foundations such as Cerezales, must be given to overcoming the digital divide Carasso15 and others laid out in their activity and developing the potential offered by con- and financing programmes, leads us to imagine nectivity and digitisation of rural areas” and that this is a decisive moment to boost a new the second determines that “Policies must in- role for culture in the context of an ageing rural centivise the delivery of environmental public environment, depopulated and at risk of losing goods, including the preservation of Europe’s its balancing role in a new territory economy. natural and cultural heritage”. This interest is perceived in works such as what Culture Ac- tion Europe (2019) is developing through its project Beyond the Obvious, a European plat- 11. https://culturayciudadania.culturaydeporte.gob.es/cultura- form for exchange of thoughts, pooling ideas medio-rural.html and creative experiences in non-urban envi- 12. https://culturayciudadania.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr: ca30ac69-734a-47e5-b867-b07c7c9a343c/Conclusiones%20 I%20Foro.pdf 13. http://www.redr.es/es/portal.do 10. https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/sites/enrd/files/cork-declaration 14. http://www.espaciotangente.net/CArteycultura.pdf _es.pdf 15. https://www.fondationcarasso.org/es/

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And to move forward in this direction, here action that represent their interests, are just a few possible strategies: with commitment to equality and cooperation. 1. Guarantee a State policy that ensures the effective universal right to digital 5. Culture is a space for living together networks and improves conditions of and helps to drive social change. Con- access to basic services in rural areas, sequently, public institutions’ pro- with an institutional policy in the long jects should prioritise the fact it is term that will reduce the current im- a right, in addition to its undeniable balances with regard to cities. Even in and necessary capacity to generate services, local and district provision economic resources by exploiting of equipment and local and virtual tourism, heritage or identity as goods cultural resources that allow citizens for leisure. Only sustainable use of to fully develop their cultural rights. these values in entertainment industry processes will guarantee its conti- 2. Growth of consumption and collabo- nuity as transforming factors. rative digital participation and creation resulting from the pandemic, 6. Open rural schools, putting across along with execution of an effective values of identity and criticism is right of access, will create a more fa- an element that, along with culture, vourable environment to expand networks actively to generate communi- works, generate projects, etc. Using ties. Institutional formulas must be the financial mechanisms planned to provided that link up both processes address the crisis, community pro- in district or local programmes that, duction tools should be made avail- in turn, bring about inter-generation- able to communities and anyone tak- al transfer and make innovative cul- ing part in creative processes, to make tural production possible. the most of this new scenario and its 7. The immense tangible and intangi- opportunities. ble heritage of our rural communi- 3. Promote local management models ties is, in turn, a backbone element that open the door to participation and an important resource generator. from civil organisations in the actual It is necessary to legally facilitate lo- communities in public-private man- cal communities with a more active agement of the programmes, partic- role in management of this heritage, ularly any that create collaboration bringing about mechanisms to work platforms and generate cultural iden- together with property owners, insti- tity and capital for the pro-common tutions from the tertiary sector and economy, so well understood in tradi- companies specialised in fair com- tional rural cultures and forgotten in mercial management of it. post-Fordian production. 8. Culture must find its place in integral 4. Women and the new generations are policies to revitalise the rural world, called on to take a central role in these without incentivising ways of ideal- processes, contributing their own vi- ising the countryside with gentrify- sions of the world. It is thereby neces- ing discourse. Consequently, it will sary to include organisations and col- be necessary for it to take part in the lectives in the debate and insight for promotion policies for the current flows to the rural areas, from returns

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or dual residences to new concepts of supporting contemporary creation the countryside that emerge between must be incorporated into the active collectives who are disenchanted policies for culture in rural areas, with urban forms of production. always making the most of the re- 9. The forms of cultural creation not sources provided by the reality of lo- only recover the depreciated identical communities and their traditions. ties or re-read the history of the com- Prioritising, if possible, any whose munities, but they also update it and programmes reflect greater sensitiv- give it new meaning. The side-lines ity regarding rural sustainability pro- are also places for innovation and cesses and forms of working together experimentation and a decisive gaze assisted by techno-scientific teams.

REFERENCES

Arroyo Vázquez, N., Hernández-Sánchez, H. and Gómez-Hernández, J. A. (2019): Las bibliotecas públicas en España: Diagnóstico tras la crisis económica, Madrid, FESABID. Bennett, A., Taylor, J. and Woodward, I. (eds.) (2014): The Festivalization of Culture, Farnham, Ashgate Publishing Limited. Consejo Económico y Social (2018): El medio rural y su vertebración social y territorial, Madrid, CES. Retrieved from: http://www.datosdelanzarote.com/Uploads/doc/Informe-sobre-el-Medio-Rural- y-su-vertebraci%C3%B3n-social-y-territorial-(2018)-20180621131520465Medio-Rural.pdf Defensor del Pueblo (2019): La situación demográfica en España. Efectos y consecuencias, separata del Informe anual 2018, Madrid, Defensor del Pueblo. Retrieved from: https://www.defensordelpueblo. es/informe-monografico/la-situacion-demografica-espana-efectos-consecuencias/ Del Molino, S. (2013): La España vacía. Viaje por un país que nunca fue, Madrid, Turner Libros. Gertz, D. (1991): Festivals, Special Events, and Tourism, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gibson, C. and Connell, J. (2012): Music Festivals and Regional Development in Australia, Aldershot, Ashgate. Goerlich Gisbert, F., Ruíz González, F., Chorén Rodríguez, P. and Albert Pérez, C. (2015): Cam- bios en la estructura y localización de la población. Una visión de largo plazo (1842-2011), Bilbao, Fun- dación BBVA. González Cambeiro, S. (2017): «La legislación sobre patrimonio cultural inmaterial en la Comunidad Foral de Navarra», separata, Revista de Etnología y Etnografía de Navarra, no. 71. Retrieved from: http://www.culturanavarra.es/uploads/files/03GonzalezCEEN91.pdf Guattari, F. (1990): Las tres ecologías, Valencia, PreTextos. Izquierdo, J. (2019): La ciudad agropolitana, la aldea cosmopolita, Oviedo, KRK Ediciones. Marín Ruíz, C. (2014): «Arte medioambiental y ecología», Revista Arte y Políticas de identidad, vol. 10-11, pp. 35-54. Millán, J. A. (coord.) (2017): La lectura en España. Informe 2017, Madrid, Federación de Gremios de Editores de España.

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Roseman, S. R., Prado Conde, S. and Pereiro Pérez, X. (2013): «Antropología y nuevas ruralidades», monográfico, Gazeta de Antropología vol. 29, no. 2. Retrieved from: https://culturayciudadania.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr:0c172533-96a7-4798-88d5-479f9ba0b686/antropologia-y-nuevas- ruralidades.pdf VV. AA. (2017): Ecologías y sistemas del arte, Madrid, Matadero. Retrieved from: https://culturayciudadania.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr:9d5104fa-e461-4f43-b79a-7708e427fb0e/ecologias-sistemas-del-arte.pdf. VV. AA. (2019): «Periferias. Nuevas geografías del malestar», monográfico, Papeles de Relaciones Ecoso- ciales y Cambio Global, no. 147, Madrid, FUHEM/Icaria. VV. AA. (2019): Creative reponses to sustainability. Cultural Initiatives Engaging with Social and Envi- ronmental Issues. Spain, Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF). Retrieved from: http://www.asef.org/images/docs/FINAL%20ASEF%20Spain%20Directory%20Online%20Version.pdf

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Raquel Caerols Mateo

This study tackles the presence, role and meaning of culture and the arts on the Spanish education curriculum, initially addressing an analysis of the laws that have made up the history of democratic in this field, up to our latest education law in force. This context puts us in a privileged position to analyse the present and future lines of action concerning the latest education law designed by the new government that was on the brink of being approved when the COVID-19 pandemic slammed into our lives. The analysis can also be performed by consecutively proposing assessment of a compared study of what is being achieved in this regard in the European panorama, and internationally in general. However, speaking from this new reality, we are first-hand witnesses of the remarkable aspects of this analysis regarding the importance of the arts and culture, made all the more relevant by the health crisis, strengthening the need to protect this education as essential and consequently, the requirement of grounding education.

Key words: educational reforms, culture, arts, arts education, STEAM.

I. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS IN SPANISH just two major models for the Spanish educa- DEMOCRACY: PRESENCE OF ARTS EDUCATION tional system over the last 50 years, the EGB implemented by the LGE and the ESO imple- As a starting point on this current question, mented by the LOGSE. The rest merely rework we must emphasise the numerous education the LOGSE. I do not mean to use ‘rework’ dis- reforms–eight to be precise–that the Spanish dainfully but the model is the same”1. democracy has suffered from its beginnings to However, although this is true from the the present day. These circumstances doubt- point of view of transformations in the institu- lessly have a direct effect on the presence, tional structure, in terms of addressing culture weight and focus of culture, the arts and arts and the arts, there certainly have been some education in each change brought about by the aforementioned laws. However, in this respect it is important to mention that not all changes have carried the same weight, as stated by Ti- 1. https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2013/05/17/espa- ana Ferrer (2013): “There have actually been na/1368776806.html

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significant turnarounds that we can use to mir- decades of our democracy, demonstrating that ror changes in Spanish society: socio-cultural, arts, arts education and teaching were not con- economic, that write our very own history, the sidered or played a very minor role. From this history of the role of culture and the arts in our transcendental shortfall compared to other society, in more than 40 years of democracy. European countries, we can set an insightful starting point on the path and the presence of To do this, we will study each and every law, culture and the arts in our education system, searching for keywords in each one: culture, where the education system fails in terms of arts education, arts teaching and arts, which these knowledge areas. will show us not only their value and meaning but also if they have even been included or are Finally, in these paragraphs, as a means of present in each of the laws. introduction, we must mention that we are going to pay particular attention to the context of From this starting point, initial apprecia- compulsory education, as it will only be pos- tion and differentiation must focus on defin- sible to contribute to the social worth of cul- ing a clear distinction between culture, arts ture if its grounding starts right there, and only and arts education, due to the implications and there or essentially there, will it be possible to weighting in each sense, and basis of an educa- awaken vocations that propel citizens towards tion system that makes this distinction. further education in the arts. In this respect, we must point out that high- A concise analysis of these laws (table 1). lighting the value of culture in an education system does not implicitly imply inclusion per As the final part of this analysis, we must se or highlighting the arts and arts education mention that in addition to this general frame- as areas of curricular knowledge in their own work, educational reform has taken place in right. Culture would be the dimension that en- the following Autonomous Regions: Andalu- compasses them and it would be multidimen- sia, Canarias, Cantábria, Castilla-La Mancha, sional compared to the whole as mentioned by Catalonia, Extremadura, Basque Country. Log- Ariño (2000) (ontological, phenomenological, ically, due to the study context and the space charismatic and socio-historical) while the required for it, detailed analysis is unfeasible. arts partly conserve this cultural heritage, and arts education represents a step beyond technical skills in developing its praxis, it repre- II. DOMINANT PERSPECTIVE OF THE SPANISH sents awareness-raising, critical evaluation of EDUCATIONAL MODEL: THE ROLE OF ARTS distinguishing features that make up a cultural EDUCATION progression, the convergence between arts and cultural uses of the arts. After detailed analysis of each law passed in the history of our democracy, on the specific This differentiation between the two is question of culture and the arts, we have suf- demonstrated in how our education system ficient perspective to draft an evaluation and elapses, because as we can see in the path map out the dominant educational model, ahead of us, culture has not always been val- the focus, the paradigm and the present and ued as a fundamental principle of education, future lines of work to follow and to be fol- the arts and, more specifically, arts education lowed in the future in education in Spain and, and artistic teaching had a low profile. more specifically, referring to the value and This question is even clearer if we take a weight of culture and arts in the educational look at the educational laws for the first two curriculum.

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Table 1. Analysis of education laws

LGE: Law 14/1970, of 4 August, General Education and Financing of the Educational Reform. Published in State Gazette (BOE) no. 187 on 6 August Culture The references to culture are focused on: home or patriotic culture, cultural heritage of Spain, scientific, social, cultural development, cultural activities, cultural funds, religious culture, knowledge of social and cultural reality, cultural progress, cultural promotion, cultural institutions, creation of cultural circles, cultural associations, control of them Arts Arts education is NOT considered. LOECE: Organic Law 5/1980, of 19 June, regulating the Schools Statute. Published in State Gazette (BOE) no. 154 on 27 June Culture Arts After the coup d’état and the victory of the PSOE, it was never applied LODE: Organic Law 8/1985, of 3 July, Regulating the Right to Education. Published in State Gazette (BOE) no. 159 on 4 July Culture Arts Arts education is NOT considered LOGSE: Organic Law 1/1990, of 3 October, on the General Ordinance of the Education System, Published in BOE no. 238, of 21 November Culture •• Allusion to culture for training European citizens •• It considers cultural, production and technological changes, for a democratically organised society (education+technology) •• Versatile and long-lasting training (lifelong learning) •• Decentralisation, educational competences for the Autonomous Regions, which meant a change in the cultural dimension, including linguistic plurality •• For the first time, the role of culture was valued in relation to gender equality Arts •• This is the first law that includes arts education, it is compulsory, global and integrating. •• Primary Education: Artistic education. Goal: use the different means of representation and artistic expression •• Secondary Education: Plastic and Visual Education. Goal: Know about, value and respect artistic and cultural goods •• This was the first time the Arts Baccalaureate was included, among the four eligible Baccalaureates •• Goals at Baccalaureate; “Develop artistic and literary sensitivity as a source of training and cultural enrichment” LOPEG: Organic Law 9/1995, of 20 November, on Participation, Evaluation and Government of Schools, Published in BOE no. 278, of 21 November Culture •• Full freedom for School Boards to establish joint work agreements with cultural associations for after-school activities Arts •• The School Boards dedicated to training in plastic arts and design could have a representative proposed by the business organisations or labour institutions •• Further artistic teaching centres are encouraged to promote research programmes in their disciplines •• Specialist teachers could be employed in the field of the arts •• The figure of the Professor Emeritus is considered for higher level artistic teaching LOCE: Organic Law 10/2002, of 23 December, Regulating the Quality of Education. Published in State Gazette (BOE) no. 307 on 24 December This law modifies both the LODE from 1985 and the LOGSE from 1990, it was published on 24 December 2002 and came into force, but was not developed according to regulations and was replaced by the LOE in 2006

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LOE: Organic Law 2/2006, of 3 May, on Education. Published in the State Gazette (BOE) no. 106 on 4 May Culture •• Culture as a fundamental pillar for maximum development of citizens’ capabilities •• It includes the emotional dimension as a fundamental pillar to develop personality, beyond the cognoscitive and axiological dimension •• Autonomous Regions: linguistic plurality, interculturality and cultural diversity •• Culture-Knowledge Society Arts •• Primary Education: developing artistic sense, creativity and emotion, this latter concept was new •• The arts subjects in Secondary Education are Plastic and Visual Education, compulsory in the first 3 years and optional in the 4th year •• The Arts Baccalaureate remained •• For the first time, the Further Artistic Education Board was set up “as a State advisory and participation body in relation to this teaching.” (Article 45) LOMCE: Organic Law 8/2013, dated 9th December, to Improve Education Quality. Published in the State Gazette (BOE) no. 295 on 10 December. Also known as Wert’s Law, it was designed to modify the LODE-1985 and the LOE-2006 Culture •• This eliminated the State commitment to guarantee a place in a public school •• Culture: participative democracy •• This presents the UNESCO Organisation Standardised International Classification of Education as reference frameworks for education (that sets level CINE 3) and The Education Indicators Project from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) •• For the first time, an education law devoted a specific chapter to digital technology: digital and technological platforms for access from the whole education community (Article 111) •• For the first time, this drafted a “common reference framework for digital teaching competence.” (Article 111) Art •• Arts subjects were no longer compulsory •• Primary Education: arts education becomes an eligible subject for each Autonomous Region, at least 1 subject among 4 on offer •• Secondary Education: in 1st, 2nd and 3rd year of ESO, to be regulated by the Autonomous Region, minimum 1 maximum 4 among 9 subjects on offer (including audiovisual education and classical culture for the first time) •• Secondary Education (4th year): to be regulated by the Autonomous Region, minimum 1 maximum 4 among 12 subjects on offer (including Performing Arts and Dance for the first time, as well as the previously mentioned arts) •• Baccalaureate only includes art subjects in the Art Baccalaureate. And regarding subjects such as Music, Artistic Drawing, Performing Arts or Audiovisual Culture: “Depending on the regulation and programming of the educational offer that is set by each Education Administration”

Source: own work.

By undertaking a critical evaluation of the 1985 law refers to our country’s linguistic plu- analysis performed on this basis, we can high- rality, it only mentions it in article two, with light firstly that, in relation to the objective no further reference to its cultural plurality. data that is generated by analysing the laws, It would not be until the 1990 law when the inclusion of culture has been a matter that has question of the autonomous regions was ex- been present since the law of 1970 although plicitly developed in relation to cultural and with very different nuances, which gives us the linguistic diversity, to coincide with the trans- measure of the current situation. Although the fer of competences.

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In addition, even this law does not refer to ucation took place in the law of 1990, and we culture with a gaze looking outwards, mean- can highlight that this leap was taken because ing, education and culture as guarantors in the law is articulated within a change in the training European citizens, therefore a society education model, from the conductivist model and, with it an education system that opens up that had governed so far to a constructivist or its gaze to the outside world, that considers a participative model. changing world with important technological Consequently, once arts education had been weighting. Thereby, regarding culture in our included in the education system, from what education system, we have barely been acting educational focus can we justify its minuscule on it for a few decades, moving along very nar- presence in relation to all other subjects, its un- row side-lines, as in the previous laws all refer- defined grounding in relation to its goal and its ences to culture involved patriotic values and poorly defined hierarchy and systematisation? Spanish cultural heritage. This reached a point As professor Rubio Arostegui states, “the justifi- that, as stated in the actual law, mechanisms cation of the benefits and importance of arts ed- were set up to “overcome the residual surviv- ucation in the academic context runs in parallel ing authoritarianism in the ruling approved in to a crisis of the humanities and arts in a world 1970 and open up the education system to the tormented by neoliberal ideology.” (2016: 324) new dynamic in diverse fields” (Preamble). This helps us understand the whys and In fact, until the law of 2006, there was no wherefores of the dominant grounding of the sign of the emotional side of the person and arts in our educational laws. Although the fo- the concept of creativity as dimensions of edu- cus points that have guided arts education over cation and integral development of the person, the 20th century centred on understanding art as well as development of the artistic sense. as an aesthetic experience, or as technical or This context provides the backdrop for the procedural learning, or art as a way of knowing progression of arts education in our education about the world, there has been a predominant system’s curriculum. discourse in our education laws focussed on Consequently, based on the analysis of edu- technical training and procedures. cation laws within the history of our country’s On the other hand, there is an important democracy, we are in a position to state that deficit in terms of systematisation and hier- in over more than 40 years of democracy, arts archical organisation, regarding the discrep- education was only included as a compulsory ancies measured between cultural uses of the knowledge area with a global and integrating arts and their development as a discipline in nature for just 13 years. We say compulsory the classrooms. As stated by Aguirre and Girál- because in the 2013 law, all education in arts, dez, “We have to resolve the contradiction rep- all the subjects concerning this area, became resented by maintaining dual criteria: cultural eligible subjects for each of the education sys- and school. The cultural way, that points us to- tems in each autonomous region and therefore wards a common consideration of all subjects were pushed into the background. as art, or the disciplinary approach, that is de- Faced with this situation regarding our edu- rived from school practice and that pushes us cation system’s arts education, we might ask: towards separate subjects when designing and Which education models might explain this developing the curriculum.” (2010: 84). situation for the arts? Which education model In other words, this can be seen in the fact protects them? From a general perspective, we that the concept of arts education only in- find that the first glimpse of including arts ed-

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cludes the visual arts, plastic and audiovisual Despite the fact that according to Eurostat and music, leaving out theatre, dance and lit- data, in Spain only 15 out of every 1,000 people erature from an arts focus. In addition, these study these branches, this focus was not compiled (included) subjects, although considered in the law of 2013, when in the United States, or from an integrating focus when they were most European countries, particularly the United included as compulsory, in practice were de- Kingdom or Finland, STEM focuses had become veloped as subjects that are given separately a priority. Such is the case that in the 2014-2020 and, in many cases, given by teachers with a framework programme, the European Commis- general profile. sion budgeted more than 13 million Euros to subsidise these initiatives (Muñoz, 2015). Therefore, if we were already working from a delayed, scarce presence of arts education However, although this innovative approach in the education curriculum, in addition to a was not included in our last education law, we lack of definition in its grounding, systematisa- were left even further behind when, around tion and hierarchical organisation, the law of these same dates, a transformation began to be 2013 stepped backwards in time. And this es- shaped relating to the STEM focus, including sentially happened because this standard was the new area of ART knowledge, turning this aligned within margins described by profes- combination into STEAM (Science, Technol- sor Rubio Arostegui, “The academic discourse ogy, Engineering, Art and Mathematics). on the benefits of arts education goes against The first school to develop this initiative the neo-liberal current and the framework was the Rhode Island School of Design, and of definition by competences and results of South Korea has also developed its own model learning from the curriculum contents. Arts of STEAM education. Closer to home, on 17 education does not present quality indicators and 18 April 2015, in Barcelona, the first Inter- or standards that could be compared between national STEAM conference was held to “bring countries. On the other hand, although there to Barcelona some of the most outstanding and is scientific literature on the intrinsic (essen- best evaluated projects in the field of research, tialist) and extrinsic (contextualism) benefits, methodology and very particularly, practice re- some publications question this optimistic and lating to applications of STEM and STEAM, both justifying attitude that is adopted by many re- in Europe and in the United States”. Examples of search projects in this education and cultural these diverse activities demonstrating this rela- field (2016: 338). tionship between art and STEM subjects can be However, the aforementioned law from the scientific monologues and micro-play con- 2013 and the current neoliberal approach test “Scripts for science” run by the University might lead us to think that its goal aims to of Extremadura, or the Tinkering-zone at the promote scientific vocations, but its curricu- Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnolo- lum proposal is a long way from new scien- gia Leonardo da Vinci, in Milan (Muñoz, 2015). tific vocation focus points that are emerging Other initiatives in Spain were implement- in this first decade of the 21st century, refer- ed by EducaCaixa,2 Fundación Telefónica,3 the ring to STEM vocations (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), whose main characteristic focuses on an interdisciplinary

approach in teaching and learning processes, 2. Retrieved from: https://www.educaixa.com/microsites/ meeting points and feedback from these four steam/steam_es/recursos_aux/ subjects. 3. Retrieved from: https://www.fundaciontelefonica.com/ wp-content/uploads/2018/11/7-educacion-inspira-team-

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Canary Island Government since the 2017- This all necessarily points to a changing world, 2018 academic year; University of Oviedo to models that make a sustainable world in along with the University of Deusto to en- which culture and the arts play a central role. courage STEAM vocations in primary4 or the Basque Government.5 And among other international and research-based initiatives, III. FUTURE SCENARIOS: INCLUSION OF ARTS that also point in this direction, we find the EDUCATION FROM A TRANSDISCIPLINARY European initiative H2020 STARTS (=Science, PERSPECTIVE Technology + ARTS)6 or the American project From STEM to STEAM.7 So then, working from the education law of 2013, and aware of where we would have to go The turnaround is so obvious that the ever- according to what we mentioned earlier, we can controversial PISA report, as a reaction to the note that great commitment and consensus is re- results that we usually get, is going to introduce quired from all political parties. However, if we this focus in its next call in 2021, meaning that as can see that the master strokes of the bill for the well as maths, science and reading skills, it plans next education law in the document uploaded to include creative skills, although it has yet to on the Moncloa website, for the law that was de- determine how this will be evaluated. Perhaps, signed in 2019 by the Education Minister Celaá, it might refer to some of the few publications before the elections had to be repeated, seems that exist in relation to the influence of arts edu- that they are going in the direction of what was cation, beyond the actual field of the arts, such previously studied8 (LOMLOE), which means as Art for art’s sake? The Impact of Arts Educa- that this vital and necessary turn-around must tion published in 2014 and that shines a light on take place so we are not left behind. the five fields of the arts: theatre, music, dance, visual arts and multi-arts education (Winter, One of these significant lines of work, Goldstein, Vincent Lacrin, 2013). found among the new challenges of the Span- ish education system that this document com- Following the new COVID-19 pandemic piles: 7. Increase STEAM vocations, particu- situation, we are wondering how PISA will ap- larly among girls. proach its report. We can nevertheless demonstrate, after our experience, that the role of Although it is true that the LOMCE does not arts and culture in an exceptional period such contemplate STEM vocations, and of course as lockdown is a primary need, and that it has STEAM even less so, and in turn neither are provided our safety net. This leads us not only particularly centred on girls, so we have to to think about the transcendental importance build on this terrain together to meet this of PISA making this turn-around but even won- challenge. In addition, we want it to be noted dering from whom this evaluation of the edu- that, the primary international push for girls cation shipment should come: from a business has been and remains to encourage scientific organisation? or from education professionals? vocations (STEM), a challenge that should be included in the next law we are analysing, and subsequently also include the STEAM focus in all curricular design. So, we are beginning to premiosFT.pdf wonder if challenge 7 really refers to STEM. 4. Retrieved from: https://inspirasteam.net/conoce-el-proyecto/ 5. Retrieved from: http://steam.eus/es/haces-steam/. 6. Retrieved from: https://www.starts.eu/ 8. Retrieved from: https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/consejode 7. Retrieved from: http://stemtosteam.org/ ministros/referencias/documents/2019/refc20190215e_1.pdf

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The summary of the future challenges knowledge that is bound to scientific research raised by the new education law, that plans to and pedagogic practice”. repeal the LOMCE, is compiled in the follow- Arts education must deploy an important ing graph 1. function in education system transformation. It can provide a direct contribution to the so- Graph 1. Challenges raised by the new education lution for social and cultural problems facing law the modern world explaining why UNESCO promotes arts education in education environments (formal and non-formal) to contribute to determining a solid frame for decisions and actions that must be undertaken in this field with a view to the future in the Latin America and Caribbean region.10 As we can see, the arts as an area of transdisciplinary knowledge and as a means of knowledge fit the lines of the STEAM approaches and are therefore drivers of a change in education The reference to Agenda 2030, in relation paradigm. Furthermore, Education & Training to the education goal (number 4) out of the is taken as a reference, referring to European 17 is centred on the focus points, goals and Union cooperation in the field of education strategies and initiatives essentially leading and training (ET 2020), whose document is a to “guaranteeing an inclusive and fair quality “report that measures the progress in countries education and promoting permanent learning towards goals from the Education and Training opportunities for all”.9 strategic framework 2020 (ET 2020) for Euro- pean cooperation in these fields”.11 However, what interests us most in this study is what refers to arts education and It also mentions the G20 Leaders’ declara- therefore, beyond the goals set by the UNESCO tion Building consensus for fair and sustainable on Agenda 2030, we are interested in the con- development, whose document points to cen- clusions that were amassed at the World Con- tral references in matters of education to learn, ference on Arts Education: Building Creative lifelong learning, pedagogies and innovative 12 Capacities for the 21st century (Lisbon, 6-9 methods, and digital skills. March 2006). The UNESCO Office in Santiago. The Education Policy Outlook 2018 (pub- The website for the Regional Education Office lished by the OECD), (already in the text for for Latin America and the Caribbean summa- 2019), is a report that includes around 200 rises the lines of work and focus proposed by policies addressing education and early years the UNESCO in terms of Arts Education, “Edu- care (ECEC) to higher education and lifelong cation uses the arts and cultural practices and traditions as a means of teaching general curriculum subjects to achieve better comprehension, but it also understands art as a form of 10. Retrieved�� from: http://www.unesco.org/new/es/santiago/ culture/arts-and-arts-education/ 11. Retrieved�� from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ ES/TXT/HTML/?uri=LEGISSUM:ef0016&from=EN). 9. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ 12. ��Retrieved from: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/ pf0000245656_spa) 37247/buenos_aires_leaders_declaration.pdf)

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learning.13 And, finally, we refer to 2021 Metas years of arts education in our education laws, Educativas. La educación que queremos para la even worse after these last seven years, par- generación de los bicentenarios 14 (Educational ticularly since 2013, when the arts have just goals 2021: The education that we want for entailed one eligible arts subject for each Au- the bicentennial generation) as a text was pub- tonomous Region. After such an obvious loss lished in relation to these goals centred on arts of value for culture and the arts, not only do education entitled Educación Artística, cultu- we need laws that lay foundations but also a ra y ciudadanía (Arts education, culture and commitment to agree on a law, and use all the citizenship), coordinated by Lucina Jiménez, public and private initiative tools, to weave the Imanol Aguirre and Lucía G. Pimentel, an ini- value of culture and the arts in our present and tiative from the Organisation of Ibero-Amer- future society. ica States for Education, Science and Culture To do this, we can point to the following (OEI), working with the Santillana publishing measures, that would represent important leg- house and funded by the Ministry of Foreign islative changes and that would seek commit- Affairs and the AECID.15 ment from all autonomous regions: This text has been used as reference in this 1. Government Agreement for inclusion study, precisely because it emphasises the gaps of arts education in the education in arts education, in relation to its grounding law as an integrating, transversal and and its action goal, as well as the acute prob- transdisciplinary knowledge subject. lems related to systematisation and hierarchi- 2. Rethink and set the grounding that cal organisation of contents. This means that if justifies the presence of the arts in these guidelines, insights and road map are in the education curriculum, which in- the new law, not only will it consider the fact volves resolving divergences between that arts education is present in the education cultural uses of the arts and the dis- polices as compulsory content, but that it is ciplinary development of school also supposed that it will be opening the doors, practices, that has occurred in all from the transverse and transdisciplinary fo- education laws that included arts as a cus, to a new model and education paradigm. compulsory subject. 3. With this, go beyond the limits of the IV. CONCLUSIONS: COMMITMENTS AND approaches from education laws that PROPOSALS FROM THE EUROPEAN AND have gone before, including not only INTERNATIONAL BENCHMARK arts education subjects such as visual and plastic arts and music but also On the basis of the analysis carried out in this dance, theatre and literature. text, the relevant question is how are we going 4. Raise the inclusion of these subjects to achieve it or if we are preceded by just 13 as integrated, related subjects in convergence with cultural use of the arts. 5. Set training goals for arts education, therefore: make a clear difference be- 13. ��Retrieved from: https://www.oecd.org/education/ education-policy-outlook-2018-9789264301528-en.htm/ tween arts education and arts training https://www.oecd.org/economy/education-policy-outlook- as specialist and professional teach- 2019-2b8ad56e-en.htm ing of the arts. 14. Retrieved�� from: www.oei.es › historico › metas2021 6. Systematisation and hierarchical or- 15. ��Retrieved from: https://upvv.clavijero.edu.mx/cursos/ LEB0740/documentos/educArtCulyCiud.pdf. ganisation of its contents and, with

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that, development of its methodolo- 7. This focus connects directly with gies: Art as an aesthetic experience, the European framework and direc- as a means of knowledge or “know tives in the education field, encourag- how”? If we suggest a transdiscipli- ing STEM vocations and the STEAM nary focus, we should combine the education focus. Therefore, weaving three versions and, therefore, we a STEAM culture by means of pro- will need a change in the education grammes integrated in the schools, model. also open to all external collaboration with specialist centres.

REFERENCES

Arias Aparicio, F. and Gentile, A. (2011): Calidad y reforma de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en España. Estudios de progreso, no. 67, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas. Retrieved from: https:// www.fundacionalternativas.org/public/storage/estudios_documentos_archivos/b99819763f5f- 0b844a121f9572c4b4fe.pdf Ariño, A. (2000): Sociología de la cultura. La constitución simbólica de la sociedad, Barcelona, Ariel. Barragán Rodríguez, J. M. (1995): «Para comprender la Educación Artística en el marco de una fundamentación crítica de la educación y el currículum», Revista Universitaria de Formación del Pro- fesorado, no. 24, pp. 39-63, Murcia, Universidad de Murcia. Berengueras Pont, M. and Vera Mur, J. M. (2015): «Las leyes de educación en España en los últimos doscientos años», Supervisión 21. Revista de Educación e inspección, no. 38. Coll, C. and Porlán, R. (1998): «Alcance y perspectivas de una reforma educativa: la experiencia española», Revista Investigación en la Escuela, no. 36, Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla. De Juan, S. (2018): Formas en acción. Apuntes situados sobre la formación artística del profesorado. 2018- 2019, Madrid, Fundación Daniel y Nina Carasso. Egido Gálvez, I. (1997): «Tres reformas educativas europeas. Reino Unido, Francia y España. Aspec- tos comparativos», Revista Española de Educación Comparada, no. 3, pp. 215-245. González Medina, A. Á. (2017): «Cuarenta años de cambios educativos en España», eXtoikos, no. 20, Granada, Instituto Econospérides. Jiménez, L., Aguirre, I. and G. Pimentel, L. (coords.) (2010): Educación artística, cultura y ciudadanía. Me- tas Educativas 2021, Madrid, Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture. Retrieved from: https://upvv.clavijero.edu.mx/cursos/LEB0740/documentos/educArtCulyCiud.pdf. Marín Ibáñez, R. (2013): La reforma educativa española, Madrid, UNED. MECD/CIDE (2004): Evolución del sistema educativo español. El Sistema Educativo español, Madrid. Re- trieved from: https://uom.uib.cat/digitalAssets/202/202199_6.pdf. Muñoz, J. (2015): «STEM, STEAM… ¿pero eso qué es?». Retrieved from: http://odite.ciberespiral.org/comunidad/ODITE/recurso/stem-steam-pero-eso-que-es/58713dbd-414c-40eb-9643-5dee56f191d3. Muñoz-Repiso, M., Murillo, F. J., Valle, J. M. and García, R. (1996): Una década de reformas en la educación obligatoria de la Unión Europea (1984-1994), EURYDICE, DG XXII: Educación, Formación y Juventud, Brussels. Retrieved from: https://www.sel-gipes.com/uploads/1/2/3/3/12332890/1997_eurydice_- _a_decade_of_reforms_at_compulsory_education_inthe_european_union_level_1984-1994_sp.pdf.

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Rius Ulldemolins, J. and Rubio Aróstegui, J. A. (coords.) (2016): «Dimensiones y papel de la edu- cación artística en las políticas educativas y culturales en la España democrática: Auge de la institu- cionalización en un horizonte de crisis sistémica y financiera», Treinta años de políticas culturales en España: Participación cultural, gobernanza territorial e industrias culturales, Valencia, Universitat de València, Servei de Publicacions, pp. 321-339. Una educación para el siglo XXI. Proyecto de Ley Orgánica por la que se modifica la Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de educación (LOMLOE). Madrid. Retrieved from: https://www.lamoncloa. gob.es/consejodeministros/referencias/documents/2019/refc20190215e_1.pdf. Unesco (2016): Declaración de Incheon y Marco de Acción para la realización del Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible 4. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656_spa. Unesco (2016): Hoja de Ruta para la Educación Artística, Conferencia Mundial sobre la Educación Artís- tica: construir capacidades creativas para el siglo XXI, Lisbon, March 6-9. Retrieved from: http:// www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/CLT/pdf/Arts_Edu_RoadMap_es.pdf Winter, E., Goldstein, T. R. and Vincent Lacrin, S. (2013): Art for art’s sake?: The Impact of Arts Edu- cation, Educational Research and Innovation, OCD Publishing. Retrieved from: https://read.oecd- ilibrary.org/education/art-for-art-s-sake_9789264180789-en#page3

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Concepción Cascajosa Virino

In the current international context, analysis is run on production and distribution of audiovisual contents after the emergence of subscription video on demand (SVOD) services, in three inter-related fields. Firstly, the “two-speed” model which features Spanish cinema and the gradual intervention of SVOD services. Secondly, the explosion of serialised fiction and the prominence of these services in its production. Thirdly, Spanish audiovisual content in video on demand services will be evaluated. Finally, the impact of the COVID-19 health crisis on audiovisual production will be analysed.

Key words: Spanish cinema, serialised fiction, video on demand services, audiovisual production, audiovisual distribution.

I. INTRODUCTION: A CHANGING AUDIOVISUAL and are exploiting new ways of monetising it PANORAMA by making the most of non-existent or, in the best cases, slow regulation.1 Audiovisual systems are experienced a trans- However, regulations have been boosted formation period within the framework of within Europe. The most visible consequence digitalisation. On the one hand, traditional was the approval of the Audiovisual Media operators with a national base (public and pri- Services Directive 2018/1808. This Directive vate) are looking for ways to adapt to a new, enforces that content from audiovisual media excessively fragmented context that ques- service providers should be at least 30% Eu- tions some of the industry’s concepts (such as ropean, and these service providers should measuring audiences and traditional business models). On the other hand, new transnational technology operators, such as those known as FAANG (Facebook, Amazon, Apple, Netflix and Google), are leading the industry’s conver- 1. The�� FAANG acronym was created by the investor and economic commentator Jim Cramer to refer to the most profit- sion towards video on demand consumption able tech companies on the stock market.

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invest in European productions. In addition, gether held 97% of the subscribers to SVOD it allows Member States to impose a fee that in France, 89% in the United Kingdom, 84% in is proportional to the income level.2 However, Germany and 81% in Spain (Fontaine, 2019, while this Directive is being transposed to the p.9). This is relevant considering that SVOD full range of national legislations, its conse- international services account for barely 24% quences on production ecosystems are becom- of European films (Fontaine, 2019, p. 16). ing visible. In the case of the United Kingdom The dominance of these video on demand (whose application of the Directive remains in services in some markets has led to collabo- question once it has left the EU), the House of rations between competitors such as the case Lords warned that subscription video on de- of the alliance between the BBC and ITV for mand (SVOD) operators such as Netflix were the BritBox service in the United Kingdom or increasing their average budgets and making between RTVE, Atresmedia and Mediaset in public media less competitive in the produc- Spain for the free platform with HbbTV tech, tion field (House of Lords, 2019, p. 76). The LOVEStv. possibility that public operators might no This disruption takes place at a time when longer lead audiovisual content production is production is booming. Although VOD ser- particularly relevant in the world of TV fiction vices’ contribution might have been consid- because it provided 73% of the programmes ered marginal until 2016, with barely 1.5% of produced between 2015 and 2016 (Fontaine, the TV fiction programmes (Fontaine, 2017, 2017, p. 17). p. 23), the rate of production has accelerat- There are several aspects to confirm the ed ever since. Netflix’s strategic bid in Spain relevance of this transformation. One is the (mentioned in subsequent sections) runs in fast penetration of VOD services that were parallel to actions intended to increase its present in an average of 25% of European presence in other European markets such as homes with a broadband connection in 2017 the Nordic region, United Kingdom, Germa- (Ene, 2019, p. 17). Some estimations predict ny, France and Italy. There can be no doubt that this might reach 69% of homes in West- that this increase in production is related to ern Europe by 2023 (McDonald, 2018). This the imminent implementation of Directive growth has revolved around concentration in- 2018/1808 and Netflix’s decisive bid for mar- stead of diversity. Despite the numerous VOD kets where its margin is still growing. How- services operating in Europe, 89% of the esti- ever, the appearance of new competitors mated 6,000 million in revenue in 2018 went cannot be overlooked with the emergence of to 5 companies: Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, Disney+, HBO Max, Peacock and Apple TV+. Sky, HBO and Viaplay. Netflix’s weight in the Anticipating its arrival on markets that are market, with 51% of the revenue, is particu- showing signs of saturation, and considering larly relevant, also Amazon Prime Video with that they represent a new loss of autonomy 21% (Meier, 2019). for the national creative industries, some countries have begun to reinforce their pro- This concentration is obvious in some tectionist measures, as in the case of France markets. According to data from Ampere (Wood, 2020). Analysis, in 2018 Netflix and Amazon to- Over the following pages, we will look over the recent situation of the Spanish audiovisual 2. The complete Directive text was published in the European market, with particular emphasis on variations Union Official Journal on 28 November 2018. Retrieved from: directly related to VOD service activity. https://www.boe.es/doue/2018/303/L00069-00092.pdf

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II. SPANISH CINEMA: A QUESTIONABLE MODEL from RTVE, Atresmedia, Mediaset and Tel- efónica (94%).4 In fact, in its part of the report, Over the last few years, Spanish cinema has the Cinema and Audiovisual Arts Institute been determined by a “two speed” system (ICAA) warned of high concentration among with more commercial type productions that a small number: out of the 329 production benefit from promotion by TV operators who companies that had taken part in producing finance them and another more experimental, feature films, only 4 of them had produced five script-based type that, except in specific cases, or more films, 43 companies had taken part in has a short lifespan in the cinemas and obtains producing between two and four films and 282 scarce visibility. The distance between the two companies had produced just one feature film models has been expanding as a consequence (CNMC, 2019, p. 58). of malfunction in the two main mechanisms This “two speed” model extends to the box for promoting Spanish cinema. office: in 2019, the 20 most watched films took On the one hand, grants from the Institute 86.6% of the box office for Spanish cinema as of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts (ICAA), that a whole. The items produced by the two pri- holds two calls, one general where the “sol- vate operators with generalist chains, Atres- vency” of the production company or co-pro- media and Mediaset, tend to concentrate their ducer scores higher and one selective, aimed investment on a few items (12 and 6 respec- at artistic or social interest films, that might be tively in 2018) which they promote intensely experimental, documentary and directorial de- as they come out. These tend to be thrillers or buts, with a much lower budget. The unequal comedies and feature extremely few female investment between the two calls is clear: 35 directors: one feature film in Atresmedia and million compared to 7 in 2019.3 On the other in Mediaset in 2018 (CIMA, 2019, p.60). Re- hand, application of article 5.3 of Law 7/2010 garding its performance in the actual cinemas, determined the audiovisual communication Spanish films continue to keep a low profile, service providers’ obligation to invest 5% of with a screen share quota between the mini- the European production revenue. mum of 13.86% (in 2013) and the maximum Direct management of this obligation led to of 25.43% (in 2014, the year of The Spanish transferring the decision-making for this type Affair). In 2019, the percentage stood at 15%, of films to major television groups: in the latest more than two points below the previous years report on meeting this obligation for the Na- (see table 1). tional Markets and Competition Commission In his contribution to the Report on the (2019), out of the €44,656,000 established as state of Culture in Spain 2018, José Vicente an obligation for financing cinema produced in García Santamaría (2018, pp. 116-117) already official languages in Spain, €42,125,711 came anticipated that the arrival of video on demand services on the cinema market presented as many opportunities (such as expanding markets, particularly for independent production) 3. Information�� on the general Grants for feature film pro- as it did threats (many companies in the sector duction over 2019 projects available on: https://www. culturaydeporte.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano/catalogo/ general/20/202995/ficha/202995-2019.html (Consulted: (15/01/2020). Information on the selective Grants for feature film production over projects available on: https://www. 4. The percentage is slightly lower, 92%, when considering culturaydeporte.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano/catalogo/ the assigned spending: €69,440,015 invested by RTVE, Me- general/05/051790/ficha/051790-2019.html(Consulted: diaset, Atresmedia and Telefónica, out of the €75,306,386 (15/01/2020). invested by all state operators that have to invest.

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Table 1. Box office revenue, in million Euros

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Spectators for Spanish feature films 12.92 15.52 18.28 11.01 22.41 18.57 18.84 17.35 17.73 15.9 Spectators for foreign feature films 88.66 82.82 75.87 67.68 65.58 77.57 82.99 82.45 81.17 89.6 Total 101.6 98.34 94.16 78.69 87.99 96.14 101.83 99.8 98.9 105.5

Source: ICAA (2010-2018) and ComScore (2019).

were falling by the wayside), although the real III. THE PRODUCTION BOOST FOR SERIALISED impact was as yet unknown. FICTION The sector is still living at the will of a leg- One of the most significant transformations islative boost that helps to regulate some of the in the audiovisual market over the last few gaps in the current funding system, particular- years has been the growth in production of ly the absence of international VOD services fiction series, revolving around the arrival of in obligations to finance European content. new operators and internationalisation of con- However, these services have begun to invest tents (see graph 1). The acute crisis in the ad- in cinema. Netflix began with Siete años in vertising market from 2010 onwards affected 2016 and has subsequently explored the main production in many ways. On the one hand, formula of purchasing the exclusive interna- there was a drop in costs of around 20%, which tional distribution rights (except in markets sounded the death toll for smaller production corresponding to joint productions). It there- companies (Álvarez Monzoncillo and López fore took part in around thirty productions be- Villanueva, 2016, p. 48). One consequence was tween 2016 and 2019, with award-winning and that a model was maintained based on atomi- high grossing films such as El autor (2017), La sation and vertical concentration: only 5% of enfermedad del domingo (2018), El cuaderno de production companies (12 companies) have Sara (2018) and La trinchera infinita (2019). taken part in more than 10 fiction releases It some cases, it purchased the exclusive since 1990 (Lacalle and Sánchez-Ares, 2019, rights which meant the films did not have to be p. 6). shown in the cinemas or just for a short time to The significant reduction of fiction produc- allow them to apply for film awards. Although tion on regional channels and freezing initial it was a one-off formula after Siete años, in efforts from paying channels put fiction pro- 2019 Netflix took a significant chance on these ducers in a position where they clearly de- “Netflix originals” with quién te llevarías a ¿A pended on just three operators: TVE, Mediaset una isla desierta?, A pesar de todo, Elisa y Marce- and Atresmedia. However, since 2016, the se- la, Diecisiete and Klaus, the latter nominated rialised fiction production market has opened for the Best Animation Oscar. This strategy up significantly. One relevant factor to under- is criticised by exhibitors, who had imposed a stand this increase is that the Audiovisual Com- 16-week period between windows until then. munication Law only enforces that 60% of the For the time being, film investments by Ama- audiovisual content operators’ investment is in zon Prime Video and other services are limited cinema, and from this percentage, 60% in some and have maintained the traditional window of the official languages in Spain. The percent- for playing at cinemas. age of the total investment in Spanish cinema

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Graph 1. Chapters from new released fiction series (2015-2019)

450 395 400 334 350 300 256 244 250 229 200 150 100 50 0 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Source: own work using data compiled by the author.

has been losing ground over the years, down to (La Peste), Portocabo (Hierro), Apache Films a historical minimum of 18.81% in 2017, com- (Vergüenza), VerandaTV (Merlí: Sapere Aude), pared to 53.13% in TV series. One of the most Escándalo Films (Matar al padre), Andy Joke significant cases is Telefonica, owner of the (Arde Madrid) and Corte y confección de Movistar+ platform. According to CNMC data, películas (Vida Perfecta). Merlí: Sapere Aude in 2018, its investment in Spanish films was is the only original series that was originally 7.5 million Euros, compared to almost 72 mil- produced in Catalan (it was released in a dual lion invested in series.5 In the case of Fox, the version that included dubbing into Spanish), margin given by the law to investing in specific but many of these productions have been shot content in the case of thematic channels has and use creative teams from different Spanish led to centring investment on series and docu- regions, breaking with the traditional central- mentaries, up to 2.5 million Euros in 2018.6 In ism of serialised Spanish fiction. To exploit that period, Fox produced its first original se- its series, Movistar+ has prioritised the model ries, the third and fourth seasons of Vis a vis of releasing complete seasons as video on de- (Antena 3: 2015-2016; Fox: 2018-2019). mand, demonstrating its bid to encourage migration of consumption of this method over In its project selection, Movistar+ backed and above the linear broadcasting on its own broadening the spectrum of production com- channels (Cascajosa Virino, 2018). Finally, in panies to companies with a cinematographic 2019 Movistar+ launched an OTT (over the base or limited experience in fiction for state top) service called Movistar+ Life that can be operators, such as the case of Atípica Films contracted separately from its integrated tel- ecommunications services (see graph 2). The production strategy for Movistar+ in 5. CNMC resolution available on: https://www.cnmc.es/ original content (including nonfiction and en- sites/default/files/2823507.pdf tertainment via the #0 brand) coincided with 6. CNMC resolution available on: https://www.cnmc.es/ the arrival of international video on demand sites/default/files/2827953_2.pdf

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services in Spain in the OTT method. Netflix first release will not come until 2020), and in- has doubtlessly been the most active company stead it is taking part in projects from other in OTT, particularly after opening offices and a operators as a primary window such as the se- production centre in Madrid. As in the case of ries with Atresmedia Pequeñas coincidencias in cinematographic activity, Netflix has backed a 2018 and the Mediset fiction El pueblo in 2019. range of strategies, from taking part in projects In turn, HBO España began to produce original led by other operators (such as El Ministerio del fiction series in 2019 (only one was released Tiempo, La catedral del mar or Vivir sin permiso) that year, Foodie Love) and it has three projects to continuing to produce series after they were planned for 2020, including the adaptation of cancelled, such as Paquita Salas and La Casa de the novel Patria. Papel. It also became the first national window Traditional operators have made produc- for regional channels’ series such as La víctima tion models more flexible for their fiction, número 8 (ETB and Telemadrid) and El sabor whose audience has been deeply eroded. Con- de las margaritas (TVG), the latter is content in sequently, while they began to surrender the a co-official language. first window of exploitation to international In 2017, it released its first original series VOD services, they have also strengthened in Spain, Las chicas del cable, and its backing their offer in this field. In the case of RTVE for Spanish fiction has expanded ever since: and Atresmedia, the Playz and Floozer services from releasing 3 seasons in 2018 to 10 in 2019. respectively have been used to create content Amazon Prime Video has also begun original for youth audiences. Atresmedia has pushed production, as a service included within the Atresplayer with a low-cost subscription mode Amazon Prime subscription. The company that includes the release (before anyone else chose to produce fewer series on its own (its or exclusively) of its fiction.

Graph 2. Number of series seasons released in primary sale by type of operator

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Generalist state channels Video on demand platforms Subscription channels Total seasons

Source: own work using data compiled by the author. This includes series with episodes lasting more than 20 minutes.

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Graph 3. Use of payment platforms to see online audiovisual content (percentage of homes)

100,0% 89,3% 90,0% 77,5% 80,0% 66,3% 70,0% 62,9% 60,0% 50,0% 33,7% 37,1% 40,0% 30,0% 22,5% 20,0% 10,7% 10,0% 0,0% II-2016 II-2017 II-2018 II-2019

Not used Used

Source: own work using data from the CNMC.

IV. SPANISH CONTENT IN THE VIDEO ON or television production, as reviewed in previ- DEMAND SERVICES ous sections, but also the presence of Spanish production content in catalogues. The penetration of video on demand servic- According to data from the European Au- es commercialised in OTT form has grown diovisual Observatory, Spanish cinema only remarkably over the last few years. Before it provided 4% of the Netflix España catalogue in stopped providing data via its Home Panel, the the period between December 2017 and Janu- CNMC observed the increase in access to this ary 2018 (Nikoltchev, 2018, p. 112). This per- type of service, led by Netflix, that went from centage has grown in the last few years, but it 1.8% of users in 2016 to 12.5% two years later.7 remains low. The search for Spanish cinema in In addition, the CNMC has certified the impor- the Netflix catalogue on 15 January 2020 only tance of payment platforms for consumption offered 125 fiction and documentary films, out of audiovisual content (see graph 3). of 1,200 in total. In other words, approximately In turn, according to data from the directo- just one in ten films was classified as Spanish ry of the Media Research Association (AIMC, by the actual service. Practically all the films 2020, p. 44) 41% of individuals declared that had been released from 2009 onwards, with a they had access to OTT services (either as few exceptions, such as a Pedro Almodóvar col- customers or free of charge). This position- lection. ing of the video on demand services on the Spanish cinema seems to have a limited Spanish audiovisual scene makes it necessary presence not only in quantitative terms but to consider not only its investment in cinema also regarding the period from which the films come. In this respect, a comparison can be determined with the independent video on de- 7. Information available on: https://blog.cnmc.es/2018/ mand service, Filmin, that on the same date 11/16/panel-de-hogares-cnmc-netflix-se-cuela-en-2-millones-de-hogares-en-espana/(Consulted: 20/01/2020). in January 2020 had more than 2,000 Span-

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ish films in its catalogue (20% of the total).8 rately and as a value added product on existing The catalogue gives access to less commercial platforms, in this case Movistar+. The uncer- Spanish films which are therefore less well tainty around reopening cinemas and doubts known, but it maintains something in com- that reduced capacity could meet the fast mon with Netflix: the major of the films came pay-back model required by modern cinema’s out in the last ten years. Except for the items blockbusters led distributors to immediately mentioned, the history of Spanish cinema is postpone premieres and, in some cases, call only available on the FlixOlé video on demand them off and choose to show them exclusively service, launched in 2017 as OTT and integrat- on demand. Ofrenda a la tormenta (2020, Fer- ed in the Orange TV paid television platform nando González Molina), the third part of the since 2018. On this point, it should be high- Baztán Trilogy, cancelled its cinema release, lighted that FlixOlé is joint owner of Diname- planned for April and finally went directly to dia, whose manager Enrique Cerezo controls the Netflix catalogue at the end of July, a strat- broadcasting rights for a significant share of egy also followed by Orígenes secretos (2020, Spanish cinema heritage, over 70% according David Galán Galindo) in August. However, ser- to their own estimations (Mucha, 2015). vices that still do not have production in Spain could only follow this strategy with international releases, such as the case of Apple TV+ V. FICTION IN TIMES OF THE COVID-19 CRISIS with Greyhound (2020, Aaron Schneider) and Disney+ with Onward (2020, Dan Scanlon). The start of the COVID-19 crisis in March In turn, the Filmin video on demand service 2020 had significant repercussions on the made the most of the physical suspension of fiction industry as cinemas closed and film film festivals to reinforce alliances and become shoots ground to a halt. The losses are difficult a platform for exhibiting its content, as was to calculate, but the National Film Association the case for the D’A Film Festival Barcelona in offered an initial figure of 2,500 million Euros April. if lockdown were to continue for four months, as it finally did. This crisis marks an accelera- This situation was also exploited by the nation in the transformation of exhibition and tional video on demand services to bring re- consumption models, encouraging video on leases forwards, such as the case of the first demand services above traditional cinemato- chapter of Veneno in Atresplayer Premium graphic exhibition. According to a study by (whose shooting was interrupted by the pan- Nielsen and Dynata, the percentage of Span- demic) and the series La línea invisible, which iards who admitted to watching films and se- became the most-watched original content in ries through these services went from 53% in the history of Movistar+ according to the com- 2019 to 72% during lock-down (ABC, 2020). pany (Audiovisual 451, 2020). In fact, despite an increase in audience, traditional operators This was pushed along by the launch of did not use the lockdown period to launch Disney+ on 24 March that, like other inter- their major fiction releases, but reinforced national services, came in dual format: as an the position of their own video on demand OTT service that could be contracted sepa- service such as (Atresplayer Premium) or external services as a primary window for their content. As an example of the latter case, there 8. ��Filmin has also specifically backed co-official languages, es- is the strengthened collaboration between Me- pecially through its Filmin.CAT version, that holds more than diaset and Amazon Vídeo, that allowed the on- 2,200 films dubbed or subtitled in Catalan, and it incorpo- rates other languages such as the Basque language. demand service to release the Caronte and De-

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saparecidos series in this period. The decline ing professionals and creating platforms such of cinemas seems to be running in parallel to as the Audiovisual Associations Group on a serialised fiction on generalist channels. De- national level and the Andalusia Audiovisual spite this, lockdown arrived during an impor- Platform at a regional level. Leaving cultural tant boom in the production of series in Spain, industries out of the primary stimulus meas- as discussed in previous sections, and stopping ures and lack of support from the State govern- shooting (which could only be resumed in a ment brought about a letter of protest from 38 staggered way due to overlapping schedules) associations and the call for a “cultural switch threatened to create a bottle neck that jeopard- off” for 48 hours on the 10 and 11 April (Bar- ised the development of new projects over the ranco, 2020). In fact, regional measures were next few years. brought in earlier in places such as Madrid and Catalonia. These measures finally came Whilst all film sets were on hold, howev- in with the Royal Decree-Law 17/2020 of 5 er, initiatives emerged to develop audiovisual May, that strengthened the line of endorse- works on the lockdown experience. The fastest ments from the Reciprocal Guarantee Society to be developed was Diarios de la cuarentena, CREA and opening up specific lines of fund- which came out on 7 April, just three weeks ing for SMEs. Regarding the cinema, a line into the State of Alarm. This comprised a com- of direct subsidies was activated providing edy ensemble recorded by the actors them- 13.2 million Euros for cinemas, the tax incen- selves following remote instructions from the tives were raised slightly relating to cinema creative team. This was the most outstanding production and the requirements related to initiative from RTVE in the period as it helped obtaining aid were made more flexible. The enable the audiovisual sector, although the se- most relevant of all was exempting release in ries had a low budget and poor viewing figures. commercial cinemas to maintain ICAA assis- Despite its limited audience success, the Dia- tance. The ICAA also joined the Spanish Cin- rios de la cuarentena format was sold interna- ema and Cultural Action Academy (AC/E) to tionally. Diarios de la cuarentena was followed apply the global assistance line from Netflix by other projects with a noteworthy structure in Spain, financed with 100 million dollars and a more scripted basis, such as En casa on (Petski, 2020). The speed of Netflix’s reac- HBO España and Relatos con-fin-a-dos on Ama- tion contrasted with the lack of relevance zon Vídeo. All these series have been added to from RTVE and exemplified the way in which a particular sub-genre made up of tales created the new operators are making the most of the during the strictest weeks of lockdown, as was space left by the public powers to offer stimu- the case of the film Madrid, interior by Juan lus packages and lead the industry. In fact, in Cavestany, that was released on the El País the Ruling from the Commission for Social newspaper website on 8 May. and Economic Reconstruction of the Con- This type of experience did not help alle- gress, sent to the Plenary Session in July 2020 viate the generalised crisis in the audiovisual for approval, the references to the audiovisual creation sector. According to a study by the sector are presented as excessively indetermi- copyright management entity DAMA, only nate or generalist. As an example, a strategic 37.6% of professionals kept their job during R+D+i plan on digital culture and a Plan to At- lockdown, as 34.1% had no work and 24.3% tract and Promote Spanish Audiovisual were were on furlough (Cabrera, 2020). This au- proposed but did not determine which fields diovisual sector crisis received a delayed re- should promote these plans and which should sponse from public powers, which led to rally- be priorities.

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VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS • The presence of Spanish cinema in the catalogue of video on demand services This review of the current situation of cinema is low, and particularly concentrated on and serialised fiction in Spain can draw a series the last ten years. of conclusions: • The historical heritage of Spanish cin- • The repercussion on the Spanish cine- ema is concentrated on subscription ma box office remains at a medium-low catalogues with scarce presence on the level, depending on films supported by market such as FlixOlé. TV operators and releases by some par- Therefore, here are some possible measures ticularly relevant directors. to eliminate or alleviate some of the malfunc- • The concentration level is high regard- tions in the Spanish audiovisual model. ing the items and production companies. 1. Imminent modification of the Gen- • The investment in both Spanish cinema eral Law of Audiovisual Communica- and in independent production by the tion to adapt to Directive 2018/1808 operators who are legally obliged to do of the European Parliament and so is higher than set by the law, indicat- Council must increase the percentage ing that these operators are getting quan- required in cinematographic produc- tifiable advantages from this investment. tion in official languages (from 60% • The new video on demand services with to 70%) and in independent produc- a transnational base are not obliged to tion (from 60% to 70%). make this investment in European audi- 2. This modification should incorporate ovisual production right now. However, additional obligations in relation to pro- Netflix is making a significant invest- duction to films directed by women, di- ment both in cinema and in series. rectorial debuts and films in co-official languages, and avoid concentrating in- • Public investment in cinema with non- vestment on just a few productions (a commercial aspirations is low: the call minimum range between 10 and 15). for selective grants from the ICAA is equivalent to 20% of the general aid. 3. Modifications to the General Law of Audiovisual Communication should • A significant increase has been made in also establish a separate fee regard- production of serialised fiction over the ing this 5% of a minimum of 1% to last three years, particularly thanks to give the ICAA additional financing investments from Movistar+ and Netflix. for selective aid and other types of • Alliances between on demand services measures for promoting audiovisual and traditional operators have advan- to strengthen its diversity. tages (increase in production) but they 4. Among the type of measures that the generate doubts in aspects such as ac- ICAA might accomplish with this ad- cess to contents (the SVOD services of- ditional financing, we might mention ten keep the shows exclusive to them). support for video on demand servic- • Backing of diversity is variable: there es that offer content that is subtitled are more shoots outside Madrid, but the or dubbed into co-official languages, presence of women in creative teams restoration and digitalisation of Span- remains low. In turn, instability in pro- ish audiovisual heritage and strength- ductions limits access from profession- ening the use of Spanish cinema for als with a low socio-economic profile. audiovisual literacy.

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5. The General Law of Audiovisual Com- be strengthened during compulsory munication should incorporate inter- education. This requires curriculum national video on demand services paths set by the Ministry of Educa- under entirely equivalent conditions tion to be modified. to the rest of the operators of audio- In relation to the situation created by the visual services. COVID-19 crisis, more specific measures are 6. The RTVE Corporation must assume required to allow the Spanish audiovisual in- its leadership in the production and dustry to escape the current crisis as deftly as promotion of audiovisual content, possible. The main conclusion of the analysis incorporating specific commitments on the reaction to bringing the industry to a regarding percentages for the produc- halt conforms the slow reaction of the public tion of films and series directed and powers and the scarce relevance of RTVE in written by women, one of the priori- this period, compared to the leadership adopt- ties set in the agreement for a Pro- ed by state media in other countries. To do gressive Coalition (point 6.7). this, it is necessary to strengthen some meas- 7. In the same way, RTVE must go back ures that have already been adopted and imple- to past collaborations with the re- ment others that are explained below. gional operators to produce content in co-official languages and produce 11. Extension of support measures to cinema and television outside Madrid companies and professionals whose and in places with less audiovisual business has dropped to consider development. In this respect, we are the gradual restart of business. Fur- reminded of the role that audiovisual loughs, assistance for freelancers and production can play to coordinate the combining aid and work in temporary priorities set in the agreement for a contracts... Progressive Coalition regarding ter- 12. Determining an extraordinary provi- ritorial cohesion and support for “de- sion for RTVE in the General State serted Spain” (points 6.5 and 8.2). Budget to stimulate original produc- 8. Both RTVE and the other public oper- tion both for series and films. ators must improve the transparency 13. Urgent implementation of measures of their agreements with video on de- from the Artist’s Statute, particularly mand services, guaranteeing citizens any relating to the particular aspects access to the audiovisual contents they of the income of audiovisual profes- have produced, particularly any with sionals and their differentiated taxa- didactic and educational potential. tion. 9. Measures should be coordinated to 14. Immediate payment of aid awarded reduce instability in audiovisual pro- at all levels of the administration and duction. In particular, the appropriate strengthening the lines of cash flow, competitive fields should consider to prevent independent production prohibiting unpaid grants that restrict companies from going under. access to persons from lower-middle 15. Extension of the support programme and lower classes. for cinemas, with a particular empha- 10. In addition to boosting audiovisual lit- sis on measures to bring back audi- eracy programmes, including teach- ences and encourage diversity in its ing through Spanish cinema should programming.

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REFERENCES

ABC (2020): «La cuarentena dispara el consumo de plataformas hasta las 45,6 horas semanales», ABC, 5 April. Retrieved from: https://www.abc.es/play/television/noticias/abci-cuarentena-dispara- consumo-plataformas-hasta-456-horas-semanales-202004051827_noticia.html AIMC (2020): Marco General de los Medios en España 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.aimc.es/ a1mc-c0nt3nt/uploads/2020/01/marco2020.pdf Álvarez Monzoncillo, J. M. and López Villanueva, J. (2016): «La producción audiovisual: prome- sas a través de la crisis», in E. Bustamante (coord.), Informe sobre el estado de la cultura en España 2016. La cultura como motor del cambio, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas, pp. 43-51. AV451 (2020): «La línea invisible, un fenómeno de audiencias en Movistar+», Audiovisual 451, 11 May. Retrieved from: https://www.audiovisual451.com/la-linea-invisible-un-fenomeno-de-audiencias- en-movistar/ (Consulta: 13 de julio de 2020). Barranco, J. (2020): «Apagón cultural de 48 horas en las redes contra el ministro Rodríguez Uribes», La Van- guardia, 9 April. Retrieved from: https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20200409/48401777864/ apagon-cultural-Rodríguez-uribes-ministro-cultura.html (Consulta: 13 de julio de 2020). Cabrera, E. (2020): «El 62% de los directores y guionistas se han quedado sin actividad laboral por efecto del coronavirus», El Diario, 13 May. Retrieved from: https://www.eldiario.es/cultura/profesionales-audiovisual-drastica-laborales-coronavirus_0_1026798402.html Cascajosa Virino, C. (2018): «De la televisión de pago al vídeo bajo demanda. Análisis de la primera temporada de la estrategia de producción original de ficción de Movistar», Fonseca: Journal of Com- munication, no. 17, pp. 57-74. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.14201/fjc2018175774 CIMA (2019): Informe 2018. La representatividad de las mujeres en el sector cinematográfico. Retrieved from: https://cimamujerescineastas.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/INFORME_ANUAL_CIMA_2018.pdf Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (2019): Informe sobre el cumplimiento en el ejercicio 2017, de la obligación de financiación anticipada de la producción europea de películas cin- ematográficas, películas y series para televisión, documentales y series de animación. Retrieved from: https://www.cnmc.es/sites/default/files/2480612.pdf Ene, L. (2019): Pay AV Services in Europe. The State of Play, European Audiovisual Observatory. Re- trieved from: https://rm.coe.int/pay-av-services-in-europe/168094b6bd Fontaine, G. (2017): TV Fiction Production in the European Union, European Audiovisual Observatory. Retrieved from: https://rm.coe.int/tv-fiction-production-in-the-eu-2017/16807bb1c2 Fontaine, G. (2019): Update on VOD Markets and Catalogues, European Audiovisual Observatory, https://rm.coe.int/eurovod-berlin-feb-2019-fontaine/168092e01a García Santamaría, J. V. (2018): «El cine español en la era digital: transformaciones profundas, actuaciones escasas», in E. Bustamante (coord..), El estado de la cultura en España 2019. Cultura local, democracia, desarrollo, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas, pp. 109-119. House of Lords (Select Committee on Communications and Digital) (2019): Public Service Broadcasting: as Vital as Ever, HL Paper 16. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201919/ldse- lect/ldcomuni/16/16.pdf

Lacalle, R. and Sánchez-Ares, M. L. (2019): «Producción de ficción televisiva española a partir de la desregulación: entre la atomización de las empresas y la concentración vertical», El profesional de la información, vol. 28, no. 1. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.ene.10

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McDonald, A. (2018): «SVOD use in Western European tipped to reach 69% of homes by 2023», Digital TV Europe, 10 September. Retrieved from: https://www.digitaltveurope.com/2018/09/10/ svod-use-in-western-european-tipped-to-reach-69-of-homes-by-2023/ Meier, D. (2019): «Five streaming services dominate SVoD revenues in Europe», TVB Europe, 6 March. Retrieved from: https://www.tvbeurope.com/data-centre/five-streaming-services-dominate-svod- revenues-in-europe Mucha, M. (2015): «El amo del cine español», El Mundo, 17 May. Retrieved from: https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2015/05/17/5556ee25268e3ed7718b456f.html Nikoltchev, S. (2018): Films in VOD Catalogues. Origin, Circulation and Age, European Audiovisual Observatory. Retrieved from: https://rm.coe.int/films-in-vod-catalogues-origin-circulation-and- age-edition-2018/168094627a Petski, D. (2020): «Netflix Establishes $100 Million Coronavirus Relief Fund», Deadline Hollywood, 20 March. Retrieved from: https://deadline.com/2020/03/netflix-100-million-fund-aid-tv-film- industry-workers-coronavirus-1202888750/ Wood, C. (2020): «A new bill would force Netflix, Amazon, and other streaming services to put 25% of French revenue into funding French cinema», Business Insider, 15 January. Retrieved from: https:// www.businessinsider.com/france-seeks-25-of-revenue-from-netflix-amazon-2020-1?IR=T

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Juan Arturo Rubio Arostegui

When analysing the sector, a set of measures is considered that should herald cultural policy on the performing sector arts in the near future. Some of them have been hotly debated by the theatre sector and have not been split into themes in the previous annual reports: the legal and tax-related reorganisation of the sector, institutional coordination and the effects of globalisation on the private sector for stage exhibition. Others, such as recovering and revitalising stage heritage are necessary, given their weak presence in cultural policy and their important relationship with theatrical and musicological research.

Key words: Cultural policy, cultural management, stage heritage, globalisation, performing arts, new public management.

PREFACE: THE DRAMATIC EFFECTS OF COVID-19 framed within the different fields of sector ac- ON THE STAGE SECTOR tivity related to taxation, social security, subsidies, financing agents, public contracting - as This chapter was drafted just a few days before the multi-level State remains the main contrac- the pandemic and before the State of Alarm tor for stage exhibition and other promotion was declared in Spain in March 2020. After- measures that provide incentives for the stage wards, stage activity came to a general stand- sector - the governments’ measures have been still during this period. As lockdown measures limited and obviously they have not reached have been lifted, schedules have timidly adapt- the wide range of stage agents and sub-sectors. ed to the health measures that can only be The Darwinist effects of the crisis can still not carried out at some international summer fes- be evaluated because the theatre business has tivals (such as Granada or Merida) and some still not gone back to normal. publicly owned theatrical grounds. The question is: Is the content of the sub- Although the sector’s associations pub- sequent sections of this chapter still valid in lished a set of extraordinary measures1 in April, this new pandemic scenario? The blunt answer is yes. The priority question for the public administration obviously has to point towards ac- 1. https://academiadelasartesescenicas.es/396-documento-52- companying all the measures that are possible medidas-extraordinarias-para-las-artes-escenicas-y-la-musica/

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from the public administrations to alleviate a the performing arts sector did not change sig- new wave of fragility over the sector’s actual nificantly over the next few years. A common structural fragility. Now, in the near future, denominator for the structural deficits shared cultural policy needs to be rethought from a by the different reports and studies, domi- perspective that goes beyond the sector’s em- nated by investment policies for culture, were ployment and financial emergencies, as pub- rehabilitation and construction of the publicly lished a couple of years ago in an article in El owned stage grounds. And subsequently, set- País newspaper.2 ting up the Theatre Networks. After the investments made by all the public administrations This was the aim of the chapter before the (including the National Theatre Restoration pandemic and remains so afterwards. The Plan for the 1980s and 1990s) in concrete stage sector in particular and cultural sector and infrastructure on the whole by local gov- in general need a larger public budget, but not ernments did not turn into the dynamic that everything revolves around being assigned was intended for the stage sector: “The lack of more money as we analysed in the first decade planning for how it would work, specialised of the 21st century before the 2008 crisis (Ru- managers and appropriate management mod- bio Arostegui, Rius-Ulldemolins and Martínez els mean that it was not possible to turn a prof- Illa, 2014). it on the investments. […] the management of stage spaces has changed from an opportunity I. INTRODUCTION into a problem” (Colomer, 2016, 98). A derived problem, added to the absence The structural problems of the performing arts of control mechanisms, political intrusion, the sector have been analysed from the social sci- public theatre networks’ lack of transparency ences perspective in different reports on the and accountability demonstrated a fragmented sector. In successive chapters of the Fundación internal market where production companies Alternativas Culture Report (Rubio Arostegui, and distributors demonstrate remarkable dif- 2017 and 2015, and Alberto Fernández Tor- ficulty in planning tours of their shows around res, 2014) as well as in publications from other Spain. In this respect, we should mention the institutions. We might also mention a more erratic cultural policy at INAEM at the end of extensive report from the Academy of the the 20th century that left ownership and man- Performing Arts written by Colomer (2016) agement of the then National Theatre Network which not only provides focus and data but to finance the Association that became the also summarises many of the reports published National Network, today known as Redescena in Spain on the stage sector. through a registered grant that does not re- After the global crisis, consumption data quire any accountability, if we are to believe for the performing arts began to show some the public information available on the web- subtle improvements that still did not manage site, in the annual reports for this organisation to alleviate sudden slumps during the worst from the Ministry of Culture or on the actual years of the financial crisis for culture (Rubio National Theatre Network. Consequently, in Arostegui, Rius-Ulldemolins and Martínez Illa, the light of the public theatre networks’ cri- 2014). In this state of affairs, the diagnosis for sis, the solution did not come from INAEM in the sense of putting together a new policy intended to improve public theatre networks’ coordination but to suggest a new palliative 2. https://elpais.com/economia/2018/07/16/alternativas/ 1531743595_868811.html programme with the Federation of Municipali-

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ties and Provinces (Platea), given the sudden make up a good part of the political agenda drop in the stage market after the 2008 crisis. for the performing arts sector at the start of the second decade of the 21st century, settling The SGAE directory for 2019 shows slight on the sector’s previously analysed structural audience increases in consumption of the weaknesses. performing arts, 1.9 % in 2018 over the previous year, that is translated as a consequent increase in income of 1.5% over what was made II. THE AMATEUR-PROFESSIONAL CONCEPT in 2017. Far from pre-2008 crisis indicators in AND HOW IT FITS INTO THE LEGAL AND absolute terms, however (235 million specta- TAX-RELATED FRAMEWORK: PROPOSALS FOR tors in 2018 compared to 260 million in 2008). GREATER EFFICIENCY IN PERFORMING ARTS The concentration of the theatre offer (in Ma- MANAGEMENT drid and Catalonia, Madrid and Barcelona) has remained stable over the last few years be- One of the few interesting documents ever tween 51 and 55%, exceeding 60% (between generated by the State Council for Perform- 61 and 64% in the 2013-18 period) in both ing Arts and Music, a collegiate organisation metropolitan cities and their surrounding area. depending on the INAEM, is the publication The dance sector also made a slight recovery of “El Tercer Sector Profesional de las Artes in 2018, compared to previous years although Escénicas y de la Música” (“The Professional we are talking about figures that do not reach Tertiary Sector of Performing Arts and Mu- one million annual spectators in this year (0.90 sic”). The document analyses the historically from 2018 compared to 1.63 in 2008) and a difficult fit for agents from the stage in their greater concentration than the theatre (over relations with public administrations in Spain 60%) in large cities. This data is the conse- as they are considered to be profit-making or- quence of an uncoordinated cultural policy as ganisations to be able to apply for subsidies, mentioned throughout this report. above all in cases of independent creation and Opera presents a very similar situation to production, compared to other countries in dance with slight increases in the offer and the Europe (Portugal, France, United Kingdom) number of spectators with 0.74 million spec- with more appropriate taxation and legal flex- tators in 2018 although far from the 1.27 of ibility to match the specific features of per- 2008. Similar numbers to dance, with an even forming arts and music. greater metropolitan concentration, exceeding It specifically analyses the public adminis- 80 % although the two sectors differ widely in tration’s relations with the professional sector terms of structure and dynamics. that does not easily fit into the tertiary sector Beyond the evolution of the latest data on as it is identified with amateurism. In addition, consumption and offer and distribution and the null impact of the current Sponsorship exhibition of the Spanish performing arts Law in the theatre sector, given the restric- sector, the aim of this report is therefore not tions from the 2002 standard in the chain of to reiterate prior diagnoses, in line with data value of the performing arts (Rubio Arostegui from the market activity, as the sector’s gener- and Villarroya Planas, 2019). Regarding the al structural problems have not changed since document’s proposals, we might highlight the period prior to the global crisis. On the setting up a legal-fiscal mechanism that al- contrary, we attempt to suggest aspects and di- lows tertiary sector professionals to have the mensions that have not been split into topics same conditions as the private sector in their in previous studies and reports and that might relations with the public administrations, and

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thereby allow them to compete for subsidies, Salas Muntaner, la Vilella and the club Capitol. public contracting, the taxation regime and Others, however, such as the Teatro Tantaran- working conditions. The effect of implanting tana have been bought up by the City Council this mechanism would provide a better fit for to safeguard its feasibility and cultural mis- the social function of actors and choreogra- sion, adding it to the creation factory project. phers from independent companies and their This theatre also receives public funding from artisanal nature with the mercantile dimension the Ministry of Culture and the Generalitat de depending on public subsidies. Cataluña. In any case, it seems that the sustainability of the theatre buildings in the major metropolitan cities also requires coordinated III. THE THEATRE BUSINESS SECTOR CRISIS IN policy between the public, private and tertiary MAJOR CITIES: THE CASE OF BARCELONA AS sectors to fight real estate speculation.3 AN EFFECT OF GLOBALISATION

As mentioned by Walliser and Sorando (2019), IV. END OF THE CULTURAL POLITICS CYCLE IN the effects of globalisation in cities refers to THE DANCE SECTOR gentrification, touristification and financiali- zation. These global phenomena not only af- Despite the fact that European cultural poli- fect citizens’ daily life and their conditions for cies since the mid-20th century have been mobility, the environment and income capa- supported in their offer (Menger, 2016) and bility to pay for their homes, but it also ends in their attempt to provide an appropriate en- up affecting the actual infrastructure of the vironment to commercialise culture in failing theatre system. In the case of Barcelona, in late market conditions in the case of the perform- 2019 and the beginning of this year, the me- ing arts (Baumol & Bowen 1966), this policy dia warned that historical private sector stages presents symptoms of non-sustainability and might have to close or were inactive as a conse- running out of steam, particularly since the quence of the effects of globalisation. Different media emphasise the difficulty to address the complex local phenomena of globalisation from local governance that, un- 3. The City Council will sign the operation for 1.3 million Euros and run a public call to manage it. La Vanguardia. til recently, did not affect major cultural capi- Retrieved from: https://www.lavanguardia.com/local/bar- tals (Charle, 2009). Real estate speculation is celona/20170111/413253952486/barcelona-compra-el- cornering the private business sector in the teatro-tantarantana-por-13-millones-para-salvar-su-viabili- dad.html city centre, despite uncoordinated efforts by “Cal un canvi de model: L’especulació immobiliària arracona local government, the non-profitmaking and els projectes teatrals privats i obliga a fer un canvi de model business sector and the Generalitat (Catalan per mantenir oberts finestres a la creació i exhibició a Barce- lona”, Diari El punt avui. Retrieved from: http://www.elpun- Government). In this respect, the Antic Tea- tavui.cat/cultura/article/19-cultura/1740797-cal-un-canvi- tre has become a paradigm of the contradic- de-model.html tions of a weak cultural policy (El punt Avui, “El cierre de un mítico teatro de Barcelona incendia las redes: 17/2/2020) in which public administration ‘Vomitivo’”, El Nacional.cat. Retrieved from: https://www. elnacional.cat/enblau/es/viral/club-capitol-teatro-cierre- has invested €519,000 over the last few years incendia-redes_451155_102.html to use this building as a theatre, without cur- “La gentrificació ataca els teatres de Barcelona: El tancament rently clarifying whether this renovation is go- del Club Capitol i La Vilella alerta de la desaparició de sales al centre de la ciutat”, Ara.cat. Disponible en: https://m.ara. ing to have a cultural use in the near future. cat/cultura/gentrificacio-ataca-teatres-barcelona-club-cap- Similar cases with sustainability problems are itol-la-vilella-tancament_0_2366163578.amp.html?__twit- ter_impression=true

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culture funding crisis (Rubio Arostegui, Rius- change cycle. The closure of Victor Ullate’s Ulldemolins and Martínez-Illa, 2014). If we companies in late 2019, with a registered grant compare the support and public funding on from the Government of the Madrid Region the offer side of the choreographic field with and one-off subsidies from INAEM on one classical music or public production for state- hand, and Ananda Dansa, a company based in owned or regional theatres and some of the the Valencian Community more focussed on large theatres owned by towns, data shows a modern dance, with a smaller company format convincing weakness in the dance sector. than the former example, on the other, represent highly relevant losses of the choreography Consequently, on the one hand while the capital built up over the last four decades.4 Spanish Association of Symphony Orchestras (AEOS), that groups together thirty five Span- However, this critical situation not only ish symphony orchestras spread all over the affects creation in the Spanish choreography country, in thirteen autonomous regions, of- field but also distribution in public theatre net- fers a panorama with some national equilibri- works and festivals that have given structure to um in the classical music offer and on the other dissemination of Spanish dance in the demo- hand, in the field of theatre, there is a greater cratic period. Dance month or El mes de Danza offer from the regional and local administra- in Seville thereby also recently announced its tions, the actual INAEM and the dynamism of closure at the 2020 edition after 26 years of the private theatre sector, the Spanish dance continuous offer, because it had become im- sector offer has not managed to find its footing possible to manage. As the press remarked: particularly when compared to the panorama “The context’s financial suffocation, due to of the offer of companies in France, Great Brit- non-payments from the Administrations - led ain and Germany. by Seville City Council, the Andalusia regional government and the Ministry of Culture - has However, it is paradoxical that as a conse- led its management to throw in the towel af- quence of the lack of coordination between ter taking too many “unacceptable” economic cultural and educational policies and the nec- risks”.5 essary public coordination, dance has had a greater boost in the regional funding of edu- The cultural policy for dance needs a whole cational policy, through professional and ad- new approach from offer and demand, coor- vanced artistic teaching. Regional governments have mainly deployed dance conservatories’ offer, assigning an important part of the sector’s economic resources to regulated training 4. “Víctor Ullate echa el cierre a su compañía después de tres (Rubio Arostegui 2016). This leads directly to décadas”, El País. Retrieved from: https://elpais.com/cul- the situation where there is an increase in pro- tura/2019/10/02/actualidad/1570021950_250495.html “Ananda Dansa closes with a dance against sexist violence: The fessionals ready to begin a professional career modern dance company from Valencia closes its doors after in the world of dance, and the consequent bot- 38 years” (“Ananda Dansa echa el cierre con un baile contra la tleneck for Spanish dancers to be able to de- violencia machista: La compañía valenciana de danza contem- poránea se despide 38 años después de su creación”), El País. velop as Spain cannot offer them stable dance Retrieved from: https://elpais.com/cultura/2020/01/15/ companies in their different styles. actualidad/1579110226_806418.html 5. “El�� festival Mes de Danza se frena en Sevilla tras 26 edi- Despite the offer’s weak bases underpin- ciones por el impago de las Administraciones” (“The Dance ning the dance sector since democracy was re- Month festival comes to a halt in Seville after 26 editions due covered, the cultural policy in this field shows to non-payment by the Administrations”). El País. Retrieved signs of running out of steam and the need to from: https://elpais.com/cultura/2020/02/06/actualidad/ 1580984803_546247.html

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dinating all the public players, because this into heritage reached civil society and a set of represents the present and future sustain- players who reinterpreted and redefined the ability of this art with which so many people notion of heritage itself, who go further than around the world identify our country. One the experts, the academics and the actual pub- of the key points is to bring sustainability to lic culture institutions. Consequently, some the high costs of the professional and senior national cultural policies on artistic heritage, conservatories with a territorial approach that such as in the case of Canada, have been re- is congruent with the offer and, in turn, with designed from an enquiry sent out to citizens companies that have the sufficient economic- as a survey. As mentioned by Ariño (2009), financial solvency to be able to carry out their cultural heritage has passed from a definition productions and their distribution. Or to put it of uniformity that appears in modernity (as crudely, there are too many dance conservato- top-down logic), to the heterogeneity of defi- ries, and not enough stable companies where nitions and uses in complex societies today, dancers can work properly. above all in its pragmatic aspect (on the uses and subjects) and its financial sustainability.

V. A STATE POLICY ON STAGE-MUSICAL We can see this in the latest European Eu- HERITAGE. THE ZARZUELA THEATRE ZARZA robarometer from 2017 (Special Eurobarom- PROJECT eter 466, Cultural Heritage). It is true that a majority of European citizens (84 %) generally think that cultural heritage is important 1. The need for a policy on theatrical-musical both personally and at a community level in heritage their respective cities, regions or countries, although there are differences between the One of the main directions taken by cultural different heritage sectors. The European sur- policies that emerged in Europe in the mid-20th vey thereby demonstrated greater participa- century is protection and appreciation of cul- tion from Europeans in visits to museums or tural heritage. Although the State has expressed monuments than attending music, opera or its interest in historical-artistic heritage ever dance concerts characterised as traditional or since the Enlightenment, it is through institu- belonging to stage-musical heritage (43% com- tionalising the first national museums, publica- pared to 61%). tion of legal rulings and creation and regulation In the case of musical heritage, it is para- of professions with expertise in art conserva- doxical to observe how in southern European tion and of part of academia (art historians) countries, where people significantly value when the foundations were laid to determine a their architectural and archaeological heritage cultural policy that appreciates artistic heritage. more than the European average, and its link In the case of southern European countries with the economic and tourism dimension, that have devised their own cultural policy this value is not correlated with appreciation model (Rubio Arostegui, Rius-Ulldemolins, and participation in stage-musical heritage. So, 2020, 2020; Rius-Ulldemolins, Pizzi and Ru- some countries such as Sweden stand out for bio Arostegui, 2019), public administration their participation - defined as attending mu- spending on cultural heritage is one of the sic-stage concerts at least once a year, far above most characteristic and measured aspects, spe- southern countries that have very low indica- cifically regarding its sustainability and reach. tors (14% in Greece, 19% in Portugal and 27% Back in post-modern societies, turning culture for Spain, in all cases below the EU-28 aver-

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age of 35). Furthermore, the European survey that, although its functions include the “inven- makes it possible to measure Europeans’ atti- tory”, cataloguing and dissemination of the tude to cultural heritage public funding: most music and stage heritage” (INAEM, 2018, 4) Europeans believe that public administrations throughout its history it has not maintained a (including the actual EU) should assign more substantial consistent policy to carry out this resources to conservation and enhancement of entrusted function. European cultural heritage, particularly Spain with 81%, above the EU-28 average. 2. The Zarza Project from the Zarzuela Theatre Therefore, we can see that cultural policies on heritage have been democratising, widen- However, paradoxically, it is a centre that de- ing their social horizon, reaching as far as ac- pending on the INAEM, the Zarzuela Theatre, tual individual attitudes and becoming more that we wish to mention for its work in recov- complex among players in civil society in their ering and restoring the value of Spanish lyrical different dimensions. However, in the case heritage. The Zarza Project aims to encourage of Spanish stage-musical heritage, data shows youth audiences for the Spanish lyrical genre that there is room for improvement in partici- through production, distribution and exhibi- pation and consumption. In this respect, Spain tion of a set of works from Spanish lyrical her- a substantial policy on theatrical-musical heritage performed by musicians, singers, theatre itage where not only people implicated in the directors and young stage designers. The pro- artistic field should be represented in design ject that began in the 16/17 season puts on and formulation but also people from academ- a production adapted to the youth audience ia: research and appreciation of stage -musi- every year that is presented in the Zarzuela cal heritage needs research in humanities and Theatre, although some productions began to social sciences. There are currently European, tour other theatres outside the capital (Seville, national and regional research projects led by Aviles, among others). In addition to the lyri- research groups with recognised prestige.6 cal production, this project stands out for the quality of the educational aspect, providing a One of the players that is necessarily im- Teacher’s Guide.7 Participation from schools is plicated in the design of a heritage policy for very high and the project is well received. The the stage-music sector should be the INAEM project is a personal pet project for the Zarzue- la Theatre director, Daniel Bianco. Diluting the offer in Madrid and reaching 6. In the Madrid Region, in the autonomous region’s latest call more theatres throughout Spain working with for research groups projects, two projects from around twen- other public theatres is perhaps the only way ty were funded with the aim of recovering and restoring value to lyric and stage heritage: Cartografía digital, conservación possible for Zarzuela to renew its audiences as y difusión del patrimonio teatral del Madrid contemporáneo necessary and it should address the project in (Digital mapping, conservation and dissemination of the the- the near future. It is true to say that this is the atrical heritage of Contemporary Madrid), coordinated by Julio Vélez Sainz (UCM) and Espacios, Géneros y Públicos de only INAEM production unit that has a project la Música en Madrid (ss. XVII-XX), (Spaces, Genres and Audi- of these dimensions regarding its artistic and ences for Music in Madrid [17th to 20th centuries]) coordi- didactic quality and participation from new nated by Alvaro Torrente Sánchez Guisande (ICCMU). OR- DER 66/2019, of 12 December, from the Board of Science, audiences, in this case in the lyrical genre. Universities and Innovation, settling the call for funding to carry out R+D activity programmes among research groups from the Madrid Region in Social Sciences and Humanities, jointly financed with the European Social Fund. BOCM No. 7. http://teatrodelazarzuela.mcu.es/es/proyectos-didacticos/ 302 20/12/2019, p. 97. proyecto-zarza/

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VI. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY same conditions as the private sector OF PROPOSALS in how they relate to public administrations, and thereby allow them to We are going to summarise a set of proposals compete for grants, public contract- as a consequence of the sector’s data and evo- ing, the taxation regime and working lution plus the analysis from this report and conditions. The continuity of inde- previous studies: pendent companies from allocation 1. A new approach to the INAEM func- to the private sector is unsustainable, tional and organic coordination poli- given the artisanal nature of the per- cy given the deficiencies in the public forming arts. theatre networks. Activation of the 3. Determine coordination mechanisms Law of the National Institute of the to safeguard theatre buildings in met- Performing Arts and Music, a prior- ropolitan cities against the effects of ity for 2020, according to the socialist globalisation and property specula- government, has still not been dis- tion, as we discussed using the case seminated. However, given the agents study of the city of Barcelona. who have been working on the new 4. Reformulate a new policy from the law, it is difficult to think that this is offer and from the training of dance an important reform that addressed professionals in the terms analysed multi-level public coordination at in all public administrations working both organic and functional level. In together and taking into account the this respect, as we suggested in the mechanism for professional qualifica- text, this requires accountability and tions from the non-profit-making sec- greater transparency for the results tor. Dance needs to reformulate its pol- from the national and regional thea- icies and reallocate public investment. tre networks. The fact that the mis- 5. Implant a comprehensive policy sion for these networks has not been to recover and restore the value of completed makes it necessary to stage-music heritage beyond indi- evaluate its performance and account vidual proposals from public theatres for the public funding that they reworking with cultural administrators ceive. From the New Public Manage- and the academic and research field. ment focus, it is not sustainable that Some actions such as the Zarza Pro- INAEM’s annual registered grant to ject show that it is possible to com- the National Theatre Network is not bine youth participation, recovery of paired up with an evaluation of the Spanish musical heritage and peda- mission performance and this asso- gogic best practices, all necessary to ciation’s goals. create new audiences and new forms 2. Create a legal-fiscal mechanism that of binding us to the Spanish stage- gives tertiary sector professionals the music heritage.

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Ariño Villarroya, A.: «La patrimonialización de la cultura y sus paradojas», in G. Gatti Casal del Rey, I. Martínez de Albeniz Ezpeleta y B. Tejerina Montaña, Tecnología, cultura experta e identidad en la sociedad del conocimiento, pp. 131-156. Asociación Española de Orquestas Sinfónicas (AEOS). Retrieved from: http://www.aeos.es/asociados/ Baumol, W. J. and Bowen, W. G. (1966): Performing arts: The economic dilema; A study of problems common to theater, opera, music and dance, Cambridge MA, MIT. Bonnin Arias, P. and Rubio Arostegui, J. A. (2019): «Vocación y precariedad laboral en la profesión de la danza en España», AusArt, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 105-114. Charle, C. (dir.) (2009): Le temps des capitales culturelles XVIIIe-XXe siècles, Seyssel, Champ Vallon. Colomer, J. (2016): Estudio de las artes Escénicas en España, Academia de las Artes Escénicas de España. Retrieved from: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1TWO6ryYK01PlLubWOzA-865vvZu0LDQx/view European Comissión (2017): Special eurobarometer 466, Cultural Heritage. Retrieved from: https:// data.europa.eu/euodp/en/data/dataset/S2150_88_1_466_ENG INAEM (2009): Plan General de la Danza 2010-2014, Approved in the State Dance Forum (Tenerife, 2-3 November). Retrieved from: www.cioff.es/documentos/descargas/6-Plan%20Danza%20Inaem.pdf INAEM (2018): Memoria anual 2018. Retrieved from: http://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/ jcr:ce9f22f7-c35a-4874-92ba-5643384f46f1/memoria-anual-2018.pdf Menger, P. M. (2016): «Art, politització i acció pública», Debats, vol. 130, no. 2, pp. 73-98. Moraga Guerrero, E. (2018): Propuestas para la mejora de la Red de Teatros de la Comunidad de Madrid y de la situación de la danza en la Red, Asociación Emprendo Danza. Retrieved from: http://emprendodanza.feced.org/wpcontent/uploads/sites/8/2018/10/Informe_Red_Teatros_Eva_Mora- ga_EmprendoDanza.pdf Moraga Guerrero, E. (2019): El Tercer Sector Profesional de las Artes Escénicas y de la Música, Grupo de Trabajo del Tercer Sector Profesional, Consejo Estatal de las Artes Escénicas y de la Música. INAEM. Retrieved from: https://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/dam/jcr:ef907eb9-bb9f-49be-a99a- a046b58bf391/tercer-sector-profesional-artes-escenicas-musica.pdf Rius-Ulldemolins, J., Pizzi, A. y Rubio Arostegui, J. A. (2019): «European models of cultural policy: towards European convergence in public spending and cultural participation?», Journal of European Integration, vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 1045-1067. Rubio Arostegui, J. A. (2016): «Dimensiones y papel de la educación artística en las políticas educativas y culturales en la España democrática», in J. Rius Ulldemolins y J. A. Rubio Arostegui (eds.), Treinta años de políticas culturales en España, Valencia, Universitat de Valéncia, pp. 321-339. Rubio Arostegui, J. A. and Villarroya Planas, A. (2019): El papel del mecenazgo en la política cultural española. Propuestas para reconfigurar su papel en la crisis en las artes y la industria cultura, Fun- dación Alternativas and Ministry of Culture. Retrieved from: https://www.fundacionalternativas. org/las-publicaciones/informes/el-papel-del-mecenazgo-en-la-politica-cultural-espanola-propuestas-para-reconfigurar-su-papel-en-la-crisis-en-las-artes-y-la-industria-cultural Rubio Arostegui, J. A., Rius-Ulldemolins, J. and Martínez Illa, S. (2014): El modelo español de financiación de las artes y la cultura en el contexto europeo: Crisis económica, cambio institucional, gobernanza y valor público de la cultura y la política cultural, Madrid, Fundación Alternativas. Retrieved

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from: www.fundacionalternativas.org/public/storage/cultura_documentos_archivos/3c1678b9d1220 0244b199cde7bbbc27a.pdf Rubio-Arostegui, J. A. and Rius-Ulldemolins, J. (2020): «Las políticas culturales en el sur de Europa tras la crisis global: su impacto en la participación cultural», Revista Española de Sociología, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 33-48. Rubio Arostegui, J. A. and Rius-Ulldemolins J. (2020): «Cultural policies in the South of Europe after the global economic crisis: is there a Southern model within the framework of European convergence?», International Journal of Cultural Policy, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 16-30. SGAE (2019). Anuario SGAE de las artes escénicas, musicales y audiovisuales: Retrieved from: http:// www.anuariossgae.com/anuario2019/home.html Teatro de la Zarzuela (2020): Proyecto Zarza. Retrieved from: http://teatrodelazarzuela.mcu.es/es/ proyectos-didacticos/proyecto-zarza/ Walliser, A. and Sorando, D. (2019): «Las ciudades en España y el impacto de la globalización sobre los sistemas urbanos», in A. Blanco, A. Chueca, J. A. López-Ruiz y S. Mora, (coords.), Catedra José María Martín Patino de la Cultura del Encuentro, Madrid, Universidad Pontificia Comillas, pp. 227-269.

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Patricia Corredor Lanas

INTRODUCTION: FROM THE NEW COALITION of the end for Rodríguez Zapatero’s Govern- GOVERNMENT TO POST COVID-19 “NORMAL” ment. Its data thereby reflects the final stage of an entire decade of unyielding economic and Our seventh periodic Survey among Span- political upheaval but also technological com- ish cultural agents was about to be published motion in the cultural world, portrayed in the in the Report on the State of Culture in Spain seven Reports published so far. 2020, produced by the Fundación Alternativas However, the tough consequences of this Culture and Communication Observatory. On pandemic on the economy in general and on the Foundation website, we even announced culture in particular logically require an update its public presentation to the media in March regarding the outlook from cultural agents, at the Instituto Cervantes that, unfortunately, who have experienced how the fragility caused had to be called off, just like many other cul- and maintained by austerity policies has been tural activities, when the state of alarm was badly affected by shutting down social activi- declared. ties, particularly any taking place in public and By reworking this edition, we have made an collective spaces, but in general, all cultural ac- effort to update it, put it into the context of the tivities, their financing and sustainability, and new, unusual circumstances of this COVID-19 particularly SMEs, self-employed workers and pandemic that we are living through and, creators (and the world of technicians, indus- above all, discuss how we can weigh up its ef- tries and auxiliary workers in the background fects so far. who keep it going). Along this line, we think that the results of Consequently, we have drawn up a simple the completed Survey remain entirely valid, as questionnaire to complement the previous they offer a snapshot of the start of the year one, in an attempt to discern between the sup- concerning the awareness and opinion of the port measures already announced or imple- 96 Spanish cultural agents from seven sectors mented not only by the Central Government, at that time, as a new Government had just but also by the regional administrations; and been formed, arousing inevitable expectation. suggest the most necessary instruments and Furthermore, these results have the added val- goals for an imminent action plan to reinstate ue of a ten-year comparison with results from the cultural sector. It intends to add the voice our first survey (late 2010 and early 2011) as of Spanish culture’s main players to the design the financial crisis developed, the beginning and implementation of these new public poli-

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cies who can only be successful if they take yet reiterated failing grades in four successive part. So that this new survey might comple- reports, not only is last year’s pass confirmed ment the previous one, we sent it to the same but increased to exactly match the average ini- sample as the survey run in early 2020. Out of tial score from 2011, taken in the final stage of the 96 people who answered the initial ques- Rodríguez Zapatero’s Government. tionnaire, 52 have also filled in the new survey. In last year’s edition, after the success of the The COVID-19 and Culture Survey contains motion of no confidence on 1st June 2018, the two short sections, with nineteen questions in cultural atmosphere reflected that agents had total: the first on the aid measures adopted: the regained considerable confidence in the light levels of the state administration and the ad- of aspects such as reinstating the Ministry of aptation and sufficiency of their decisions, the Culture, parliament’s unanimous support for effectiveness of their instruments; the second creators’ rights or reinstating lower VAT for section looks at the general outlines of the Plan culture referring to the main off-line cultural to Relaunch Culture, to weigh up the impor- activities. Although this faith was substantially tance given to each of the support tools for the limited by political uncertainty, confirmed by immediate future. In both sections, the score freezing the new budget (and its consequent must be given on a scale from 1 (completely failure to increase state cultural spending by disagree) to 10 (completely agree). The ques- almost ten percent) and the subsequent disso- tionnaire was common for all cultural activi- lution of parliament. ties and therefore gives a comprehensive view After the tumultuous political period of of Culture, although it is understood that each 2019, from the general elections on 28th April respondent answered the survey from their to repeated elections on 10th November, to the own specific experiences depending on their complex process of forming the new Govern- professional tasks and specialisations. ment and the success of investiture, our survey among around one hundred cultural agents, CULTURAL AGENTS’ ASSESSMENT. FIRST representatives from its major business sectors QUARTER 2020: APPROVAL WITH A LITTLE and its diverse professional roles, at least had HOPE to reflect this difficult balance between hope regarding greater public attention for culture and an improvement of its general diagnosis EXECUTIVE SUMMARY and the inevitable weaknesses and difficulties presented by the new government. The seventh survey that we sent to Spanish cultural agents, making a considerable effort Average score for Culture in Spain: 5.1 to increase representation from professional Although the general average score for and civic associations in this field, has given an Spanish culture never dropped below 4.4 even overall pass with a score that was 0.1 higher in the worst days of the recession, despite the than in 2019, a very modest plus that neverthe- collapse of public and private culture spend- less signifies that there is still hope, growing ing, this prudence among cultural agents is also slightly, for the situation of Spanish culture. expressed at times of optimism, that was cor- After almost one decade of cultural economic rect in 2011 in terms of moderating any past depression caused by the great recession but euphoria, foreseeing the imminent collapse on also and especially due to governments’ apathy the horizon. Now, in a renewed atmosphere of to invest in culture, reflected in variable and hope in the light of economic recovery and of-

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ficial promises by the two coalition parties for to gauge the agents’ opinion on two vital and a renewed public cultural policy, many ques- complementary aspects: the situation and im- tions have also been raised around approving age of Spain’s international cultural action. The the budget, on increased state spending on results undeniably call for a need to rethink, culture in an always unfair fight against defi- update, relaunch this multiple action, because cit pressure and on the duration and actual it addresses diverse cultures and languages but stability of the coalition government. From also different agents and petitions, from pub- there, closing this cycle, lasting almost a dec- lic to private, mercantile to the tertiary sector, ade, brings relatively good news between the and different although complementary aims: restrained hope at the start of the 2010 decade external projection for prestige or trade, co- and the tempered eagerness of the end of the operation with other strong or weak cultures, decade (see Graph 1). spiritual supplement for political diplomacy, forming closer ties with societies and creativi- Current issues ties, strengthening diversity elsewhere and en- riching our own. Although proclamations from the petitions, as- In this way, the survey respondents give a sociations and cultural events (even the Goya poor score of 4.2 on average to “the clear and awards ceremony despite its extreme political coherent strategy” from Spain’s cultural action prudence in 2020) have urged the State to re- abroad, which might be understood as a value cover its essential role in promoting and pro- judgement on the scars left by the crisis on our jecting cultural activities, in this context most international cultural action, both public and media specifically state the extreme urgency to private; but also as a consideration that these relaunch–renew–cultural action abroad. This strategies are out-of-sync with this last dec- ICE 2020 has taken on this concern as a central ade’s international political changes and cul- theme for its insights. ture’s remarkable transformation over those Consequently, our survey included two years. questions relating to this vibrant universe of However, the score is much lower for the topics and concerns, logically summarised in practical results in terms of the global mental apparently basic questions although intended image of that external cultural action, with a

Graph 1. Evolution of the score for the state of culture in Spain 2011-2020

5.1 5.1 5 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Year 2011 2013 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 Score 5.1 4.5 4.6 4.4 4.7 5 5.1

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score of just 3.8 when assessing whether it is tion, also penalised by the crisis and that now “in line with its wealth and diversity” when re- seems to benefit not only the relative recov- ferring to Spanish culture. Because this clear ery of advertising but particularly, according failure would not only affect governmental to the press, of the emergence of internation- policies at all levels of the Spanish state but al and national payment platforms. So then, also export and circulation of our cultural the world of culture’s opinion leaves us in no goods and services in every way. doubt that the general assessment is positive, by scoring it with 5.5, although it does not cel- External cultural action ebrate in the same way with the corresponding chapter of our report on this topic that looks at Question 55 these processes with greater nuances, as they Spain’s Cultural Action abroad has a clear and differ widely between film and TV fiction, and 4.2 coherent strategy weighs up their pros and cons. Question 56 Spanish audiovisual fiction Spain’s cultural image abroad matches its wealth and 3.8 diversity Question 58

The third current issue links in here with Spanish audiovisual fiction is benefiting from the new competitive multiplatform and multimedia 5.5 an essential topic that we have addressed from climate different perspectives in our reports, dedicat- ing a specific chapter to it in this ICE report: general arts and cultural education for young Spanish people, that not only affects the quan- SCORES tity and quality of our future creators but also training the future audiences of our cultural By activity spheres: improvements to production/ production. The average evaluation is very editing and public policies poor for this question, scoring 4.1 for its effect on “the social evaluation of culture”, a result Creation and consumption of culture maintains that can be related not only to cultural con- its primacy in the scores per cultural sphere sumption and spending but also to how much and the scores are equally good for the dis- creators are paid. tribution/commercialisation although higher for production/editing, reflecting greater eco- Cultural education nomic optimism. There is also a significant increase in esteem for public policies that almost Question 57 pass muster, while the worst scored activity remains external projection and cultural co- Our young people’s arts and cultural education operation that, while improving by 0.3, clearly 4.1 contributes to the social evaluation of culture still fails to make the grade.

By sector: videogames jump into first position Finally, we quizzed our survey partici- pants on a cultural and media matter that has The score by sector ranking was turned on its been brought intensely to the fore in recently head in 2020, as videogames’ previous healthy times: the relaunch of Spanish audiovisual fic- pace really took off, grabbing top spot from

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advertising creativity and design that dropped mouth” among users (6.9), increase authors’ to second. This is followed in third place by creativity (6.7) and guarantee pluralism of Visual Arts and, in fourth place, the music and creation and voices available to users (5.8). the record industry that goes up from fifth to However, enthusiasm clearly drops due to the fourth place (from 4.7 to 5). automatic effects of technologies and digital networks with regard to previous results. The Performing Arts now stand in fifth place while the book and library sector that On the other hand, another six top scores shared the same score and position with mu- are related to the diversity available for crea- sic in 2019, drops down the ranking to sixth. tors and users, taking for granted some social The most worrying case revolves around the parameters where intervention of devices and cinema and audiovisual production, that stood digital networks might also be presumed, fourth in 2019 and has now dropped to seventh and last position. + – By professional role: administrators impose greater Out of the 10 top scores, Out of the 10 worst scores, optimism 4 refer to ICT and 6 to 6 allude to external cultural Spanish cultural diversity. projection and 3 to creators’ Once again, administrators express greater op- salaries timism in their answers and improve their average scores, up to 5.6 for 2020, well above the general average. On the other hand, creators Out of the 10 worst scores, six continue are usually the most pessimistic and, on this to accumulate on the external projection of occasion, they are clinging to the poor average Spanish culture, either in terms of coopera- culture score they received in 2019, 0.5 below tion and exchange or export and international the general average score. Finally, experts and presence. This low score for the presence of critics are generally loyal to the balance be- our culture, and its relative drop on previous tween the former roles. years, complemented and confirmed by the aforementioned two current issues, provides a serious basis to consider the central topic of Maximum and minimum scores: ICT and diversity this ICE on Spain’s cultural action abroad. Fur- versus external cultural projection thermore, it marks the urgency to formulate The top ten scores are maintained, like every and implement a powerful new strategy for year, concentrated on questions regarding the the future. effect and potential of new digital networks, as well as the constancy of pluralism and creativ- I. INTRODUCTION. SEVENTH SURVEY AMONG ity of Spanish culture towards its audiences, CULTURAL AGENTS almost in equal parts. Specifically, four of the top scores refer to Our seventh survey sent out to around one the direct effect of ICT on creativity or con- hundred Spanish cultural agents for the pur- sumption of culture, with the highest scores pose that drove us to start the first edition of of the survey, although fewer of them (seven the Report on Spanish Culture almost a dec- out of ten in 2019): the new networks allow ade ago: testing the opinions and evaluations creators to connect better with their audiences regarding the cultural atmosphere in Spain (a strong score of 7.5), strengthen “word of regarding the situation and evolution of the

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state of these activities, as a counterpoint to Consequently, our survey also rotates and the usual surveys on purchasing and consump- combines its goals to demonstrate and repre- tion of cultural goods and services (sometimes sent the complex universe of Spanish culture, mixed up with each other). Far from any cor- which translates into a sustained effort to ad- porativist vision (culture for creators), we dress the maximum gender balance possible worked from the basis that their experience due to its inherited numerical shortfalls, adding and knowledge was vital for our culture’s strat- this requirement to all the rest and maintain- egies and progress, and they unyieldingly con- ing focus on SMEs and large business groups tribute to shaping them. Consequently, these or on balancing out city centres and the out- numerical scores representing the opinions of skirts. And in this edition, precisely due to the the widely varying social agents from the offer aforementioned circumstances, we have made (creation, production, dissemination, critics) an additional effort to address not only the ac- in the diverse and complex sectors of symbolic cumulated database of more than 350 agents of activity (from performing arts and music to all types but to make the multiple associations books, audiovisual or multimedia) constitute a that coordinate Spanish culture more present vital thermometer to gauge the situation and in it: general or territorial associations, sector- future strategies. based by activities, economic and business, for creators and amateurs, partial or general rec- These evaluations in particular are most ognition, etc. important when designing and adopting public cultural policies, where historic state-enlight- The results are still modest, demonstrat- ened despotism, the pressure from trade lob- ing not only our limitations but also national bies or from media stars are currently empha- shortfalls, because although this sociocultural sised as paths that do not meet social needs. fabric is starting to thicken up as it should in Because if its goals and budgets are obliged to an economically and socially developed coun- take an increasing part in civic society (dem- try, it maintains a highly atomised structure onstrated by a tendency towards public debate that occasionally still lacks clear awareness of on local budgets), the consultation and partici- its overlap with culture as a whole and with pation of cultural agents is imposed as a sine society in general. Relevant cultural entities qua non condition for any chance of success. and associations in Spanish culture as a whole, Dialogue and the balance between these two that periodically call on the public to support interrelated terms, agents and audiences, is its cause, have declined or omitted to answer as vital as it is complex, because culture tran- our questionnaire. However, many others scends the market and the industry to also answered quickly and acknowledged this im- become a binding part of civic society (asso- plied responsibility, giving the survey greater ciations, charity work by artists, SMEs, etc.). representativity and, therefore, providing bet- However, it is essential to shape these White ter knowledge of cultural agents’ perception Papers whose deep insights on the role of cul- of culture in Spain, as can be seen in the final ture in a democratic society should always be panel of the experts who have shared their ac- put ahead of major cultural plans to give them curate vision on the state of this field which is a firm and realistic basis. This is even more so vital for our democracy (see Appendix II). pertinent in the recession hangover that, as Working from a stable questionnaire of now, calls for a review of public policies due 54 questions and four current issues on each to the dual requirements of social changes to occasion, always stated in positive terms and culture and actual mutations of culture in digi- scored from 1 to 10, this survey aimed to quan- tal networks.

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tify opinions that address the our culture’s For the third consecutive year, scores have main parameters in terms of diversity, which risen from the low point of the 4.4 after drop- necessarily implies economic and industrial ping for three years running during the tough- questions but also questions the decline of est times of the crisis for culture (2017). In such democratic rights and public policies that can a way that we summarised “restrained hopes and must strengthen both sides of culture. and careful eagerness” in 2019, this contained optimism is back in 2020 with all the timidity The survey took place in the first two imposed by the political and economic situa- months of 2020, when the new Coalition Gov- tion, from a new Government with unknown ernment had just been inaugurated and was strength and duration, and whose proposals taking its first steps. for the world of culture were on shaky ground right back in the months of the survey: solid II. GENERAL RESULTS (ICE 2020) goals in the electoral promises, but the transfer of the Ministry of Culture (change from a 1. Average total score for culture in Spain: proven administrator to a politician), promises a slightly higher pass of important cultural actions but wary of the fight against the deficit, etc. The average general result from all our scores and questions this year scraped over the pass 3. New current issues: coherent external action mark with an additional 0.1 on last year. This and Spanish culture increase might seem minimal but it reflects emerging excitement in the midst of politi- As reflected by the Culture and Communica- cal uncertainty surrounding the first coalition tion Observatory in a wide range of recent Government in Spanish history since the 2nd activities and chorused in media information Republic, and the tension sustained by the and editorials, Spain’s cultural action abroad opposition regarding its ability to govern the is surely the most damaged and deteriorated country. chapter in our culture panorama as a consequence of the fiscal crisis but also down to lack of direction from governmental actions over seven years. This not only refers to the tradi- 5.1 tional lack of State policy in this field, but also important transformations of international relations over the last decade and the very mu- 2. Return to the 2011 score (Rodríguez Zapatero’s tation of culture, not only due to the change government) of habits brought on by digital devices and networks but also due to increasingly incisive The general average score of 5.1 over more action from many social players, including the than fifty questions becomes more meaning- cultural agents themselves and their associa- ful when considering the 0.4 increase on 2018, tions. This shows an growing need for insights 0.7 on 2017; and particularly highlighting the on Spanish strategies at all levels in the pro- return to the initial score from 2011, during jection and interaction of Spanish culture with Rodríguez Zapatero’s Government, although international cultures. as the severity of the crisis became clear, also In an attempt to tackle these problem is- taking effect with a drop in cultural budgets sues, along with the central dossier of this ICE from the Central State. 2020, we have included two current issues in

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our questionnaire, that aim to positively and Cultural education concisely ask two major questions hanging over Spanish international cultural action re- Question 57 Our young people’s arts and cultural education garding which external strategy to pick (with 4.1 what degree of clarity and coherence) and contributes to the social evaluation of culture what global image to present regarding its perceived wealth and diversity. The other one-off contribution from the The scores corresponding to these ques- questionnaire revolves around the situation tions are poor in both cases, clearly showing of the production (and creation) of Spanish that there is a significant problem in the opin- fiction. While previous reports had priori- ion of all the cultural agents in the survey. tised the cinema, ICE 2020 explores Spanish fictional audiovisual creativity, which is becoming increasingly complex due to the boost External cultural action from major television and audiovisual changes, particularly paid and on demand televi- Question 55 sion, on digital terrestrial networks, cable or Spain’s Cultural Action abroad has a clear and Internet, from national companies or global 4.2 coherent strategy platforms. The general positive opinion on these processes among the respondents, giv- Question 56 ing a good passing score, at least confirms that Spain’s cultural image abroad matches its wealth and this is an important phenomenon that analysis 3.8 diversity of Spanish cultural creativity and its dialogue with worldwide audiovisual will have to take seriously, also in the regulations and public The 4.2 given to Spain’s external cultural ac- policies. tion already seems like quite a low score compared to the general average, but this is further Spanish audiovisual fiction confirmed in other related questions. The 3.8 given to Spain’s cultural “image” abroad, in re- Question 58 lation to its wealth and diversity, considerably worsens the perception of this situation and of Spanish audiovisual fiction is benefiting from the new 5.5 the Spain “brand” seen from the inside. competitive multiplatform and multimedia climate The other two current issues raised in ICE 2020 are related to two new chapters for this edition of the Report. Firstly, cultural education (and artistic, creative education, etc.) for 4. Top scores for culture: Effects of ICT and diversity available for creators and users our young people that constitutes an outstanding factor for all cultural insights, because it Like every year, the top scores revolve around is decisive in forming new creators, including questions on the effect and the potential of people nowadays who span their work be- new digital networks, plus the pluralism and tween new technology and the arts, but also creativity of Spanish culture towards its audi- in general for the level of culture consumers ences, almost in equal parts. (their money and time budget). So then, the diagnosis from the survey respondents is clear, Specifically, four of the top scores refer to giving 4.1, a fail, to this situation. the direct effect of ICT on creativity or con-

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sumption of culture, with the highest scores the cultural offer “reflects” the diversity of our of the survey, although fewer of them (seven cultural identity (5.9) and users have a “wide” out of ten in 2019): the new networks allow range of offer available (5.8). creators to connect better with their audiences (a strong score of 7.5), strengthen “word of 5. Spain’s culture black holes: cooperation and mouth” among users (6.9), increase creativity external projection of the authors (6.7) and guarantee pluralism of creation and voices available to users (5.8). The worst scores continue to accumulate this However, enthusiasm clearly drops due to the time on the external projection of Spanish automatic effects of technologies and digi- culture, either in terms of cooperation and ex- tal networks regarding previous results (see change or export and international presence. chart 1). To the point of concentrating six of the lowest On the other hand, another six top scores scores that include, from the bottom up, “suf- are related to creator and user diversity, tak- ficient” projection of SMEs (3.6), “sufficient ing for granted some social parameters where and effective” public cooperation policies we can also presume involvement of digital de- (3.7), “fair” external trade exchanges (3.9), vices and networks: the innovative trends and “sufficient and balanced” exchanges with the styles can reach their audiences (6.5), SMEs EU (4.1), “accurate” trade strategies from ma- play an essential role as “innovation reserves” jor groups for external expansion (4.3) or ex- (6.7), creation expresses Spanish society’s ide- changes with Latin America that respond “suf- ological “range” (6.5), users have a “great ca- ficiently” to linguistic and cultural ties (4.3) pacity to choose” (6.4) and - at the lower end, (see chart 2).

Chart 1. The greatest strengths of Culture in Spain 2020

Top scores

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 04. Creators are making the most of new networks 7.5 to connect with their audiences 31. Digital networks strengthen user word of mouth 6.9 (labelled and recommendation) 08. SMEs play an essential role as innovation reserves 6.7

03. Authors are benefiting from new technologies 6.7 to increase their creativity 01. Innovative trends and styles can be expressed 6.5 and seek out their audience 02. Cultural creation expresses the range of ideological 6.5 values present in Spanish society 33. Users have a wide choice on the Internet 6.4

09. The cultural offer reflects the diversity 5.9 of our cultural identity. 28. Users have a truly diverse offer available 5.8

23. Digital networks guarantee pluralism of creations 5.8 and voices available to users

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This low score for the presence of our cul- appears in another two more broadly negative ture, and its relative drop on previous years, questions: “fair” pay for creators (3.4) and re- complemented and confirmed by the afore- muneration for editing/production SMEs that mentioned two current issues, provides a seri- is “sufficient for sustainability” (3.9). ous basis to consider the central topic of this The tenth worst score refers to traditional ICE on Spain’s cultural action abroad. Further- media whose promotion of “cultural identity” more, it marks the urgency to formulate and is penalised with a 4.3. implement a powerful new strategy for the future. On the other hand, questions relating to in- III. CULTURAL SPHERES: IMPROVEMENTS TO ternal cultural public policies that made a great PRODUCTION/EDITING AND PUBLIC POLICIES splash in the early editions among the list of the worst scores have been gradually clawing Creation maintains its traditional primacy in their way out of this negative ranking, but they these scores by cultural sphere, but it sticks are still not known to shine. The lowest scores at the same good pass (6) as last year. The remain for its work on defending “fair pay” for same happens with use and consumption of authors (4.2), touching on a section that also culture, with the second highest score of 5.6

Chart 2. The greatest weaknesses of Culture in Spain 2020

Lowest scores

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

05. Creators receive fair pay to maintain their work 3.4

49. External projection of cultural SMEs is sufficient 3.6

50. Public policies for external cooperation 3.7 are sufficient and effective

45. Commercial exchanges abroad are fair 3.9

13. Editing/production SMEs receive sufficient 3.9 pay for their sustainability

46. Cultural exchanges with the EU are sufficient 4.1 and balanced

18. Traditional media promotes cultural diversity 4.1

43. Public policies defend fair pay for authors 4.2

48. The major groups’ commercial strategies 4.3 are correct for external expansion 47. Cultural exchanges with Latin America respond sufficiently to linguistic and cultural ties 4.3

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(same as 2019), and the distribution/com- even though it does improve by 0.3, it is still a mercialisation mark hovers around the pass clear fail (4.3). mark (5). On the other hand, production/editing Chart 3. Score for the spheres of the cultural goes up 0.2 to 5.3 (from 5.1 in 2019), reflecting world in 2020 certain economic optimism. And public poli- 1st Creation 6 cies also go up in their estimation and almost 2nd Production/editing 5.3 pass the test with 4.9 (4.6 last year) (see chart 3 and graphs 2 and 3). 3rd Distribution/commercialisation 5 4th Use and consumption of culture 5.6 Once again, the worst scoring activity is external projection and cultural cooperation: 5th Public policies and commercial strategies 4.9 6th External projection and cooperation 4.3

Graph 2. Score for the spheres of the cultural world in 2020

6 5.6 5.3 5 4.9 4.3

Use and Public policies External Production/ Distribution/ Creation consumption and commercial projection editing commercialisation of culture strategies and cooperation 2020 6 5.3 5 5.6 4.9 4.3

Graph 3. Score for the spheres of the cultural world Comparison 2019-2020

5.6 5.5 5.3 5.1 5 5 4.9

4.6 4.3 4

Use and Public policies External Production/ Distribution/ Creation consumption and commercial projection and editing commercialisation of culture strategies cooperation 2020 6 5.3 5 5.6 4.9 4.3 2019 6 5.1 5 5.5 4.6 4

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Graph 4. Score per sphere: 1. Creation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

01. Innovative trends and styles can be expressed 6.5 and seek out their audience 02. Cultural creation expresses the range of ideological values present in Spanish society 6.5

03. Authors are benefiting from new technologies to increase their creativity 6.7

04. Creators are making the most of new networks 7.5 to connect with their audiences

05. Creators receive fair pay 3.4 to maintain their work

06. Creative diversity is tending to improve 5.4 in the medium term (five years)

1. Creation [score: 6] drop in the optimistic opinion on ICT’s impact on cultural creation (see chart 4). Creation continues to lead the ranking by spheres, but it has not budged from 2019, in 2. Production/editing [score: 5.3] a combined effect of the six questions in this section that demonstrate quite irregular up Cultural production/editing, that only scraped and down behaviour, that seem significant a passing score in 2019, improves its mark above all when the difference is more than 0.2 significantly from the prior 5.1, as a result of as a result of many combined opinions. generalised gain in many of its 10 questions. The only considerable increase, by 0.4, is Despite this, the pluralism of the offer to ma- the score to express the range of “ideological jor cultural groups is still deemed too low (4.6) values” (6.5), by 0.3 although still failing badly just like the future “sustainable economy” that there is “fair pay” for creators (3.4) and mini- new networks will bring (4.8). mally the estimated improvement of the “me- Consequently, there is a rise in the repre- dium term creative diversity” (5.4 from 5.3 in sentation of a “plural range of voices and in- 2019). terests” (from 5.4 to 5.7), the correspondence On the other hand, scores worsen concern- between the diversity of the offer and our cul- ing the capability for expression in innovative tural identity (from 5.6 to 5.9) and, most par- trends and styles (from 6.7 to 6.5) and the ben- ticularly, despite maintaining a low score, the efit of increasing creativity brought to creators “plural” range of products and services offered by ICT (drops from 6.9 to 6.7). Remaining by the major groups (from 4 to 4.6). steady, although very high, is the estimation There is a smaller rise for the decentrali- on whether creators are making the most of sation of cultural production as a reflection new networks “to connect with their audienc- of Spain from the autonomous regions (from es” (7.5). Although it seems to be early days 5.4 to 5.6), the balanced development of the to draw any conclusions from these highly nu- offer in languages recognised in the Spanish anced evolutions, it seems to indicate a certain

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state (from 4.8 to 5), the chance of a “sustain- There is an outstanding rise in two ques- able economy” in the future for new networks tions related to public media with the pro- (from 4.7 to 4.8) and even signs of diversity motion of cultural diversity (going from 4.9 and five-year profitability for cultural produc- to 5.3) and with the boost to independent tion (5.2 to 5.4). On the other hand, paradoxi- production (from 4.6 to 4.7). There is also a cally, the possibility of financially diversifying small-scale rise in the media’s general boost culture and increasing profitability thanks to to creation and promotion of culture (from new networks remains steady (at 5.2) and the 4.3 to 4.4) and the pluralism of voices avail- role of SMEs drops slightly as “innovation re- able to users on digital networks (from 5.7 serves” (from 6.8 to 6.7) (see chart 5). to 5.8). On the other hand, scores are maintained 3. Distribution/commercialisation [score: 5] on the wide-ranging offer from analogue networks (failing with 4.7), promotion of cultural Last year, distribution made the leap from re- diversity of traditional media (with 4.1) and peatedly failing to scraping a pass, although the right to access culture on digital networks it remains stuck on this score again this year. (5.49). And there is a 0.1 drop for the approved This average effect is the result of a standstill provision for greater diversity and medium- for several of its 9 questions, but also small term profitability “on all channels” (from 5.8 rises and falls among different scores. to 5.7) (see chart 6).

Chart 5. Score per sphere: 2. Production/Edition 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 07. Producers-editors- are a plural range 5.7 of voices and interests 08. SMEs play an essential role 6.7 as innovation reserves 09. The cultural offer reflects the diversity 5.9 of our cultural identity. 10. Decentralisation of cultural production 5.6 reflects the autonomous regions of Spain 11. The major cultural groups offer a plural range 4.6 of products and services 12. The available offer reflects a balance 5.0 of the languages recognised in the Spanish State 13. Editing/production SMEs receive sufficient 3.9 pay for their sustainability 14. New networks help diversify financial sources 5.2 and increase profitability 15. New networks provide a sustainable 4.8 economy for the future 16. Cultural production will increase its diversity 5.4 and profitability in the medium term (five years)

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Chart 6. Score per sphere: 3. Distribution/commercialisation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

17. Las redes de distribución analógicas ofrecen 4,7 una oferta suficientemente diversa

18. Los medios de comunicación tradicionales 4,1 promocionan la diversidad cultural

19. Los medios de comunicación impulsan la 4,4 creación y promoción de la cultura

20. Los medios públicos promueven la 5,3 diversidad cultural

21. Los medios públicos impulsan la producción 4,7 independiente 22. La comercialización de los productos y servicios culturales permite una amplia 5,0 capacidad de elección del usuario 23. Las redes digitales garantizan el pluralismo de creaciones y voces a disposición de los 5,8 usuarios 24. Las redes digitales garantizan el derecho de 5,4 acceso general a la cultura 25. La distribución por todos los canales permitirá una mayor diversidad y rentabilidad a 5,7 medio plazo (cinco años)

4. Use and consumption of culture [score: 5.6] the increase in the medium term freedom of choice (from 5.6 to 5.7). There is also a 0.4 Estimations on the use and consumption of rise in payment of a “fair price” for cultural culture, traditionally well over the pass mark creation although it remains below the pass even in the middle of a crisis, has barely gone mark (4.7) (see chart 7). up by 0.1 on average after it remained steady last year on 5.5. However, most of the scores 5. Public policies and commercial strategies: increase although only slightly which seems to almost passing [score: 4.9] indicate a consensus on its moderate improvement. The only clear exceptions are the ques- The climate of certain optimism among cul- tion on the users’ wisdom in their choice that tural agents, that back in 2019 increased the drops 0.4 (from 5.4 to 5) and the reduction of average score for this section by 0.8, has in- costs and corresponding cultural democratisa- creased again to 4.9, almost making the pass tion (from 5.7 to 5.4). mark. Although prudently, this confirms the However, the complementary question expectations of all the cultural agents regard- on the user’s “great freedom of choice” goes ing the public actions promised by the new up (from 5.5 to 5.6), also its “great diversity Government that exceed the extended col- of available offer” (from 5.6 to 5.8), its “af- lapse that began in 2012. Four out of the sev- fordable access” (from 5 to 5.3), its “word of en questions in this section thereby make the mouth” capacity (5.5 to 5.7), its great free- grade. dom of choice on the Internet (6.2 to 6.4) and

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Chart 7. Score per sphere: 4. Use and consumption of culture

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

26. Los usuarios tienen una gran libertad de 5,6 elección cultural

27. Los usuarios saben bien lo que quieren elegir 5,0

28. Los usuarios tienen una gran diversidad de 5,8 oferta disponible

29. Los usuarios disponen de un acceso 5,3 asequible a la cultura 30. Las nuevas redes permiten una gran participación de los usuarios en la creación 5,7 cultural 31. Las redes digitales potencian la capacidad del boca a boca (etiquetado y recomendación) 6,9 de los usuarios 32. Las redes digitales reducen drásticamente los costes de la cultura y permiten su 5,4 democratización 33. Los usuarios disponen en Internet de una 6,4 gran libertad de elección

34. Los usuarios pagan un precio justo por la 4,7 creación cultural 35. Los usuarios pueden elegir la cultura adecuada a sus identidades culturales 5,5 (nacionales, regionales, locales) 36. Los ciudadanos/consumidores incrementarán su diversidad de elección a medio 5,7 plazo

This is particularly true for questions that 6. External projection and cooperation: slight seem to formulate clear positions with regard rises but still a fail [score: 4.3] to cultural public action and its aims, positions that are always split in a survey between tak- Despite growing optimism over the last two ing a theoretical position or principle and the years, Spanish external cultural projection is reality of the respondent’s experience. In this rising very moderately although still show- respect, scores are particularly interesting on ing poor scores in relation to all other cultural public policies and how they stimulate creative spheres: from 3.8 in 2018 to 4 in 2019, and innovation (from 4.9 to 5.2), its strengthening then 4.3 in 2020. of the industrial fabric of production (from 5 This very relative improvement comes to 5.1), its boost for diversity of offer (from from slightly better scores in eight out of the 4.7 to 5) and particularly its support for digital ten questions in this section: from taking ini- transformation (from 5 to 5.4). Although it has tial positions that Spanish culture occupies “its still not passed, scores are on the rise for the rightful place in the world” (going from 4.3 to public stimulus for the economic sustainabil- 4.6), to the consideration that trade exchanges ity of culture (from 4.5 to 4.9) and even the are “fair” (from 3.5 to 3.9). There are slight im- defence of fair pay for authors (from 4 to 4.2), provements regarding more specific questions always the most severely punished question in such as “sufficient and balanced” exchanges this section (see chart 8). with the EU (from 3.6 to 4.1) or regarding “lin-

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Chart 8. Score per sphere: 5. Public policies and commercial strategies

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

37. Cultural public policies stimulate 5.2 creative innovation 38. Public policies strengthen the industrial 5.1 fabric of editing/production 39. Public policies boost the diversity 5.0 of the offer and user’s choice 40. Public policies stimulate the economic 4.9 sustainability of culture 41. Public powers respect the autonomy 4.4 of culture

42. Public policies support digital transformation 5.4

43. Public policies defend fair pay for authors 4.2

guistic and cultural ties” with Latin America for all types of cultural agents to give abstract (from 4.1 to 4.3) and evaluation of the trade scores in a context that affects them personally strategies from major groups (from 4.1 to 4.3). and professionally. The direct opinion on the public policies for The ranking of scores per sector experi- external action also slightly improves regard- enced a turn-around in 2020 as the previous ing whether they provide an incentive for ex- rise of videogames gathered pace, increasing change and intercultural diversity (from 4.2 to their score by 0.7 over one year, plus the 0.6 4.49) or promote the present of Ibero-America increase of the previous year (from 4.5 to 5.1 culture in Spain (from 4.3 to 4.6). and not to 5.8), to take top spot. And this sec- On the contrary, opinions worsen on “suffi- tor thereby beats advertising creativity and cient and effective” cooperation policies (from design that had been top of the list for several 4 to 3.7) and there is a considerable drop in years. the evaluation of the capacity to create “new The optimism of the cultural agents evaluat- audiences” for Spanish culture (5.2 to 4.6) (see ing these sectors cannot be logically separated chart 9). from the circumstances surrounding each sector, and videogames present two-digit growth IV. CULTURE SEEN BY SECTORS: VIDEOGAMES in 2019 and promise to exceed the book pub- AT THE HEAD lishing industry in a few years. Advertising, in turn, is recovering pre-crisis investment rates The average scores recorded by agents in each at a strong pace, although directing its struc- of the seven main cultural sectors has allowed ture mainly towards online advertising as op- us to traditionally make an indirect diagnosis posed to television. of the activity situation, with preference over They are followed in third place by the direct questions that might distort perceptions Visual Arts, going from 4.9 to 5.3, easing over on other sectors. Because it would be difficult

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Chart 9. Score per sphere: 6. External projection and cooperation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

44. Spanish culture occupies its rightful place in the world 4,6

45. Commercial exchanges abroad are fair 3,9

46. Cultural exchanges with the EU are sufficient 4,1 and balanced 47. Cultural exchanges with Latin America respond sufficiently to linguistic and cultural ties 4,3

48. The major groups’ commercial strategies are correct 4,3 for external expansion

49. External projection of cultural SMEs is sufficient 3,6

50. Public policies for external cooperation 3,7 are sufficient and effective

51. Public cooperation policies create an incentive 4,4 for intercultural exchange and diversity

52. Cooperation policies promote the presence 4,6 of Latin American culture in Spain.

53. Public cooperation policies create new audiences 4,6 for Spanish culture

54. Cooperation and trade will generate greater diversity 5,5 in the medium term

the pass mark, as a demonstration of their rela- In turn, the book and library sector that tive recovery. And in fourth place, the music shared music’s score and fifth place in 2019, and record industry that goes up from fifth to drops down the ranking to sixth place despite fourth place (from 4.7 to 5) where all sourc- going up 0.1 in its general average evaluation es point towards significant growth–relative of culture (from 4.7 to 4.8). This certainly re- since its collapse prior to the economic crisis– flects the improvement in turnover announced particularly due to the rise of streaming thanks in the sector-based reports, at the expense of to both subscriptions and advertising invest- few new items and control of the runs, but also ment. accumulated uncertainties in an activity that has not found its place in a digital world. This is the last sector that actually passes in our questionnaire because in fifth place this However, the most worrying case revolves year, the Performing Arts seem to have hit around the cinema and audiovisual production rock bottom in their fall from the beginning of that stood fourth in 2019 and has now plum- the crisis in practically all parameters of offer, meted to seventh place, despite celebrating its consumption and turnover and in all its sub- box office recovery and the effect of the Goya sectors. Nevertheless, its average scores have awards, which coincided with our survey. This risen slightly from 4.5 to 4.9. inevitably makes us think of the worrying col-

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lapse of the share of Spanish cinema down to Chart 10. Ranking by cultural sectors in 2020 barely 15% of total takings, a long way from the lowest level traditionally set at 20% (25.4% 1st Videogames and multimedia 5.8 in 2014), less than €100M of the €624M of 2nd Advertising creativity and design 5.5 general turnover from cinemas. The develop- 3rd Visual arts 5.3 ment of feature films on online networks and the emergence of televised fiction do not seem 4th Music and record industry 5 to have alleviated this negative perception of 5th Performing arts 4.9 Spanish audiovisual agents (see chart 10 and 6th Books and libraries 4.8 graph 4). 7th Cinema and audiovisual production 4,5 From the ranking by cultural sectors, we always take away the answers and scores given by cross-discipline experts, critics, researchers, etc. because their inclusion or mixture V. CULTURE SEEN BY TYPES OF AGENT: would distort the answers and their compre- OPTIMISTIC ADMINISTRATORS hension and because, traditionally, they show a level of optimism that is greater than most The professional origin of the people answer- agents in creative sectors. ing the survey also determines their opinions However, on this occasion, the average and evaluations to a large extent, as we have scores from the cross-discipline experts drop seen over our successive surveys, although oc- by 0.2, from 5.5 in 2019 to 5.3, showing rela- casionally, it is paradoxically countered by the tive pessimism. Even so, they would put the evaluation from the aforementioned cultural Visual Arts third in the ranking by sectors, giv- spheres. ing a better mark for the average state of cul- In this way, once again, administrators ex- ture in Spain (see graph 5). press greater optimism in their answers and

Graph 4. CScore by cultural sectors in 2020

5.8

5.5 5.3

5 4.9 4.8

4.5

1. Performing 2. Visual 3. Music and 4. Cinema and 5. Books and 6. Videogames 7. Advertising arts arts record audiovisual libraries and creativity and industry production multimedia design 2020 4.9 5.3 5 4.5 4.8 5.8 5.5

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Graph 5. Score by cultural sectors: comparison 2019-2020

5.8 5.5 5.3 5.4 5.1 5 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.8 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.5

improve their average scores faster, from 5.3 5.2, which is 0.2 higher than scores from 2019 from 2019 to 5.6 for 2020, well above the gen- (see chart 11 and graph 6). eral average for all respondents. Creators are usually the most pessimistic Chart 11. Score per type of cultural agent 2020 and, on this occasion, they are clinging to the poor average culture score that they received 5.6 5.2 in 2019: 4.6, which is 0.5 below the general av- 4.6 erage score. Creators Administrators Experts/critics Finally, experts and critics are generally (producers, loyal to the balance between the former roles editors, distributors) and their scores in this case corroborate it at

Graph 6. Score by type of cultural agent: comparison 2019-2020

5.6 5.3 5.2 5 4.6 4.6

Administrators Creators (producers, editors, Experts/critics distributors)

2020 4.6 5.6 5.2 2019 4.6 5.3 5

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1. Creators: systematic pessimism [score: 4.6] own profession. In such a way that they give 6.5 to creation (6 in the general average), 0.1 Pessimism (or realism in their view) among cre- more than in 2019; they give themselves a 6 for ators to consider general culture is expressed in production/edition (5.4 last year) and 5.6 for all their evaluations, but it comes into its own distribution/commercialisation: (5.2 in 2019) when crossed with cultural spheres. and raise their score for cultural consumption So they give a poor score to the actual situ- to 6.1 (5.9 last year). ation of creation compared to the general aver- Within the framework of this relative en- age (6) and they have shaved another 0.1 off thusiasm, administrators actually approve the the 2019 score (from 5.4 to 5.3); they penalise cultural policies with a 5 (4.8 in 2019) and production/editing still further this year with they only fail the external projection and co- 4.5 (4.8 in 2019, 5.3 in the general average) and operation with a 4.5 (4.3 the past year) (see the same happens with distribution/commer- chart 13). cialisation: that went from 4.7 in 2019 to 4.3 in 2020. Nor have they improved their score for the use and consumption of culture (dropping 3. Experts/critics: prudence and balance from 5.3 to 5 compared to the general 5.6). And [score: 5.2] they improve their estimation of public policies (from 4.2 to 4.6) and more slightly regarding Scores from the experts and critics on the external projection and cultural cooperation cultural spheres are extremely interesting be- (from 3.6 to 3.8) (see chart 12). cause once again they appear to be the most resistant to current stimuli but also generally 2. Administrators: steady optimism [score: 5.6] the closest to the general averages. In this way, the average score of 5.2 from this collec- The optimism among cultural administrators tive is also the closest to the general average is also expressed on this occasion in its ap- for the survey in all its questions and inter- preciation of cultural spheres, including their viewees.

Chart 12. Scores from creators vs total cultural agents in 2020

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5.3 Creation 6 4.5 Production/editing 5.3 4.3 Distribution/commercialisation 5 5 Use and consumption of culture 5.6 Public policies and commercial strategies 4.6 4.9 External projection and cooperation 3.8 4.3

Creators Total

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Chart 13. Scores from the administrators (producers, editors, distributors) vs total cultural agents in 2020

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6.5 Creation 6 6 Production/editing 5.3 5.6 Distribution/commercialisation 5 6.1 Use and consumption of culture 5.6 Public policies and commercial strategies 5 4.9 4.5 External projection and cooperation 4.3

Administrators (producers, editors, distributors) TOTAL

Once again, experts are spot on when eval- use and consumption of culture with a 5.6, go- uating creation with a 6.1 (same as in 2019) ing up by 0.2 this year on 2019. compared to the average of 6; by giving pro- On the other hand, they exceed the general duction/editing a 5.3, exactly like the aver- average by awarding 0.2 more for cultural poli- age (slight increase from the 5.1 they gave cies (4.9 in the general average) and 0.4 to ex- last year) and distribution/commercialisation ternal projection up to 4.5 (4.3 in the general with the exact 5 of the average (same as in average) (see chart 14). 2019). They also give the same score for the

Chart 14. Scores from experts and critics vs total cultural agents in 2020

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6.1 Creation 6 5.3 Production/editing 5.3 5 Distribution/commercialisation 5 5.6 Use and consumption of culture 5.6 Public policies and commercial strategies 5 4.9 4.5 External projection and cooperation 4.3

Experts/critics Total

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VI. ALMOST A DECADE OF CULTURAL Another outstanding point in this com- RECOVERY: CHANGES IN CONSUMPTION parison over time is the strong difference in scores per sector that indirectly demonstrate The sequence of seven surveys among cultural their economic situation ranking: while cin- agents over a period of ten years (2011-2020) ema and audiovisual and books have seriously gives us an extraordinary perspective to test lower scores (0.4 and 0.3 respectively), the transformations on the perceptions of the performing and visual arts practically remain Spanish cultural agents. steady (at 4.9 for the former and between 5.4 Consequently, regarding cultural spheres, and 5.3 for the latter), two typical sectors from it is seen that creation, production and distri- what are known as the creative arts stand out bution have recovered 2011 scores almost ex- clearly: Videogames and multimedia rise from actly, except for a partial 0.1 which is barely 5 to 5.8 and advertising and design increase significant. And that the public policies and from 5.1 to 5.5. These two sectors took the top external projection have gained 0.4 and 0.3 re- spots in the 2020 ranking by scores and sec- spectively. tors, clearly taking the place of the classic sectors, particularly books that historically have As a singular exception to these encourag- been the main Spanish cultural industry sector ing dynamics, there is the case of the use and for decades. consumption of culture that has 0.5 along the way. This depression was maintained after the Finally, it can be highlighted that regard- crisis, verified by the acute drop in private ing the scores per agent and their evolution spending from the Spanish on culture, with- over this decade, there is remarkable stability out a clear solution on the horizon, and that for scores between such different situations as points towards one of the greatest weakness- the end of Rodríguez Zapatero’s Government es of Spanish culture for the near future (see (2011) and the start of Pedro Sánchez’s coa- graph 7). lition government (2020): The average scores

Graph 7. Score for the spheres of the cultural world Comparison 2020-2011

6 6.1 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.3 5.1 5 4.9

4.5 4.3 4

Use and Public policies External Production/ Distribution/ Creation consumption and commercial projection editing commercialisation of culture strategies and cooperation 2020 6 5.3 5 5.6 4.9 4.3 2011 5.9 5.3 5.1 6.1 4.5 4

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from the creators barely drop 0.2 between the less revealing in terms of current concerns and aforementioned years (from 4.8 to 4.6), the sensitivities. Here is a summary based on the administrators’ scores remain exactly the same major sectors covered: (5.6) and only the experts change by increasing their scores by 0.4 (from 4.8 to 5.2) (see 1. Cultural consumption graph 8). • “There are barely any indicators to measure the media-based and cultural diet of VII. OPEN COMMENTS 2020 citizens. We should have more indicators on what citizens consume in terms Our survey always provides an open com- of culture, both quantitatively and quali- ments space for opinions and proposals from tatively, including the cultural diet of the our interviewees that, although in the minor- different population groups regarding ity over the survey as a whole, are neverthe-

Graph 8. Score by cultural sector: comparison 2020-2011

5.8 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.1 4.9 5 5 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.5

3. Music and 4. Cinema and 6. Videogames 7. Advertising 8. Cross- 1. Performing 5. Books record audiovisual and creativity discipline arts 2. Visual arts and libraries industry production multimedia and design experts

2020 4.9 5.3 5 4.5 4.8 5.8 5.5 5.3 2011 4.9 5.4 4.5 4.8 5.4 5 5.1 5.8

Graph 9. Score by cultural sectors: comparison 2020-2011

5.6 5.6

5.2

4.8 4.8 4.6

Administrators (producers, Creators Experts/critics editors, distributors) 2020 4.6 5.6 5.2 2011 4.8 5.6 4.8

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diverse cultural products. Democracy still a far-off dream. And this is a topic cannot be improved without improving where it would be fundamental to con- the media-based and cultural diet”. tinue acting, transversally, on all mat- • “We need more studies and a perma- ters from the ICE, until real and effec- nent observatory for cultural consump- tive equality has been achieved”. tion. Furthermore, quantitative meas- urement is not enough, such as hours 4. The audiovisual situation of consumption, hours of reading, etc. We have to specify what we see, what • “Multiplatform competition is ben- we read and also relate it to population eficial in the short-term, but it is not groups to be able to adjust the creation danger-free. I don’t know if it is good to and development of public policies that create excessive dependence on emerg- affect the cultural demand and not only ing companies with a high risk of disap- to the cultural offer”. pearing and, in almost all cases, using North American capital”. • “We should move beyond the industrial and economic concepts of cul- • “Spanish audiovisual fiction that works ture (highly important) to also treat with the platforms sees a benefit but culture as the fourth pillar of wel- the audiovisual sector is very broad”. fare, always from the perspective of relational governance, meaning from 5. External cultural projection the point of view of citizens, not just producers, creators, programmers and • “Obviously, and in my opinion, there is distributors”. a lack of greater implication between Spain and Latin America in all aspects 2. Cultural and artistic training of culture, aiming to counter current globalisation centring on the English- • “Arts and cultural education contrib- speaking North”. ute to social valuation of culture. True. However, the current education system 6. Cultural public policies limits art and creativity subjects a great deal. So, this culture or training barely • “Cultural public policies in Spain still reaches the young people”. do not include the strategic focus of human rights. Beyond the paradigm • “Arts education for young people could of cultural management, public and contribute, if it existed, to this educa- private, it is urgent to promote public tion that is non-existent. The Spain’s debate on the relationship between cultural image abroad falls short. Not protection of cultural rights and demo- only is it often not appropriate but of- cratic strengthening”. ten just non-existent”. • “There is very little assistance for cre- 3. Gender and culture ation in this country of ours. It only promotes rubbish television, rubbish • “Although ICE 2017 took the central music, rubbish food, rubbish cloth- theme of Equality and Diversity in the ing...authors have to emigrate or make digital era, the fact is that article 26 of our living from something other than the General Equality Law of 2007 is creation”.

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• “It will be interesting to see how the Es- but balanced between productive roles de- paña Global strategy (MAEC) pans out ployed in culture and between central cultural in the near future”. sectors, not only to gain representativity for culture as a whole but also to be able to coordinate the results according to the very differ- VIII. PRINCIPLES, GOALS AND METHODOLOGY ent activities performed in such a broad and diverse field. 1. The sample: structure and composition In this way, we have systematically sought out a weighting for the survey respondents in To be able to gather these opinions, a broad 3 major categories: database of Spanish cultural agents was put together, based on amassing surveys performed by the ICE over the last decade, updated and 1 Creators purified to better combine private activities 2 Public and private administrators and public institutions, major companies and 3 Researchers and Critics SMES and self-employed agents. Thanks to our experience from the six previous editions, this purified database has reached almost three And we have segmented 7 major activity hundred and fifty confirmed addresses with sectors in a balanced way that summarise the the aim of receiving around one hundred com- major cultural processes in our society (in so- pleted surveys, a foreseeable proportion in a cial projection and in economic weight): highly atomised field, where individual work and volunteering have often taken priority 1 Performing arts over collective efforts. An important share of the respondents (around 70%) had already 2 Plastic arts taken part in previous editions. 3 Music and record industry On this occasion in particular, we have 4 Cinema and audiovisual production made an effort to get greater participation 5 Books and libraries from sector-based and general cultural asso- 6 Videogames and multimedia ciations of all types, not always easy to access 7 Advertising creativity and design or to receive an answer, without neglecting the representativity of women in culture and the maximum possible balance between the two In addition, although excluded from the major cities concentrating the cultural offer calculation of average marks in the results and other Spanish communities. per sector, to avoid an external bias for these The enquiry method, performed online on professional roles, we have added an eighth a professional Internet platform (e-encuesta. multi-purpose category, due to the existence com), has made it easier to collect and tabulate of academic experts and professionals that, the results, although it has also shown, some- depending on their career, had valuable expe- times in real time, the difficulties that many rience that crossed the different sectors and cultural agents encounter to tackle the long activities and that we could not ignore: questionnaire. Cross-discipline experts (administrators, However, the complete sample and the ef- 8 researchers) fective answers have not been undifferentiated

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2. Questionnaire premises 1 Creation a. Logic and goals 2 Production/editing 3 Distribution/commercialisation The set of 54 questions remained identical to the Surveys from 2011-2014-2015-2017, 4 Use and consumption of culture 2018 and 2019 to make it easier to make 5 Public policies and commercial strategies comparisons during this period. This is an 6 External projection and cooperation exhaustive questionnaire, with a view to long-term comparison that consequently addresses the main problem areas in the cultur- And it sought to state the questions, guid- al field. However, we have added four current ing them by axial areas for evaluating culture, issues on specific topics that are important to that should explicitly transfer their fundamen- this Report, particularly regarding Spanish tal democratic values and the economic condi- cultural action abroad, the central theme of tions necessary to uphold them, with a flexible this ICE 2020, artistic and cultural training number of questions and capable of appre- for young Spaniards and the state of Spanish hending the fundamental aspects of each area audiovisual fiction. in each sphere: All the questions are stated in positive terms to avoid conditioning the respondents, Innovation who are asked to score each question from 1 Creative pluralism 1 Creation to 10 (maximum disagreement to maximum Ideological pluralism agreement). Fair pay Full comprehension of the questionnaire Pluralism of voices and therefore of the results requires em- Production/ Identity phasising its essential philosophy: a central 2 perspective on Diversity, traditionally cul- Editing Diversity of the offer tivated by the Fundación Alternativas in all Financial sustainability its studies on Culture but also endorsed by Diversity of the offer the actual Spanish state in its ratification of Distribution/ 3 Pluralism of voices the UNESCO Diversity Convention (October Commercialisation 2007). This explains why we break the ques- Financial sustainability tionnaire down in terms of cultural pluralism Diversity Use and and public policies, of economy and industry 4 consumption of Participation but also democracy, intercultural coopera- culture tion but also export or projection of our cul- Identity Support for diversity and pluralism tural creations. Public policies To represent all the major phases of the 5 and commercial Support for financial sustainability strategies chain of value of Culture and the Cultural and Independence of culture Creative industries, both in their classic ana- Strong trade logue version and in their transfer to the digi- La proyección 6 exterior y la Intercultural diversity tal world, 6 spheres are defined that structure cooperación the Questionnaire entirely: Economic sustainability

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b. Questionnaire [ICE 2020] 16. Cultural production will increase its diversity and profitability in the medium 1. Creation: term (five years) 01. Innovative trends and styles can be expressed and seek their audience 3. Distribution/commercialisation: 02. Cultural creation expresses the range 17. Analogue distribution networks offer a of ideological values present in Spanish sufficiently diverse offer society. 18. Traditional media promotes cultural di- 03. Authors are benefiting from new tech- versity nologies to increase their creativity 19. The media boosts creation and promo- 04. Creators are making the most of new net- tion of culture works to connect with their audiences 20. Public media promotes cultural diver- 05. Creators receive fair pay to maintain sity their work 21. Public media boosts independent pro- 06. Creative diversity is tending to improve duction in the medium term (five years) 22. Commercialisation of cultural products and services gives the user a wide 2. Production/editing: choice 07. Producers-editors are a plural range of 23. Digital networks guarantee pluralism of voices and interests creations and voices available to users. 08. SMEs play an essential role as innova- 24. Digital networks guarantee the general tion reserves access right to culture 09. The cultural offer reflects the diversity 25. Distribution through all channels will of our cultural identity. allow greater diversity and profitability 10. Decentralisation of cultural produc- in the medium term (five years) tion reflects the autonomous regions of Spain 4. Use and consumption of culture: 11. The major cultural groups offer a plural 26. Users have great freedom of cultural range of products and services choice 12. The available offer reflects a balance of 27. Users know what they want to choose the languages recognised in the Spanish 28. Users have great diversity of offer avail- State able 13. Editing/production SMEs receive suffi- 29. Users have affordable access to culture cient pay for their sustainability 30. New networks allow great user partici- 14. New networks help diversify financial pation in cultural creation sources and increase profitability 31. Digital networks strengthen the users’ 15. New networks provide a sustainable word of mouth capability (labelled and economy for the future recommendation)

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32. Digital networks drastically reduce the 48. The major groups’ commercial strate- costs of culture and make it more dem- gies are correct for external expansion ocratic 49. External projection of cultural SMEs is 33. Users have a wide choice on the Internet sufficient 34. Users pay a fair price for cultural crea- 50. Public policies for external cooperation tion are sufficient and effective 35. Users can choose the appropriate cul- 51. Public cooperation policies create an in- ture for their cultural identity (nation- centive for intercultural exchange and al, regional, local) diversity 36. Citizens/consumers will have a wider 52. Cooperation policies promote the pres- choice in the medium term ence of Latin American culture in Spain. 5. Public policies and commercial strategies: 53. Public cooperation policies create new 37. Cultural public policies stimulate crea- audiences for Spanish culture tive innovation 54. Cooperation and trade will generate 38. Public policies strengthen the industrial greater diversity in the medium term fabric of edition/production 7. Current issues: 39. Public policies boost the diversity of the offer and user’s choice 55. Spain’s Cultural Action abroad has a clear and coherent strategy. 40. Public policies stimulate the economic sustainability of culture 56. Spain’s cultural image abroad matches its wealth and diversity 41. Public powers respect the autonomy of culture 57. Our young people’s arts and cultural education contributes to the social evalu- 42. Public policies support digital transfor- ation of culture mation 58. Spanish audiovisual fiction is benefiting 43. Public policies defend fair pay for au- from the new competitive multiplat- thors form and multimedia climate 6. External projection and cooperation: 8. Open remarks: 44. Spanish culture occupies its rightful 59. If you would like to add a free comment, place in the world particularly in relation to the Current 45. Commercial exchanges abroad are fair Annex, please use this section (maxi- 46. Cultural exchanges with the EU are suf- mum 10 lines) ficient and balanced 47. Cultural exchanges with Latin America respond sufficiently to linguistic and cultural ties

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APPENDIX I. General results [ICE 2020]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

01. Innovative trends and styles can be expressed 6.5 and seek out their audience 02. Cultural creation expresses the range of ideological values 6.5 present in Spanish society 03. Authors are benefiting from new technologies 6.7 to increase their creativity 04. Creators are making the most of new networks to connect 7.5 with their audiences

05. Creators receive fair pay to maintain their work 3.4

06. Creative diversity is tending to improve 5.4 in the medium term (five years)

07. Producers-editors are a plural range of voices and interests 5.7

08. SMEs play an essential role as innovation reserves 6.7

09. The cultural offer reflects the diversity of our cultural identity 5.9

10. Decentralisation of cultural production reflects 5.6 the autonomous regions of Spain 11. The major cultural groups offer a plural range 4.6 of products and services 12. The available offer reflects a balance of the languages 5.0 recognised in the Spanish State 13. Editing/production SMEs receive sufficient pay 3.9 for their sustainability 14. New networks help diversify financial sources 5.2 and increase profitability

15. New networks provide a sustainable economy for the future 4.8

16. Cultural production will increase its diversity and profitability 5.4 in the medium term (five years)

17. Analogue distribution networks offer a sufficiently diverse offer 4.7

18. Traditional media promotes cultural diversity 4.1

19. The media boosts creation and promotion of culture 4.4

20. Public media promotes cultural diversity 5.3

21. Public media boosts independent production 4.7

22. Commercialisation of cultural products and services 5.0 gives users a wide choice 23. Digital networks guarantee pluralism of creations 5.8 and voices available to users

24. Digital networks guarantee the general access right to culture 5.4

25. Distribution through all channels will allow greater diversity 5.7 and profitability in the medium term (five years)

26. Users have great freedom of cultural choice 5.6

27. Users know what they want to choose 5.0

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

28. Users have a truly diverse offer available 5.8

29. Users have affordable access to culture 5.3

30. New networks allow good user participation 5.7 in cultural creation 31. Digital networks strengthen user word of mouth 6.9 (labelled and recommendation) 32. Digital networks drastically reduce culture costs 5.4 and make it more democratic 33. Users have a wide choice on the Internet 6.4

34. Users pay a fair price for cultural creation 4.7

35. Users can choose the appropriate culture 5.5 for their cultural identity (national, regional, local) 36. Citizens/consumers will have a wider choice 5.7 in the medium term

37. Cultural public policies stimulate creative innovation 5.2

38. Public policies strengthen the industrial fabric 5.1 of editing/production 39. Public policies boost the diversity of the offer 5.0 and user’s choice

40. Public policies stimulate the economic sustainability of culture 4.9

41. Public powers respect the autonomy of culture 4.4

42. Public policies support digital transformation 5.4

43. Public policies defend fair pay for authors 4.2

44. Spanish culture occupies its rightful place in the world 4.6

45. Commercial exchanges abroad are fair 3.9

46. Cultural exchanges with the EU are sufficient and balanced 4.1

47. Cultural exchanges with Latin America respond sufficiently 4.3 to linguistic and cultural ties 48. The major groups’ commercial strategies 4.3 are correct for external expansion

49. External projection of cultural SMEs is sufficient 3.6

50. Public policies for external cooperation 3.7 are sufficient and effective 51. Public cooperation policies create an incentive 4.4 for intercultural exchange and diversity 52. Cooperation policies promote the presence 4.6 of Latin American culture in Spain 53. Public cooperation policies create new audiences 4.6 for Spanish culture 54. Cooperation and trade will generate greater diversity 5.5 in the medium term

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APPENDIX II. List of experts taking part in the survey [ICE 2020]

Natalia Abuín Vences Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Lecturer at the University of Murcia, UMU. Former director general of the Murcia Regional Juan Miguel Aguado Terrón Television Station (RTRM) Irene Aláez Vasconcellos Partner in Una más Una, cultural management and production Professor at the Carlos III University of Madrid, UC3M. Leader of the research group Luis A. Albornoz “Audiovisual Diversity” Icíar Alzaga Ruiz Lecturer at the National Distance Learning University, UNED. Curator and cultural administrator. Management assistant for the Spanish Royal Academy in Javier Andrés Pérez Rome Director General of the Federation of National Associations of Publishing Distributors José Manuel Anta Carabias (FANDE) Estela Artacho García-Moreno President and Director General of the Federation of Film Distributors (FEDICINE) Antonio Mª Ávila Álvarez Executive Director of the Spanish Federation of Editors (FGEE) Inmaculada Ballesteros Martín Director of the Fundacion Alternativas Culture and Communication Observatory. Sagrario Beceiro Professor at the Carlos III University of Madrid, UC3M. Daniela Bosé Director General of the Vistalegre Palace in Madrid Enrique Bustamante Ramírez Lecturer at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Raquel Caerols Mateo Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Lecturer and Director of the Department of Communication Sciences and Sociology at the Carmen Caffarel Serra Rey Juan Carlos University, URJC. Former director of the Instituto Cervantes Javier Callejo Gallego Professor at the National Distance Learning University, UNED. Francisco Campos Freire Professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela, USC Retired Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM President of the Ibero- Antonio Caro Almela American Network of Advertising Researchers (REDIPUB) Concepción Cascajosa Virino Professor at the Carlos III University of Madrid, UC3M. Lecturer at the University of Malaga, UMA. Director of the Andalusia Association of Manuel Chaparro Escudero Municipal and Citizen Radio and Television Broadcasters (EMA RTV). IP for the Andalusia Communication and Culture Laboratory President of the State Federation of Associations of Theatre and Dance Companies Jesús Cimarro (FAETEDA) Ángel Codón Ramos Narrative Director & Game Designer at Fakto Studios Jorge Corrales Corrales Director General of the Spanish Centre of Reprography Rights (CEDRO) Carlos Cuadros Soto Director General of the Niemeyer Centre in Avilés Manuel de Luque Taviel de Director of the journal Anuncios, Publicaciones Profesionales S.L.U. Andrade President of the Consortium of Contemporary Art Galleries. Director of the NF/NIEVES Idoia Fernández FERNANDEZ Gallery Director of Programmes for the Gijon Town Council Municipal Foundation for Culture, Jorge Fernández León Education and the People’s University José Andrés Fernández Leost Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM

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Emelina Fernández Soriano Professor at the University of Malaga, UMA. Former president of the Andalusia Audiovisual Board Visual artist. Director of the 13 ESPACIOarte Artistic Creation Centre. General Secretary of Tonia Fernández Trujillo the Women’s Association in Visual Arts (MAV) Hector Fouce Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Cultural journalist at the Consello da Cultura Galega. Adjunct Professor at the University of Manuel Gago Mariño Santiago de Compostela, USC Nicolás García Executive Producer at Catorce Comunicación, S.L. Juan Antonio García Galindo Lecturer at the University of Malaga, UMA. Mª Trinidad García Leiva Professor at the Carlos III University of Madrid, UC3M. Belén Gil Jiménez Partner in Una más Una, cultural management and production Alfredo González-Barros University Professor. Game Design Instructor at the University CEU San Pablo and the Camba TecnoCampus Rafael González Alvarado Plastic Artist Francisco González Fernández Director of adfphoto.com Paloma González Rubio Writer Ana García D’Atri Editor Stéphane M. Grueso Documentary filmmaker Eduardo Guillot Hevia Artistic Director of the Mostra de València-Cinema del Mediterrani festival María Lamuedra Graván Professor at the University of Seville, US. Susana Lanas Director of the TIMELESS digital platform Photographer Tíscar Lara Director of Communication and Marketing at the Industrial Organisation School EOI Margarita Ledo Andión Lecturer at the University of Santiago de Compostela, USC Filmmaker Donald B. Lehn Director of the Carampa Circus School Professor and Director of the Department of Communication Sciences at the University of Xosé López Santiago de Compostela, USC Tecla Lumbreras Krauel Vice Chancellor of Culture at the University of Malaga, UMA. Eduardo Madinaveitia Foronda Strategy Services for Zenith España Tomás Mallo Gutiérrez Head of the Studies and Analysis Area of the Carolina Foundation Juan Luis Manfredi Sánchez Professor at the University of Castilla-La Mancha, UCLM Juan Margallo Actor, Director and Playwright Judith Martín Prieto Journalist Assistant director of the “Aquí la tierra” programme on TVE Professor Emeritus at the University of Girona. Director of honour for the “Cultural Policies Alfons Martinell and Cooperation” UJNESCO Chair. Inmaculada J. Martínez Professor at the University of Murcia, UMU. Martínez Javier Marzal Felici Lecturer and Director of the Department of Communication Sciences at the University Jaume I, UJI Sonia Megías López Freelance composer Andrés Mérida Guzmán Plastic Artist Arancha Mielgo Álvarez Professor and Director of the Degree in Marketing at the University CEU San Pablo Francesca Minguella Rubió President of Honour of the Culture and Alliances association Professor at the Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM) and Nebrija University. Fernando Montañés García Communication consultant

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Enrique Morales Corral Professor at U-TAD University Technology and Digital Art Centre Director of ELMURO, Consultancy and Cultural Management General Secretary of the Spanish Robert Muro Abad Performing Arts Academy Carlota Navarrete Barreiro Director General of the Coalition of Creators and Content Industries (LA COALICIÓN) Carlos Navia Atienza Administrator and Founder of DIGITAL CORNUCOPIA S.L. Trinidad Núñez Domínguez Professor at the University of Seville, US. Charo Otegui Pascual Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Manuel Palacio Arranz Lecturer at the Carlos III University of Madrid, UC3M. José Ignacio Pastor Pérez President of the Associació Ciutadania i Comunicació (ACICOM) Lecturer of the department of Journalism at the University of the Basque Country/Euskal Carmen Peñafiel Saiz Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) Rosa Pérez Vicente Cultural journalist Director and presenter of “Fluido Rosa” on RNE Marta Pérez Ibáñez President of the Institute of Modern Art (IAC) Artist. Management of publishing projects in the Underbau design studio and artistic Javier Pividal García projects at Ogami Press Emili Prado Lecturer at the Autonomous University of Barcelona, UAB Juan Raigada Fernández Creative Director at Aheartfulofgames S.L., Videogame development Diana Raznovich Dramatist and author of graphic humour books Antonio Resines Actor Professor at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Director of the programme “Ritmo Francisco Reyes Sánchez Urbano” (La 2 from TVE) Manuel Rico Rego Writer and literary critic. President of the Collegiate Association of Writers (ACE) Pilar Rius Fortea President of the Women in Music Association Estefanía Rodero Sanz Culture Sociologist. CEPAIM Foundation Santiago Rodríguez Bedate Producer of video games at Aheartfulofgames S.L., Videogame development Joan Roig Prats Photographer. Consultant for the Spanish Association of Professional Photographers (AFPE) Juan Arturo Rubio Aróstegui Professor and Director of the Doctoral School at Antonio de Nebrija University. Álex Ruiz-Pastor Theatre director Carlos Sánchez Laso Founding partner of Conocer al Autor, a platform to promote and disseminate creation Alfonso Sánchez Izquierdo Director General of the Galicia Radio Television Corporación (CRTVG) Marta Sanz Pastor Writer Antonio Saura Medrano Director General of Latido Films Adolfo Serra Illustrator Alba Silva Rodríguez Professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela, USC Member of the Coordinating Committee of the Film maker’s Union President of the Spanish Begoña Soto Vázquez Royal Academy in Rome Director General of the Federation of Advertising and Communication Companies (FEDE). David Torrejón Lechón General Secretary of the Academy of Advertising. Writer Rosa Torres-Pardo Pianist Hipólito Vivar Zurita Lecturer at the Complutense University of Madrid, UCM Ramón Zallo Elguezabal Lecturer emeritus at the University of the Basque Country, UPV-EHU

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COMPLEMENTARY SURVEY [JULY 2020]: CULTURE IN TIMES OF A HEALTH CRISIS

INTRODUCTION: COVID-19, ALSO A CULTURAL instruments that Spanish tradition has barely PANDEMIC used in this field or where its response was in- coherent and non-systematic, with highly re- More than half the people surveyed in early markable clarity and consensus. 2019 answered our complementary survey on the effects of the virus on Spanish culture. Its contrast with the regular 2020 survey demon- I. EMERGENCY AID: SUFFICIENCY AND strates the remarkable economic and symbolic ADAPTATION impact of the pandemic on cultural agents and on their previous opinions. • The Central Government’s reaction, with “appropriate and sufficient” aid The results of the survey carried out on the to ensure the survival of cultural struc- effects of the pandemic and the measures and tures, is clearly given a poor score, just actions adopted to alleviate its consequences 3.36 out of 10. firstly show what a traumatic experience this • In the same terms, measures by the au- has been for cultural activities in Spain over tonomous regions regarding their broad these one hundred days of lockdown and culture competences get an even worse the heartfelt disappointment among cultural score of 3.24. agents concerning the (poor) speed and efficacy of the authorities’ reaction at all three • Local administrations which are so state levels, Central Government, regional gov- important in general cultural public ernment and local entities. On the other hand, spending also score a mere 3.26, barely scores from the second part of the survey, on better than the regional authorities. priority tools for a comprehensive public poli- The general discontent seems clear regard- cy regarding immediate recovery, are high for ing the speed and sufficiency of the state’s

The reaction from the Spanish State

0 1 2 3 4 5

01. The general and specific aid from the Central Government is appropriate 3.36 and sufficient to ensure the survival of cultural structures 02. The special aid taken by the regional governments is appropriate and sufficient 3.24 to support cultural activities in their area in this situation

03. Local administrations have reacted appropriately to support culture 3.26 in this emergency

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actions, at all levels, compared to the tough II. RELAUNCH: IMMEDIATE TOOLS economic and social repercussions that the epidemic caused on culture, much harsher than The result of the nine remaining questions in many other economic sectors. on the bases and essential tools to approach culture’s necessary relaunch plan, not only to The most important measures adopted by recover its economic and social bearings but these public administrations to support culture above all to achieve a sustainable status where in such adverse circumstances were generally market dynamics and public policies receive considered by cultural agents as insufficient in high scores, but with nuances that reveal the nature and amount: conceptions of cultural agents: • The worst scored are the general and • The best scores went to general re- exceptional unemployment benefits duction of cultural VAT (8.74); a new (2.96) in their response to the singular standard that is more encouraging for nature of artistic work; or the reduc- sponsorship (7.84); legal development tion of online VAT for some cultural of the artist statute (8.62). Almost all of activities (press, books) as “sufficient” them almost unanimously receive ex- (2.96). cellent scores. • The other measures get slightly better • Good scores are given to special finan- scores: from best to worst, considering cial support for SMEs (7.78); a support that women are more greatly affected plan for gender equality in employment (3.68), taxation measures for culture (7.8); a substantial increase in public (3.02), the relaunch of online cultural spending on culture (7.76); promotion consumption (3.28), aid to finance this and subsidy of cultural users (7.64); (3.04), furlough and unemployment special taxes and regulation of culture benefit (3.12). on major platforms (7.6); strengthening of digital commercialisation (7.34).

Effectiveness of emergency aid

0 1 2 3 4 5

04. The funding and cash-flow aid compensates 3.04 for the impact of the pandemic

05. Taxation on culture helps its resilience now 3.02

06. The reduction in online VAT 2.96 for some cultural services is sufficient in the…

07. The relaunch of online cultural consumption 3.28 is alleviating its financial crisis in Spain. 08. The general and exceptional unemployment 2.96 benefits respond correctly to… 09. The furlough scheme and unemployment benefit give sufficient cover for the economic 3.12 emergency of the… 10. The aid considers that women in culture 3.68 are more affected

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Relaunch plan. It should be based on

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11. A substantial increase in public 7.76 spending on culture

12. Special tax and regulation of culture 7.6 on major platforms

13. Reinforcement of digital promotion 7.34 and commercialisation

14. Special financial support for SMEs 7.78

15. General reduction of Cultural VAT 8.74

16. A new, more favourable regulation 7.84 for sponsorship and micro-funding

17. Legal development of the Artist’s statute 8.62

18. A plan to support gender equality 7.8 in cultural employment

19. Tools to promote 7.64 and subsidise cultural users

Although these tools certainly do not ex- governments’ slow and deficient reaction in haust the arsenal of basic tools for a systematic the light of the severity of the crisis and con- cultural policy in the immediate future, that sequently regarding the secondary social and should be combined according to the sectors’ democratic role that Spanish politics really goals and needs, they doubtlessly make up its attributes to this essential facet of our social fundamental basis. And the cultural agents’ life. And, in parallel, it demonstrates collective perception of usefulness already allows an ini- awareness of the irreplaceable public action tial approach to analysis. in this field to recover the lost social and economic fabric and high consensus on drafting As for the rest, this complementary sur- a coherent, sustained policy capable of con- vey is highly illustrative of the Spanish cul- structing sustainable culture. tural world’s hopes and frustrations in times of a health crisis. Disappointment due to the

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Enrique Bustamante Charo Otegui

Milagros del Corral Manuel palacio

Patricia Corredor Jesís Prieto Jorge Fernández León Pere Portabella Héctor Fouce Arturo Rubio Gloria G. Durán Fernando Rueda Francisco Gallego Nicolás Sartorius Alberto García Ferrer Rubén Gutiérrez David Torrejón Concha Jerez Fernando Vicario Alfons Martinell Hipólito Vivar

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Irene Aláez Enrique Bustamante Degree in Law. Diploma in Advanced Studies Reader Emeritus in Communication at the on Culture Law from Carlos II University in Complutense University and President of the Madrid, and specific training on Management AE-IC (Asociación Española de Investigación of Foundations and Artistic and Cultural Ins- en Comunicación/Spanish Association of Re- titutions. She has worked at different public search in Communication). He has been a full and private management institutions. Up until UNESCO professor (Universities of Grenoble December 2010, she was the deputy director and Lyon) and general secretary and Vice Chan- of Absolut Lab, a space devoted to creativity cellor of the UIMP and founder and director of using the most innovative digital production the Telos journal (1985-2017). He has publis- techniques. Since 2011, she has combined her hed many papers and articles, particularly on professional work at una más una with cultural cultural industries and television. Founder and research and teaching on a range of master’s board member of the Fundación Alternativas degrees and post-graduate courses on Cultural OCC, where he coordinated its Culture reports Management and Cooperation. in 2011, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019.

Inma Ballesteros Raquel Caerols Director of the Fundacion Alternativas Com- Accredited as a University Professor by Ane- munication and Culture Observatory. Acclai- ca with a six-year research term. She holds a med European doctorate in History of Art, PhD in Applied Creativity from the Complu- European Diploma in Cultural Project Manage- tense University of Madrid (UCM) School of ment and master’s degree in European Union Fine Arts, receiving cum laude honours. Ad- Law. She has vast cultural sector experience junct professor of creativity and visual arts at in countries such as Spain, Italy, Peru, Guate- the Francisco de Vitoria University School of mala and Nicaragua. She is an expert advisor Communication. Furthermore, she has spoken in cultural cooperation and drafts proposals to at international conferences such as Computer develop public policy on culture and commu- Art in Mexico City or the 6th Conference on nication. She has been director of the Spanish Play-Based Learning and Pedagogy, organised Cultural Centre in Guatemala and the Spanish by the Madrid Technology Foundation, held Cultural Centre in Nicaragua, and she has in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia). She has taught on post-graduate programmes in Euro- written a wide range of articles for prestigious pe and Latin America. publications such as Revista de Artes Plásticas,

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Estética, Diseño e Imagen, Bellas Artes (Univer- Diego López Garrido sity of La Laguna), Trípodos, and for Editorial Executive Vice-President of Fundación Al- Fragua, or�� the International Festival of Televi- ternativas and president of the Foundation’s sion on Urban Life and Ecology. Board of European Affairs. He is an economist, lecturer in Constitutional Law and a parlia- Concepción Cascajosa mentary advisor. He was Secretary of State for Professor of Audiovisual Communication at the EU from April 2008 to December 2011 and Carlos III University in Madrid, where she is a coordinated the Spanish presidency of the EU member of the TECMERIN research group and from 2010. He was the spokesperson for the runs the TV and Film Scriptwriting Master’s Socialist Group in Congress (2006-2008) and degree with ALMA Scriptwriters. She has a member of parliament for six terms of office. written or edited 9 books on televised fiction He belonged to the convention that drafted the and history of audiovisual media. Her current European Constitution, prior to the current line of work revolves around the change in the Treaty of Lisbon, representing the Spanish fiction production model in Spain with the Parliament (2002-2003). He is the author of arrival of video on demand services. many books on human rights, economics, politics, modern history and European law. Regu- lar contributor to the El País newspaper. Patricia Corredor Lanas

PhD in Information Sciences and Professor Juan Luis Manfredi at Rey Juan Carlos University (Madrid) since 2000. Previously, she was an Adjunct Professor Professor of Journalism at the University of at the Complutense University and the Pontifi- Castilla-La Mancha. He is the principle inves- cia de Comillas University ICADE. As a journa- tigator for the project entitled Comunicación list specialising in communication, she was the pública, transparencia, rendición de cuentas y content director for the digital edition of Anun- participación en los gobiernos locales (Public cios, an advertising and marketing weekly, edi- communication, transparency, accountabi- tor in chief of Interactiva, a digital communi- lity and participation in local governments) cation journal and writer for other specialised (CSO2013-46997-R). He ran Media Plura- publications. She is the director and a regular lism Monitor in Spain 2015, a project by the speaker on master’s degree and other postgra- European Institute in Florence to measure duate courses at a variety of institutions. the pluralism and diversity of the media and news-media companies. He is a member of the editorial board for Esglobal.com, a benchmark Jorge Fernández León journal on international journalism in Spanish. Graduate in English. master’s degree in Cultu- He was a finalist for the Citi Journalistic Exce- ral Research. Employee of the Gijón Municipal llence Award 2015 in Spain. Culture Foundation and its first director. He has been the Gijón City Council Communica- Alfons Martinell Sempere tion Director, Director of the Presidency and Vice-Chancellor for Culture at the Government Retired teacher and honorary director of the of Asturias. Author of the book Nuevos Centros UNESCO Chair in Cultural Policies and Coo- Culturales para el siglo XXI en España (2010). He peration at the University of Girona. He was recently coordinated the focus study on local General Director of Cultural and Scientific cultural policies for the Periférica journal (2020). Relations for the Spanish International Coo-

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peration Agency. Spanish Minister of Foreign worked at the Carolina Foundation for the Mi- Affairs and Cooperation (2004 –2008). Presi- nistry of Foreign Affairs, European Union and dent and founder of the Interarts Observatory Cooperation. He is also a professor of Political (1995–2004). Founding member of the Re- Theory at the UCM. search and Innovation Laboratory on Culture and Development with headquarters in Co- J. Arturo Rubio-Arostegui lombia and Spain. Expert in the fields of Trai- ning Cultural Administrators, Cultural Coope- PhD in Political Sciences and Sociology. He is ration and Development, Cultural Policies. He currently Director of the Doctoral School at has published many books, articles and papers Nebrija University. He is the author of over in the field of cultural management, cultural forty publications in books, chapters of books policies, culture and development, internatio- and articles in national and international journal cultural cooperation. nals and editorials. He is a member of the Fun- dación Alternativas Communication and Cul- ture Board and spokesperson for the Arts and Mariano Martín Zamorano Culture Sociology Committee (Spanish Socio- PhD in Management of Culture and Herita- logy Federation). ge from the University of Barcelona (UB) He specialises in national and international public María Angeles Querol cultural policies. He has many publications in peer reviewed scientific journals, books and Reader Emeritus in Prehistory at the Complu- chapters in books. He was a visiting professor tense University of Madrid. Among other po- at Ohio State University (2012), Adjunct Pro- sitions, she has been General Sub-director of fessor at the UB (2017) and he currently tea- Archaeology for the Ministry of Culture, pre- ches at the UOC and the UB (plus the OIT and sident of the Spanish Professional Association UNESCO). Since 2010, he has been a member of Archaeologists, president of the Andalusian of the Culture, Politics and Society Studies Archaeology Commission and coordinator of Centre (CECUPS). the Cultural Heritage cluster at the Moncloa Excellence Campus. Her publications include Manual de gestión del patrimonio cultural, La José Andrés Fernández Leost mujer en “el origen del hombre” and La gestión PhD in Political Sciences at the Complutense del patrimonio arqueológico en España. She re- University of Madrid (UCM). He was in char- ceived The European Heritage Prize from the ge of Research and Publications from the At- European Archaeologist Association, in 2015, man Foundation for dialogue between cultures and the Gold Medal for Fine Arts in 2019, from between 2005 and 2007. Since 2008, he has the Ministry of Culture.

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Report on THE STATE OF CULTURE IN SPAIN 2020. SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTION ABROAD [ICE-2020] SPAIN’S CULTURAL ACTIONABROAD [ICE-2020] IN SPAIN 2020 THE STATE OFCULTURE Report on