CHRISTIAN PERCEPTIONS OF ISLAM IN KENYA: AS EXPRESSED IN WRITTEN SOURCES FROM 1998 TO 2010 by MICHAEL DENNIS BRISLEN A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham July 2013 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis explores how Kenyan Christians perceive Islam and Muslims. The thesis approaches the problem by examining various Christian writings. Substantial and representative Christian literature was found in the form of scholarly writing, produced by Kenyan mainline Christians, and in the form of popular literature, produced by Kenyan Neo- Pentecostals. The historiography of Islam entering into Kenya; and a historical look at Christian- Muslim relations in Kenya, with particularly an examination of the recent debate over the inclusion of kadhi courts in the constitution, were also examined. The combination of the historical and the literary approach provides breadth into the examination of how Christians in Kenya perceive Islam and Muslims. After an analysis of the history and the texts, several themes that emerge from this analysis are examined from two perspectives. One, politically oriented themes are examined to understand how Kenyan Christians symbolically contest with Muslims over public space. It is seen that the symbolic contestation concerns the legitimacy to occupy roles in the nation- building project. Two, emerging theologies of religion are teased out of the writings to gain insight into the deeper theological structures from which Kenyan Christians operate as they seek to understand and interact with the religious Other (Islam). The thesis claims that the Kenyan cultural/religious context contributes significantly more so than traditional Christian-Muslim dynamics from outside of Africa. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated first to my youngest daughter, Alia, who cannot remember a time when her father was not busy working on his thesis. I also dedicate it to all of my Christian and Muslim friends in Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya who have taught me to see the world in a new way. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As John Donne said, “No man is an island,” and this thesis could not have been accomplished without the aid of a community. I vividly recall sitting in an office several years ago on the Selly Oak campus exploring the idea of pursuing a PhD, quite unsure of myself; and Dr. Werner Ustorf assured me that this was an endeavour worth pursuing and that I was capable of it. I want to express my appreciation for Dr. Ustorf’s encouragement and advice as my supervisor in the beginning of the programme. I also appreciate the discussions concerning Christian-Muslim relations in Africa with Dr. Sigvard von Sicard and his hospitality when I was in Birmingham. After Dr. Ustorf’s retirement, I had the privilege of Dr. David Thomas becoming my supervisor. I want to thank him especially for his guidance in pushing me into committing to a firm direction for the thesis. I’m not certain that this thesis would have been completed without this push. I also want to acknowledge the invaluable input of colleagues in Africa. I thank Dr. Sammy Linge for his frankness in our discussions of African Christianity, Western missions and Christian-Muslim relations. I thank Dr. Sammy Gitaari for helping me to understand Kenyan Pentecostalism. I thank my good friend, Dr. Arnold Gitonga, for many discussions, laughs and good times together during my time in Nairobi. I also thank Harold Miller, whose love for Africa and African Christianity, is infectious and who (unknowingly) got me started down this road. I must also express my appreciation to Dr. Ray Gingerich of Harrisonburg, VA, who has been willing to give freely of his time to discuss ideas related to my thesis and critique some of my writing. His assistance has been invaluable. And finally, I wish to thank my family; my wife, Cindy, and my children, Jessica, Jordan and Alia, for their patience and their support. CHRISTIAN PERCEPTIONS OF ISLAM IN KENYA: AS EXPRESSED IN WRITTEN SOURCES FROM 1998 TO 2010 List of Acronyms . .. vi Glossary of Non-English Words . .. viii CH 1 Introduction . 1 1.1 Purpose of the Study . 2 1.2 Methodology . 3 1.2.1 A Contextual Approach . 3 1.2.2 Analytical Approach to the Texts . 9 1.2.3 Symbolic Power and Symbolic Contestation . 12 1.2.4 Implicit Theology . 17 1.3 Defining Christian Groups in Kenya . 19 1.4 The Texts . 30 1.5 Literature Review . 32 1.6 Outline of the Study . 42 PART ONE HISTORICAL AND RELIGIO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND CH 2 Muslim and Christian Populations in Kenya . 45 2.1 Population Statistics as Contested Spaces 2.2 Muslims Sources on Population Statistics . 47 2.3 Christian Sources on Population Statistics . 49 2.4 Non-Religious Sources on Population Statistics . 51 2.5 Conclusion . 54 CH 3 The African Religious Heritage . 56 3.1 The Goals of African Religion 3.2 Vital Force and Power . 59 3.3 The Spiritual World . 62 3.4 Evil . 66 3.5 Community and Ubuntu . 68 3.6 Kenyan Christianity . 72 CH 4 Historiography of Islam in Kenya . 76 i 4.1 Islam as Foreign to Kenya 4.2 Origins of Islam in Kenya . 77 4.3 The Swahili People of the Coast and Islam . 78 4.3.1 Swahili Origins 4.3.2 Portuguese Interlude 4.3.3 Increasing Arab Influence on the East African Coast 4.3.4 Slavery and the Slave Trade in Kenya 4.3.5 British Arrival in East Africa 4.4 Somali People in Kenya and Islam . 96 4.5 Nubis and Islam . 101 4.6 Kenya’s Asian Muslim Community . 103 4.7 Conclusion . 104 CH 5 History of Christian-Muslim Encounters in Kenya . 105 5.1 The Early Possibilities 5.2 Early Portuguese Encounter with Muslims in Kenya . 106 5.2.1 Yusuf bin Hassan 5.3 Themes in Early English Missions on the Kenyan Coast . 111 5.3.1 Competition 5.3.2 Avoidance 5.3.3 Ambiguity 5.3.4 Antagonism 5.3.5 Marginalization 5.4 Christian-Muslim Relations since Independence . 121 5.4.1 The History of Kadhi Courts in Kenya 5.4.2 A Brief History of Change in the Kenyan Constitution 5.4.3 The Kadhi Courts Issue in the Constitutional Process 5.4.4 The Kadhi Courts Debate 5.5 Conclusion . 139 PART TWO ANALYSIS OF KENYAN CHRISTIAN LITERATURE ON ISLAM CH 6 Scholarly Discourse among Kenyan Christians concerning Islam or Christian-Muslim Relations . 141 ii 6.1 Kenyan Mainline Scholars . 142 6.2 Kenyan Scholars of Islam from Mainline Churches . 144 6.2.1 Newton Kahumbi Maina 6.2.2 Anne Nkirote Kubai 6.2.3 Joseph Wandera 6.2.4 Joseph Mutei 6.2.5 Conclusion 6.3 Discussions of Islam by other Kenyan Theologians . 178 6.3.1 Jesse Mugambi 6.3.2 D.W. Waruta 6.3.3 Cathy Majtenyi 6.3.4 John Mbiti 6.3.5 Ruth Muthei 6.3.6 Wasonga wa Wasonga 6.3.7 Shorter References to Issues Involving Islam 6.4 Two Evangelical Scholars of Islam . 189 6.5 Conclusion . 194 CH 7 Popular Christian Writing on Islam . 199 7.1 Popular Christian Literature in Kenya 7.2 Conversion Narratives: Moving from Islam to Christianity . 202 7.2.1 The Conversion of Rose Muhando 7.2.2 The Conversion of Shakira Asia 7.2.3 The Conversion of Veronicah Wanjiru Njoroge 7.2.4 The Conversion of Edward Buria 7.2.5 Conclusion 7.3 Conversion Narratives: Meeting Muslims along the Way . 215 7.3.1 Testimony of Irene Mwangi 7.3.2 Testimony of Joseph Njuguna 7.3.3 Testimony of Josephat Obare 7.3.4 Story of John Omino 7.3.5 Testimony of Margaret Wanjiru 7.3.6 Conclusion iii 7.4 Islam as a Spiritual Enemy . 223 7.4.1 Satanic Priesthoods 7.4.2 Godly Altars 7.4.3 David Owuor and Wilfred Lai 7.4.4 Teresia Wairimu 7.4.5 Conclusion 7.5 Islam as a Political Issue . 231 7.5.1 Wanjiru on Kadhi Courts 7.5.2 Isaac Kiragu on Political Issues 7.5.3 Letter Concerning Rights of Christians in a Muslim Area 7.5.4 Religious Commentary on the National Anthem 7.5.5 Conclusion 7.6 Polemics . 240 7.7 Islam as the Ideal Other . 248 7.8 Conclusion . 250 PART THREE THEMES IN INTERRELIGIOUS ENCOUNTER IN KENYA CH 8 Contesting Public Space . 254 8.1 Nation-building 8.2 Contesting Historical/Mythical Space . 256 8.2.1 Scholarly Christian Writing 8.2.2 Popular Christian Writing 8.2.3 Kadhi Courts Issue 8.2.4 Conclusion 8.3 Contesting Moral Space . 267 8.3.1 Scholarly Christian Writing 8.3.2 Popular Christian Writing 8.3.3 Conclusion 8.4 Contesting Spiritual/Theological Space . 274 8.4.1 Scholarly Christian Writing 8.4.2 Popular Christian Writing 8.4.3 Conclusion iv 8.5 Christians Contesting Public Space . 280 CH 9 Emerging Theologies of Religion in Relation to Islam .