Bengt Sundkler, Christopher Steed. The History of the Church in . Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 2000. xviii + 1232 pp. $140.00, cloth, ISBN 978-0-521-58342-8.

Reviewed by Isabel Mukonyora

Published on H-SAfrica (May, 2001)

'THE IDENTITY OF AFRICAN ' 8-9), is used to make a strong point about the Readers will like this book a lot because its claim that is as traditional to Africa as aim is to challenge westerners to think about it is to the western world. Christianity as a religion of Africa in which As I found when teaching a course on Chris‐ African have always taken part in the spread tianity in Africa at the University of , thereof. As far as Sundkler is concerned it is prob‐ Donatists are a lot easier to accept as Africans lematic to think that European were than the Early Church Fathers of . Do‐ vital to the spread of Christianity in Africa. This is natists were not as cosmopolitan in outlook as the partially true, but extremely important to grasp. master of hellenization, at the School of In today's world, this voluminous book makes in the second century, or the well-trav‐ good reading for anyone serious about knowing eled intellectual St Augustine who was baptized African history. into Christianity in a far away Rome before he NORTH AFRICAN INTELLECTUALS AND came back to Africa to settle in Hippo. As a move‐ KINGS ment of Berber origin, Donatists distinguished themselves in North African Church history by The most interesting aspect of this book lies staging a rebellion against the imperial state in in the efort made to challenge Europeans into re‐ the name of Christian orthodoxy understood by thinking their role in spreading Christianity in them to separate the Church as a community for Africa. From the outset, Sundkler and Steed focus the Holy from the institutions of the imperial gov‐ on the role of African Christians in shaping their ernment that were considered corrupt, oppres‐ understanding of the belief system in North sive and certainly not worth giving honor through Africa from the frst century onwards. The exis‐ the worship of the Emperor (pp. 22-41). African tence of a Coptic Church that is indigenous to students living in neo-colonial societies can prob‐ North Africa and claims to be founded on the ably identify with the Donatists as African Chris‐ teaching of St. Mark, one of the gospel writers (pp. H-Net Reviews tians in the face of an imperial power responsible is unmistakable. Sundkler observes that St. Augus‐ for their . tine considered Punic "an honorable part of his Among the other wonders of this book that native heritage" and chose it 'to explain biblical are widely known among Africanists but never‐ words' (p. 26). The news that St Augustine of Hip‐ theless important to mention in a book aimed at po had a high regard for Punic as his mother persuading us to think of Christianity as an tongue is bound to raise eyebrows among western African phenomenon is the discussion on the roy‐ theologians already fnding it hard to accept that alty of . Christianity was introduced to Augustine, , and were African the royal courts of Aksum through the consecra‐ (pp. 22-41). tion of as Bishop of Aksum. This was Sundkler even tries his hand at theology by done by Bishop Athanasius as head of the Church pointing to what he calls the 'Unionite' doctrine of in Alexandria between AD328 and 378 (pp. 12, 35). Christ, otherwise known as monophytisism. This, This led King Ezana of Aksum to embrace Chris‐ Sundkler maintains, is a distinct African view of tianity and declare it a state religion to mark the Christ as a divine being. Since the statement of beginning of a long legacy of dynasties of confess‐ Chalcedon in AD 329, Christian orthodoxy insists ing Christians (pp. 150-168). Readers who are not on afrming the full humanity and full divinity of familiar with early Christianity in Africa might Christ. But, the African Christians in the Coptic fnd it an amazing testimony to the permanence Church of and Ethiopia reason about Christ of Christianity in Africa to hear of an African King their own way. For them Christ could only in Ethiopia making Christianity a state religion at have been of one nature and that was a divine na‐ the same time as Constantine in the fourth centu‐ ture ftting of the only Son of (p. 16). The ry Roman Empire (pp. 35-38). So it seems to be the Ethiopian delegation withdrew from Chalcedon case for Sundkler that from early Christianity in and left western Christian orthodoxy with the Africa, when royalty fnds for itself a family reli‐ perennial problem of having to try and explain gion, it expects the subjects to follow (passim). how someone who shares fully in our humanity The matters for discussion go deeper. Sund‐ has also a perfect divine nature from eternity. It kler claims for Africa the theologians of North does not matter to Sundkler that the Christologi‐ Africa such as, Tertullian, Augustine, Athanasius cal formula that the Ethiopian Christians uphold and others. These are widely known theologians to this day was dismissed as a heresy. The impor‐ providing us with enough material to read for tant point is that Africans had their own way of weeks. Sundkler claims them for Africa without refecting on the identity of Christ as the focus of necessarily getting us lost in the deep theological their faith. arguments that usually go with the mention of African theologians , John these reputable men. As for the Hellenism, well, it Mbiti and others would welcome the detailed way appears to be taken for granted as a phenomenon in which Sundkler writes about Christianity with that was pervasive in the Greco-Roman world African agency as a main theme. Over ffty years wherever it extended. Alexandria and ago, Mbiti became well known among African in‐ happened to be important areas of trade and with tellectuals for questioning the European assump‐ it came many Greek infuences upon the indige‐ tion that Africans were ignorant of God before Eu‐ nous people who refect this in their literary ropeans brought the Gospel. Mbiti claimed that works. Despite this, St. Augustine, widely known Christianity in North Africa during the Greco-Ro‐ as the patron of western orthodox theology, is man Empire is part of African history and the tra‐ portrayed in such a way that his African identity ditional African culture beyond the borders of the

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Empire shows many continuities of belief with The latter are anxious to have their tradition‐ Christianity. Since then, Pobee, Kwesi Dickson, al cultures given the respect they have always de‐ Nyamiti, Sanneh and others have gone to great served by drawing out the areas of continuity be‐ lengths to show that African religious idioms can tween past and present religions. In Sundkler's be used to explain key doctrines of the Christian case, more attention is paid instead to the fact faith to an African audience. Names of high , that Europeans did in fact contribute in a signif‐ images of chiefs and ancestors have been used to cant way to the spread of the new religion of characterize the modern subject of African Theol‐ Christianity in Africa beyond the Sahara desert ogy. Bediako followed the footsteps of Mbiti and through a enterprise that recognize maintained that the Church Fathers from early the importance of African evangelism. Plagued by Christianity such as, St. Augustine, Cyril of Alexan‐ diseases leading to a high death rate, European dria, Tertullian, and Origen etc. are patrons of missionaries soldiered on to ensure that Africans (Bediako, 1992). where touched by the gospels (passim). The re‐ As indicated above, Sundkler would agree peated references to missionary bodies from Eu‐ with this to some extent. At least, the detailed rope and America such as Methodists, Presbyteri‐ notes about Christian witness throughout North ans from Scotland, Anglicans, Catholics, , Africa, down the Nile leading to Ethiopia by the Salvation Army and so on make it difcult to Africans suggest the emergence of African theo‐ appreciate the indigenous character of Christiani‐ logical thought to go with the history of the ty that Sundkler is trying to help us to understand. spread of Christianity on the continent. What the THE CONQUEST OF WEST, CENTRAL, EAST African theologians do, and Sundkler avoids, is to AFRICA AND BEYOND go further to show the extent to which the pre- Sundkler tries very hard, nevertheless, to Christian African religions found in areas remote show the active participation of Africans in the to North Africa in Sub-Sahara Africa are prepara‐ conversion of fellow Africans. Even in giving an tio evangelica. For Mbiti, it is very important to account of the ways in which Europeans spread recognize that even though Christianity was pre‐ Christianity among Africans as subjects of con‐ sented to many Africans in European dress, it was quista (pp. 44-45), he is quick to identify Africans not new insofar as the concepts that missionaries who took up positions of leadership in the church, believed themselves to be introducing anew were especially authority fgures such as Kings and found in the African religions. Hence, the names chiefs. He also makes a point of drawing attention for the Judaeo-Christian God have today been tak‐ to any evidence suggesting that Europeans some‐ en from names of the high god in the various times encountered African people who were in‐ African religions. For example, Ngai, Mkulunkulu, formed about Christianity through the evangelism Mulungu, Mwari, etc., and African theologians of Africans among themselves. He cites Dr H. A. such as Pobee, Nyamiti and Dickson have gone Junod, a Protestant commenting on a community further to suggest that one can go beyond naming found in : 'Even if the Europeans God to articulate Christian doctrines using other were supposed to possess the Gospel, it was not traditional Africa religious idioms such as the an‐ they who brought the message to the Blacks in cestor, the Chief, the N'anga and so on. Sundkler this area; it did not come via the ocean, with the points to the foundations of an African theology. civilization and great ships. It came down from But he does not go as far as the African theolo‐ the far and unknown interior, brought by an igno‐ gians. rant Black evangelist' (pp. 484).

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The phrase 'ignorant Black evangelist' con‐ kin whom they want to remember as good people fronts the reader in the form of a citation from making sacrifces for others in far away lands. In Junod. Otherwise, it is quite incredible to fnd a this post-modern world, who wants to be remind‐ book based on records that are flled with a lan‐ ed of the damage done to other cultures through guage of derision used by colonialists and mis‐ colonialism? However, Sundkler confronts his sionaries alike to portray Africans across the con‐ readers with thousands of slaves converted to tinent, yet avoids this insulting language almost Christianity with missionaries standing by, not op‐ completely. Africans whose habit it is to attack posing the trade. I am left wondering what in the missionaries for their paternalism and disrespect world could lead a people of the white race to do of African culture will get lost in Sundkler's work. so much damage to blacks. Why the urgency to re‐ For the portrayal of Africans as victims of super‐ deem Africans by educating them to renounce the stition and ignorance is not a subject that con‐ world of their ancestors if the European mission‐ cerns Sundkler; the conversion to the Christian aries were not viewing Africans negatively and faith and a readiness to witness is what interests speaking accordingly? him the most. The missionaries are made to Anyway, Sundkler makes it plain that the mis‐ sound genuinely interested in saving souls among sionary enterprise was riddled with problems. To a people who may be strangers to them, but not begin with, the most striking feature of this book necessarily ignorant and primitive. are the many kings, royal sons and chiefs meticu‐ Nevertheless, "conquista" says a lot about the lously listed in a running commentary on one attitudes of Europeans. For "conquista" is a Por‐ ruler after another who became converts and tuguese word used by Sundkler to describe the grew to become church leaders. There are so nature of the partnership between the King of many names I care not to list them. They all make Portugal and the Pope in which fnding out about the same point that Kings were important targets the rest of the world hidden far way across the big for missionaries in the story of Africa. For Sund‐ oceans and trading was a welcome opportunity kler, it is almost as if the conversion of the Kings for spreading the gospel (pp. 44-45). Apparently, it of Ethiopia to Christianity who in turn declared was normal among Portuguese traders to have that their subjects were to follow the same reli‐ missionaries stocked up with and the cross gion was a model by which to convert the entire of Jesus as normal cargo with which to redeem continent (passim). souls. To anyone who knows that a large part of This is intriguing to me because Christianity Portuguese and for a while British trade involved is a belief system that centers on personal, and the enslavement of Africans for work in planta‐ not cooperate, salvation. Moreover, the Kings tions and mines wherever new lands were con‐ mentioned betray fellow Africans into slavery and quered, priests bearing the cross sailing the colonial subjection in a shameful way. Kings per‐ oceans paddled by slaves highlight a serious con‐ suaded to follow the ways of the white man al‐ tradiction in the understanding of missionary lowed masses of African men and women to be work as a way of redeeming people. driven out of their homes in broad daylight and Sundkler mentions many times throughout sold as slaves (passim). In and beyond the book that Africans were subjugated and ex‐ on the East Coast where Arab traders were mak‐ ploited as slaves by Europeans. In fact, leaving out ing their own inroads into Africa the burden of the way European missionaries talked about color among Blacks was heavy (pp. 510 f). Sund‐ Africans makes the book easier to read for Euro‐ kler could have critiqued more sharply mission‐ peans trying to understand the role of their own

4 H-Net Reviews ary attitudes, even of those African agents trained became the doorway for the exploitation of their along western lines. own people in capitalist experiments intended to Sundkler writes, 'The relationship between beneft the White invaders. In this sense, the great king and missionary was decisive for what there efort made to show that Africans took part in the was of modernization' (p. 464). Leinhardt made spread of Christianity highlights serious ambigui‐ the same point by saying that Christianity is 'often ties about African Christianity that deserve more simply part of a larger package as it goes with ed‐ attention than one fnds in this book. ucation, new forms of income and a new way of It is a bit difcult to feel proud of the history life' (Leinhardt, 1982). Both are correct, although of the Church in Africa portrayed in this typically in my experience, vital to modernity in Africa are patriarchal fashion as a scholar sensitive about children brought under missionary care in large oppression. Just as I would join my students in numbers to learn to read, write, do arithmetic, ac‐ sympathizing with the Donatists of North Africa quire skills for use in industry and even learn the for reacting against "traidores" (p. 27), the news basics of western science. Kings may have been for African readers that the religion that they now favored as members of the privileged class but accept in their millions was transmitted to them they were not at the heart of mission as suggested by "traidores" of a modern kind, placating the de‐ by Sundkler. In the ffteen years I spent at a mis‐ mands of Imperial Europe at the expense of fel‐ sion station in colonial Rhodesia, not once did I low Africans sold to slavery tarnishes the image see nobility walking around the school. Even if of African royalty converting to Christianity. they learnt the same skills as authority fgures MARGINALITY such as Kings, the success of modernity in Africa Another idea found in this book that interests depends on ordinary people who grew up doing me is that of the 'gospel' becoming the religion for hard work. those who sufer. Several times, Sundkler draws Yet Sundkler insists on giving names of Kings attention to the attraction of Christianity to indi‐ and noble men from diferent groups who re‐ viduals whose sense of identity had been shaken ceived a good education that often took them to through turmoil in society, especially that caused Europe and back again. They return having em‐ by the violence of the slave trade and resultant braced many secular ideas, including the capital‐ wars in West, East and (p. 215). In ist mentality, but also Christian leaders who must fact , Gambia, The , in‐ behave as expected of them in spreading the deed the whole West African coastline provides Christian faith. To Lisbon, Paris, London the Kings the strongest evidence of African agency in mis‐ went for their theological education to return as sion, but also the ambiguity of this agency vis-a- leaders of the so-called Western Christian civiliza‐ vis a white oppressive culture. Indeed, the acute‐ tion in Africa. As a lay Christian who has man‐ ness of the sufering of slaves and those left be‐ aged to study theology abroad, I appreciate hind in dysfunctional communities, created such modernity at a more accentuated level than my distortions of the African identity of peoples it is a African friends. But as a Christian of sorts, I have wonder there are African scholars dreaming problems with the materialism of elites when about a residual African culture untainted by Eu‐ they return home to live among people who have ropean invasions. In West Africa at least, Sund‐ less western commodities. The Kings of Sub-Saha‐ kler writes, 'freed slaves must be seen as part of a ran Africa, whom Sundkler writes about at length, general category of marginalized groups, outcasts, yielded their power to European invaders so aliens and refugees, on the outskirts of society, much so that in becoming agents for mission they looking for a new identity and for some security

5 H-Net Reviews in a world of social and economic destruction' (p. the cross and acquiring new skills for survival un‐ 87). der the new patriarchy. Even if Sundkler's sources So it seems, that the vulnerability of people were silent on this subject, the popularity of on account of the disruption of peace and harmo‐ Christianity as a religion that large numbers of ny in their background world creates a window women embrace is important to study in the in‐ through which Christianity and new ideas about terest of balance (Mukonyora, forthcoming book). living in the world could be introduced. Africans NATIONALISM AND INDEPENDENCY whose homes were vandalized by slave traders As the author of a well-known book called and white settler armies demonstrate this process Bantu Prophets in , Sundkler looks at by causing people to turn away from their ances‐ slightly diferently by highlight‐ tors to appropriate Christianity. Unlike the Kings ing the fact that Africans broke away from Euro‐ whom Europeans handpicked for training into pean-led churches to found their own Churches. western Christianity, the early converts to the Independence has a special meaning in this re‐ Christian faith referred to by Sundkler here and gion where whites exploited Africans and there in this book, signify that experiences of op‐ marginalized them through racial discrimination pression have led to the acceptance of Christianity for many decades (pp. 818-814). The keyword as the framework for new growth. It is easier for Ethiopianism is used to describe the many people who have lost their sense of value to their Africans for whom the racism of whites presented world to accept new ideas, religious and other‐ problems (cf. Chirenje, 1987). This language is ap‐ wise. In this case, a new belief system, technical propriate in African societies riddled with prob‐ skills of people making claims to be as superior as lems of racism because of tyrannical white gov‐ they were powerful agents of change under colo‐ ernments refusing to yield power to blacks. South nialism, fnds a ready clientele among the exploit‐ Africa and Zimbabwe (pp. 987-996) stand out for ed and marginalized members of African society. Sundkler in this regard. Sundkler does well to draw attention to this Anyone concerned with the crisis of leader‐ tragedy because it sheds some light on what ship in Africa today will be struck by Sundkler's caused the strong African religions associated assertion that the education that Africans re‐ with family structures and hierarchies of power ceived at the hands of missionaries, 'prepared to give way to Christianity. Moreover, the elabo‐ them for the time when Africans would run their rate details about authority fgures in this big own afairs in Church and State' (p. 472). Sundkler book make it hard to notice that there were many observes that Christians led the demand for free‐ ordinary people also involved in spreading the dom in Zimbabwe: the Methodist Bishop Muzore‐ gospel in Africa, including the poor and even wa; Ndabaningi Sithole, a Congregationalist Pas‐ women (Gaitskell, 2000). Women are the main ad‐ tor; Mugabe, educated at Kutama Catholic Mission herents of the Church in Africa and in many ways and frst President of the new democracy; and function as its backbone. It does not take much to Methodist Canaan Banana (pp. 800-801, 983). Ap‐ show that women would have sufered acutely as parently, missionaries anticipated such develop‐ people beholden to the two patriarchies in con‐ ments and when they taught they empowered fict in the encounter of Europeans and Africans Africans through an education based on princi‐ (Schmidt, 1992). As I am trying to show in a forth‐ ples derived from western culture (p. 464). This is coming book, these unnoticed members of society an interesting observation that should be noted found in Christianity a new plausibility structure by western governments that, for the most part, where sufering could be grappled with by facing do not consider religion, including Christianity,

6 H-Net Reviews the religion of their forefathers, as in any way rel‐ ness Church best understood accordingly. Masowe evant to the quest for democracy. In Africa, reli‐ Apostles not only worship in fringe places in the gion is widely seen from a western secular view‐ open air, but also in doing so they communicate point as a phenomenon that hinders democracy, an important message about their marginality not the arm for it. and conception of God as a being manifested in Also worth mentioning is the fact that mis‐ the world through the Holy Spirit. The ideas of the sionaries translated the into local languages sun rising from the East to bring light upon the to enable Africans to further themselves beyond world and winds traveling through the atmos‐ the boundaries of missionary paternalism (Bar‐ phere are used to express God's immanence. The rett, 1968). It was imperative in to keyword "masowe" is thus an appropriate de‐ prioritize reading the bible in matters of faith in a scriptive term for the venues for prayer and spirit of libre examen - the free and unchecked thought pattern of this exemplary independent study of the Holy Scriptures characteristic of this church (Mukonyora, 2001). tradition (p. 770). According to Sundkler, Catholics REWRITING HISTORY also considered it important to adapt the Chris‐ It is time to resume studies of African-initiat‐ tian message to the culture of the people and ed Churches guided by new topical questions. The would not, as a result, have hesitated to translate idioms chosen by Africans to describe their activi‐ the scriptures into the (p. 774). ties tell us more about the Masowe in a post-colo‐ Consequently, there arose in African Chris‐ nial and post-modern world than the word Zion‐ tianity hundreds of groups, now too amorphous ism and lengthy details about chiefs and male ex‐ to count properly, but with a membership run‐ ecutors. I would like to challenge European schol‐ ning in several millions. Throughout southern, ars to explain to themselves what Africans do by central and other parts of Sub-Sahara Africa, for dealing frst with what Africans have to say, not example, there are churches that anthropologists perpetuate colonialism by relying too much on have described as Zion Churches (p. 995). The title records and ideas that are western- imperial. Zion is used to describe Churches founded and led There is plenty of scope for improvement by Africans who specifcally confront the fears through the reconceptualization of issues to dis‐ and aspirations of believers that arise from back‐ cuss in a massive book such as this one. As some‐ ground cultures and in the process draw attention one particularly interested in understanding the to what might be described as vernacular Chris‐ Church in Africa along the lines that will corre‐ tianity. The continuities between spond with the reality of millions of grassroots biblical culture and traditional African culture Christians who are women actively participating notwithstanding, I have always found the title in the life of the Church, the long list of African Zionist Churches misleading. Surely, there are kings leaves me wondering whether Sundkler ful‐ vernacular words that can be used in place of this ly appreciates that the most efective way in biblical term to describe Africans who represent which Christianity grows in Africa is through oral this type of Christianity. Recently, I wrote about traditions. These are accessible only to historians the Masowe (Wilderness) Apostles using their ready to balance information found in the own vernacular name to articulate the main ideas archival records of colonial authorities with of the movement. Rather than describe the Ma‐ learning to sing, dance, pray and heal among the sowe Apostles as Zionist, Prophetic, Messianic or average Christians far removed from the authori‐ whatever other Judeo-Christian name comes to ty structures of Church and speaking often in the mind, I describe them in my work as the Wilder‐ vernacular.

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Finally, I must end this review by mentioning, Chirenje, J. Mutero, Ethiopianism and Afro- as Sundkler does, that in Africa deserves Americans in southern Africa, 1883-1916. Baton some attention. Like Christianity, Islam has had Rouge : Louisiana State University Press, 1987. roots in Africa from the time it plunged North Gaitskell, Deborah, "Hot meetings and hard Africa into the so-called "dark ages" from the ffth kraals: African Biblewomen in Transvaal Method‐ century onwards. In two pages, Sundkler draws ism, 1924-60" Journal of 30(3) attention to a project that scholars of Islam in 2000. Africa might wish to start, giving an account of Leinhardt, R, "The Dinka and Catholicism" in the growth of Islam as an indigenous religion of J. Davis (ed.), Religious Organization and Reli‐ Africa (pp. 1035-6). If anyone is taking on this gious Experience, London and New York: Academ‐ challenge, it might help to focus on the various ic Press, 1982 (ASA Monographs, No 21). major themes separately and give them undivided attention in shorter books that students will fnd Mukonyora, I. "Masowe Wilderness Apostles" afordable and user-friendly. in Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature (Forth‐ coming, 2001). For example, my favorite theme, marginality, is obviously very important to understand, ac‐ Mukonyora, I. Womanhood in an African cording to Sundkler (pp. 87, 483). He writes about Wilderness Movement. (Forthcoming) experiences of marginality, especially through Schmidt, E. Peasant, traders, and wives: slavery, as 'part of a general category of marginal‐ Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, ized groups, outcasts, aliens and refugees, on the 1870-1939. London: Heinemann and Harare: outskirts of society, looking for a new identity and Baobab, 1992. for some security in a world of social and eco‐ Copyright (c) 2001 by H-Net, all rights re‐ nomic destruction'. But alas, in this book there is served. This work may be copied for non-proft not that much more said in support of this dy‐ educational use if proper credit is given to the au‐ namic thought. I fnished reading over a thousand thor and the list. For other permission, please con‐ pages of small print and did not fnd any really tact [email protected]. thorough discussion of this important theme and I am sure other readers will fnd a similar problem with parts of this book. Yet Sundkler's book is an important achievement deserving of this lengthy review. For it is by far the most ambitious piece of writing I have come across as an instructor in matters to do with Christianity in Africa. Works Cited Barrett, David B. Schism and renewal in Africa; an analysis of six thousand contemporary religious movements. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968. Bedieko, Kwame. Theology and identity: the impact of culture upon Christian thought in the second century and in modern Africa. Oxford : Regnum Books, 1992.

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Citation: Isabel Mukonyora. Review of Sundkler, Bengt; Steed, Christopher. The History of the Church in Africa. H-SAfrica, H-Net Reviews. May, 2001.

URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=5118

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