FIELD CLUB RECORD Vol. 1 -No, !,. Oct. 1948.

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Presidential Address Dr. E. Godley 1 Huia Camp

Geology of Southland - J. J. Sumich / 13 Swanson Camp N. Z. Flax Industry - R. G. Robbins

Rangitoto excursion Russell Camp .

Ans so on

The organ of the A. U.C . Field Club Edited by 'K. P. Lamb. '. Duplicated by' A, U, 0.,. • Duplicating Service,

4. 4- 4. 4-4. - 4- UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Auckland. TRENDS IN BOTANICAL RESEARCH IN HEW ZEALAND. Presidential Address to the Auckland University College Field Club 19148

By DP. o E. Godley.

It is an honour-to be elected year President, an honour which involves the responsibility of a Presidential Address. I toyed with the idea of a travelogue talk about Italy and England, but discarded this in favour of something of a more serious nature, which I hope, ' however, will not savour too much of a university lecture. I intend to sketch the development of botanical researches in this country from the time of Banks and Solander to the present day. la this way we can find out what research has been done and we can also see what there still is to be done, and how Field Club could help in a small way in the necessary investigations-.

One of Professor Chapman's proposals to this club two years ago was that it should undertake the compilation of a list of and locality records in the Auckland area. That this should be essential. (as it undoubtedly is), is significant in showing that in the first step in botanical research is far from complete. This first step - in botany as in any other* science - is the classification and recording of the units with which one is working* In our case the units are the , first of the native flora, and secondly of the introduced flora. Before the ecologist, the geographer, the evolutionist, or the plant chemist can begin work, the species which they use in their studies must be defined by a competent taxonomist, They cannot make much progress unless the taxonomic basis is a sound one, It may be of interest to trace briefly the expansion of taxonomic studies in New Zealand from the time of Banks and Solander to the present day*

Sir Joseph Banks, a gentleman scientist, is said to have spent £10, 000 in equipping and financing the team of draughtsmen and servants. which he took with him on Captain Cook's first voyage of 1769-1771. Dr. Solander accompanied him. The result of this expedition was. a collect]. on of specimens from the East Coast of the North Island and the Sounds district Colander prepared descriptions of 350 species and over 200 plates. These were almost ready for the press but for various reasons were never published.

In the next 60 years botanists of various nations visited the New Zealand coasts attached to exploring vessels. The Forsters (father ' and son) were attached as botanists to Cook's second voyage, They collected plants in Dusky Sound and Queen Charlotte Sound. Another collector was Archibald Menzies, surgeon on the "Discovery" under the command of Captain Vancouver, The French botanists D'Urville and Lesson travelled to New Zealand in 182/4 and 1827, and it is Interesting to note that an account of their collection was published under the auspices of the French Government* This is in great contrast to the attitude of the British Government of the day which was, little interested in New Zealand as a colony, let alone in its flora,. This publication by the French botanist Richard in 1832, was the first approach to a flora of Hew Zealand. It contained 380 species, some of which had already been described by the Forsters in a small publication.

In the next 17 years the number of species recorded for New Zealand became almost trebled. This was due to. the work of various men. including the Cunningham brothers. Allan Cunningham, Government Botanist and Superintendent of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, published "A Specimen of the Islands of. New Zealand" containing 639 species. The French naval surgeon Raoul botanised at Akaroa and subsequently published • "Choix de Plantes de la Nouvelle Zelande", containing 950 species, T. C. Bidwell botanised in the Central Plateau of the North Island and in the mountains of Nelson. • 2 By 1839 it could be said that the plants growing in the coastal fringe of these islands were moderately well known, while the plants of the interior were almost unknown. There were no resident botanists and. the available floras were published in France or England. ' New Zealand plants were perhaps better known by the staff of European herbaria than by New' Zealanders. The time had come for a critical examination of all the work which had been done* There was much inefficient description, many synonyms, and a scattering of type specimens.

The man who put New Zealand on a sound basis was J. D. Hooker who visited New Zealand as botanist on board the "Erebus'1 in 1839. This ship and the "Terror" were taking part in an antarctic expedition* Hooker spent three months at the Bay of Islands where he contacted the Rev* W. Colenso and Dr. Andrew Sinclair. These two men (both residents of this country) continued to send specimens to Hooker at. Kew after he left New Zealand. In 1853 there appeared the first volume of "Flora Novae Zelandiae" by J. D. Hooker. This publication marked a turning point for botanical researches in this country* Although the flora mentioned little of our marvellous alpine flora, ('through lack of exploration), it contained a very careful, clear account of 1, 767 species of Phanerogams and Cryptogams, and ironed out the inaccuracies and discrepancies found in earlier writers, Botanists resident in New Zealand were now provided with a nucleus upon which they could go ahead and build up a complete account of the flora of New Zealand Of great value to future botanists of New Zealand was Hooker's Introductory Essay, He discusses the terms H species'* and '•varieties" and gives excellent advice to future colonial botanists as to the delimitation of these units. He is not content to leave his flora a list of plant descriptions, but extracts from it interesting information as to biogeographical relationships* He notes those groups which are endemic to this country, those groups which. are closely allied to Australian, to South American, and to Pacific plant types. He notes Variable genera and species which have different forms at different periods of life history. There are many hints in this essay for future research, but no New Zealand botanists until Cockayne had the vision to follow them up. One of Cockayne's first investigations was on the various life forms, of some of the species mentioned by Hooker*

Hooker's great work was dedicated to the three men who had been foremost in collecting for him: Colenso, Sinclair and Lyall, He also mentions twelve other people who had sent him collections at Kew. We have here the ideal set-up for a big taxonomical work. A central, steady figure - Hooker - able to weigh up and evaluate material sent in by careful, ardent collectors. Without the collectors the work cannot be done. Throughout the history of taxonomic studies in New Zealand and elsewhere there have always been a great number of keen observers and collectors, many of whom have been forgotten, and these workers have contributed invaluable help in the form of specimens and records to the central taxonomists.

. It is interesting in this connection to read a letter written to me by - Cockayne while he was working up. material for his !?Vegetation of New Zealand"., It refers to his amateur botanist assistants. Ngaio, • Wellington. 28th Sept*, 19260 '•My Dear Gibbs, I have never seen Celmisia cordatifolia growing wild and probably you have seen it frequently. Please reply to the following questions on this same paper. (1) What is its distribution? (2; Have you ever studied it closely. enough to be pretty certain whether it is almost invariable or more or less. polymorphic? (3) Does Celmisia petiolata grow in close proximity to it? (U) Is there any likelihood of its be ins a hybrid and if so what are the parents? Yours most faithfully, L. Cockayne. 3, I have not been too well lately and my book is still far from finished. There is also so much constantly cropping up to make me lay the book aside. 15

In 1864 Hooker's second publication, -'Handbook of the Hew Zealand Flora, " appeared. In the nine years since' the 5?Flora of New Zealand" much new land had been explored, particularly in the , and the new publication included some 935 flowering plants as compared with 731 in the earlier publication.

Thus the nerve centre of New Zealand Botany remained at Kew 7 until; about 1864. In 1867 the New Zealand Institute was formed and /, the first volume of Transactions appeared in 1869. New Zealand > botanists now had a good published flora and a journal In which to publish their results. •

Up till 1900 the researches were mainly exploratory and iaxonomical. Very little more could be done as the flora was yet only partly described. Haast, Colenso, Buchanan, Kirk, Sinclair and Petrie are all names which we associate with this period. After a period of enthusiastic collecting extending over thirty years it once again became necessary for someone to collect together and weigh up all the various new species which had been described and to incorporate them in a new flora. Such a summing up was again greatly needed as it had,, been when Hooker first became connected' with New Zealand botany. For instance, Colenso was the greatest collector in the history of New Zealand botany, but once he began to describe the plants he found himself ( instead of sending them to Hooker), he became as. it were "botanically impossible" He had an eye for minute difference and would create species accordingly. It almost appeared that he hadn't bothered to read the introductory essay of the Flora which was dedicated to him. If he had, he certainly took no notice of the section on species delimitation.

Kirk was commissioned by the New Zealand government in 1894 to prepare a new flora of New Zealand, but died in 1897 before its completion, This necessary task was taken over by Mr. Cheeseman of the Auckland Museum, who published his -"Manual of the New Zealand Flora" in 1906. This was a magnificent work in the tradition of Hooker. Cheeseman was the leader of Classical Hookerian taxonomy in New Zealand until his death in 1923. Fortunately the second edition of his Manual appeared in 1926.

Cheeseman's Manual is second to none in the realm of major taxonomic works. As a guide to the flora of New Zealand it is deficient in one respect in that it takes almost no account of the large numbers of wild hybrids which have been found in the flora. Cockayne had assembled evidence in 1920 that interspecific crossing in nature was the cause of a great deal of the variation observed and that many so-called-species were virtually hybrids. It was perhaps too late in Cheeseman's life-* for him to adopt this new rather revolutionary idea and, far less possible "for him to incorporate it in his new edition which was then being written.

Since 1925 taxonomical researches have continued unabated in New Zealand. Genera have been monographed, e. g. Coprosma by Oliver, or-as recently as 1945, Carmichaelia by Simpson. The taxonomy of New Zealand grass is being revised by Zotov. Inevitably the next step is a new edition of Cheeseman's flora which will include all the new species which have been described, and descriptions of the wild hybrids together with keys for their identification. It is probable that field club can help in a small way here by sending to. the author a locality list of the species found about Auckland. Another side of taxonomy which is most important and which may tend to be neglected, is that of our introduced '" plants- Over 1, 000 species are recorded by Allan in his handbook of 1940, ' and new species are entering the country year by year, e. g. in ships' ballast, seed mixtures, etc. It is important that. -they De "'recorded. If is- interesting, when, walking, through the main streets of 4. Auckland, to note what a varied flora one sees on waste lots, the bases, of walls, and as weeds in gardens. Quite as interesting. and. as varied as tea- scrub-anyway, but I dare say that we know more of plants of tea-tree scrub, than we do of those which we term "common weeds". Even in tea-tree scrub the introduced Hakea acicularis must always be reckoned with as an important component of the association* One notices in the Waitakere Ranges that the introduced plants are moving. up the main highways of the stream beds. Fortunately they do not appear to penetrate the bush on either side.

I hope that the Field Club will take an interest in the introduced flora of the city and the surrounding. countryside and collect specimens for themselves and make records for the club - which I know would be of use to Dr. Allan. It is a possibility you know, that we become graduates in botany and know all about Rubus chapmanii being confined to some inaccessible peak in the Sounds district, and then accompany a farmer on hi a.. rounds and find we know none of the common grasses!

Cheeseman stated in the preface to his first edition of the Manual that "the main object of a flora is to afford a ready means of determining the name of any species for the purpose of ulterior study. " What are these ulterior studies, and how have we used our taxonomic knowledge in following them up?

We have seen that Hooker extracted interesting information from his Flora concerning the relationships of our plants with those of other lands. These ideas were later amplified by Cockayne. Very Important in this connection are records of the same species from two different countries. For instance, about 1939 there appeared a long article by du Rietz on bipolar distribution which dealt with the problem of the discontinuous distribution of some species. It included mention of several species found in New Zealand. It seems essential that specimens of such widely distributed individuals of the same species be brought together in the same place, and that they be compared by taxonomical, cytological and genetical methods to see: -

Firstly - if they really are the same species. Secondly - if they are the same, have they begun to -differ in. any way as a result of their prolonged isolation. The procuring of seed from Scandinavia of species said to exist in that region and in New Zealand and their comparison would be of great interest and value. Taxonomy provides descriptions of the species which the ecologist uses in his work. Leonard Cockayne was the first botanist in New Zealand to introduce, at the end of the last century, the then new trend in plant research - ecology. In his own words he dealt with the class of research which deals with living plants and their relation to their surroundings-and which gathers its data from actual observations in the field. "

Cockayne initiated a great advance in insisting that the plants should be studied as a living organism in its proper environment. - Observations made in pressed specimens should be supplemented by field studies* Plants should be cultivated from seed in experimental gardens and their changes of form as they develop or due to changed conditions, should be noted. He made many advances, in New Zealand Botanical studies, in ecology, systematics and evolution, His greatness lay in the fact that unlike a great number of New Zealand botanists, he was not content to collect merely a mass of empirical facts, but to go beyond these and draw conclusions and enunciate principles which were of interest.. to- the botanical world at large. 5, Cockayne carried out the pioneer ecological work for New Zealand. His ecology was of a broad kind, and consisted in classifying the vegetation of this country into its various types of plant communities. His research in this direction culminated in his great work "The Vegetation of New Zealand. " Of great help, to him in preparing this work, were his botanical surveys of the Waipoua Kauri Forest, of Tongariro National Park, of Stewart Island and of the Sand dune areas, all carried out as investigations for the Government.

Cockayne made great contributions to New Zealand systematic botany. I have heard - I forget on whose authority, so it may not be true - that Cockayne did not consider himself a taxonomist but his studies of the plant communities soon showed him that there were many species still to be described, and he took up the task of recording these. His out-door studies inevitably brought him up against the problem of the nature of the species. I would say that he was one of the first botanists in the world to point out that the description of a species found in a flora, was often an idealised description which fitted no plant exactly in nature. He showed that species were far more complex units, than had been thought. Some of the compound species of Linneons were aggregates of identifiable types which he termed jordanons. He was an early exponent of the New Systematics as compared with the old.

As I have already mentioned, he first discovered the prevalence of wild hybridism in our flora.

Cockayne has laid the basis of ecological studies in New Zealand by classifying the flora into its various communities. He was perhaps more a micro-geographer than a ecologist* Actually, there have been very few true ecological papers published on the New Zealand flora - as distinct from accounts of the vegetation of an area, An account of the vegetation of an area usually contain a list of the species, classified under the communities in which they occur in nature. These are very fine papers which tell one why such and such a plant is found in this situation and not elsewhere, or why such and such a community is confined to this area. Perhaps it is that single species have not been studied leisurely enough.

The interesting results obtained by Mr. Millener on Entelea arborescens or Cranwell and Moore on Microlaena avenacea, show what fruit• ful results may be obtained if we leave the communities and concentrate on one species only within them. Again we have very few records of the external conditions prevailing even in an ordinary rain forest. Rainfall perhaps, but what light intensity do various plants receive, what are the temperature ranges to which each species is limited, what layers of soil. do the root systems of each species explore.

I believe as I have said before that the best approach now to the study of the communities is to concentrate in turn on each plant within them.

Two stages of New Zealand ecological investigations can be illustrated by an interesting example from a paper by Mr. Millener on Entelea arborescens. He records that Entelea is found in coastal districts in the North Island and no further south than Nelson. This is the first stage - the recording of the range of distribution, and few authors in New Zealand ecology go far beyond this. Mr. Millener, however, asks "why", which is the second stage.

He finds that the extreme-minimum temperature at Riverhead 12 Km. from the' sea and just beyond the inland limit of Entelea is -5. 1°C. The extreme minimum temperature at Cawthron at the southern limit of Entelea is -3. 5°C. Entelea can then endure an extreme temperature of perhaps a little more than -3. 5°C but not -5. 1°C This is the fact which limits its distribution and shows us that this species is now at its southern limit. When enough facts have been collected about the relation-of the plants to their environment, generalisations can be attempted 6. concerning the laws governing the distribution of plants throughout the country.

Cockayne has shown in the pattern of distribution, but again we. have very little knowledge as to why. Why do a large number of species reach their southern limit at about 38°S. ? Why doesn't Nothofagus occur on Mount Egmont?

Zotov has shown what interesting results can be obtained by correlating vegetation with climate in New Zealand.. From his special knowledge of the altitudinal distribution of plants in the Tararua Ranges, and the weather conditions which prevail there, he was able to deduce the environmental conditions which govern the altitudinal range of vegetation belts in New Zealand.

More thinking of this type is necessary to make ecological studies more than just a collection of facts, but facts collected with the a in* of deriving a principle of general importance*

We have seen that a good taxonomic groundwork is essential for plant geographical and for ecological studies. What other aspects of plant research arise from thorough taxonomic investigations?. The taxonomist can supply clues to the student of evolution, as to the variations found in natural populations. It's an ill wind that blows nobody good. Variable species are a pain in the neck to taxonomists of the old school, but are eagerly sought by those who wish to study the causes of evolution of new forms.

In studying the natural variation in Agropyrum repens with a view to putting it on a genetical basis, I obtained a very good idea of the range of variation and the organs affected, by studying the numer• ous varietal descriptions given by earlier taxonomists. These had been taken a bit too far I admit. How much work has been done on the study of variation in New Zealand plants? Cockayne early insisted on the need for the study of variation under controlled conditions in experimental gardens* He established one at his home at New Brighton near Christchurch, and did important work in studying the juvenile forms of New Zealand plants. To decide whether a variation is due to the environment, and we are dealing with an epharmone, or whether a variation has a genetical basis, and we are dealing with an ecotype, we must bring together variant and normal forms under the same conditions of cultivation. This means that we must have an experimental botanic garden, which we haven't got in Auckland. Government Departments are better off than we are, but study of variation is almost impossible at Auckland and has most likely been impossible in other parts of New Zealand, for lack of the proper facilities. With an experimental garden established in Auckland it would then be a far cry to institute a plot at the National Park at an altitude of about 4000 feet and carry out transplant experiments in the manner of Clausen, Keck and Hiesey in California.

Other fields which are as yet almost untouched in New Zealand are the problems of genetical variation within species and the problems of species differentiation. A study of Genetical variation within species involves a chromosome survey of the species concerned, a knowledge of its breeding system, and genetical experiments for which again an experimental garden is necessary. As yet the chromosome numbers of only about 50 of cur native plants are known. I would say that the breeding systems of almost nine are known. Much work remains to be done here. All the chromosome studies on New Zealand plants have been carried.. out in Christchurch under the expert guidance of Dr. Frankel. Some species of Hebe have been investigated, and a short list of chromosome numbers published - concerning mainly Liliacious species. We hope to set up a vigorous centre of research here in Auckland on this much neglected aspect of biology. 7,

Work along these lines has now commenced at the Botany Division at Wellington. With a view to selecting suitable varieties for re-stocking natural tussock grassland, varieties of the native Agrepyrum scabrum are being isolated in experimental gardens and the species is also being studied cytologically. Studies on genetics and cytology have thus come into the New Zealand scene rather late, but we hope to remedy the deficiency in the next few years.

It would seem that the best family to commence work on here is the Grass family. They are easy to handle, one can obtain about one generation a year, and they are the most important group commercially. Work on the cytology genetics and breeding systems of the New Zealand native grasses would also bring us in closer contact with the Botany Division and the Grassland Division of the Government, and we could well achieve results which would be of interest to them. Such a closer co• operation between Government Departments and a University Department would be of great value, because I know that in the past research done in University Botany Departments has not been of great interest to Government Departments with their more practical problems.

Our native flora, still almost untouched, provides great scope for the more academical problems of the effects of isolation, and of species differentiation.

Two islands of sub-alpine vegetation such as at National Park and Mount Egmont contain representatives of the same species which have been isolated for a great, period of time. What changes have taken place between the two groups? Probably there are no external differences, but if representatives of the two groups are crossed, a cytological study of the hybrid may reveal the presence of great changes in the make-up of the chromosome complements, changes which may well reduce the fertility of the hybrid, and how that isolation has caused the accumulation of structural differences in the chromosome which will eventually lend to new varieties.

The two isolated groups need not be discontinuous in their isolation. The extreme ends of a species with a unidimensional distribution such as a coastal plant, are virtually isolated although individuals occur all the way between them. Then a study of populations of Spinifex hirsutus on the Ninety Mile Beach and at Bethels may reveal differences already accumulating.

As regards the study of species evolution, abundant material occurs in New Zealand. Such a as Celmisia, almost confined to New Zealand and which has a number of species probably evolved here radiating out so that types occur at most altitudes and most latitudes, would well repay, if it is manageable for experiments, an investigation by a taxonomist and a cytologist, to give results as interesting as those obtained from Crepis by Babcock and his co-workers in California*

With reference to the natural hybrids reported in our flora, very few of these have actually been synthesised from their parent species. They have only been described on circumstantial evidence. Many of the hybrids which are fertile will prove to be good species when examined by cytologists. They having arisen by chromosome doubling from an inter-specific cross.

So far I have said very little of what Field Club could do in helping advances in any of these fields. Obviously, the majority of problems require laboratory equipment and full time work.

But if we consider any plant - how much do we really know about it? We can identify it by sight and probably have an idea of what way it differs from its closest relative species. But what do we know about its general biology? What is its flowering period from year to year? What kind of breeding system has it? Is it self fertilised, cross fertilised or has it no sexual reproduction and is parthenogenetics. How many seeds on the average does a plant produce, and how much is good seed? Are any special conditions needed for seed germination? Has the plant any particular soil preferences? 80

Now all these questions, the answers to which are of great importance in the life of the plant, are very simply solved. What is needed is concentration of one person on one species for two or three years* Not as a full-time job, but as a holiday task or an exercise on field excursions* Flowering times are a matter of accurate observation and are most important, as flowering times overlap, and means the possibility, with adjacent species, of natural hybridism.,, Soil preferences and general distribution are again a matter of observation. The determination of the breeding system of a plant is a- matter of a simple experiment. Plants cultivated from, seed in tins or pots, have the inflorescence covered with a bag. No seed means cross-fertilised. Seed setting means either self fertilised or parthogenetic. One can decide in general between these last two possibilities by removing the anthers, when, with a few exceptions, if seed are then set, the plant is apomictic.

These facts are of the greatest importance for consider• ations of evolution, and if we are dealing with commercial plants from the point of view of plant breeding, let us see how they work in the case of grasses. In a cross. fertilising species any variations are recombined at each generation, and there is a great shuffling of genetic material providing many combinations to be tested out in nature. To the practical man a cross fertilised species is troublesome to work with when he wishes to isolate a variety. A self fertilised species is more pure genetically and it is comparatively easy to isolate pure lines by selfing. If a plant is parthenogenetic, it never crosses with any of its neighbours. A natural population consists of a large number of pure lines - any favourable one of which can be selected immediately and used to start a line which will not be contaminated and always breed true. I do want to emphasise the great number of very Important and as yet unknown facts which can be obtained from simple common sense experiments, requiring the minimum of material and which can be carried oat in one's own workroom or backyard, in one's spare time. Charles Darwin was a great exponent of these simple experiments. Remember him weighing the bones of the wing of a wild and a domesticated duck and comparing them. Or immersing seeds and fruits in salt water for a long period and then testing their germination capacity to see. if they distributed by ocean currents. Or again by taking a piece of earth from the foot of a bird, watering it and finding that 82 plants sprang from it.

It is only by closely observing a plant from the seed to the adult and studying it in the field, that we really come to know it. I hope that some of you will select some small herb or grass and study it carefully in your spare time. Not that I'm. advocating too much specialisation too early in your University career, but feel that a happy means may be struck between generalisation and specialisation. A collection of such accounts of plants which includes facts about their general biology is known as a biological flora, and if you glance at the back of the Journal of Ecology you will find accounts of a species written from the biological angle each by a different person.

There is no need to emphasise the great value of a set of studies of species gradually accumulating in this Department. I have said nothing about mycology or algology - 1 am not competent. I have said little about Zoology. I wish that I was competent to do so. A Zoologist would have told a somewhat similar story, but would have pointed out the great lack of studies In animal ecology here, I hope that I have indicated to you that there is still a lot of interesting work to be done.

+ + +•'+ + + HUIA FIELD CLUB CAMP ~ MAY 1 0-1 7th 1948. Recorded- By NEIL BUTLER "I'm truly sorry Man's dominion Has broken Nature's social union.1 1 Monday 10th; Advance party left for camp site - middle camp, Waterworks . reserve. Arrived at camp after dark, rigged up some rough kitchen furniture and had some food in the dim hours of the night. Menu; Cottage pie Apples and custard Myself, Harry Bunn, Ailsa Dallow, Ross Robins, Vivienne Laws. Three trampers arrives Rae Gribble, J. Cotton, M. Martin-Smith, Rae Gribble joined camp. Some heavy rain. Tuesday 11th: Two trampers left in the morning. Doubtful amount of sleep. Breakfast; Porridge, bacon and eggs. Whole party went to Huia Dam by devious routes. ' A good area for mosses and hepatics. Menus Steak, potatoes and cabbage - a good effort by Ross Robbins. Weather; Some heavy showers. Wednesday 12th: Lazy. Breakfasts Spaghetti, beans and toast. A round about trip on Mt. Donald McLean ("Bald Hill")* Ross left camp in the morning. New arrivals at evening were: - Alison, Jocelyn Laws and Johnny Sumich. Menus Soup, stew and vegetables . Custard and apples. Weathers... Wet". Thursday 13th After a good sleep, a breakfast of porridge and stew, - a trip to Nihotupu Dam. Alison, Jocelyn Laws and John Sumich and I then went to Huia Dam. Menus Celery soup Stew and potatoes with white sauce Apple meringue and custard cake. Weathers Fins.

Friday 14 th Slept well. Porridge, stew and potatoes. Rae Gribble left. Party, except for Neil Butler, went to Whatipu. Hank joined the party en route. At about 2 p. m. Pat and Joan Hastings arrived. Allan Stewart and Brian ("Hank") Hanken) arrived at night.

Menu: Pea soup Corn beef, peas, potatoes and carrots. Bread and apple pudding. Weathers Fair. -

(It, is fortunate for the club that Mr. Butler's interest in astronomic matters is even excelled by his voracious appetite for species records, Ed. ) 10

Saturday•15th: Alison, John S. and Hank left- Salty porridge, bacon and. stew. Joan and pat H. and Allan S. went, to Whatipu and the rest of the party -(with the. except ion of Neil Butler) went for a tramp along Nihotupu Dam road. Neil botanised along Georges Creek and planted a small rimu, signing it "A. U. C. F. C. May 1948. " Also measured some rimus. Hank returned.

Menus Cottage pie, cauliflower and cabbage. Custard and apples. sunday 16th After a good sleep, a breakfast of. porridge, bread and cheese. Hank and Neil worked over the flora and fauna of Huia Beach and examined Huia stream while the rest of the party returned to Huia Dam.

Menus Bacon, cabbage, kumara, potatoes. Weathers Excellent.

All the party except Neil left.

Monday 17th Neil left; MINERAL SPECIES LIST: Forest areas are mainly secondary in nature but in parts are perhaps virgin... Algae: Blue green, Chroococcus type. Fungi; Many Basidiomycetes. Geastrum sp. Lichens: Sterecaulon ramulosum Cladonia sullivanii Cladonia sp, Cladonia flaekiana Sticta impressa St iota sp.

2 pa u ic s % Lunularia sp. Chiloscyphus billardieri Metzgeria sp» Lepidolaena palpebrifolia Pore11a otangeri Pallaricinia sp. Trichocolea lanata Pallaricinia lyelli Schistochila nobilis Balantiopsis sp. Lepidosia sp* Pallaricinia xiphioides Trichocolea australis' Schistochila sp. Bazzania sp.

Mosses: Leptostomum inclinans D icrano1oma b i1lard ier i Leucobryum candidum C-yathophorum bulbosum Macromitrium sp«-' Goniobryum subbasilare Rhacopilium strumiforum Ditrichum flexifolium Campylopus clavatus Thuidium sp. Fissidens faspdenoides Bryum truncorum Ptychramnion aciculare Polytrichum juniperium Polytrichadelphus magellanicus Rhizogonium bifarium- Hypnum (?chrysogaster) Thuidium laeviusculum Papillaria. crocea I-Iypopterygium filiculaeforme Hypopterygium novae-zeelandiae Weymouthia cochlearifoliae Comptochaete arbuscula Mniodendron comosum Mniodendroh comosum Mniodendron comaturn Hjmalia falcifolia Campylopus introflexus C benidium-pubescens"""* Rhynchostegium tenuifolium silotaceae: Tmesipterus tannehsis ycopodiaceae Lycopodium volubile L. cernuum Li billardieri L. densum licopsidas Asplenium lucidura Asplenium falcatum Asplenium flaccidum Asplenium bulbiferum . Ad ianturn a ff i.L.e B1e chnum disco1or Blechnum fraseri Blechnum lanceolaturn Blechnum filiforme Blechnum fluvlatile Blechnum procerum Dcodia media Dicksonia squarrosa Cyathea medullaris Cyathea dealbata Dryopteris so. Gleichenia eireina ta Il.ymen o phy 11 urn d i 1 a ta turn H. demissum Ru tunbridgense K# sanguinolentum Kistiopteris incisa Pellea rotundifpiia Lygodium articulatum Cardiomanes reniforrae Polypod ium divere ifolium Poly pod ium pustulatuna Dryopteris pennigera Poly stichum ri cha rd i i Pteridium es'culentum

Pteris sp0 Trichomanes iyalli Marattia fraxinea (cultivated and planted near Huia Dam) mnosnermaes Podocarpus totara P. ferrugineus P. dacr.ydioid.es Dacr-ydium cupressinum Phylloclad.es trichomanoides Agathis austral!s giospermae: Aristotelia racemosa Arundo conspicua Astelia banksil Alectryon exce-lsum 3rachyglottis re panda Beilsohmiedia tav/a Coprosma austral is C. spathulata •• - " G» lucida C. robusta "Ooriaria arborea Corokia buddleoides Oordyline australis 0* bankoii Centella asiatica Dendrobium cunninghamii' Dracophyllum latifolium Dodonaea viscosa Dy aoxy1on spe c tabi1e Dianella intermedia -Carmichaelia australis Elaeocarpus dentatus E. mucronata Entelea arborescens Elatostema rugosum Eugenia maire Fuchsia excortica Freycine t ia banks ii Geniostoma 1iguc tr i fo1ium Gaultheria antipoda populnea , Hebe (salicifolia type) Hedvcaria arborea Knightia excelsa Leptospermum scoparium Leucopogon fasciculatus Libertia grandifolia Macropiper excelsum Melic-ope ternata Melicytus ramiflorus Metrosideros robusta M. perforata Myrtus bullata. Nertera dichondraefolia N. cunninghamii Nothopanax arboreum 01ea lanceolata 01ea cunninghamii Olearia furfuracea Persoonia tcru Pittosporum crassifolium Pittosporum tenuifolium Pittosporum sp, Fratia angulata Peperomia urvilleana Psen dopanax cra s s ifo1ium Rhopalostylis sapida Rh.ipogon.um scandens Rhabdothamnus solandri Rubus australis Rubus ci s s oides Suttonia salicina Suttonia australis -Sophora tetraptera Senecio kirkii Schefflera digitata Ranunculus sp0 Helichrysum glomeraturn Thelymitra sp.

?dses, Rushes and Grasses; Juncus vaginatus Gahnia xanthocarpa Eleocharis cunninghamii Gahnia pauciflora Cyperus vegetus Oplismenus undulatifolius

[ants from Whatipus Vitex lucens Coprosma arborea • Helichrysum glomeratum Cotula coronopif.slia Muehlenbeckia australis 12 na (Stream): Potamopyrgus corolla p. antipodium na Georges Creek:

Potamopyrgu3 corolla p0 antipodium Latia neritoides Hydropsyche albescens (larva) Alalophelebia dentata (larva) na Huia Strpam: , Potamopyrgus spp* Olinga peredayi (larva). Very rich in planarians. • \

HUIA BEACH iation: Extensive sub- and inter-tidal mud flat.

?a: Zostera nana is the dominant plant community; occupying large tracts at approximately low tide level. Several diatoms and filamentous algae were found on Zostera* ie: At high tide mark on cliff; Enter^morpha etc. At upper mid-tide level on rocks comparatively clean from mud: Gracilaria confervoides In intertidal mud pools Spyridia opposite* (Har»w»)

Vermillia carinifera going right down to the low water and in places, with complete submergence. Under the rocks in the rock region mentioned above were: Hemigrapsus sexdentatus and Petrolisthes elongatus. The rest of the fauna inhabiting the mud flat, particularly nearer the low tide mark and in watered depressions included:-

Hemiplax histipes* Hemigrapsus crenulatus4" Chamaesipho columna. (on sheila, tree limbs, upper tide stones) Arachnoides zeelandica Diplocrepis puniceus Chione stutchburgi* Amphidesmus australe+ Mactaria ovata+ Cominella adspersa (= maculata)+ Cominella lucida+ Amphibola crenata4" Lunelle- smaragda Zeacumanthus lutulentus4" , Micrelenchus (Canthandias) huttoni4" •gediloma subrostrata+ Amaurochlton glaucus Lepsiella scobina + a Typically mud-flat forms, SALT MEADOW The flat adjacent to and extending in from the Huia Bridge. It is fringed by the Huia Stream at high tide. At the high water mark where both saline and fresh water influences were present the algae Catanella nipae and Ceramium sp. • were found.

b List: Apium filiforme Leptocarpus simplex Salicornia australis Festuca sp. Juncus maritimus Samolus repens Plagianthus divaricatus Lobelia1 anoeps Phormium tenax Cordyline australis Plantago coronopus

VEGETATION ABOUT THE CAMP

On the hill area at the rear of the camp site, Leptospermum forms 10ther and is approximately even height (18~20!). Some itia excelsa have, pushed their heads above this'and also one ocladus was observed to have pushed through the shrub. In order •evalence, the that will form.the temporary or final dominants Knightia excelsa, Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Dacrydium jssinum, Podocarpus ferrugineus and Agathis australis. 13 Other species were; Coprosma australis Co trpathulata C. robusta Blechnum procerum B* fraseri B* lanceolaturn Pteridium esculentum Cyathea deal bo. ta Gahnia xanthocarpa I. euo opogon fa scicala tu a Nothopanax arborsum Geneetc kirkii Geniostoma ligustrifclium Do done a vis cor; a Cordyline banksii Hebe sp, Olearia furfuracea Buttonia australis Bo salieina pittosporum tenuifolium Rubus ciGGoideG Pseudopanax crassifo 1 iurn Lyocpodium volu'bile I ycopod:lum de.:.'.surn

•2. The shrub growing to the left of the upper regions of Karamahina stream en route to Mt, McLean is noticeably different in lacking certain species. In some drier regions, apart from six foot high Leptospermum, the only species to be seen were occasional has id1cmy c e t e s and masses of Lycopodium volubile. In damp regions with higher Leptospermum, the floor was comparatively open and Blechnum procera"var. minor and numerous Pseudopanax crassifolium seedlings were apparent* In different places there is appreciable variation., Pteridium and Ulex were dominant on Mt» Donald McLean,

& & && && && & & & & & & &

REMINDER I

Member's and. other interested people are reminded of the scheme for recording species of animals and plants found about Auckland. In recent years Field Club has commenced to record species found * in the Auckland area, This is a long term undertaking which should prove of value in the long run, • However such a scheme can only function If It has widespread support. You are Invited to visit the Botany Department Museum and see the filing cabinet in which these records are kept. No matter how common the plant or animal, If you are certain as to its Identification, see if has been recorded In the file. There are gaps and these, can only be filled by wide co-operation. Records of habitat and occurrence of both exotic and indigenous species will be welcomed. Mr.Morton of the Zoology Department will be pleased to answer

enquiries about animal materialP If in doubt bring in the fresh$ pressed or preserved specimen for checking.

THANKS !

A hearty thanks to Miss Alison Lush for her sterling work as club secretary over the past two years. The smooth running of tho club has been In large measure due to her hard work behlnfi tho scenes. We understand that "she is leaving Auckland at the end of this year and we wish her every success In her future undertakings.

& & & & & oc & C°C & 2c & & cc & & & OBSERVATIONS UPON THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTHLAND A lecture delivered to A.U.C. Field Club

By Mr. J.J. SUMICH

INTRODUCTION:

During every period of Geological time sedimentary rocks have been laid down beneath the seas, rivers and lakes and at the same time some of the organisms which are dying all the time, have been entombed in these accummulating sediments and have been preserved through countless millions of years as fossils. From time to time periods of uplift or submergence have occurred, so that at any one given time many parts of a land mass- may consist of layers of sedimentary rocks called strata. These may be folded due to orogeny or fractured due to faulting. A- geological surveyor can, by measuring the angle of dip and the strike of these strata at outcrops, build up a geological map showing the underlying structure of the country. From the fossils which he finds in the rocks, he can tell the comparative time at which the beds were laid down. In this connection three types of fossil are useful. (1V Those which die out during the period. (2) Those which come into existence during the period. (3) Those restricted to the period.

Besides giving the age of the beds, fossils give indications as to the existing conditions^ climatic and geographical. Types of sediments also give a great deal of information, e.g. sediments with glacially striated boulders. Igneous intrusions or ejections can. also be dated by the sediments which they have affected (e.g. metamorphosed) and those which are left untouched. With all this evidence.the geologist can build up geological maps and a geological history of the area.

GEOLOGY OF SOUTHLAND: (From East to West). A line taken roughly from Waikawa on the coast, through Mataura, to the Five Rivers Plain, is the mid line of a syncline of Triassic and Jurassic sediments* The strike of this syncline is roughly N.W.-S.E. and on the coast the flanks are from Balclutha to Waipapa pt. Triassic sediments make up the arms of this syncline and the core is of Jurassic Rocks. A syncline, however, is only the general structure as the sediments as a whole have been badly distorted and faulted, and the country is fairly broken (as typified by the Hokonui hills and Catlins River areas)* Sediments are Greywackes uid no limestones exist; thus showing deposition to have been littoral or terrestrial. In the marine fauna, fossils are Ammonites, Brachiopods and Molluscs. These with a flora of Ferns, Cycads and Conifers indicate a mesophytic vegetation and climate. Fossils are similar to those of Australia, India and Siberia which seems to indicate a land bridge to N.W. Eurasia.

From the Oreti River at Limehills north of Winton, to the Hokonui hills, and S.E, to the Hedge Hope Stream, is an area of Tertiary limestone (probably Oligocene). This limestone strikes N.W,S.E. and dips S.W. Fossils present are various species of Pecten and Brachiopods. Deposition was probably not a great distance off shore* The limestone is quarried for agricultural purposes. From Waipapa pt. west to the Longwoods and north to just N.E. of Nightcaps is the Southland plain, made up of alluvium brought down by the Mataura, Oreti and Aparima Rivera which flow over the plain. Bluff peninsular consists of Igneous, Basic> Plutonic, Calc- Alkalic rocks in goocT variety, including: N.orites, Gabbros, Horn- blendites, Pyroxenites and associated schists. From the coast south of the Longwoods northwards, including the Longwoods, Takatimus and Eyre Mountains, are sediments of Permian age* For many years their age has been doubtful, but recent discoveries of "Maitaia55 fragments in the Longwoods west of Riverton and of primitive Ammonites and "Products'5 like Brachio-pode- in -the- timus have- widened our knowledge. Permian 15 sediments include fine muds and coarse conglomerates showing that at that time New Zealand was a mountainous country drained by vigorous streams. Glacially striated boulders found in these sediments show that the mountains were high enough to have glaciers; while abundant Floras in .other countries show that this was not a period of general glaciation. The Longwoods themselves.have been much disturbed by igneous injections which come to the surface as "pillow11 lavas at River ton. There is an intrusion of Augite Porphci\ite on the S.E* flank of the Takatimus. In this belt of Permian rocks there are three breaks. Raymond's and Scott's gaps, in the Longwoods are down faulted blocks in which Tertiary sandstones have been deposited. The Ottai-Nightcaps area between the Longwoods and Takatimus is. composed of Miocene coal measures.

The general depression of the Waiau River and its tributaries running from the northern tip of Lake Te Anau south, and including a coastal strip on the south coast running as far as Green Island Ft. to the west, is composed of Tertiary mudstones, sandstones and limestones. The Sandstones of Hump Ridge West of Oblong hill and west of Sharpridge, together with the limestones of Sharpridge, Glifden and Oblong and Helmet hills have all been determined as Otaiau (Mid-Oligocene)The rest of the tertiary sediments are mudstones of varying age. From the Wairaurahiri to Sand Hill Pt. and the Lillburn valley, is Tongaporutuan (Upper Miocene). The Blue Cliff or Mussel Beach section is Kapiteau (Upper Miocene). At Clifden on the- Waiau River there is a section exposed which is the type locality for the Southland series of y/hich Altonion (Altonburn) and Clifdonian is lower, and Lillbumian (Lillburn) and Waiauaa is Mia Miocene- Many of these tertiary sediments are soft rocks and have well preserved Foram^ as well £B Brachiopods.-. Lamellibranche and Gaeterop^ fc as fulfils- The Forams (minute unicellular marine organisms with tests) have in most cases given invaluable evidence as to the age of tertiary beds. Tne Molluscan fauna of these bees points to a semi-tropical Miccene climate and probably at that time the Waiau depression was an arm of the sea. Similar beds on Campbell and Chatham Islands indicate that they were then part of a much more extensive New Zealand land mass.

To the west of the Waiau depression is Fiordland country made up of Igneous and Metamorphic rocks; including Granites, Diorite, Pegmatites and Amphibolites among the Igneous rocks,, with Schists, Gneisses, Marbles, Slates and Phylites among the metamorphic rocks of the region. The country is high, rough and mountainous. Lakes, such as Manapcuri, Monowai, Hauroko and Poterlteri - (which fill steep sided former glacial troughs) together with the deep Fiords, point to the fact that in the past ages the Glaciers were much more extensive and carved these great troughs. The streams which flow south from this country, on reaching the soft coastal tertiary mudstones,"^ut steep sided gorges in them one hundred feet or more deep.

In Dusky Souad and Preservation Inlet are black-shales which contain Graptolites of Ordivician age. These fossils are closely, allied to those of Australia and Europe and lead us to the conclusion that in Ordivician times, a North-South sea existed to provide a .migration... . route. Finally, associated with these Ordivician rocks, are Limestones which suggest that some form of life existed in Pre-Ordivician New Zealand seas; but these Limestones have been so. much metamorphosed that all trace of organic remains have been destroyed.

IS U il ī! I? i! Si H l^^ILASH^ It is rumoured that the well known overseas impresario Valentino Oadogonium Chaliapman will present a revival* of his English success fJAlphonseh' or HAfter the Ball is Over", towards the end of this year. 16 MID TERM BREAK CAMP - SWANSON JULY 9TH TO 11TH.

There was no lack of numbers in the Field Club party which invaded the Swanson Hut for this camp. The weather was good and there was plenty of interest to be seen by the older members as well as those who had not visited Swanson before a

The earliest corners arrived on Friday morning, and were interested to meet an insect collector, whose specimens of New Zealand Tipulids are being sent to America for taxonomic study.

The next party arrived in the afternoon, and as a result of their industry, all the billies were full and on the stove, when the main party arrived at dusk. About twenty-eight well fed people played Field Club hockey later that night. This Is a traditional game of the Club, being played partly on all fours, or flat gn the ground; while occasionally a player is seen crawling backwards up the field in a superb piece of obstructional play. The rest of the evening was, relatively speaking, quiet. Two sketches, some community singing and some dancing were enjoyed.

Saturday 10th July. We visited the Cascades Kauri Reserve, going by Peripatus and Anderson's tracks. The bush at mid-winter showed most interest in the most sheltered types of habitat. We noted a large number of mosses, liverworts, filmy ferns, fungi and algae. Flowering and fruiting among the higher plants was restricted to small trees, etc., such as Coprosma baueri, Hebe salicifolia, Astelia trinervia, and occasionally, Metrosideros sp. •

Anderson's track, leading down to the Cascades, gives way from dense gorse to mixed'Agathis-PoSocarp-Dicot forest. We found several species of ground orchids flowering abundantly on the mould of the forest floor - e.g. Acianthus Sinclairii, and Pterostylis trullifolia.

The numerous tree-ferns (Cyathea-dealbata, C. medullaris) carried fertile Tmesipteris tannensis. The main party later walked up the Upper Kauri track and then returned to Swanson by the Home Track. We realised that the old name is still appropriate when the track proved hard to find.

Once again the evening resounded to the yells of the hockey teams, and Ross and his men acted a sketch much to their credit. Much of the evening was spent dancing to the music ©f the gramophone kindly brought by Jocelyn and Vivien Laws. We watched Ross conjuring, and saw what happens to the unwary sceptic. On Sunday morning Rex led a party to visit his quadrats for his work on Kauri regeneration; while others followed the pipeline track to collect algae and ferns.

We left by the afternoon train for Auckland,

ORGANISATION. With a party totalling 33 people, it was necessary to plan me8ls ahead and hence to organise the supplies contributed by members. We decided that instead of each bringing a little of everything, each ehould be asked to bring one or two things, as allocated. This would prevent our having an unmanageable collection of many kinds of food. Each member was issued a paper listing train times, gear required, and general food to be brought (butter, sugar, bread and cake). A list of the food required for the menus planned was divided into parts costing 2/-, and each person was given responsibility for one part. Additional supplies and rent came to Zj/3d. a head. This scheme helped greatly in running the camp catering, and we recommend it for future camps with large numbers of people. 17 THE NEW ZEALAND FLAX INDUSTRY.

A lecture delivered by MR._R.Gc ROBBINS.

To avoid any confusion with linen flax may I say at the onset that the plant I am dealing with is Phormium tenax Forst. which Hutchinson has placed, along with the""cabbage tree, Cordyline, in the family Agajyraceae, This takes it from the Liliaceae, and places it Immediately Felow the Palmae* It is interesting to note in passing that the generic name "Phormium" (from Greek meaning a basket), was the name given by Aristotle to a plant from which mats were woven and hence it was adopted by the Forsters for the New Zealand plant. The specific name "tenax" is from Latins tenacious.

Phormium has been described as the most important economic plant in our""indigenous flora - that is, of course, apart from our timber trees. The history of New Zealand flax makes a fascinating story full of ups and downs and widely divergent contrasts. Indeed there are few subjects so full of intrigues, booms, depressions and historic interest,

MAORI GRAFTS. The first scene shows a Maori Pa long before the advent of the Pakehao Here we see natives collecting from selected flax bushes, other workers are extracting the fibres by scraping the leaves with mussel shells and then beating in water. Then the women are seen weaving cloth, plaiting baskets, making ropes, fishing lines, nets and skirts by scraping alternate bands along the leaves and allowing the strips to roll in the sun. The strips were dyed in solutions made from Tanekaha and Hinau bark for black and red colours, and finally they were strung together into the skirts. So in these villages we see Phormium taking an important part in their economy - in building, clothing, hunting and pleasure«

THE ADVENT OF THE PAKEHA. On the scene now appear the white sails of European ships. Captain Cock mentions Phormium in his diary of his first visit; while Joseph Banks, his Botanist, gives the following first report:- {ê0f all the plants we have seen among these people, that which is most excellent of its kind and which really excels most, if not all that are put to the same use in other countries, is the plant which serves them instead of hemp or flax. Of the leaves of these plants all their common wearing apparel is made with very little preparation and all strings, lines and cordage for every purpose and that of a strength so much superior to hemp as scarce to bear comparison with it. From these leaves also, by another preparation, a kind of snow-white fibre is drawn, shining almost as silk and likewise surprisingly strong; of this all their finer clothes are made: their fishing nets are also made of these leaves, without any other preparation than splitting them into proper breadths and tying the strips together."

EARLY EXPORT TRADE« An early interest was taken in flax, and in 1813 a fibre trade was already established. In those days trading was done with boarding mats up and crews armed. Later, however, men lived ashore and organised supplies, The fibre was now well-known among English man• ufacturers arid as early as 1819 ropes of various sizes were manufactured at Portsmouth. In 1827 a prize of 50 guineas was offered to encourage the use of colonial fibres as substitutes for Russian hemp.

In 1830 the British Marine Department carried out tests for navy cordage using Phormium fibre but these were not continued, due, it is said, to the poor grades of fibre sent* Export figures for this period are?- 1828, 60 tons; 1830, 181 tons; 1831, 1062 tons. It must be remembered that all this fibre was obtained by the laborious native method of extraction by hand. Phormium actually figures quite prominently in New Zealand history and in 1830 when there was an 18 increase in exports the urgent necessity was for native tribes to find an article of barter to exchange for modern weapons. Feverish efforts were made to produce fibre and it is stated that crops were neglected and famines resulted*

About 1832 exports virtually ceased for several reasons: (a) The extremely laborious production was only suited to an age when labour was not evaluated on an economic basis. (b) The Maoris were beginning to desert their arts end crafts. (c) Accummulated stocks were depleted and the natives now had muskets* (d) High prices had caused settlers to prepare fibres of such poor quality that prices dropped from £^0 to £20 a ton.

And so for over 30 years (1832-1866) there was very little activity in fibre production. In 1862 only 60 tons were produced.

MACHINE EXTRACTION OF FIBRE. The next phase in Phormium history began with the advent of machinery. The high price "for-Manila fibre encouraged inventors and in 1867 the new industry of machine produced fibre got under way. From then on, however, the industry is one of alternating booms and depressions. A graph of exports is a jagged zig-zag of peaks and valleys which mirror the fluctuations of the fibre trade throughout the world during that period and indeed reflect world wide events of these times. The first depression in 1873 was part of the world depression. In 1879 only £8,000 of fibre was exported while in 1889 £36,100 was exported. . The increase was due to the invention .of the reaper and binder for which Phormium fibre found a new use in the form of binder twine. An epidemic in the Phillippines interferred with Manila harvest, a political upset in Mexico affected Sisal export and are shown on the graph.

In 1908 after prominence was given to the necessity for panting and cultivating Phormium, the bottom dropped out of the fibre market. Fluctuations continued, being correlated with such things as the Spanish-American war, financial crisis in U.S.A., control of Sisal prices by Mexican Government and droughts and a hurricane in the Phillippines. During the 19114—18 war, however, mills worked at high pressure. This was followed by a depression. About 1925 when things had improved a little, many companies publicised amazing offers of returns to be had from Phormium investments. About 1000 acres were actually planted but they were abandoned owing to the many real problems in cultivation

PRESENT RESEARCH, It is from the time when war broke out in 1939 that we enter the present and most important period in which Phormium no longer was dependent upon a fluctuating world market but came into its rightful place. From a village craft it had finally developed into a national industry*

Here is an outline of the present situation with some details of research problems. There are some four or five areas in both Islands producing fibre. These produce about 14,500 tons per year while, by the development of internal uses, there is today a potential market for some 10,000 tons per annum, for which plantations will yet have to be established, •Today the manufacture of woolpacks takes up some 2000 tons, cordage anj uniting 1000 i"«ons, • r;i-th .fibroub plaster £»:•:?. furniture padding markets requiring another 100Ō tons. Use of fibre in cornsacks, for example, could expand the market tremendously, while present wool- pack production is only one third of the demand.

Developmental and research work has been concentrated at Foxton where the Government has taken over 5000 acres of natural flax swamps to supply a woolpack factory. If

Research work is concerned with the botany of the plant itself, including consideration of habit, growth, leaf production, establishment, varieties, taxonomy, anatomy and fibre content, sele.c-tion ' and plant breeding, genetics, diseases and insect pests, cutting practise and ecology*

It is a fact that Phormium, one of our first known and most familiar plants, is yet far from being thoroughly known. To mention one instance, a lack of knowledge of the physiology of the plant (root growth and function, nutrition and metabolism), ha-s been a great handicap in attacking the 30 year old problem of "yellow-leaf" disease.

As Phormium has never been cultivated before and as "it is a plant of drained swamp areas demanding.a certain critical water table-^ very many problems have arisen in the establishment of plantations. Selection and crossing have given good results, by almost doubling the yield of fibre. Finer fibres have been obtained by crossing P. tenax with the nmountain" flax, P. colensoi. Here, however, machinery capable of extracting the softer-fibres and spinning them into finer thread has not' yet been developed.

YELLOW LEAP DISEASE. Selection has also aimed at eradicating Yellow-leaf disease which is one of the most serious problems today. Its cause, let alone cure, is still unknown. The disease first shows as a yellowing of the leaves followed by death, perhaps the whole plant. There is a preliminary breakdown in the roots. Appearing in both North and South Islands on many different soils the disease appears to be independent of most variables, so far observed. Its occurrence is sporadic, no certain recovery is known, yet it has never been experimentally transmitted. Isolations have failed to reveal fungi, bacteria or any pathogens and it remains as the "cancer problem" of Phormium.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESS. A few words must finally be said about the industrial processes related to Phormium. The leaf is cut with reaping hooks by hand and tied into bundles, each bush being cut to the ground once every four years. At the mill each leaf is sorted and passed through the stripping machine where it is pulled against a revolving drum fitted with beater bars and the cortical tissue is removed, Phormium cannot be retted like linen flax. The hanks of fibre are washed and then carted to the drying fields where they are spread for a week or more. They are collected and taken back and passed through the scutcher where each hank of fibre is hung in a large cylinder inside which is a revolving set of wooden bars. This combs out the fibre and removes cellular tissue and the short lengths of tow. Passing over the carding machines the fibre is drawn out into continuous lengths until small enough to be twisted into twine and spun on to bobbins. This cord is then used in the looms for manufacture into woolpack material or matting. In the latter case it is passed through dye-baths. Commercial alcohol, paper, rayon thread and fine fabrics are said to have been made from Phormium but all at such cost as to make production totally uneconomic. Phormium has a few rivals among the "hard" fibres. There is Manila from wild banana leaf in the Phillippines and Sisal from a type of Yusca (Mexico, Africa and Java) and of course Jute from India. Today, India is not exporting Jute and the countries of the world are looking for suitable fibre plants to introduce, thus making the future of Phormium extremely bright.

) ) ) )'+•(•••( ( ( 20

-King's Birthday, Excursion to Raiigitoto - June 7th 1948 as related by Ross Robbins,

The trip was organized only a few days beforehand, so It was pleasing to find a party of twenty two turn out. As well as Stage I, II, and III botanists .and representatives of the. Zoology and Geology Departments, wore Miss R.DeBerg, Dr. Godley, and Dr Newman and family, Dr Newman (late of Victoria College) was leaving for Ceylon the next day. The "Tarawa!" left the launch steps sharp on 9,30 a.m. and arrived at Rangitoto at about a quarter to ton. First a visit was made to the mangrove inlet at the start of the Islington Bay track. Here, Miss DeBerg outlined the programme for the day and spoke briefly on the vegetation zones. The party moved on to the picnic site' and explored the caves. Here we boiled the billy and attacked our lunch packets. After lunch we took the track to the right of the volcanic cone and made a brief halt to enjoy the view. The day was sunny and bracing - perfect for the outing. From the cone wa went down to the beacon and spent some time on the sandy cove where we brewed another cup of tea. It was now after four o'clock so we had to hurry back around the coast to the wharf - to arrive a few minutes before the boat left. On the way home the boat was crowded with some two hundred passengers and it was dark when we pulled in to the Auckland wharf. Plenty of fossicking and collecting was done, and from all aspects the trip''' wan most satisfying,

c c o o e

The Club committee thanks those persons who have contributed towards the production of this Record, and in particulars Miss Dahlberg who cut most of the stencils, Miss Lush for checking the species lists, Miss Dellow for abstracting the bulky results of the Departmental trip to Russel, and also those anonymous people whose keen observation in the field have made

this possible, and last but not least the contributors : Y/ho have, in many cases, given up valuable pre-examination time to prepare their material in its present form.

Congr.a tulat!pns ,

We extend our congratulations to the Biological Society of Victoria Univ» ersity College for their.'production- . of "Tuatara". This excellent little journal is a credit to the initiative and ability of that Society.. 21 AUGUST GAMP - RUSSELL

ORGANIZED BY THE BOTANY DEPARTMENT

A most successful week's camp was held at Russell, Bay of Islands, under the leadership of Professor V.J, Chapman. Members of the party worked in pairs on different aspects of the marine algal ecology of the area. Each pair of students subsequently wrote a short account of their work. Mr, V. W. Lindauer, a noted algologist residing at Russell, and his wife, added greatly to the pleasantness of the occasion by their generous hospitality. Several new species were recorded. Pools were classified as follows; A. High-tide pools B. Medium-(Mid)-tide pools C. Low-tide pools In each case the pools were considered from the point of view of size and depth. These factors do not seem to affect the abundance of species., but in mid-tide pools, depth may act as a presence or absence factor for Carpophyllum and Ecklonia. In high-tide pools, size and depth appear important in affecting temperature and salinity, which in turn help to control density of growth. A series of graphs was constructed, indicating the abundance of various species in different zones. Valuable notes were made on the ecology of a number of species, including

Enteromorpha intestinalis Apophloea sinclairii Hormosir-a banks ii . Corallina officinalis Celpomenta sinuosa Carpophyllum- maschaloc ar purr. Ecklonia radiata var. richardiana Laurencia thyrsifera Lomentaria caespitosa Melanthalia abscissa.

The vertical distribution in pools on the shore from high to low water was indicated diagrammatically, A dredging expedition in the Bay of Islands resulted in obtaining several lithothamnia, including the basal portion of Corallina, The latter appears able to exist in prostrate form under a widely differing range of conditions, in habitats where the erect plant cannot survive. An investigation of the rate of desiccation of Corallina in the open air showed a loss of hA% of fresh weight in three hours. Desiccation, therefore, is probably a major factor in restricting the development of Corallina outside pools in this locality. Thirty-three epiphytic algae were listed. These are distributed among the main taxonomic groups as followss- Rhodophyceae - 20 species Chlorophyceae - 7 " Phaeophyceae - 3 11 . Myxophyceae - 3 "

Few epiphytes were restricted to one - host* JU guturoi, v.:, VQA 1 >. -.r, abundance of epiphytic species was greater in more sheltered habitats.

A levelling survey was carried out at the northern and southern en

of Russell and of L0ng Beach. It was shown that at Long Beach, which is more exposed to wave action, there were more species, and there were certain zones, notably those about High Water Mark, that were more elevated than the corresponding ones on the more sheltered coast at Russell. 22

The effect of depth on the metabolism of Microdictyon (Chlorophyceae), Ecklonia (Phaeophyceae), Corallina and Sarcodia (Rhodophyceae) was investigated. It was found that in general, with increasing depth, photosynthesis tends to overtake respiration, and a screen of coloured glass tends to decrease photosynthetic effect*

(See next page for species list) 23 RUSSELL - LIST OF ALGAE.

Myxophyceae Chroococcales Piacoma vesiculosa Nostocales Oscillatoria margaritifera 5} nigroviridis Lyngbya confervoides ;i maiuscula Microcoleus chthonopiastes Nostoc sphaericura Rivularia atra M australis Isactis plana

Chlorophyceae Ulotrichalee Ulothrix speciosa - new record for N. Z. Monostroma sp. nov, - to be deseribed. 11 lindaueri Ulva lactuca Enteromorpha intestinalis w compressa w bulbosa 11 nana 11 sp. nov. - to be destribed. "~ ff torta - new record for N»Z< acanthophora ramulosa procera var. nov.

Chaetophorales Gomontia polyrhiza Endoderma sp. nov. - to be described. Siphonocladales Gladophora sp. Cladophoropsis herpestica Chaetomorpha tortuosa " aerea Rhizoeloniurn hookeri w iraplexum 81 riparium Wittrockiella sp. nov. - to be described Microdictyon umbilicatum Cladophorella salina sp. nov. - to be described-

Siphonales Vaucheria sp. Godium adhaerens 11 cranwellii 11 fragile Caulerpa hypnoides var.

Phaeophyceae Ectocarpales Pylaiella nova zelandia Ulonema sp. nov. - to be described. Ralfsia clavata Leathesia difforme Petrospongiura berkeleyi Splachnidium rugosum Ilea fascia Scytosiphon lomentarius Colpomenia sinuosa Scytothamnus australis Sporochnales Carpomitra costata - La.rni»nar.&ale3 Ecklonia flabelliformis " richardiana Sphacelariales Sphacelaria furclgera - New record for North. Pre v. rest, to South.« Halopteris hordacea Dietyotales Dictyota ocellata 11 dichotoma Zonaria subarticulata Glossophora kunthii 24 Fucales Xiphophora chondrophylla Cystophora(Blossevillea)torulosa Carpophyllum phyllanthus 15 plumosum ,f maschalocarpum Sargassum Sinclair!i Hormosira banksii Notheia anomala

Rhodophyceae Bangiales Bangia fusco-purpurea Erythrotrichia discigera var« sej?tulariae nov. var. Porphyra columbina Nemalionales Chaetangium corneum Gelidiales Gelidium australe 11 caulacanthura 11 crinale Pterocladia lucida " capillacea Caulacanthus spinellus 0 ry p tonemiale s Dactylymenia berggreniana Rhizopogon asperata Aeodes nitidissima Pachymenia himantophora Hildenbrandtia prototypus Cheilosporum sp. Corallina officinalis Jania sp. " hombroniana Lithothamnion sp. Melobesia nova zelandia Apophloea Sinclairii Gigartinales Schizymenia novae zelandiae Gatenella nipae 11 fusiformis Rhodophyllis laingii Plocamium angustum Phacelocarpus alatus Sarcodia montagneana Gracilaria confervoides Curdea crateriformis Melanthalia abscissa Tylotus proliferus Gymnogongrus nodiferus Stenogramme interrupta Gigartina cranwellii n macrocarpa 11 atropurpurea " alveata ,f chapmanii M 3.aingii

Rhodymeniales Champia nova zelandia " laingii Lomentaria caespitosa " pusilla? Rhodymenia leptophylla M linearis Ceramiales Rhodocorton membranaceum? Callithamnion sp. Ceramiura spp. Centroceras clavulatum Microcladia nova zelandia Antithamnion sp. Pandorea traversii Griffithsia antarctica Caloglossa leprieurii Hymenena berggreniana Myriogramme denticulata 11 gattyana n ovariformis 25.

Acrosorium decumbens Abroteia suborbicularis Polysiphonia sp. Bostrychia arbuscula ?' d is tans " inermis C la daymen ia oblongifolia M lyalli Laurencia distichophylla •; bo try old es " thyrsifera • Metamorphe colensoi Heterosiphonia sp. Bipterosiphonia heteroclada Euzoniella incisa Lenormandia coronata Vidalia colensoi

ENVOY

In a normal year, Field Club has many activities? lectures, camps, excursions and so on, and we hopo that we have given you a sample of these. Unfortunately it has had to be only a sample as limitations of time, space - and alan finance « have made it necessary to omit accounts of some of our activities. We believe that a field club can make a positive contribution, not only to the^social life of a college, but also to biological knowledge. A cursory glance^ at these pages may give an impression of a bias towards botany. This may have been, but we welcome those Interested in other branches of natural science for In the field, as in the laboratory, we can learn most from team work. The floating population of a University club makes it difficult to carry forward projects of work into successive years, but we hope that some of the present projects will continue5 for example, our species- record for the Auckland district, perhaps at first glance rather a dull matter but consideration will show it to be rather an Important one. Another thing we would like to see carried on Is this publication. This Is our first attempt in this direction and we look to future enthusiasts to help it from its swaddling clothes Into the more impressive form which a club and a college of this sort deserves. We have devoted a considerable amount of space to species lists. May we justify this by pointing out that unless such Information is published it tends to get lost and consequently much valuable information gleaned in the past has been lost. To our present members we wish a happy future, and to our future members we wish as much happiness as we have had in our Field Club days in the outdoors.

The Editor.