56 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN

By Fritz Pannekoek

Three evangelical Protestant denominations e Anglicansth , , Methodists and Presbyterians established missions in the Canadian West from 182 o 1870.t 0 ' Their succes s marginalwa s , wito n h missionary achievin e ultimatgth e goa f self-sufficieno l predomd an t - inantly agricultural communities. Their existenc s nevewa e r more than fragile. Agriculture was retarded, only in a few cases spon- taneous, and always ancillary to hunting and "tripping".2 The missionaries were themselves responsible for many of the shortcoming agriculturae th f so l missions Anglicane Th . s were unable to change their idyllic conception of agriculture to suit the harsh environment of the West. The Methodists were reluctant to impose civilization d thereforan , e agriculture until Christianit s firmlwa y y established. The Presbyterians were divided, the missionary adhering e Anglica e missioth th o t d nan e Methodisboarth o t d t view. Most important however l denominational , s believe Indiae dth n inferiod an r incapabl f existenceo e withou missionary'e th t s protectio leaderd nan - ship. The missionar thiw sysa inferiorit repeatee cause th th f s eo ya d failur f agriculturao e l experiment. Successs feltwa , t i coul, e b d achieved if the Indian were taught diligence, and if bountiful aid were extended. Until a complete conversion were made, the hunt, fisheries, and trip would be tolerated. Unfortunately given the harsh climate, the geography of the Canadian Shield and the absence of a substantial market, agriculture coul t functiodno souna s na d basr efo the mission economy. The constant exhortation to pursue agriculture, e continueth d e missionary'failurth d ean s equally continuous assist- ance combined with the decline in wildlife after 1860 to bind the Indian to the missionary. After 1870, with the failure of the principal mean f supporto s , i.ee hunt th .e fisherie th , especialld an s e tripyth , and renewed increase in population, the idea of independent agri- cultural missions was completely abandoned. Instead the reserve syste adopteds mwa agriculturae Th . l missions faile sustaio dt n what fragile prosperity they experienced from 184 1860o 0t . They became the pockets of poverty that dot the Shield today. Although the first Anglican clergyman was in Rupert's Land as earl s 1820ya , agricultur t enthusiasticallno s wa e y entered into until Reve th . William Cockran mose ,th t diligen Churce th f o t h Missionary Society's clergymen, propose . Peter'St e dth s Indian Settlemenn i t I 1829. His views on agriculture dominated all future plans for I Anglican settlement, and influenced both the Methodists and Pres- byterians. 56 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN Initially agriculture was to play only a minor role in the evangelization of Rupert's Land. Benjamin Harrison, the Evangelical on the London Committee of the Hudson's Bay Company, the Rev. John West, the first Anglican clergyman in the West, and George Simpson l powerfual e th , l governo f Rupert'o r s Land, envisaged nothing as elaborate as a network of agricultural settlements. A school establishee b e educatio o Rived th t e Indiar s Re th fo r t wa f da o n n children. Agriculture's only function would be to recover the Indian youths from their "savage habit customs,d an so reduc t d e th an "e expense to the Church Missionary Society of keeping the children. Afte completioe th r f theino r education, they returnee werb o et o dt their relative interioe th n si r wherehopeds wa t i , they would spread Christiae th n gospel.3 This early scheme never cam maturito s completelet wa d yan y abandone e latth e n i d1820' bot y e b Hudson's th h y CompanBa s y and the Society. West's successor, the Rev. David Jones, was con- vinced that sending the Indian boys into the wilderness to propagate the gospel would result in failure. Their Christianity was too fragile. theio t losa s same t rsa a th future s t e A timwa fearee e H .eh d that the habits and disposition of the Indian would "burst over the feeble barrie School-boy'e th f o r s restraint."4 His solution addition i , agricultureo nt , involved instruction ni trades suc s rougha h carpentr weavingd yan t mosA . t howevers hi , ideas were very incomplete and his plans for the boys' future never more than a conviction that they would be absorbed into the Red River community r eventuallo , y eve sene nb t int interiore oth . Jones balked y suggestioan t n agriculturaa a f o n l Indian mission which would absorb those boys too old for the school. He feared that such inter- ference wit nativee hth s "would brinunpleasann a n go t collision" with Company.e th " The Rev. William Cockran had no such fear and almost im- mediately upon his arrival commenced a vigorous campaign for an agricultural mission. He condemned the former neglect of the Indian, especiall e adultyth Joney b ,Westd an s . Cockran discarde e idedth a of itineracy, the idea that the Methodists and Presbyterians were to seize d whican , h indee e Companth d y would have preferrede H . though t impossibli t e to benefi e nativth t e while they continueo t d hunt o preacT . h effectivel e continuallth o t y y wandering Indian would requir a emissionar r almosfo y t every family. Equally ludicrous, Cockra s certainnwa , woul a missionar e db t everya r yfu post. The Indians were seldom at the posts, they only came when they wer wann ei f foo o tr trad o d e goods. Furthermore Cockran reasoned that the Chief Factors did not want the Indians about the posts. They constituted a substantial drain on the often scanty stock of provisions. No method, Cockran was convinced, would be effective save "civiliza-

\ 57 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN tion." Indians must gatherebe d into self-sustaining Christian villages ohundredx f si fiv o t e , totally dependen agriculturen o t . Huntind gan tripping must be abolished.6 The principal valu f agricultureo Cockra o et s abilit it s o yt nwa inculcate habit f industro s economyd yan . Barbaris e verth ys mwa cause of indolence which in turn led to poverty, want and debt. Cockran d indeean , l missionarieal d s irrespectiv f denominationo e , glorified work as the "greatest friend Piety has on earth." Not work in the ordinary sense, or for its own sake, but Work for the Glory of God. Work established worldly comfort, but more important it freed man from his struggle for survival and allowed him to contemplate natur e existencs th Gods hi f hi e o .d Idlenesfirse an th ts steswa n po the path to hell, a path Cockran was certain the Indian was well e belie s th fir down n mfwa i e Indian thae th H f .i t s became agricul- turalists, they would become "rational beings." They would acquire "steady habits, d raisan " e "respectable families. f theI " y became hunters they woul e "foreveb d r lost." Cockran's son-in-lawa , missionar f lesseyo r note, roundly denounce7 e huntth d , certain that the character and habit's of the hunter [are] diametrically opposed to the right development of Gospel principle and prac- tice. His habits are inseparable from prodigality, idleness and his never failing conditio . tha . f beggar o . tn extremd an y e want.8 There was equal opposition to tripping. Those Indians engaged in transporting supplies from York to Red River were in Cockran's opinion "the most base, unprincipled, immoral people that inhabit this continent."9 Cockran's blueprin e Indiath r nfo t Settlement envisionea d blissful, idylli pastorad can l existence Indiane Th . s would procure their livelihood in an honourable honest manner within the sound of the Gospel and the House of God, where their souls d wit e breafe shal th h e f d lifeb whero dl an , e they shale b l reminded of their duty to God, their neighbour and their own soul.10 Since the Indian, deep in poverty and ignorance, would be unable to procure eve e baresth n t essential o commenct s e farming, Cockran reasoned that the missionary, at least in the initial stages, would have to supply all. He intended to distribute not only the tools and seeds, oxeo tilo tw nt sufficiena ld t eve an bu provido nt n ma t ea quantit y firse ofth soitr cropfo l modesA . t hous rood ean t fishincellaa d an r g t werne esuppliede alsb o ot . Later when enough settler estabd ha s - lished themselves, a grist mill would be built. Clothing was essential. To Cockran 58 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN another article of economy and convenience [was] a bed. spendn A ma tims thire sfourta hi thi n ei f on d o sr ho position . Ipersoa f n throws himself dow a t grounnighte na n th o n r o ,do floor in the same apparel, which he wears in the day, it will not last more than half the time it would do if used in a proper manner. If the Capot is used for the day and the blanket for nighe th thein i t r right order, both articles will last longer than if used promiscuously." e centeth t f evero A r y village e missiowoulth e b d n fard man school. As well as providing the example of and opportunity for industr supplo t e settlers e far s e th schooyth m yth wa d an l. After three years Cockran thought, rather optimistically, the Indians would no longe missioe r looth o kt n far r supportmfo . They woul selfe db - sufficient. Rather than havin e missiogth n farm continu provido t e e seecharityd dan publi,a c granary unde supervisioe rth Indiae th f no n Chief, the missionary and the miller was to be established. Every farmer woul forcee db deposio t d a quantitt y of grain sufficienr fo t next year's seed and to ward off famine. No Indian would be allowed to join the settlement who did not intend to farm or send his children to the mission school to be educated. West's Indian school, whic d continuehha o emphasizt d e book learning, was to be converted into an Industrial School. The boys woul e taughb d t husbandry, carpentr d weavingan y e girlsth ; , spinning, knitting, sewing, and milking. Cockran was particularly concerned about the Indian woman. they must be made to bear a part of the burden of life, for the increase of their virtue and the safety of their souls. They are dreadfully given to gossiping, whoring, and lying: industry " alone can recover them from their evil ways, and establish their minds in virtue.12 The entire schem coso e t Societ th s t t morwa e yno e than twelvo t e fifteen pounds for every Indian settled. Cockran' e Indias th pla r nfo n Settlement d probablan , y even more the settlement itself, became the model for agricultural missions throughout Rupert's Land. At the missions south of suc s Nepowewinha , Partridge Crop, Westbourne, Fort Pelly, Fort Ellice, Scanterbury, Portage La Prairie, and Landsdowne the model was pursued with the greatest vigour and conviction. Allowances must be mad r individualismfo e . Charles Pratt e nativth , e catechist a t Fort Pelly, and his wife would rather trap, trade and hunt buffalo than grub potatoes.13 The further nort missioe hth gravee nth e doubtth r s aboue th t practicabilit f agricultureo y e missionarieTh . t a Devons , English a RongL c eRiverLa seriousld an , y doubte e capabilitdth e soith l f yo 59 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN climatd an provido t e e sufficien r eithefo t r d manwhite re Th r . o e missionary at Devon was one of the few who realized the impact of f lifenoticee o H .y wa d w witne h e alarth m that whil e Indiath e n children were learnin reao gt d they were losing "the opportunitf yo becoming sufficiently dexterou t huntingsa able b depen o et o " t d upon it for support.14 It was also realized that any gathering of Indians for a prolonged period would soon exhaust the wild life. Yet all were adamant that continued accesIndian'e th o st s mind civilizationd an , , were essentiafiry man r conversiofo l Christianityo nt missione Th . - aries of the Canadian Shield admitted, though most reluctantly for they were in agreement with Cockran's condemnation of the hunt, that the hunt and tripping were necessary to subsidize the efforts of ploughe th . Fishin s howevegwa r regarded with much greater favor t leasa fo t i rt allowe Indiae dth remaio locationc e nt on La e n ni Th . a RongL e missionary even propose o increast d e fish productioy b n "depositinf whito a e ov sturgeond fise an hgth " inte lake.oth e 1Th 5 ultimate goal was however as idyllic as Cockran's — civilized and Christian village f necessari s d dependenan t e ploughyth ne n e o t th , the hunt, and like Cockran they never stinted the assistance needed to achieve this goal. Onl missionarye yon , John Smithurst, showe da spirite d oppo- sitio o Cockran't n s e mosschemeth r t par Fo s twelv. hi t e yearn i s Rupert's Land (1839-1851) were . Peter'sspenSt Riverd t a t Re , . Smithurst was most definite in support of the hunt, and thought it quite reasonable that it play an equal part with the farm. He would much rather that they were away hunting than employed among the European and Half Breed Settlers, where they would be expose temptatione th o dt f beeso r [and] rum.16 Smithurst, overlookin e India th e rol f gth o e n womae huntth n ,i n reasoned that with the women and children taking care of the farms the hunters would be at an advantage. Their movements are not retarded by a train of women and childre thed moreovee nan y ar t compelleno r turo dt n back upon every little failure as is the case with those who have nothing to depen de animal upoth r foot fo nbu ds thae caughte ar t th f I . hunt be unsuccessful for a few days, starvation drives the heathen Indian o somt s e fishing place t howeveno ; r wite th h Christian Indians who have generally with them flour sufficient for a fortnights provision and need not of animals caught in hunting.17 Smithurst's second criticis s evemwa n harsher f followei d an , d would have spelled a complete reversal of Anglican policy from settlemen itineracyo t t . Cockra condemnes nwa r concernindfo g him- self 60 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN

muco to h wit temporae hth l wants peopl f hi civilizatioi f s so ea n wa sprimara evangelizatiod yan nsecondara y object.18 Smithurst viewed the objects in reverse. He felt that most of the difficulties at the Indian Settlement arose from the natives not "realiz- ing all the dreams held out to them as to the advantages of civiliza- tion." Smithurst advocated a minimum of assistance. He even went suggeso t s a r t fa tha s Indiae a tth n shoul t alte "mods dno rhi life.f eo " The Indian's temporal affairs were his own concern. 19 Smithurst was however unprepared to do little more than indi- cate his dissatisfaction with Cockran to the Secretaries. In fact there s littlwa e deviation from Cockran's blueprint. Smithurst, excepr fo t approva e huntth f ,o l believed civilizatio d Christianitan n y insepar- able, and was as industrious as any other in assisting the Indian to settle, providing cows, grain and agricultural tools. In contrast to Cockran, he was also firm in the belief that the Indian must work for all assistance excep r casen sickness.i o t f "ole o s ag d " Smithurst's . Peter'St Riverefusad e e th th sRe o f rt o lIndianoutburse du s swa t o fenct e their graveyar n 1845i d , whil e Methodisth e t Indiant a s Norway House had done so willingly. He reasoned that the cause must be Cockran's unrestricted charity.20 Churce Th h Missionary Society Committe London ei n reinforced the plans for agricultural settlement. During the first part of the nineteenth century e Society'th , f "individualismo e s on polic s wa y " and "paternalism. missionary'e "Th s primar ybrino t dute s gth ywa native into the "external Church," to gather individual souls for whic woule h bote b d h "fathe mother.d an r " Thi s quiti s e evident in Cockran's relations with the Indian boys at West's school. They are perfectly satisfied with us. They look up to us for the supply of all their wants, and consider us as their adopted • parents, and every boy seems willing to reside with us." By 184e Societth 1 d decideha y d against "paternalism," primarily becaus financialls wa t ei y impracticable t howeveno s wa r t I . completely abandoned until 1851 when Henry Venn, Secretary of the Society from 184 18721o t , enunciate policda prevaiyo t thas r wa tfo l nineteente rese th f th o t h century "Minuts Hi . e upo Employmene nth t Ordinatiod an f Nativno e Teachers" regarde e ultimatdth e objecf o t a mission to be the settlement of a Native Church under Native Pastors upo nself-supportina g system t wouli , bore db minn ni d thae th t progres a Missio f so n mainly depends upo e trainind nth an p gu locatioe th f Nativno e Pastorss beeha n t that d i happil s an ; a , y expressed, the "euthanasia of a Mission" takes place when a Missionary, surrounde y well-traineb d d Native congregations 61 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN under Native Pastors, is able to resign all pastoral work into their hands d graduallan , y rela s superintendenchi x e ovee th r pastors themselves, till it insensibly ceases; and so the Mission passes into a settled Christian community. Then the missionary and all missionary agency should be transferred to the "regions beyond."22 The ultimate goa"sels wa lf support, self governmen seld fan t exten- sion." That this e ultimatshoulth e b d e goae missionarieth l l al s l whethe al s possible t agreedwa no t i t r .bu , Theoretically this goal combined with Cockran's agricultural missions should have provide dbasa e from whic t leasha t some Indians could have achieved an independent existence and readied themselves inevitable foth r e white immigration that would follo surrendee wth r of Rupert's Land to . Some could have escaped the reservation. The goal was never realized. The missionaries were never con- vinceIndian'e th f do s abilit govero yt n himself ; prevaila ther s ewa - inferioritys belieg hi in n i f . Thoug principae h th mos w sa t l causef so e Indian'th s short coming s barbarisma s , paganism e accomth d -an , panying indolenc povertyd ean believew fe , Indiae dth n more thana combinatio f immoralo n , capricious, intractable, indolent, callous, prideful, wayward, extravagant, ungracious, improvident d carean , - less. Cockran make t quiti s e clear that "the Dominant Rac f thio e s Continent are the English," the inferior the "aborigines," and that the latter could neve more b r e than such.23 whateven I r ligh contemplatu tyo Indiae eth earthn n o behol u ,yo d him destined to suffer a large amount of misery. In his heathen erratick s stateignoranti e h , , brutish, viciou d miserablean s ; wit ha gloom y futur f everlastino e g separation from Gode th , source l goo oal f d before himChristiaa n I . civilized nan d state, thoug conditios hhi ameliorateds ni stile h , l continues poor, sickly, and miserable. It is only when you view him as heir of immor- tality, that you are cheered, with his prospects under the gospel. 24 Eve e Indianth hald nan f breed missionarie catechistd an s s thought their brothers "truly heathen and truly barbarous."25 The India s regardenwa s extremelda y susceptibl e evilth so t e of European society. The Indians appear to lose their ancient hardihood ... by con- tact with Europeans. They acquire European diseases of a very " fatal characte . habit . . r f smokin savage o s th . alad . e g. an s o ofteto n becomes effeminat d degradean e d soodan n falls prey deadle th . y.. curso t firewatee eth r rum.o r 26 The Indias feltwa must ni kepe b t t away fro e degeneratmth e half breed and corrupt European. . 62 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN 1 These belief Indian'e th n si s inferiorit susceptibilitd yan vico yt e contained the germ of the idea for the reservation system and also in- creased the Indian's dependence on the missionary. The very idea of nativa e settlement containe Venn'n di s "Minute" implie da reserve . Certainly Cockra doubto n d snha tha . Peter'St t s parish e Indiath , n Settlement, was a reserve and referred to it as such. The Rev. Abraham Cowley chargn e Settlemeni , th f e o e th f n 1862o i t s ,wa same opinion. When pressur . Peter'St placee s th s ewa n Indiando t sa Red Rive selo t r l som f theieo r lan alloo dt w expansio e overth f -no populated St. Andrew's, a half-breed parish, Cowley pleaded that the governmen paternao s o respece t b t s e a reservl th t thad e an eth t Indians be regarded as minors and therefore unable to negotiate the sale of their farms.27 The interior missions however were never re- ferred to as reserves nor specifically set aside as at Red River. But then there was no need, since the Indians were for the most part the only beings permitted, willing, and available, to settle elsewhere than Red River t leasa , t unti mixee th l d bloods migrate interioe th o dt n i r the 1860's. e Indian'beliee th Th n i f s inferiority also boun e Indiadth o nt a continued stat f dependenceeo . Instea f realizindo e limitationgth s that the environment imposed on agriculture, too often the missionary blame l e Indian'failural dth n o e s barbari d heathean c n condition. The constana resul s wa t t exhortatio greateo nt r diligenc attaio et n e elusivth e goal. Sinc e environmenth e t dictated continued failure, s t dictateoi d continued charity. The Methodists and Presbyterians were even less successful in their attempts to establish agricultural settlements, not because they opposed them t rathebu , r becaus f theio e r peculia- re re vieth f wo lationshi f Christianitpo civilizationd yan . Their positio s clearlnwa y stated in the Christian Guardian in an article by a prominent Metho- dist clergyman. No sooner does the Gospel begin to operate upon the mind of the Heathen than it leads to the first step in civilization. It is shortly seen to be indecorous and improper for persons to meet togethe a stat n f filthinesi reo d comparativan s e nudite th n i y K public worship of Almighty God. The people themselves are soon made to feel, under the teaching of the Missionaries, that a more decent exterior is necessary; and thus the first step is take civilization ni clothind nan introduceds gi nexe th ts steA . p Gospee th l induce settlesa d cours f lifetendd eo an ,promot o st e industry.28 This conviction that Christianity must come before civilization placed a heavy emphasis on itineracy rather than settlement as the prin- cipal technique for evangelization in the initial contact with the 63 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURAL ZIONS FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN Indian s ChristianitA . y took effec t i woult e supplementeb d d an d eventually superseded by settlement.89 Itinerac neves ywa s popula a rNorwae th n i r e y th Hous n i s ea Fort area . e MethodisExcepth r fo t t superintendent's travels to points as distant as Dunvegan and Lesser Slave Lake, all attentio s devote e developmenwa nth o t d e Rossvillth f o t e station. Several reasons can be offered for this discrepancy. First, the Plains , with the relatively independent and satisfactory life the buffalo permitted, were unwillin o settlet g . Conversely e Saulteauth , d an x Swamp ye Lak Creth f ee o region wer n suci e h wretched and pitiable condition that little persuasio settlo nt s necessary ewa . Second, the missionaries found it impossible to itinerate as well as superintend a mission. There had been an Indian settlement at Norway House since 182 thid 8an s demande missione muco ds th f ho - aries' time that "th abandoned.e b e o circuit d ha t 30 s Indeewa t i d I only with assistance that James Evans, superintenden t Norwaa t y House from 184 01846o t beed ,ha n abl huno et t souls furthee th n i r interior. Later missionaries stationed at Jackson's Bay or Rossville, never undertook any duty other than that of resident missionary. Onl e Presbyterianyth a seriou d d effectivha s an s e a pla r fo n joint itineran agriculturad an t e resuln a th f s o tl wa mission t i d an , uncertain compromise between Rev. James Nisbet and the Foreign Mission Committee of the Synod of the Presbyterian Church of Canada, rather tha f thoughtfuno l planning. Initiall e Committeyth e did not even feel a mission was warranted. When Nisbet finally per- suaded s importancetheit f mo , they demande itinerann da t one, con- vince s theda y were that Christianity must precede civilizationd an , that the cost of an agricultural settlement, estimated at twenty-five hundred dollars, was excessive, since neither the Committee nor Nisbet were willin o abdicatt g e their positionn a e resul s th , wa t excessively costl weld yan l staffed missio t Princa n e Albert, witha "circuit" extendin Foro gt t Carlton.31 Thoug l missionarieal h s contemplate e establishmenth d f o t settlements only general plans were assumee outlinedb n ca dt I . with certainty tha l woulal t d agree with Evans tha e firsth t t functiof o n any settlement would be afforo t missionare dth y greater facilitie instructinn si risine gth g generatio . Educatio . n. questioe wels ni th f l o nig t n hou wher e the natives retain all their wandering habits.32 alss owa t believeI d that settlement would allo e residenwth t teacher to acquire the "language" and "acquaint himself with the peculiar manners, existing vices and reigning superstitions."33 Equally im- portant, settlement would provid missionare eth y wits hhoma hi r efo family, a provision base from which to dispense charity, and a centre for his ministry. The further advanced the process of Christianization 64 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN and settlement the more complex the schemes became. James Evans envisages a manual training school at Rossville along the lines of Cockran's Industrial School, and Thomas Hurlburt, Superintendent of Methodist Missions (1854-1857), a training center for native agents. Agriculture played a lesser role in Methodist and Presbyterian proposals for mission settlement than in Anglican proposals especially 1840'se inth , thoug t becamhi e progressively more importane th n i t 1860's. The Methodists at Rossville and Jackson's Bay believed it t possiblno enteo et r upo systematiy nan c cours traininf eo g with them [the Indians theis a ] r climat severeo ..to ther s .i efo m o t depend much on the cultivation of the soil.34 s concludewa t I d therefore thae Indiath t n must depend almos- en t tirely on hunting and fishing for subsistence. Ther s neve attempy wa e an r discourago t t e huntth e ; indeed every encouragemen gives suco wa t n"t h extencountre th y s a t yma allow." The prevailing philosophy was that if this [the hunt s theii ] r [the Indian's] occupatio e powenth r of the Gospel cannot be otherwise than beneficial by making them more industriou mord san e discharge intenth n o t f theieo r debts and more conscientious in not contracting them without a proba- bilit f paying.yo 33 Trippin fishind gan g were equall toleratede b o yt , though eventually the Indian was to be persuaded to engage in agriculture. It was still highea s a l rseeal occupationy nb , firse "onth tf eo lesson f Christso - ianity," for it more than any other activity, and like Christianity itself, encouraged industry, settlement and a greater number of the virtues considered indispensabl civilization.o t e 36 Tolerance for the hunt continued, but by 1860 the need for agriculture was seen as most urgent, especially by the Methodists. The Rossville fishery and the buffalo near Victoria and Prince Albert were failing. Missionarie se Methodis sucth s ha t George McDougall realized that the day has arrived when the work must assume a different form [from the previous itineracy]; it must be consolidated, Churches mus erectee b t Schoold dan s established e hunteth d ran , taught to till the soil. This is his [the Indian's] only hope. His present resources will soon be exhausted.37 o definitn Eve o s n e Methodist plar encouraginfo n g agriculture emerge t besa d t onldan yvagua e patter determinede b n nca firse Th t. step was always the construction of a mission station, ice house, dairy store house and garden. Indians were encouraged to cultivate plots, and seeds and tools were provided, but there is no indication that assistance was anywhere as systematic or bountiful as that received 65 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN

by their Anglican counterparts. It was rendered when required and asked t agriculturbu , s nevewa e r forced e expensae th t th f o e hunt. Lik e Anglicanth e s both denominations though e Indiath t a n lower being, mentally inferior and incapable of survival without the generosity of the missionary or the government. The Indian must be protected fro e almosmth t certain influ f settlero x s with their vices and recklessness, for if they were not "trials and dangers — such as we have not seen may be our lot."38 The end result could only be Nisbee on e t th proposed advocatee H . d that proper reserves be made for them, strong measures taken to prevent the bringing of strong drink among them, and assist- ance given by the Government to such Indians as wish to settle o firsyears.e n w t leasth lana fe tr d— tfo 3 9 The Methodist-Presbyterian plans for agricultural missions were a failure. The policy of itineracy especially on the prairies de- layed the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary life. Even where settlemen effectivs t wa leas a r eo t persistently pursue t Rossvilla s da e and Prince Albert the means of survival hinged almost entirely on the trip and hunt rather than on agriculture. As the fur trade inevitably retreated northward, the mission economy collapsed. The Methodist and Presbyterian success was limited to the fur trade era of the nineteenth century. While no missionary's over-sanguine expectations were realized, the result was nevertheless profound — communities of as many as five hundred that wer amalgan ea f civilizatiomo barbarisd nan m— balanca e between sedentary agricultur nomadie fishingd th e an d an ,c hunt and trip. The forces of barbarism and civilization were always precarioun i s balance singlo N . e economic activity could adequately suppor mission e missionarye th t th t Ye . , irrespectiv f denominationeo , continue pres o dsedentara t r sfo y agricultural existence Indian'e Th . s inability to conform to the missionary's precise wishes reinforced racial arrogance. The end result was continued charity, paternalism, and the reserve.40

FOOTNOTES Profeso . Thoma G e Universit . th L rf o s f Albertyo a prompted this paper but bears no responsibility for its contents. 1. The West refers to the three prairie provinces. 2. "Tripping e Rupert'th s i " s Land vernacula r boafo r t labour wite th h Hudson's Bay Company. . 3 H.B.C.A., , A.6/40Harriso63 . fo , n to West, Feb , 182226 . ; , 4.4/8882 . fo , Simpso Committeeo nt , Aug , 18254 . ; A.6/40 . 167-169fo , , Harriso Joneso nt , Marc , 182412 h . Archives consulte y permissiob d e Hudson'th f o y n Ba s Company. 4. C.M.S.A., M.I, Jonee Secretaryth o st , Jul , 1827y1 . 66 PROTESTANT AGRICULTURA WESTERE L ZIONTH R SFO N INDIAN . 5 Ibid., M.I, Jones, Journal , 18252 y ; Ma ,M.I , . CoatesJoneD o t s , Jul, y20 1824; M.I, Jones to the Secretary, Feb. 10, 1829. . 6 Ibid., M.I, Cockra e Secretaryth o t n , Aug , 182811 . , Aug , 18297 . . 7. Ibid., M.I, Cockra Revo nt . Bickersteth.E , Aug , 1829.3 ; Cockran, Journal, Dec , 1835 . 2 Cockra Secretaryo nt , Jul , 1833y25 . . 8 Ibid., M.6, Henry George Secretaryth o t e , Jan , 1857.10 , M.I, Cockran, Journal, May 24, May 26, 1827. 9. Ibid., M.I, Cockra e Secretaryth o nt , Jul , 1823y25 . . Ibid.,10 M.I, Cockra Secretary,e th o nt Aug , 1828.11 . . Ibid.,11 M.6, Cockra Secretarye th o nt , Aug , 1861.5 . . Ibid.,12 M.I, Cockrae ecretaryth o t n , Jul, 183330 y ; M.I, Cockrao t n Bickersteth, Aug. 3, 1829. 13. Ibid., 0., Rev. Henry Budd to Major Straith, Aug. 1, 1859; M.3, Cowley, Journal, Feb , 184313 . ; M.5, Stag Venno gt , Jan , 1855.29 ; M.6, Georgo t e Rev. J. Chapman, Feb. 5, 1860; M.5, Minutes of the Corresponding Com- mittee, June 7, 1852. , . Ibid.,14 0., Hunt, Journal, n.d. (approximately Nov. 1852), . . Ibid.,15 , HuntO. , Journal, Jun , 1857e13 . ,

16. Ibid., M.I, Smithurst, Annual Report, Aug. 1, 1846. " "' ' 17. Ibid., : . 18 Ibid., M.4, Smithurst, Journal, Jul , y18478 . ;: • ^ '••' 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. . Ibid.,21 M.I, Cockra e Secretariesth o nt , Jul , 1827y30 . 22. W. Knight e MissionaryTh , Secretariat f Henryo Venn, B.D. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1899), p. 307. 23. C.M.S.A., M.6, Cockran, Journal, Aug. 5, 1861. 24. Ibid., M.4, Cockran to the Secretaries, Aug. 1, 1849. 25. Ibid., M.5, Budd to the Secretary, Jan. 13, 1853. 26. Ibid., M.7, Bompas to Anderson, Dec. 14, 1867. 27. Ibid., 0., Cowley, Annual Report, Jan. 31, 1862; Nor'Wester, Oct. 9, 1862. 28. Dr. Beecham, "Christianity and Civilization," Christian Giiardian, Nov. 26, 1856. 29. John Riverd McDougallRe e Dayse th Rebellion th f o n I , (: William Briggs, . 1903)71 . p , 30. H.B.C.A., D.4/92, fo. 46, Simpson to Committee, July 10, 1828. 31. P.A.M., Nisbet Correspondence, Nisbet to the Rev. Wm. McLaren, July 6, 1869; John SynodBlace th o kt , Apri , 18647 l . 32. M.M.S.A., Box 14, Letter 258, Evans to Simpson, June 10, 1843. . H.B.C.A.33 , D.5/8 . 370fo , , Evan o Simpsont s , Jul , 1843y28 . 34. "Missions at Norway House and Jackson's Bay," Nor'Wester, Sept. 28, 1860. 35. H.B.C.A., D.5/17, fo. 279, Evans to Simpson, May 22, 1846. 36. John McDougall, Saddle, Sled and Snowshoe (Toronto: William Briggs. 1896), p. 120. 37. "Extracts of three letters from the Rev. George McDougall, Chairman of e Hudson'th y DistrictBa s e firsth , t e Plainsdateth n o d, Aug , 1862,28 . " Christian Guardian, Marc , 186311 h . 38. "From the Rev. John McDougall, dated Woodville Mission, Rocky Mountains., January, 1869," Wesleyan Notices, May 1869, p. 42. 39. "Letter from James Nisbet," Presbyterian Record, 1869, IX, p. 75. a ful r l 40Fo descriptio. e settlementth f o n e Fritse s z Pannekoek "Protestant Agricultural Mission e Canadiath n i s n Wes o 1870t t " (Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Alberta, 1870).