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FACT Foundation THE THE JATROPHA HANDBOOK HANDBOOK © FACT Foundation Horsten 1 5612 AX Eindhoven The Netherlands www.fact‐foundation.com info@fact‐foundation.com ISBN 978‐90‐815219‐1‐8 FROM CULTIVATION TO APPLICATION THE JATROPHA HANDBOOK From Cultivation to Application © FACT Foundation and individual authors mentioned per chapter. Horsten 1 5612 AX Eindhoven The Netherlands www.fact‐foundation.com info@fact‐foundation.com All rights reserved. First printing April 2010. ISBN 978‐90‐815219‐1‐8 The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to FACT Foundation. FACT Foundation encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission to reproduce promptly, and, when the reproduction is for non‐commercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopy portions for classroom use is not required, though notification of such use will be appreciated. This complete handbook has been placed in modular form on the FACT Foundation website, in English, Spanish and Portuguese. FACT Foundation and the authors are not liable for any damage or injuries resulting from the use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained within this Handbook. i ii FOREWORD In our fight for a global cleaner environment, the Dutch Ministry of Environment invests in various ways to achieve GHG emission reductions within the framework of sustainable development. Local production and utilization of biofuel such as derived from the Jatropha plant can be contributing to achieving these goals through enhancing income in agriculture, the provision of energy, and positive environmental impact. Jatropha seeds can be converted into energy carriers such as oil or biodiesel, electricity and biogas. It can assist in rural production, transforming raw agricultural products to added value marketable products, energy generation for irrigation and conserving land from erosion. As such, Jatropha displays a wide potential of applications. In this handbook however, the focus is on the energy uses of Jatropha. Drivers for increased use of biofuels such as Jatropha, are local employment, energy security and climate change mitigation. The Jatropha plant increases above ground and underground biomass and hence fixes CO2 as carbon. At the same time the Jatropha nuts can be used for biofuel production, thereby reducing the need for fossil fuels. An additional positive effect is that Jatropha can be used in a local renewable energy system that allows local small holders to generate income on energy, rather than having no other option than to pay for fossil fuels. Although Jatropha cannot solve all problems related to energy in developing countries, it is likely to be one of the most promising biofuel crops, that would also contribute to sustainable agriculture and improved livelihoods. Although agricultural production in most developing countries can be intensified (more output per ha) by a factor 2 to 4 using proven technology, this has not happened due to inadequate agricultural policies in many countries as well as disappointing investment levels in agriculture. For local use Jatropha can be well combined with agricultural production, where improved food production combined with Jatropha can generate more output on a hectare basis, as a badly managed food crop alone. Jatropha emerged as a highly interesting biofuel some 15 years ago and expectations were high. Over the last years, many studies from Jatropha plantations give us a better idea on what the plant can yield under which conditions. This book aims to provide the reader with useful information to appraise Jatropha as a biofuel in the realm of biofuels. It covers all aspects (technical, organizational, financial) from Jatropha planting to conversion to electricity or biodiesel. This book is dedicated to the late professor Kees Daey Ouwens, who established the FACT Foundation, and in who’s honor I have created the Daey Ouwens Fund. He was a pioneer in this field, has explored ways to practically make a difference by using locally produced biofuels based on careful research with respect to local circumstances. It is with this approach in mind that I wish you well with making a difference. Dr. Jacqueline Cramer, Minister for the Environment of the Netherlands iii iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The application of Jatropha oil for energy purposes is a relatively new phenomenon. Although the plant and its features have been known for generations, only in 2005 the real interest in Jatropha oil as biofuel started to take off. Since its establishment in 2005, FACT Foundation has obtained a lot of experience in all aspects of Jatropha, from cultivation to end‐use, mainly by the execution of its first three pilot projects in Honduras, Mali and Mozambique. This Handbook is the result of the knowledge gathered by FACT Foundation from its projects and seminars, and from projects of others that FACT was involved with. It was first published in an electronic form on FACT’s website in march 2006 and has been regularly updated ever since. The current version is the first that has been taken into print. The authors, listed below, have done their utmost in writing the assigned chapters and we would like to thank them for their contributions: Ir. Eric van der Putten, Ir. Ywe Jan Franken Dr. Ir. Flemming Nielsen Ir. Jan de Jongh Ir. Winfried Rijsenbeek Ir. Peter Beerens Ir. Janske van Eijck Ir. Titus Galema Ir. Ger Groeneveld Ir. Niels Ansø Ir. Mara Wijnker Ir. Thijs Adriaans Drs. Peter Moers In addition we would like to thank Bill Dickinson for reviewing the text on correct English. The layout has been designed by students of the Eindhovense School. For the general coordination we thank Mara Wijnker and Els Valkenburg. We are much obliged to Stichting Het Groene Woudt, who has funded FACT’s work since its establishment. For FACT, Jan de Jongh, editor v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 GENERAL DATA ON JATROPHA 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION 1 1.3 ECOLOGY 3 1.4 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 4 1.5 JATROPHA HISTORICAL AND CURRENT USES 4 1.6 FACT SHEET 6 1.7 JATROPHA AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 6 1.8 JATROPHA HANDBOOK OUTLINE 6 1.9 REFERENCES 7 2 PLANTATION ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION 9 2.2 SOILS AND FIELD PREPARATION 9 2.2.1 Soil requirements 9 2.2.2 Soil sampling 10 2.2.3 Soil preparation 11 2.2.3.1 Planting holes 11 2.2.3.2 Plant spacing 11 2.2.3.3 Planting season 12 2.3 JATROPHA PLANT DEVELOPMENT 12 2.3.1 Jatropha development stages 12 2.3.2 Root development 13 2.3.3 Flowering and fruiting 13 2.4 PLANTING MATERIAL AND PLANTING METHODS 13 2.4.1 Genetic and phenotypical variation 13 2.4.2 Seed selection 14 2.4.3 Germination 14 2.4.4 Direct seeding 14 2.4.5 Nursery planting 15 2.4.6 Cuttings 16 2.4.7 Micro‐propagated clones 16 2.5 PLANTATION MANAGEMENT (AGRONOMY) 17 2.5.1 Weeding 17 2.5.2 Nutrient management 17 2.5.2.1 Nutrient requirements 17 2.5.2.2 Organic matter 19 2.5.2.3 Fertilisation 19 2.5.2.4 Mycorrhiza 19 2.5.3 Pruning 19 2.5.4 Irrigation 20 2.5.5 Intercropping 21 2.6 JATROPHA HEDGES 21 2.7 SEED YIELDS 22 vii 2.8 PEST AND DISEASES 23 2.8.1 Control measures 24 2.8.2 Preventive measures 24 2.9 REFERENCES 25 3 HARVESTING 29 3.1 INTRODUCTION 29 3.2 HARVESTING TECHNOLOGIES 29 3.2.1 Manual picking of jatropha seeds 29 3.2.2 Mechanical harvesting solutions 30 3.3 SEED EXTRACTION FROM FRUITS 32 3.3.1 Dehulling 32 3.3.1.1 Universal Nut Sheller (UNS) 32 3.3.1.2 Large size “industrial” dehuller 33 3.3.2 Separation of seeds and fruit shells 34 3.3.2.1 Small scale (by hand) 34 3.3.2.2 Large scale (mechanical) 34 3.3.3 Drying fruit 35 3.4 DRYING AND STORAGE OF SEEDS 35 3.4.1 Drying of seeds 35 3.4.2 Storage area of sacks 36 3.4.3 Storage conditions 36 3.4.3.1 Seed storage for planting 36 3.4.3.2 Seed storage for oil extraction 37 3.5 REFERENCES 37 4 OIL PRESSING AND PURIFICATION 39 4.1 INTRODUCTION 39 4.2 MECHANICAL OIL EXTRACTION 40 4.2.1 Cleaning and checking the seeds 40 4.2.2 The pressing process 40 4.2.3 Important parameters when pressing 40 4.2.3.1 Oil recovery 41 4.2.3.2 Oil quality 41 4.3 PRESS TECHNOLOGIES AND EXPELLER TYPES 42 4.3.1 Ram presses 42 4.3.2 Expellers 43 4.3.2.1 Cylinder‐hole 44 4.3.2.2 Strainer 44 4.3.3 Power required 45 4.3.4 Suggested models 45 4.3.5 Concluding remarks expellers 46 4.4 CLEANING OF VEGETABLE OIL 46 4.4.1 Impurities in the oil 47 4.4.2 Sedimentation 47 viii 4.4.3 Filtration 48 4.4.3.1 Gravity filters 48 4.4.3.2 Band filter 49 4.4.3.3 Filter press 50 4.4.3.4 Pressure leaf filter 51 4.4.3.5 Bag filters 52 4.4.3.6 Candle filters 53 4.4.4 Centrifuging 53 4.4.5 Concluding remarks oil cleaning 54 4.5 QUALITY STANDARDS FOR SVO 54 4.5.1 Oil degumming 56 4.5.2 Oil neutralization 56 4.6 HANDLING AND STORAGE OF OIL 56 4.6.1 Handling criteria 56 4.6.2 Storage criteria 57 4.6.2.1 Cool storage temperature 57 4.6.2.2 Avoiding temperature variations (and hence water condensation) 57 4.6.2.3 Darkness 57 4.6.2.4 Contact with fresh air 57 4.7 REFERENCES 57 5 APPLICATIONS OF JATROPHA PRODUCTS 59 5.1 INTRODUCTION 59 5.2 APPLICATIONS OF OIL 59 5.2.1 Lamps and cooking stoves 59 5.2.1.1 Lamps 59 5.2.1.2 Cooking stoves 60 5.2.2 Direct fuel for cars and driving engines for shaft power or electricity generation 61 5.2.2.1 Introduction 61 5.2.2.2 PPO fuel properties 61 5.2.2.3 Other properties 62 5.2.2.4 Engine conversion/ Engine types 64 5.2.2.5 Engine conversion 66 5.2.2.6 Important technical issues 69 5.2.2.7 Service and maintenance 74 5.2.2.8 External components attached to the engine 75 5.2.2.9 Emissions 75 5.2.2.10