Now Arriving: A Connected Mobility Roadmap for Public Transport Greg Lindsay, Senior Fellow, New Cities Foundation

WITH SUPPORT FROM: WITH SUPPORT FROM:

Now Arriving: A Connected Mobility Roadmap for Public Transport

Greg Lindsay, Senior Fellow, New Cities Foundation

This report was written as part of the Connected Mobility Initiative and published in October 2016. Edited by: Naureen Kabir Collings, Director of Research, New Cities Foundation.

Please cite this publication as:

Lindsay, Greg, New Cities Foundation (2016), Now Arriving: A Connected Mobility Roadmap for Public Transport [online: http://bit.ly/NCFConnectedMobility]

You can copy, download, or print this report for your own use, and you can include excerpts from New Cities Foundation publications, databases, and multimedia products in your own documents, presentations blogs, websites, and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgment of the New Cities Foundation as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to [email protected]. Request for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the New Cities Foundation. Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 1

Introduction...... 8

A Tale of Four Cities ...... 17 Washington D.C...... 17

Learning from Los Angeles...... 19 Connected Transit-Oriented Development...... 21 Key Lessons...... 23 London...... 24

The Problem of the Adjacent Incumbent...... 25

Mobility-as-a-Service...... 27

Key Lessons...... 32

Sao Paulo...... 33

MobiLab: Faster, Cheaper, Better?...... 35

Key Lessons...... 37

Manila...... 38

Learning from Nairobi: Mapping Nairobi’s Matatus...... 40

Mapping Manila’s Jeepneys...... 41

Is the Future “Stream Mobility”?...... 43

Key Lessons...... 45

Recommendations...... 46

Near-Term Strategies...... 46

Mid-Term Strategies...... 52

Longer-Term Strategies...... 57

Conclusion...... 62

Bibliography...... 63

Executive Summary

The form and functioning of cities is while increasing coverage, transit agencies ÚåĀĹåÚÆƼƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹţBŅƵƵåƋų±ƴåųŸå risk being hollowed out by their would-be ƋĘåĵ ±ýåÏƋŸ åƴåųƼƋĘĜĹč üųŅĵ Ņƚų ±ÏÏ域 partners. to opportunities to land uses to energy consumption and pollution. Railroads, The risk is that a new generation of “choice” streetcars, and automobiles each produced riders may choose to forgo both their cities made in their respective images, from own cars and public transport in favor of skyscrapers to suburbs to sprawl. parallel private competitors, consigning vulnerable “captive” riders to increasingly Today, the state-of-the-art in transportation dysfunctional transit systems crippled by is the smartphone. Its two-way ability a lack of leadership, funding, and political to locate, coordinate, and orchestrate support. both passengers and vehicles is more important than any one mode, including This is not an argument in favor of the status the automobile. Smartphones and their quo, however. Cities are right to encourage successors will transform cities once again. innovative services, and residents are right The only question is how. to want them. Regulators cannot restrain new entrants forever, nor should they try. To date, the ones seizing these opportunities BŅƵåƴåųØ ƋĘåƼ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ Æå ŞųŅ±ÏƋĜƴå ±ÆŅƚƋ have been private actors, whether in way- driving the change – and writing the rules of ĀĹÚĜĹč Šåţčţ :ŅŅčĬå a±ŞŸØ œ±DŽåØ eŞŞĬåšØ engagement so to speak – rather than have ride-hailing (e.g. Uber, Didi, Grab, Lyft) or new mobility technology players decide the autonomous vehicles (e.g. Alphabet, Tesla, terms themselves and control the outcome. Amazon). This represents both a missed The only sustainable solution is for public opportunity and a looming threat for transport to embrace this opportunity public transport, which has struggled to to reinvent themselves as mobility adapt for a litany of historical, political, and orchestrators rather than operators, to technological reasons. supplement high-frequency, high-capacity trunk lines with on-demand services, to Transit agencies trapped in a downward recombine and repackage modes in new spiral of shrinking budgets, diminished and appealing ways, and to create new service, and declining ridership have begun public-private partnerships that create turning to these companies as complements value for all participants while preserving or even substitutes for traditional modes, transportation access and equity. No small åŸŞåÏĜ±ĬĬƼ±Ÿ±ĀųŸƋě±ĹÚěĬ±ŸƋĵĜĬåÏŅĹĹåÏƋĜŅĹ task, but an imperative goal worth pursuing. to mass transit. This is a dangerous path that practically invites disruption; as on- This report is the culmination of the demand mobility continues falling in price Connected Mobility Initiative launched by

1 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

the New Cities Foundation in June 2015. themselves as more agile, entrepreneurial, The primary aim of the initiative is to and willing to partner, alternately inspired explore the triple convergence of “mobility” by the successful spread of municipal bike- — physical, digital, and socio-economic sharing programs and alarmed by would- — and to propose strategies and steps be disruptors. ƋŅƵ±ųÚ ĵŅųå ÆųŅ±ÚĬƼ ŸĘ±ųĜĹč ƋĘå ÆåĹåĀƋŸ of this transformation while ameliorating FĹ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹØ ƵĘĜÏĘ Ƶ±Ÿ ŧƚĜÏĩ ƋŅ ĜƋŸ ŞŅƋåĹƋĜ±ĬĬƼ ÏŅųųŅŸĜƴå åýåÏƋŸ ŅĹ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ welcome TNCs, there are already signs of institutions. To this end, the report is split how connected mobility is changing the ÆåƋƵååĹ ÆųĜåü ŞųŅĀĬåŸ Ņü üŅƚų ÏĜƋĜåŸ ó city. New residents are eschewing cars in œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţØ XŅĹÚŅĹØ „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅØ ±ĹÚ favor of bike-sharing, car-sharing, and ride- Manila — facing challenges representative hailing, enabling developers to transform of their respective peers, along with previously undesirable or inaccessible sites a list of near-, mid-, and long-term ĜĹƋŅ ĹåƵ ĘŅƚŸĜĹčţ ‰cŸű ĀųŸƋ ƴĜÏƋĜĵŸ Ƶåųå recommendations for transport authorities taxis, and now parking. If transit agencies to aid them in their transformations. aren’t careful, they might be next.

Cities London Transport for London is the model of a modern major transport system. It controls Washington D.C. the city’s trains, buses, cabs, major streets, œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ Æåϱĵå ƋĘå ŞŅŸƋåų ÏĘĜĬÚ Ņü and congestion pricing. But as big as TfL America’s infrastructure crisis following the ĜŸØĜƋĵ±ƼĹŅƋÆåÆĜčåĹŅƚčĘţFƋϱĹűƋ±ýŅųÚ “Metropocalypse” — a brief shutdown of the to develop its own payment system (i.e. Metro in March 2016, followed by a planned Oyster) as Google or Apple can. It can’t Ƽå±ųŅüåĵåųčåĹÏƼųåŞ±ĜųŸţœåĬĬÆåüŅųåƋʱƋØ ÏŅĬĬåÏƋÚ±Ƌ±üųŅĵåƴåųƼޱŸŸåĹčåųرŸœ±DŽå a vicious cycle of steadily reduced service does and Citymapper aspires to. And it ±ĹÚÚƵĜĹÚĬĜĹčųĜÚåųŸĘĜŞʱÚÏųå±ƋåÚ±ĀŸÏ±Ĭ ϱĹűƋĜčĹŅųåƋĘåÏŅĹŸåŧƚåĹÏåŸŅüāŅŅÚĜĹč crisis that seemingly could only be solved central London with 15,000 additional by privatization or federal intervention. drivers exempt from congestion charges as Meanwhile, transportation network Uber has done. So, what are its options? companies (TNCs) such as Uber and Lyft ŞŅƚĹÏåÚØ ŅýåųĜĹč ÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸ ŸĜčĹĜĀϱĹƋ A decade ago, TfL reinvented the city’s discounts to use their services instead of bus network by partnering with dozens of public transport. ŞųĜƴ±ƋåŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸţœĘĜĬåĜƋÏŅĬĬåÏƋŸü±ų埱ĹÚ manages the network, the private operators Even in cities that have made substantial ųƚĹųŅƚƋ埱ĹÚĩååŞƋĘåŞųŅĀƋŸţBŅƵĵĜčĘƋ investments in new service, such as Los a similar arrangement work with TNCs and Angeles, ridership declines have continued their successors? One answer is “mobility- ƚĹ±Æ±ƋåÚţ ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ƋĘåųå ±ĹÚ as-a-service,” which posits a citywide elsewhere are struggling to reinvent platform combining multiple modes within

2 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

a single interface. Many of these services Researchers have demonstrated how begin with a trip-planner and gradually add shifting or eliminating even a single percent capabilities such as integrated payment ŅüƋųĜŞŸĜĹƴåųƼŸŞåÏĜĀÏĹåĜčĘÆŅųĘŅŅÚŸϱĹ and ticketing (e.g. Moovel and Xerox). reduce delays across entire cities. This has kƋĘåųŸŸƋ±ųƋ±ŸåýŅųƋŸÆƼƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸ ĀűĹÏĜ±ĬÏŅĹŸåŧƚåĹÏ埱ŸƵåĬĬţa±ŸƋåų±ųÚ to make themselves more attractive by estimates that a 5-10% reduction in peak ŅýåųĜĹč ĵƚĬƋĜĵŅÚ±Ĭ ĵŅĹƋĘĬƼ ŸƚÆŸÏųĜŞƋĜŅĹŸ rush hour commutes can help defer system Šåţčţ B±ĹŅƴåųűŸ ŮaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ „ĘŅŞØŰ šĜåĹűűŸ expansion (and capital expenditures) by SMILE). as many as two years — hopefully enough ƋĜĵåüŅų„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅƋŅϱƋÏĘĜƋŸÆųå±ƋʱĹÚ Perhaps the most ambitious startup is add the capacity it needs to accommodate Finland’s MaaS Global, which aims to create a growing urban population. a global, open platform on one hand, and Manila ÏĜƋƼěŸŞåÏĜĀÏŸåųƴĜÏåŸŅĹƋĘåŅƋĘåųØŸƋ±ųƋĜĹč ĜĹ BåĬŸĜĹĩĜţ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ üŅų XŅĹÚŅĹ ĜŸ ŅĹå Ņü Nearly half of Metro Manila’s 24 million ĜƋŸĀųŸƋޱųƋĹåųŸţ residents ride daily on jeepneys — twenty- São Paulo seat passenger jeeps spewing black exhaust while tracing intricate routes ‰ĘåĬ±ųčåŸƋÏĜƋƼĜĹƋĘåœåŸƋåųĹBåĵĜŸŞĘåųå ƋĘųŅƚčĘ ƋĘå ÏĜƋƼţ FƋűŸ ƋĘå ĵŅŸƋ ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåØ is slowly grinding to a halt. Decades of albeit not enjoyable commute for middle disinvestment in public transport in favor of ÏĬ±ŸŸ 8ĜĬĜŞĜĹŅŸØ ƵĘŅŸå ĵŅųå ±ÿƚåĹƋ building highways has created a spatially ĵåĵÆåųŸ±ųåāååĜĹčģååŞĹåƼŸen masse for segregated city gridlocked at every level. private cars — producing the world’s worst „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅ ĜŸ ĜĹü±ĵŅƚŸ üŅų ÆŅƋĘ ĜƋŸ Ƌų±þÏ congestion. jams and punishingly long commutes by transit, culminating in 2013’s protests over But are jeepneys the problem or the a $.09 fare hike. solution? In cities across the Global South — including Nairobi, Mumbai, and Mexico City Unable to add capacity, the challenge óĜĹüŅųĵ±ĬƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋåĵåųčåÚƋŅĀĬĬƋĘåƴŅĜÚ facing the city’s transit agency is to left by weak or non-existent public transport. create enough slack in the system to give They have in turn been upended by recent passengers room to breathe. That’s the aim surges in auto ownership. Simultaneously, of MobiLab, a data laboratory and incubator “microtransit” services such as UberPOOL, inside SPTrans. Using open source tools to XƼüƋ XĜĹåØ šĜ±Ø ±ĹÚ ųĜÚģ ʱƴå ±ŞŞå±ųåÚ ƋŅ replace expensive software, the lab plows challenge public transport with smaller the resulting savings into data-driven vehicles making multiple, algorithmically- experiments and investments. optimized stops.

One goal is to discover how tiny Manila’s investments in mapping jeepney interventions might critically tip congestion. routes and modernizing vehicles, coupled

3 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

ƵĜƋĘƋĘåÏʱĬĬåĹčåŸŞŅŸåÚÆƼĜƋŸāƚÏƋƚ±ƋĜĹč 3 ųŅŸŸěƋų±ĜĹ ŸƋ±ý ƋŅ ÆƚĜĬÚ ϱޱÏĜƋƼ ±ĹÚ density and failures to expand mass transit, ÚĜŸÏŅƴåųŅŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋĜåŸţ suggest the megacity may be microtransit’s Upgrading skills while attracting new true frontier — if the public and private Ƌ±ĬåĹƋ ĜŸ ÏųĜƋĜϱĬ ó ±ĹÚ åƻƋųåĵåĬƼ ÚĜþÏƚĬƋ sectors alike are willing to take the risk. given public sector requirements on hiring. ečåĹÏĜåŸĵƚŸƋŸƋųĜƴåƋŅųåěƋų±ĜĹŸƋ±ýĜĹÚ±Ƌ± Recommendations analysis and visualization, cross-train them ÆƼ åĵÆåÚÚĜĹč ŸƋ±ý ƋŅě±ĹÚěüųŅĵ ŅƋĘåų The key lessons culminating from each of departments, universities, and partner the case studies above yield the following institutions, and search for opportunities to insights and recommendations for public pool data and expertise across agencies. transit authorities on how they can transform themselves to tackle the changing mobility 4 Xåƴåų±čåØ ųåěƚŸåØ ±ĹÚ ųåŞƚųŞŅŸå needs of city-dwellers and in the face of ŞĘƼŸĜϱĬ ±ŸŸåƋŸ ±ĹÚ ĜĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåţ technology-driven disruption. Startups may have all the algorithms, but what they don’t have are the streets, Near-Term Strategies: sidewalks, parking, and curbspace their services rely on. Transit agencies must 1 Create steering committees to assess rethink the highest and best uses for parking new technologies. Multi-disciplinary teams and land around stations, while transport should regularly reconnoiter the horizon, ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ Ÿååĩ ƋŅ Ĭåƴåų±čå ÆųŅ±Úåų identify both promising and threatening assets such as libraries and municipal developments, and debate the potential buildings as nodes for connected mobility. ĜĵޱÏƋŸ Ņü ĹåƵ ƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčĜåŸţ BĜčĘåųěĬåƴåĬ

multi-agency committees should meet 5   åƋĘĜĹĩ ÏŅĵĵƚƋåų ÆåĹåĀƋŸ ŸƋų±ƋåčĜåŸ regularly to exchange best practices and ±ĹÚϱųěŞŅŅĬĜĹčţ Transit agencies typically conduct exercises to concretely imagine ŅƴåųĬŅŅĩ ƋĘå ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸ ŅýåųåÚ ±Ƌ åĜƋĘåų future services. end of most commuters, which is usually üųåå ޱųĩĜĹčţ {ƚÆĬĜÏ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ ƵŅųĩ 2 Know what data you have, what data with local employers to create carpooling- you need, and what you can do with ±ĹÚ ųåƵ±ųÚŸ ĹåƋƵŅųĩŸ ±Ƌ ƋĘå ĀųĵěØ ÏĜƋƼěØ it. Sharing data, collecting and making and regional levels to encourage shared sense of it, and using it to inform planning trips, fewer peak rush hour commutes, and and decision-making is essential. Public less congestion. transport must do a better job of taking stock of the datasets they have, what 6  )ƻŞĬŅųå Úåĵ±ĹÚěŸĘ±ŞĜĹč ±ĹÚ Şå±ĩě they desire or require from partners and ŸĘĜüƋĜĹč ƋĘųŅƚčĘ ųå±ĬěƋĜĵå ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸţ third parties, and adopting open APIs and Singapore and other cities have had great standards whenever possible. success in using incentives such as free trips and reward programs to encourage commuters to eliminate or defer trips

4 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

during periods of peak demand. Transit pursue such partnerships at the earliest ±ŞŞŸƵĜƋĘĜĹƋåčų±ƋåÚƵ±ƼěĀĹÚĜĹčØޱƼĵåĹƋØ opportunity to begin testing service in ±ĹÚ ƋĜÏĩåƋĜĹč Ņýåų ĹåƵ ŞŅŸŸĜÆĜĬĜƋĜåŸ üŅų interested communities. individual, real-time incentives to route travelers around service disruptions, åƋĘĜĹĩĜĹüŅųĵ±ĬƋų±ĹŸĜƋţ4 In cities across balance passenger loads across modes, the Global South, informal transit is transit. ±ĹÚ Ņýåų ĀĹåųěčų±ĜĹåÚ ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸ ƋʱĹ Rather than pursue policies to replace blanket subsidies. them, transport authorities should seek ƋŅ ĬåčĜƋĜĵĜDŽå ±ĹÚ ƚŞčų±Úå ƋĘåŸå āååƋŸ Mid-Term Strategies with an eye towards integration. Safer and more convenient jitneys may prove to be 1   ųå±Ƌå ŮÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ Ĭ±ÆŸŰ ƋŅ assess new technologies. Transit agencies a bulwark against congestion, while in the shouldn’t go mano a mano with deep- long run, upgrading them to microtransit pocketed startups when it comes to hiring ĵĜčĘƋŞųŅƴåƋŅÆå±ĹåýåÏƋĜƴåŸŅĬƚƋĜŅĹüŅų talent or writing software. But as a number sprawling megacities. of governments have demonstrated, “living labs” and “innovation teams” can be useful 5    åƋĘĜĹĩ ޱųĩĜĹčØ DŽŅĹĜĹčØ ±ĹÚ Ĭ±ĹÚěƚŸå in streamlining procurement, prototyping ŞŅĬĜÏĜåŸţ Given the rise of car-sharing, features and services, and inviting public ride-hailing, and mobility-as-a-service, and private partners to collaborate. cities should rethink parking and zoning to encourage creative land uses. Eliminating parking minimums, reconsidering minimum 2   ųå±Ƌå ± ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼě±Ÿě±ěŸåųƴĜÏå Ša±±„š ųŅ±Úĵ±Şţ For public transport to survive housing lot sizes, and permitting the and thrive, it must become easier and more construction of accessory dwelling units convenient than the private modes and can all help increase the supply of more services arising to challenge it. Agencies ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå ĘŅƚŸĜĹčţ BĜčĘåų ÚåĹŸĜƋĜåŸ ±ĬŸŅ must develop a plan to functionally integrate åĹʱĹÏåƋĘååþϱÏƼŅüƋų±ĹŸĜƋţ Ƶ±ƼěĀĹÚĜĹčØޱƼĵåĹƋرĹÚƋĜÏĩåƋĜĹčŅĹƋŅ± Longer-Term Strategies single, open platform combining multiple modes — with their own services providing 1 ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋĜŅĹüųŅĵƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸƋŅ the backbone. ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ĵ±Ĺ±čåųŸţ If public transport is to meet the challenges and opportunities 3    X±ƚĹÏĘ ± ĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋ ŞĜĬŅƋţ Using on- posed by connected mobility, it must stop demand microtransit to extend and expand privileging individual modes and instead ÏŅƴåų±čåĜĹĜĹŸƚþÏĜåĹƋĬƼÚåĹŸå±ų屟ĜŸŅĹå focus on outcomes such as quality, safety, of the biggest opportunities surrounding security, convenience, sustainability, and connected mobility. Unlike better-known ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĜĬĜƋƼţ ‰ĘĜŸ ƵĜĬĬ ųåŧƚĜųå ÏŅĵÆĜĹĜĹč ‰cŸØĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋŸåųƴĜÏ域ƚÏʱŸšĜ±±ĹÚ institutional reforms with innovative Bridj have signaled their willingness to work tendering, network restructuring, new closely with public transport in licensing technologies, and most importantly, strong their software and data. Agencies should leadership from the mayoral level down.

5 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

2  )ĵÆų±Ïå ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ƵĘĜĬå 3   X±ƚĹÏĘ ±Ĺ ±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸ ƴåĘĜÏĬå Šešš ÆųĜÚčĜĹč ƋĘå ÚĜčĜƋ±Ĭ ÚĜƴĜÚåţ Smartphones ŞĜĬŅƋţ {ųŅĵŅƋå ƋĘå ÚåŞĬŅƼĵåĹƋ Ņü ešŸ ±Ÿ are not, in fact, ubiquitous. Neither are credit ÏåĹƋų±ĬĬƼ ĵ±Ĺ±čåÚ āååƋŸ ÏŅĵŞĬåĵåĹƋĜĹč cards or bank accounts. Transit agencies transit. Partner with automakers and/or must continue to guarantee access for the startups to test vehicles under real-world most vulnerable, whether that means trip- conditions. Collect data on safety and planning kiosks at stations, basic fare cards user behavior. Consider the impacts on or tickets with QR codes, and consolidated congestion and whether congestion pricing call centers for users without phones. is necessary.

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UBER

7 Photo: Toyota i-Road. Flickr © Toyota UK Introduction

“Cities are always created around whatever 21st century infrastructure spending, as the state-of-the-art transportation device is America’s mobile carriers have collectively ±ƋƋĘåƋĜĵåØŰIŅåĬ:±ųųå±ƚƵųŅƋåƋƵåĹƋƼěĀƴå invested more than $500 billion upgrading years ago in Edge City1. At the New Cities the country’s cellular communications grid Foundation, we are intensely interested — roughly the modern cost of the Interstate in the forces shaping the development of BĜčĘƵ±Ƽ„ƼŸƋåĵţ5 The smartphone’s ability new and old cities alike, whether social, to choreograph transport has supplanted economic, environmental, or technological. the importance of any one mode, even the The aim of the Connected Mobility Initiative automobile. It will remake the city as surely is to explore the triple convergence as previous revolutions did. of “mobility” — physical, digital, and socio-economic — and to propose The most important questions now are strategies and steps toward more broadly ŮBŅƵũŰ ±ĹÚ Ů8Ņų ƵĘŅĵũŰ ‰Ęå ±ÚƴåĹƋ Ņü ŸĘ±ųĜĹč ƋĘå ÆåĹåĀƋŸ Ņü ƋĘĜŸ Ƌų±ĹŸüŅųĵ±ƋĜŅĹ mass-produced Model T Fords a century while ameliorating its potentially corrosive ago had both spatial and political åýåÏƋŸ ŅĹ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ ĜĹŸƋĜƋƚƋĜŅĹŸţ FĹ ƋĘå consequences for cities. Jitneys were 1980s and early 1990s, it was the then- banned, streetcars demolished, and mass cutting edge combination of the personal transit became the public’s domain to computer and automobile that spawned eliminate competition with burgeoning the suburban edge cities of Garreau’s title. automakers. Federal funds were marshaled Today, the state-of-the-art in transportation ƋŅ ÆƚĜĬÚ üųååƵ±ƼŸ ±ĹÚ ĀűĹÏå ŸƚÆƚųÆĜ±ţ is the smartphone.2 Meanwhile, systematic disinvestment hollowed out cities, requiring decades It’s not just that smartphones are to repair and recover. Nearly thirty years ubiquitous, with annual sales approaching passed between the judgment famously 1.5 billion handsets,3 compared to a total (though falsely) attributed to British Prime of 1.2 billion motor vehicles on the roads.4 Minister Margaret Thatcher that, “a man ‰ĘåƼűųå ŧƚ±ĬĜƋ±ƋĜƴåĬƼ ÚĜýåųåĹƋØ ÚŅƚÆĬĜĹč who, beyond the age of 26ØĀĹÚŸĘĜĵŸåĬüŅĹ as a sensor and pocket supercomputer a bus can count himself as a failure,”6 and as well as the focal point of a vast data Bogota Mayor Enrique Penalosa’s more collection and analysis apparatus churning recent assertion that “an advanced city is in the cloud. They’re also the locus of not one where even the poor use cars, but

1 Garreau, Edge City, 32. 2 Goldwyn, “The Most Important Transportation Innovation of the Decade Is the Smartphone.” 3 :±ųƋĹåųţŮ8ŅųåϱŸƋ×{ŸØŽĬƋų±ĵŅÆĜĬ埱ĹÚaŅÆĜĬå{ĘŅĹåŸØœŅųĬÚƵĜÚåØ2013-2020, 1Q16 Update.” 4 c±ƴĜč±ĹƋåŸå±ųÏĘØىų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ8ŅųåϱŸƋ×XĜčĘƋ%ƚƋƼšåĘĜÏĬåŸţŰ2016. 5 Townsend, “Re-Programming Mobility.” 6åƴĜĬ±Ïŧƚ±ØŮa±ƼÆåa±ųč±ųåƋ‰Ę±ƋÏĘåų%ĜÚĹűƋB±ƋåƚŸåŸeŸaƚÏĘeŸœå‰ĘŅƚčĘƋţŰ 8 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

rather one where even the rich use public vehicles reins in some of that growth, the transport.”7 IEA predicts it would still be necessary to pave nearly 25 million kilometers of roads, BŅƵ ƵĜĬĬ Ƶå ŸŞå±ĩ Ņü ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ and a minimum of 45,000 square kilometers thirty years from now? As an enhancement of parking. And that’s in a scenario in which of Penalosa’s city, or as the moment public global temperatures would still rise by four transport willingly began to dismantle itself degrees. in the face of smartphone-led disruption? It is critical for policymakers to understand Most of this growth will occur in lower- that new technologies and services such and middle-income cities across the ±Ÿ ŽÆåųØ œ±DŽåØ ±ĹÚ ±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸ ƴåĘĜÏĬåŸ Global South, where a burgeoning middle are not neutral. They embody values and class is fueling an explosion in private car business models that left unchecked, may ownership.11 There’s a good reason for this, run counter to the goals of creating livable as the automobile’s point-to-point, door-to- and equitable cities — whether intentionally door, on-demand service remains the most or unintentionally.8 It’s imperative for personally liberating technology devised Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸØ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ±ĹÚ ƋĘåĜų so far (with the growing exception of the partners to understand the implications of smartphone). This is why individual auto this shift and to reposition themselves as ownership is, in the aggregate, expected to ƋĘå ŸƋåƵ±ųÚŸ Ņü ± ÆųŅ±ÚåųØ ĵŅųå āåƻĜÆĬå rise. But in not prioritizing other modes of networked transportation system. public transport, these cities run the risk of repeating America’s mistakes in prioritizing This report arrives at a pivotal time. The Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋűŸ ŸŞååÚØ ÚĜŸƋ±ĹÏåØ ±ĹÚ åþÏĜåĹÏƼ International Transport Forum predicts the at the cost of accessibility. number of vehicle kilometers traveled will more than double and may triple globally The Brookings Institution found that typical between 2010 and 2050, with 80% of that residents of an American city are only able rise attributed to cars.9 The result, according to reach 30% of the available jobs in less to estimates by the International Energy than 90 minutes using transit.12 Another Agency, will be a corresponding 80% rise ŸƋƚÚƼ üŅƚĹÚ ƋʱƋ Ĺå±ųĬƼ ʱĬü Ņü ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå in global transportation’s energy usage, housing residents spent more than 15% contributing to a six-degree Celsius rise in of their incomes on transportation costs.13 global temperatures.10 Even if tighter fuel ‰ĘĜŸ ÚĜĬåĵĵ± ĜŸ ĵ±čĹĜĀåÚ ĜĹ ÏĜƋĜåŸ ŸƚÏĘ economy standards and a switch to electric ±Ÿ „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅ ±ĹÚ a±ĹĜĬ±Ø ƵĘåųå ƋĘå

7{åűĬŅŸ±ØٜĘƼÆƚŸåŸųåŞųåŸåĹƋÚåĵŅÏų±ÏƼĜűÏƋĜŅĹţŰ 8 œĘ±ƋƵ±ŸčŅŅÚüŅų:åĹåų±ĬaŅƋŅųŸĜĹ1953 wasn’t necessary good for the country. 9 UITP. “Public Transport Trends.” 10 International Energy Agency. “Global Land Transport Infrastructure Requirements.” 11 The Economist, “Slowly does it.” 12 Tomer, et al. “Missed Opportunity: Transit and Jobs in Metropolitan America.”

13 9 B±ĵĜÚĜ±ĹÚ)ƵĜĹčţŮBŅƵeýŅųÚ±ÆĬåĜŸBŽ%BŅƚŸĜĹčũŰ Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

toxic combination of separate land uses, transportation experts are concerned, inadequate transit capacity, and mounting nothing can replace the capacity of a new congestion has led to punishing multi-hour metro, and they have a point. But new commutes. modes of connected mobility, born from data and algorithms and guided by the Ironically, the IEA estimates it would cost Ÿĵ±ųƋŞĘŅĹåØ Ņýåų Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸ ĹåƵ less — $50 trillion less spread over forty tools for reshaping their cities — tools in the years — to re-invest in a transit-rich, low- hands of startups until now. carbon transportation system.14 As far as

‰ĘĜŸ ųåŞŅųƋØ ĜĹƋåĹÚåÚ üŅų Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŞųŅü域ĜŅűĬŸØ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸØ ±ĹÚ ŞųĜƴ±Ƌå ÏŅĵޱĹĜåŸØ seeks to explore the following questions:

BŅƵĜŸÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ±Ĭųå±ÚƼ BŅƵ ϱĹ ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ changing cities in terms of be greater than the sum of its ±ÏÏ域ĜÆĜĬĜƋƼ ±ĹÚ Ĭ±ĹÚ ƚŸåũ œĘ±Ƌ ĵŅÚåŸũ œĘ±Ƌ ĜĹƋåčų±ƋĜŅĹŸ ±ųå are the likely impacts on parking, necessary to make the most of new development patterns, transit- combinations? Is the goal to achieve oriented development, and value “mobility-as-a-service?” capture?

œĘ±Ƌ ĜŸ ƋĘå ųŅĬå Ņü Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ œĘĜÏĘ čŅ±ĬŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ authorities in the era of connected bodies aim to achieve? Is it simply mobility? Should they remain about removing private vehicles operators, privileging some modes from the roads? Or is it more broadly while outsourcing others, or should about accessibility, equity, safety, they evolve into orchestrators, ±ĹÚ ŸƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĜĬĜƋƼũ œĘĜÏĘ ĵŅÚåŸ leveraging their networks and will help advance (or frustrate) legitimacy to guide and regulate these goals? the growth of the system?

œĘ±Ƌ ŸĩĜĬĬŸ ±ĹÚ ϱޱÆĜĬĜƋĜåŸ ±ųå BŅƵŸĘŅƚĬÚƋų±ĹŸĜƋ±čåĹÏĜåŸĵŅĹĜƋŅų needed internally to achieve this and develop new technologies and vision, and who are the external services, recognize threats and actors that will supply new mobility opportunities, and pilot projects to ŅŞƋĜŅĹŸũBŅƵ±ųåƋĘåŸåޱųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞŸ test their impacts (e.g. autonomous best structured to guarantee mutual vehicles)? ÆåĹåĀƋŸũ

14 International Energy Agency. 10 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

And last but not least: who will own, interested in Flow reportedly must agree to control, and share the data making all of exclusively use Google’s mobile payment ƋĘĜŸ ŞŅŸŸĜÆĬåũ œĜĬĬ ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ system for transit and parking, and to share ultimately be provisioned as a public good? their data with Uber.16 Or will it follow the current arc of the greater Internet, in which data — and with it, power Are these visions competing with or — is consolidated in private hands free to complementing transit? For now, the enter any industry they like? answer appears to be the latter. Although only 15% of adult Americans have ever Bracing for Disruption tried ride-hailing services,17 regular users overwhelmingly tend to be younger, better A case in point is Uber Technologies Inc., educated, higher earning, and more likely to which has built one of the world’s most live in dense urban areas. (These attributes valuable transportation companies upon are important, as American public policy is 18 a simple proposition: press a button and a historically driven by elites’ preferences. ) car will come. But its real innovations are They are also less likely to drive and only made possible by data aggregated ŸĜčĹĜĀϱĹƋĬƼĵŅųåĬĜĩåĬƼƋŅƵ±ĬĩØÏƼÏĬåرĹÚ from customers and drivers alike, including use transit. “surge pricing,” matching riders headed in the same direction (i.e. UberPOOL), and After vanquishing most regulatory åƴåĹ ŞŅŞěƚŞ ÆƚŸ ŸƋŅŞŸ ŠĜţåţ ŽÆåųBk{š15. opposition (with notable exceptions in 19 20 Every node in Uber’s network is a sensor Europe and Asia ), Uber, Lyft, and other for tracing otherwise invisible desire lines transportation network companies (TNCs) ƋĘųŅƚčĘÏĜƋĜåŸØüŅųƵĘĜÏĘĜƋŅýåųŸ±ŸåųƴĜÏå have taken a more conciliatory tack with to match. transit agencies. Rather than demonizing transit as public monopolies, TNCs have Uber isn’t alone in that respect. Alphabet’s ŞŅŸĜƋĜŅĹåÚ ƋĘåĵŸåĬƴåŸ ±Ÿ ĀųŸƋě ±ĹÚ Ĭ±ŸƋě œ±DŽå ŸƚÆŸĜÚĜ±ųƼ ʱŸ ÆåčƚĹ Ĭåƴåų±čĜĹč mile links between stations. its 50 million monthly users to coordinate carpooling pilots in the Bay Area and Israel, In the last year alone, Uber has partnered while Sidewalk Labs has announced a with cities and suburbs in California, Florida, Ƌų±þÏě ±ĹÚ ޱųĩĜĹčěĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋ ŸƼŸƋåĵ and Pennsylvania to subsidize rides to-and- built atop Google Maps named Flow. Cities from train stops, and in one case anywhere within city limits.21 (Separately, Sidewalk

15B±ƵĩĜĹŸØَÆåųBŅŞĜŸŽÆåųűŸĬ±ƋåŸƋĜÚå±üŅųĩĜĬĬĜĹčĵ±ŸŸƋų±ĹŸĜƋţŰ 16B±ųųĜŸØلåÏųåƋĜƴåeĬŞĘ±ÆåƋÚĜƴĜŸĜŅĹüƚĹÚåÚÆƼ:ŅŅčĬå±ĜĵŸƋŅĀƻŞƚÆĬĜÏƋų±ĹŸĜƋĜĹŽ„ţŰ 17 Smith, “Shared, Collaborative and On Demand: The New Digital Economy.” 18 Bartels, “Rich people rule!” 19 a±Ƶ±ÚØَÆåų8ååĬŸŽÆåų{ŅŞB±ĹčŅƴåųœĜƋĘ8ųåĹÏĘØ:åųĵ±ĹXåč±Ĭ„åƋƱÏĩŸţŰ 20 ±ĵĜųåDŽØŮeüƋåųčåƋƋĜĹčüŅųÏåÚŅƚƋŅü„ŅƚƋĘUŅųå±ØŽÆåųŞųåŞ±ųåŸƋŅĀčĘƋƱÏĩţŰ 21 Uber, “Uber and Altamonte Springs launch pilot program to improve transportation access.” 11 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Labs has proposed discounting Uber rides areas,” says Joshua Schenck, LA Metro’s for 90,000 lower-income Columbus, Ohio ÏĘĜåüĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹŅþÏåųţىĘåųåűŸĹŅƋĹå±ųĬƼ residents, rather than subsidizing buses.22) enough road space to carry all the people Uber also integrated its API into bus- who need to get to the same place.”26 From Ƌų±ÏĩĜĹč ŸŅüƋƵ±ųå üųŅĵ ‰ų±ĹŸXŅÏØ ŅýåųĜĹč a purely geometric perspective, this is true riders in Memphis and Raleigh-Durham the ó ± Ƌų±þÏ ÏŅųųĜÚŅųűŸ ĵ±ƻĜĵƚĵ ϱޱÏĜƋƼ ĜŸ ability to combine trips with Uber pickups 2,000 motorists an hour, compared to14,000 to-and-from stops. cyclists, 17,000 bus rapid transit riders, and 19,000 pedestrians, to say nothing of 80,000 Transit agencies have begun warming to metro riders in the same span.27 TNCs in turn, wondering if they might be ÆåƋƋåų Ņý ÚåĬåč±ƋĜĹč ŸåųƴĜÏå ŅĹ ŅýěĘŅƚųŸ But to overlook the scale and scope of the and at the fringes of networks in order upstarts’ ambitions is to risk a textbook case to focus on trunk routes. It’s easy to see of disruption, in which a new, presumably why. Uber’s suburban Florida partners, for inferior product initially poses no threat example, turned to the company after ballot to established incumbents, but as it measures to raise transit funding failed. improves in quality while falling in price, The curtailing of late-night transit service the incumbents are forced to retreat into a in Boston has been a boon for TNCs.23 In series of increasingly indefensible niches as œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ%ţţ±ĹÚXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸØÚåÏĬĜĹĜĹč their market share is consumed from below. service levels preceded corresponding FŸƋĘĜŸƋĘåü±ƋåŅüĀƻåÚěųŅƚƋåŞƚÆĬĜÏƋų±ĹŸĜƋũ declines in metro ridership — and that was And if so, what would be lost? ÆåüŅųåƋĘåüŅųĵåųŸƚýåųåÚ±ƋŅƋ±ĬŸĘƚƋÚŅƵĹ of rail service in March for emergency In the worst-case scenario, a two-class repairs, followed by a feverish maintenance system for a new generation of “choice” program aimed at compressing years of and “captive” riders might emerge. One deferred upkeep into just 12 months, which is private-but-subsidized for higher- and TNCs have been swift to exploit.24 middle-income residents, and the other a rump system for everyone else. The The conventional wisdom is that TNCs and üŅųĵåų ÆåĹåĀƋŸ üųŅĵ ± ƴĜųƋƚŅƚŸ ÏĜųÏĬå Ņü “microtransit”25 cannot replace the essential falling costs, greater coverage, and a de role of mass transit. “Even if that does facto oligopoly (if not monopoly), while happen, you’ll still need transit in dense the latter collapses into a downward spiral

22 B±ųųĜŸţ 23 Bidgood, “Revived Focus on Lagging Night Life as Boston Ends Late Transit Service.” 24 „ĜÚÚĜŧƚĜØŮXƼüƋƵĜĬĬŅýåųŸƋååŞÚĜŸÏŅƚĹƋŸƋŅ±ƋƋų±ÏƋÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸÚƚųĜĹčaåƋųŅűŸ„±üå‰ų±ÏĩţŰ 25 “Microtransit” is the emerging term to describe multi-passenger vehicles larger than a single passenger or ޱųƋƼ±ĹÚŸĵ±ĬĬåųƋʱűƋƼŞĜϱĬĉLj쪱ŸŸåĹčåųÆƚŸţ)ƻ±ĵŞĬåŸŅüŸƚÏĘŸåųƴĜÏåŸĜĹÏĬƚÚåŽÆåų{kkXØXƼüƋXĜĹåØšĜ±Ø ųĜÚģرĹÚBåĬŸĜĹĩĜűŸĬ±ƋåØĬ±ĵåĹƋåÚŮUƚƋŸƚŞĬƚŸţŰ 26 BŅĬåƼƵåĬĬØŮXeaåƋųŅűŸFĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹ{ŅĬĜÏƼ×ŅĹŸĜÚåųeĹƼ:ŅŅÚFÚå±ţŰ 27 UITP. 12 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

of service failures, declining status, and Uber has more than 400,000 drivers in 360 disinvestment. As Margaret Thatcher might cities around the world;29 Lyft has 315,000 have (apocryphally) put it, a man who drivers in 195 cities.30 (Uber archrival -turned- doesn’t hail an Uber can count himself a partner and Lyft ally, Didi Chuxing claims to failure. have handled more trips in China alone last year than the pair combined.)31 If this sounds alarmist, let’s quickly ÚåĬĜĹå±Ƌå ƋĘå ÚĜýåųåĹÏåŸ ÆåƋƵååĹ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋØ ‰ĘåƼűųå±ĬŸŅāƚŸĘƵĜƋĘϱŸĘţŽÆåųʱŸų±ĜŸåÚ TNCs, and other forms of “shared mobility,” $15 billion to date, while Didi has amassed i.e. bike-sharing, car-sharing, carpooling, $10.5 billion. The three largest TNCs are and so on. Transit systems are invariably collectively worth more than $100 billion local, politically accountable (to a fault), on paper. Uber alone is considered more frequently tasked with operating and valuable than General Motors or Nissan; ĵ±ĜĹƋ±ĜĹĜĹč Ĭ±ųčå āååƋŸ ±ĹÚ ĜĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųå %ĜÚĜĜŸƵŅųƋĘĵŅųåƋʱĹBƼƚĹÚ±ĜŅųåűƚĬƋØ with salaried, often unionized employees, ±ĹÚ XƼüƋ ƋŅŞŸ BåųƋDŽØ eƴĜŸØ ±ĹÚ )ĹƋåųŞųĜŸå and subsidized to achieve broader social combined. Because drivers don’t exist on goals than merely breaking even. Most their balance sheets, they’re free to spend shared mobility modes are also local and copiously on recruitment, market share, ĜĹƴŅĬƴå ĵ±Ĺ±čĜĹč ƴåĘĜÏĬå āååƋŸØ ±ĹÚ ƋĘåƼ and technology. can be public, private, or a hybrid of the two (e.g. bike-sharing). Occasionally, they can ‰ĘĜųÚØ ƋĘåƼűųå ųåĬåĹƋĬ域ĬƼ åþÏĜåĹƋţ ŽÆåų be monopolistic — the key to “Big Taxi’s” has steadily lowered prices and wages undoing in the public eye. to undercut taxis and bring services like UberPOOL within range of transit. (In July, But the TNCs are something else, especially ĜƋ ÆųĜåāƼ ŅýåųåÚ ޱŸŸåŸ ĜĹ cåƵ¥Ņųĩ32 and Uber, whose stated goal is to weave what Boston33 for less than $2 per trip.) The result Kalanick once called “an urban logistics is that Uber drivers in Detroit earn as little fabric in every city in the world”28 — a as $8.77 an hour after expenses — barely parallel, private transportation system. For more than minimum wage.34 FƋűŸ ÚĜþÏƚĬƋ one thing, the largest TNCs are an order of for unionized transit agencies to compete magnitude bigger globally than any single ƵĜƋĘ ƋʱƋţ ŠFĹ ü±ÏƋØ ŸŅĵå ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ŞųĜƴ±ƋåĬƼ transport body, which matters when it concede the lure of partnering with Uber is comes to aggregating and analyzing data. to get around those costs.35)

28 ųƚŸƋåĜĹØَÆåųűŸœŅųĩüŅųÏåFŸƚĜĬƋƋŅ%ŅaŅųå‰Ę±ĹʱƚýåƚųţŰ 29 Uber. “Find a City.” 30 Alexandra LaManna, e-mail message to the author, August 1, 2016. 31 Alba, “Didi Kuaidi Announces 1.43 Billion Rides in Challenge to Uber.” 32 Griswold, “Commuting with Uber in New York is cheaper than taking the subway this summer.” 33 Uber. “July POOL Pass: Ride for a penny all month long.” 34kű%ŅĹŅƴ±Ĺ±ĹÚ„ĜĹčåųěšĜĹåţŮBŅƵaƚÏĘŽÆåų%ųĜƴåųŸeÏƋƚ±ĬĬƼa±ĩå{åųBŅƚųţŰ

35 13 Tsay, et al. “Private Mobility, Public Interest.” Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Finally, they’re accountable only to handing over large swaths of their system themselves. Uber and Lyft angrily withdrew to them. from Austin, Texas in May 2016 after voters passed a referendum requiring their drivers That said, what are public transport bodies ƋŅŸƚÆĵĜƋĀĹčåųŞųĜĹƋŸ±ŸƋ±ƻĜÚųĜƴåųŸĵƚŸƋţ to do? Clearly, banning potentially disruptive Despite following similar regulations in new technologies and services doesn’t New York City, the pair elected to spend work, at least not in the long term. The only $9 million lobbying against the referendum solution is for transport bodies to embrace before leaving. That kind of deep-pocketed and extend those same technologies to intransigence, coupled with their opaque better connect with customers, buttress use of “surge pricing” during periods of high existing modes, and extend the reach of demand and even during emergencies,36 their systems with the help of new partners should make any city think twice about — on their own terms.

In a best-case scenario, public transport and planning agencies might be able to:

Promise riders an on-demand “bus” Use the data from these services to arriving within minutes a few blocks customize the experience for each away and deliver them within rider, using combinations of carrots walking distance of their destination and sticks to shape demand across — all for a single fare. modes or even shift the rush hour peak.

Lure drivers from their cars with a Encourage residential developers monthly membership combining to subsidize memberships in these unlimited public transport with car- multi-modal services for tenants, sharing or ride-sharing at the edges, thus reducing the need for parking all running on the same platform, while spurring denser growth beyond accessible through a single app. traditional transit corridors.

Taken together, these might not only lessen āåƻĜÆĬåØ ĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜƴåØ ÏƚŸƋŅĵåųěÏåĹƋųĜÏ auto dependence and reduce congestion, entities. It won’t be easy. (After all, there’s a but also increase the public’s faith and reason they’re being disrupted.) support in transport — provided, of course, that transit agencies can successfully This report, made possible with the remake themselves into vastly more generous support of the Toyota Mobility

36 Ries and Ryall. “Uber intros surge pricing during Sydney hostage siege, then backtracks after user outcry.” 14 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Foundation, draws upon a year of research ‰Ęå ĀųŸƋ ʱĬü Ņü ƋĘĜŸ ųåŞŅųƋ åƻŞĬŅųåŸ ƋĘå and more than one hundred interviews with issues surrounding each of these cities in ŞƚÆĬĜÏ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸØ )kŸØ c:kŸØ ųåŸå±ųÏĘåųŸØ turn, highlighting their responses to the drivers, and riders in dozens of cities to focus questions below. The second half gleans on four whose challenges and opportunities Ĭ域ŅĹŸ üųŅĵ ƋĘåŸå åƻ±ĵŞĬåŸ ±ĹÚ ŅýåųŸ are representative of those facing transit recommendations for public transport agencies and private stakeholders around ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ±ĹÚŞųĜƴ±ƋåŸƋ±ĩåĘŅĬÚåųŸüŅųĘŅƵƋŅ the world. maximize connected mobility’s potential.

Washington D.C. America’s test bed for shared mobility for ĵŅųå ƋʱĹ ± ÚåϱÚåØ ƋʱĹĩŸ ƋŅ ƋĘå ĀųŸƋ ĜĹ ± new breed of more entrepreneurial transport ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸţœĜƋĘƋĘå%ĜŸƋųĜÏƋűŸaåƋųŅü±ÏĜĹč±üƚĹÚĜĹč and maintenance crisis, how is connected mobility

already reshaping the city? œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ%ţÙƋÏʱĵÆåųƖƐƅţ

London Transport for London is one of the world’s best- and-brightest transit agencies…and it’s been āƚĵĵŅƻåÚ ÆƼ ‰cŸţ œĘ±Ƌ ϱĹ ‰üXűŸ ±ŞŞųŅ±ÏĘ to public-private partnerships teach us about incorporating new mobility players into existing

systems? London. Flickr © Christian Schreiter.

São Paulo Its trains are jammed, its buses packed, and its streets hopelessly gridlocked. Can Brazil’s biggest city use data to discover a tipping point in lowering congestion, giving commuters and ŞƚÆĬĜÏŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ±ĬĜĩååĹŅƚčĘųŅŅĵƋŅÆųå±ƋĘåũ

„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţ© Connection Consulting.

a±ĹĜĬ± ‰Ęå ±ųÏĘåƋƼޱĬ :ĬŅƱĬ „ŅƚƋĘ ĵåč±ÏĜƋƼ ŸƚýåųŸ ƋĘå ƵŅųĬÚűŸ ƵŅųŸƋ Ƌų±þÏţ œŅƚĬÚ ĵ±ŞŞĜĹč ±ĹÚ networking the city’s infamous “jeepneys” help solve a lack of formal investment? Is ±ĬčŅųĜƋĘĵĜϱĬĬƼěčƚĜÚåÚ ĵĜÏųŅŸƋų±ĹŸĜƋ ± ÆåƋƋåų ĀƋ

üŅųƋĘåŸåÏĜƋĜåŸƋʱĹĀƻåÚěųŅƚƋåŸåųƴĜÏåũ Manila. © Aleksandr Zykov.

15 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

16 œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ%ţÙƋÏʱĵÆåųƖƐƅţ London. © Ivonne. „ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţ© Connection Consulting. Manila. © Aleksandr Zykov. A Tale of Four Cities

Washington D.C.

Gabe Klein had a confession to make. The kƴåųĹĜčĘƋØ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ ʱÚ ÆåÏŅĵå ƋĘå üŅųĵåų ÚĜųåÏƋŅų Ņü œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹűŸ %ĜŸƋųĜÏƋ national test bed for connected mobility, Department of Transportation (DDOT) as more than half of the District’s working ʱÚĹűƋƋ±ĩåĹƋĘåƋų±ĜĹĜĹŸĜƻĵŅĹƋĘŸţŮFĀĹÚ population wondered how they would get it to be unreliable and unpleasant,” he said to work. By June, Capital Bikeshare had over breakfast in January 2016. “So, if I can reported record ridership,40 buttressing ride my bike instead of taking it, I will.”37 earlier research that found it to be a This was shocking but not surprising — substitute for short train and bus trips.41 Metrorail ridership and service had fallen ŽÆåų ±ĹÚ XƼüƋ ŞŅƚĹÏåÚØ ŅýåųĜĹč Ï±ŞŞåÚ into a tailspin, with the former plummeting fares as low as $5 on their shared ride to levels not seen in a decade,38 despite a options, UberPOOL and Lyft Line. Smaller population boom over that span. In Klein’s ŞĬ±ƼåųŸĬĜĩå„ŞĬĜƋ±ĹÚšĜ±ƵåĹƋåƴåĹüƚųƋĘåųØ case, “my bike’s replaced trips; I also drive, ƵĜƋĘƋĘåĬ±ƋƋåųŅýåųĜĹč±ā±Ƌü±ųåŅüâ2.15 — and Lyft in particular has displaced trips. I the same price as a Metro ride. Meanwhile, would have ridden the Metro less anyway, ųĜÚģ ŅýåųåÚ ŞŅŞěƚŞ ÆƚŸ ųŅƚƋåŸ ÆåƋƵååĹ ÆåϱƚŸåFƵ±ŸÚĜŸŸ±ƋĜŸĀåÚƵĜƋĘĜƋţŰ neighborhoods poorly served by transit.

Klein was proven prescient on March 16, That the city had a wealth of options at 2016 ƵĘåĹ ƋĘå œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ aåƋųŅŞŅĬĜƋ±Ĺ the ready is testament in part to Klein, a eųå± ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ eƚƋĘŅųĜƋƼűŸ Šœae‰eš čåĹåų±Ĭ transport Zelig who launched Zipcar in manager ordered a system-wide shutdown œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ ĜĹ 2002 before stints running for emergency repairs.39 Things would get DDOT and Chicago DOT. More recently, worse before they got better, with years’ he’d written a book, Startup City, detailing worth of delayed maintenance compressed lessons from his time spent in government, into twelve months, shutting down entire during which time he became the prototype ĬĜĹåŸ üŅų Ú±ƼŸ ±Ƌ ± ƋĜĵåţ kþÏĜ±ĬĬƼ űĵåÚ for a new generation of transport czars “SafeTrack,” it quickly became known as more inclined to experiment. the “Metropocalypse.”

37 Klein, interview with the author. 38 Thomson, “Metro ridership continues to plummet along with service.” 39 8±ĹÚŅŸØŮFĹŸŞåÏƋĜŅĹŸœĜĬĬĬŅŸåœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹØ%ţţØaåƋųŅŅĹœåÚĹåŸÚ±ƼţŰ 40 :Ĝ±ĵÆųŅĹåØٱŞĜƋ±ĬĜĩåŸĘ±ųå„ååŸåÏŅųÚŽŸå%ƚųĜĹč8ĜųŸƋœååĩŅüaåƋųŅűŸ„±üå‰ų±Ïĩa±ĜĹƋåűĹÏå{Ĭ±ĹţŰ 41 Martin and Shaheen, “Evaluating public transit modal shift dynamics in response to bikesharing: a tale of two U.S. cities.” 17 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Perhaps Klein’s most notable dissolved and reconstituted in June as the accomplishment was Capital Bikeshare %åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŅü8ŅųěBĜųåšåĘĜÏĬåŸĜűĹåýŅųƋ (CaBi), a multi-jurisdictional public-private ƋŅƵå±ĩåĹƋĘåĜĹāƚåĹÏåŅüĬŅϱĬŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸţ42 ޱųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞ ƋʱƋ Ƶ±Ÿ ƋĘå űƋĜŅĹűŸ ĀųŸƋ ٜĘƼ ±ųåĹűƋ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸ üƚĹÏƋĜŅĹĜĹč municipal bike-sharing program when it as a travel agent?” Klein asked rhetorically. launched in 2010, and has since tripled in “They’re relegating themselves to a corner size to more than 350 stations city-wide. by saying, ‘All we do is operate buses.’ And Using this as his model, Klein’s advice ƋĘåƼ ʱƴå ƋĘå ÏƚŸƋŅĵåų ƱŸåú œĘŅåƴåų ƋŅ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ĜŸ ƋŅ ĀčĘƋ ÚĜŸųƚŞƋĜŅĹ owns the customer is going to win. So, if with disruption by reforming regulations, you own the customer base, you should be focusing relentlessly on customers, and expanding your service platform, and you “failing fast” before delivering polished should be taking a cut of everything that projects like CaBi with marketing campaigns runs on it. And let me tell you something: if worthy of any startup. they had an app with every [mode] on there, with mass adoption, I’d guarantee you Lyft Transit agencies have only themselves to would be paying them a fee for every ride blame, he said, for stubbornly thinking of from the platform — and then they could ƋĘåĵŸåĬƴåŸ ±Ÿ āååƋ ŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸ ų±ƋĘåų ƋʱĹ use that to fund transit. The problem is entrepreneurial stewards of a broader they’re living in an era that doesn’t exist mobility ecosystem. As a cautionary tale, anymore.”43 Ęå ŞŅĜĹƋåÚ ƋŅ ƋĘå œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţ ‰±ƻĜ Commission (DCTC), which waited until FĹ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţűŸ ϱŸåØ ƋʱƋ åų± Ƶ±Ÿ early 2016ƋŅĬ±ƚĹÏʱƚĹĜĀåÚƋ±ƻĜ±ŞŞØƋĘåĹ when the Metro opened in the 1970s. watched helplessly as the commission was Today, the system Klein studiously avoids

Capital Bikeshare. Photo left: Flickr © DDOT DC. Photo right: Flickr © Mr.TinDC

42 :Ĝ±ĵÆųŅĹåØٱÆÆĜåŸ×ŅĵĵĜŸŸĜŅĹűŸåÆų±ĹÚĜĹč±Ÿů8ŅųěBĜųåšåĘĜÏĬåŸű%åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋ)ĹÚŅüƋĘåŅ±ÚţŰ 43 Klein. 18 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

is facing a maintenance Metropocalypse, the role of a “transportation technology blistering criticism from the FTA and strategist” — a connected mobility czar National Transportation Safety Board, tasked with charting the department’s and a $100 million budget shortfall44 that internal transformation. ʱŸ ĬåÚ œae‰e ÏʱĜųĵ±Ĺ I±Ïĩ )ƴ±ĹŸ ƋŅ muse publicly about asking the Federal Reporting to both LADOT general manager government to step in, or else privatizing Seleta Reynolds and city CTO Peter Marx, the system altogether.45 the post was awarded to former Kansas City ŠaĜŸŸŅƚųĜš ÏĘĜåü ĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹ ŅþÏåų eŸĘĬåƼ BŅƵĜŸ±ĹŅųč±ĹĜDŽ±ƋĜŅĹƋ±ŸĩåÚƵĜƋĘĵ±ĩĜĹč ¬ţ B±ĹÚţ a±ĹƼ Ņü Ęåų ųåÏŅĵĵåĹÚ±ƋĜŅĹŸØ trains run on time (literally) that is too busy published in August 2016, concern data — ŞƚƋƋĜĹč ŅƚƋ ĀųåŸ ŠĬĜƋåų±ĬĬƼš ŸƚŞŞŅŸåÚ ƋŅ ƵʱƋƋŅÚŅƵĜƋĘĜƋØƵĘåųåƋŅĀĹÚĵŅųåŅüĜƋØ transform itself into a more agile agency and most important, how to train LADOT prepared to make better use of the assets ŸƋ±ýƋŅĵ±ĩåƋĘåÆåŸƋƚŸåŅüĜƋţŮFüƵåÚŅĹűƋ it has, let alone the assets it wants? This is do it, somebody else will,” Reynolds said.47 the question facing transit agencies and Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ±ųŅƚĹÚ ƋĘå ƵŅųĬÚ× Data is the shared obsession of transport how do you compete with much-nimbler ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ±ųŅƚĹÚ ƋĘå ƵŅųĬÚØ ±Ÿ ƋĘå ųĜŸå Ņü startups that have all of the goodwill and Uber, Google and their various competitors none of the obligations? have underscored both how little they know about their cities compared to these entities Learning from Los Angeles with sensors in every pocket or mounted Los Angeles makes for an interesting ŅĹ åƴåųƼ Ú±ŸĘØ ±ĹÚ ĘŅƵ ĬĜƋƋĬå ƋĘåĜų ŸƋ±ýŸ ģƚƻƋ±ŞŅŸĜƋĜŅĹ ƵĜƋĘ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹűŸ Ƌų±ƴ±ĜĬŸØ know what to do it with. In conversation čĜƴåĹ a±ƼŅų )ųĜÏ :±ųÏåƋƋĜűŸ ƚĹā±ččĜĹč after conversation, discussions of how to åýŅųƋŸƋŅÏŅ±ƻeĹčåĬåĹŅŸŅƚƋŅüƋĘåĜųϱųŸţ better use data became a proxy for how Despite its recent declines in ridership, to accelerate internal change — with few in November 2016, Metro46 will ask voters concrete answers. to pass a half-cent sales tax increase that would raise as much as $120 billion „Ņĵå Ņü B±ĹÚűŸ ŸƚččåŸƋĜŅĹŸ ±ĬŅĹč for Los Angeles County transportation these lines are painfully, necessarily ŞųŅģåÏƋŸØĜĹÏĬƚÚĜĹčĀƴåĹåƵų±ĜĬĬĜĹåŸţ)±čåų basic: inventory available data, make it to reinvent itself as an organization closer easier to share and use within and across to what Klein has in mind, in 2015 the LA departments, dig deeper into what partners Department of Transportation created ĬĜĩ圱DŽå48 and Xerox have already shared,

44 „ƋŅĬÆåųč±ĹÚ8±ĹÚŅŸţٜ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹaåƋųŅØ40 and Creaking, Stares at a Midlife Crisis.” 45 Freed, “Metro Chairman Tells Congress to Chip in $300 Million Per Year. Congress Yells at Metro.” 46 The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. 47 Seleta Reynolds, telephone interview with author. 48 B±ĵĜĬƋŅĹØٜ±DŽåØXţeţƋŅŸĘ±ųåÚ±Ƌ±ŅĹƋų±þÏØĘĜƋě±ĹÚěųƚĹŸØĩĜÚĹ±ŞŞĜĹčŸţŰ 19 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

and add new capabilities to old platforms provides the strategic direction, funding, like ATSAC49ØƋĘåƋų±þÏĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋŸƼŸƋåĵ and unionized drivers, while Bridj supplies built for the 1984 Summer Olympic Games. software and analytics while sharing data Others include re-assessing the technical ƵĜƋĘĜĹ ƋĜčĘƋĬƼ ÚåĀĹåÚ ÏųĜƋåųĜ±ţ œĜƋĘ ƋĘĜŸ skills required for new hires, cross-training data in hand, the authority has been able ŸƋ±ý ±ÏųŅŸŸ ÚĜýåųåĹƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸØ ĜĹÏĬƚÚĜĹč to iterate service deployment, with one Metro and Caltrans, and contracting with expansion of coverage already.50 on-call consultants to supply analytic capabilities the department lacks.

‰Ęå ÚĜþÏƚĬƋƼ ĜĹ ±ƋƋų±ÏƋĜĹčØ Ƌų±ĜĹĜĹčØ ±ĹÚ retaining cutting-edge talent is one of public transport’s steepest disadvantages in the face of disruption. “Most people would be shocked to learn just how far behind cities are when it comes to using ƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼØŰåƼĹŅĬÚŸŸ±ĜÚţٜåÚŅĹűƋʱƴå ±ůÚ±Ƌ±ŸÏĜåĹƋĜŸƋűÏĬ±ŸŸĜĀϱƋĜŅĹرĹÚĜƋƵŅƚĬÚ take us a year-and-a-half to create one — and then a civil service exam.” Needless to say, that’s not how startups function.

Partnerships will be crucial. Another Ņü B±ĹÚűŸ ŸƚččåŸƋĜŅĹŸ ĜŸ ƋŅ åƻŞĬŅųå {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴåל±DŽåeŞŞĬĜϱƋĜŅĹţÙœ±DŽåţ the feasibility of testing on-demand microtransit in neighborhoods seeking expanded bus service. LADOT already ʱŸ ± ĬŅϱĬØ ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåØ ĀƻåÚěųŅƚƋå ŸåųƴĜÏå (albeit with low frequencies), but lacks the technical resources to execute microtransit on its own.

Faced with a similar dilemma, in March 2016 the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) partnered with the microtransit service Bridj to launch a one-year, $1.3 million pilot connecting several underserved neighborhoods with downtown. In this instance, KCATA

Photo above: ATSAC. Flickr © LADOT. 49 eƚƋŅĵ±ƋåÚ‰ų±þÏ„±üåƋƼ±ĹÚŅĹƋųŅĬţ 50 Kansas City Area Transportation Authority. “RideKC: Bridj Expands Service to the River Market.” 20 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

kĹåŅüB±ĹÚűŸĵŅųåĜĹƋųĜčƚĜĹčŞųŅŞŅŸ±ĬŸĜŸ Connected Transit-Oriented the elimination of parking minimums for new Development residential developments, accompanied by ±Ïĩ ĜĹ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţØ UĬåĜĹ ŞŅĜĹƋåÚ ƋŅ relaxing the rules concerning “accessory transit-oriented redevelopments such as dwelling units” and the conversion of ŅĬƚĵÆĜ±BåĜčĘƋŸ53±ĹÚœ±ƋåųüųŅĹƋ„Ƌ±ƋĜŅĹ54 garages into living spaces. If the rise of as signature examples of catalyzing growth connected mobility increases the demand around Metro stops by pairing them with new for alternative shared modes of transport, modes such as bike-sharing and circulator as many expect, it will in turn reduce the buses. But more recently, a new pattern need for residential parking. Given that has emerged of what might be called XŅŸeĹčåĬåŸĬ±čŸü±ųÆåĘĜĹÚŅűýŅųÚ±ÆĬå “connected transit-oriented development.” housing units51 while boasting an estimated 200 square miles of parking spaces, One instance is a 45-unit building planned changing these requirements could lead to for 1326 Florida Avenue, Northeast, in ÚåĹŸåųØĵŅųå±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå52 housing that is in œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţűŸ ‰ųĜĹĜÚ±Ú ĹåĜčĘÆŅųĘŅŅÚØ turn more amenable to transit. where the nearest Metro is more than a mile away.55 %åƴåĬŅŞåÚ ÆƼ ĬŅϱĬ Āųĵ %ĜƋƋŅ åŸĜÚåĹƋĜ±ĬØ ƋĘå ÏŅĵŞĬåƻ ŅýåųŸ ŅĹåě ±ĹÚ two-bedroom apartments aimed at the ÏĜƋƼűŸ ĜĹāƚƻ Ņü ƼŅƚĹč ųåŸĜÚåĹƋŸţ ƚĜĬÚĜĹč enough underground parking to meet the city’s zoning requirements would have nearly doubled the $2,300 monthly rent for a two-bedroom.

Ditto appealed to DC Zoning for fewer spaces on the grounds that its intended residents were less likely to own cars. The city agreed, on the condition that it provided them with car-sharing or bike-sharing memberships for free, as well as a lobby TransitScreen with real-time updates on Photo above: Bridj - Kansas City. © Bridj ÆƚŸåŸØƋų±ĜĹŸØ±ĹÚ±ƴ±ĜĬ±ÆĬåϱųƖ:ŅŸţ8ŅųĜƋŸ

51 B±ĹÚØَųƱĹaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĜű%ĜčĜƋ±ĬečåØŰ49. 52 XŅĹÚŅűĹÚœĜĬĬĜ±ĵŸě%åųųƼØٜĘŅ{±ƼŸ8Ņų{±ųĩĜĹčũŰ 53 ‰Ęå%ĜŸƋųĜÏƋűŸĀųŸƋÆĜčěÆŅƻųåƋ±ĜĬĘƚÆƵĜƋĘĜĹĜƋŸÆŅųÚåųŸţ 54 e8ŅųåŸƋĜƋƼxšŅųűÚŅÏŅĹƴåųŸĜŅĹŅü±üŅųĵåųŸĘŅŞŞĜĹčĵ±ĬĬĜĹƋŅŸåƴåų±ĬĵĜĬĬĜŅĹŸŧƚ±ųåüååƋŅüŅþÏå±ĹÚųåƋ±ĜĬ in addition to hundreds of housing units. 55 Freed, “Amazon Prime and Uber Are Changing the Map of Your City.”

21 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

next project at 301 Florida Ave — an eight- story building a block from a Metro stop — Ditto plans to forgo parking altogether in favor of bike racks, CaBi memberships, and even partially underwriting a nearby bike- sharing station.

It seems certain that developers will seek to increase the attractiveness of existing projects and unlock value from previously negligible sites using connected mobility. In May 2016, Uber announced a partnership56 with the owners of Parkmerced — an 8,900- unit master-planned development on the edge of San Francisco — to supply car-free residents with a $100 monthly transportation stipend, $30 of which must be spent with Photo above: Transit Screen. Flickr © Ted Eytan. Uber.57 Given the state of the city’s housing market, Parkmerced’s developers are understandably eager to minimize parking to maximize developable land.

The newest addition to D.C.’s menagerie of connected mobility options hits the sidewalks in September 2016 — rolling delivery robots from Estonia’s Starship Technologies.58 New rules for testing delivery drones passed this summer by the ÏĜƋƼÏŅƚĹÏĜĬ±č±ĜĹĵ±ĩ埜±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅűƋåŸƋ bed for new technologies. And if Starship or its competitors succeed in lowering the cost of delivering groceries to less than a dollar per trip, how will they remake the city once more? Photo above: Starship Technologies. © Starship Technologies

56 Salzberg, “Living Car-Free in the City.” 57 UberPOOL rides to nearby BART and MUNI stations are capped at $5. 588ƚĹčØŮFƋűŸŅþÏĜ±Ĭ×%ųŅĹåÚåĬĜƴåųƼĜŸÏŅĵĜĹčƋŅ%ţţĜĹ„åŞƋåĵÆåųţŰ 22 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion Key Lessons

‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸ ±ĹÚ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ±ƚƋĘŅųĜƋĜåŸ ĵƚŸƋųåĜĹƴåĹƋƋĘåĵŸåĬƴ埱ŸåĹƋųåŞųåĹåƚųĜ±Ĭ ĵ±Ĺ±čåųŸŅü±ĹƚųƱĹĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼŸƼŸƋåĵØų±ƋĘåų ƋʱĹŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸŅü±üåƵŞųĜĵ±ųƼĵŅÚåŸţ 1

‰Ęå ŅĹĬƼ Ƶ±Ƽ ƋŅ ±ÏĘĜåƴå ƋĘĜŸ ƵĜĬĬ Æå ƋĘųŅƚčĘ 2 ޱųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞŸ ƵĜƋĘ ±Úģ±ÏåĹƋ ģƚųĜŸÚĜÏƋĜŅĹŸ ±ĹÚ ŞƚÆĬĜÏěŞųĜƴ±Ƌå ޱųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞŸţ ečåĹÏĜåŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ Ƌ±ĩåƋĘåĜĹĜƋĜ±ƋĜƴåĜĹÏųå±ƋĜĹčƋĘåŸåޱųƋĹåųŸ±ĹÚ ĵ±ĜĹƋ±ĜĹĜĹč±ųåĬåĹƋĬ域üŅÏƚŸŅĹÏƚŸƋŅĵåųŸŠ±ĹÚ ƋĘåÏƚŸƋŅĵåųųåĬ±ƋĜŅĹŸĘĜŞšţ

3 4

‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ±ƚƋĘŅųĜƋĜåŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ ƵŅųĩ closely with colleagues involved in Ĭ±ĹÚěƚŸåŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹčƋŅƚĹÚåųŸƋ±ĹÚƋĘå FĹƋåųűĬ Ƌų±ĹŸüŅųĵ±ƋĜŅĹ ƵĜĬĬ Æå ʱųÚţ ĜĵޱÏƋŸŅüĹåƵĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼŸåųƴĜÏåŸŅĹ ŠFƋ ±ĬƵ±ƼŸ ĜŸţš {ƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ ޱųĩĜĹč ĵĜĹĜĵƚĵŸØ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋěŅųĜåĹƋåÚ Ÿååĩ ƋŅ Ĭåƴåų±čå ޱŸƋ ĜĹƴåŸƋĵåĹƋŸ ±Ÿ ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋØÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋޱƋƋåųĹŸØ ĵƚÏĘ ±Ÿ ŞŅŸŸĜÆĬåØ Úų±Ƶ ƚŞŅĹ ŅƚƋŸĜÚå ±ĹÚüƚƋƚųåƋų±ĹŸĜƋĜĹƴåŸƋĵåĹƋţ åƻŞåųƋĜŸåرĹÚޱųƋĹåųƵĜƋĘĜĹƋåųåŸƋåÚ ޱųƋĜåŸƋŅÆåčĜĹƋåŸƋĜĹčŮĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋŰ ±ĹÚŅƋĘåųŞųŅģåÏƋŸƚŸĜĹčŞĜĬŅƋŸƋʱƋÚŅ ĹŅƋÚåƋų±ÏƋüųŅĵåƻĜŸƋĜĹčŸåųƴĜÏåţ

23{ĘŅƋŅל±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ%ţ8ĬĜÏĩųÙ%±ĜĵŅĹ)ĩĬƚĹÚ Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

London

In June 2016, Transport for London (TfL) hires had mushroomed from 59,000 in 2010 updated its regulations for private hire to more than 110,000 by the middle of 2016. drivers and vehicle license-holders, a Things were worse in central London’s category including traditional car services congestion pricing zone, where private hire such as Addison Lee and TNCs — notably vehicles are exempt from the toll. There, Uber. The list of changes included new their numbers had soared from in insurance requirements, English-language 448 2012 — when Uber arrived— to , three years ŞųŅĀÏĜåĹÏƼ üŅų ÚųĜƴåųŸØ ±ĹÚ ƋĘå ŞųŅĵĜŸå 13 151 later.62 Congestion charges had removed that passengers could call someone to roughly , cars from the roads since complain. Most controversially, it also 60 000 its introduction in . In short order, Uber required private hire operators to disclose 2003 had put nearly a quarter of them back. any changes to their business model before making them, including (but not limited to) Unlike New York, where a thinly sourced payments, booking, and ride-sharing.59 report had concluded that TNCs weren’t the problem,63 London had the facts and Two months later, Uber sued.60 By then, the a clear objective — to improve the quality battle lines had been drawn, with TfL, new of life through fewer cars and less road London Mayor Sadiq Khan, and Addison space. The mayor’s critics in the tech sector Lee defending the regulations against Uber didn’t understand that, complained Isabel ±ĹÚĜƋŸ±ĬĬĜåŸĜĹƋĘåĀűĹÏĜ±Ĭ±ĹÚƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼ Dedring, deputy mayor for transport under sectors.61 But the lawsuit was merely the Boris Johnson. “All of the externalities from culmination of a year-long struggle by something like Uber, they don’t think about London’s mayors to make Uber play a ±ĹƼŅüƋʱƋŸƋƚýØŰŸĘ埱ĜÚĬ±ŸƋü±ĬĬţىĘåƼŸåå productive role in the city’s mobility mesh, it as , more cars for consumer choice. rather than trying to disrupt it. 16 000 No, that’s 16,000 more cars clogging up the center!”64 eĹƼÆåĹåĀƋŸƋĘåŸåųƴĜÏåŅĹÏåÚåĬĜƴåųåÚĜĹ Ƌ±ĩĜĹč ŞųĜƴ±Ƌå ϱųŸ Ņý ƋĘå ųŅ±Ú ʱÚ ĬŅĹč This was the dilemma TfL has been wrestling since been subsumed by its sheer number with ever since — how do you disentangle of drivers. The number of licensed private disruptors from the rest of the system?

59 Transport for London, “Changes to private hire regulation.” 60 BŅÚčåŸØَÆåų„ƚåŸkƴåų‰üXƚĬåŸa±ĩĜĹč%ųĜƴåųŸ‰±ĩå)ĹčĬĜŸĘ)ƻ±ĵŸ 61 Murgia, “Businesses call on London mayor to rethink onerous Uber rules.” 62 Ibid. 638ĜƋDŽŸĜĵĵŅĹŸØَÆåųcŅƋƋŅĬ±ĵåüŅųĜŸåĜĹa±ĹʱƋƋ±Ĺ‰ų±þÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹØåŞŅųƋ„±ƼŸţŰ 64 Isabel Dedring, interview with author, London, October 14, 2015.

24 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

The Problem of the Adjacent Incumbent

That TfL found itself in this position was remarkable. Formed in 2000 by the Greater London Authority, the agency not only controls the Underground, the Overground, and the city’s network of double-decker buses, but also many of the most important streets, congestion pricing, and oversight of black cabs, private hires and cycling. It long ago completed the transformation œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %ţţűŸ :±Æå UĬåĜĹ ʱÚ Photo above: Black Cabs. Flickr © Sergio. envisioned, tendering the majority of its system to private operators. TfL seamlessly plans and manages the network, collects fares, and sets standards in exchange for covering any losses. Passengers are none the wiser.

TFL could also innovate. It had introduced integrated ticketing across most modes with the launch of the Oyster fare card in 2003. And when the costs of maintaining 40 million proprietary cards rose to consume 15% of fares, TfL partnered with the banks to create an open payments system around {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴå×kƼŸƋåų±ųÚa±ÏĘĜĹåţœĜĩĜŞåÚĜ±ÙŅĵ±DŽƚų contactless bank cards and digital wallets Asked what new problem she would most like Apple Pay.65 ĬĜĩåƋŅŸŅĬƴåØX±ƚųåĹ„±čåųœåĜĹŸƋåĜĹ؉üXűŸ head of analytics, thought for a moment. “At It’s also one of the best transit agencies at what point do people decide it’s worth taking collecting, analyzing, and sharing its data. a car instead of the Tube or bus?” she said. In œŅųĩĜĹčĜĹƋ±ĹÚåĵƵĜƋĘųåŸå±ųÏĘåųŸ±ƋaF‰Ø other words, could you pinpoint the moment its analysts had determined how to stitch someone gave up on public transport, and together multimodal trip chains from a few ƵĘƼũ œ±Ÿ ĜƋ ÏųŅƵÚåÚ ϱųųĜ±čåŸũ %åĬ±ƼŸũ taps of riders’ Oysters. They had calculated Inconveniently located stops and stations? real-time Tube congestion from the weight Asked what she would need to know that, of cars at a handful of stations. But the more ŸĘåųåŞĬĜåÚ×ٜĘåĹƵåÚŅĹűƋŸååŞåŅŞĬåŅĹ they learned, the more they understood the network, for example, on the weekends, how much data they didn’t have. are they traveling? Do they stay home? Do

65 25 œ±ĬŸĘØŮů%±Ƌ±ĘåĬŞŸƚŸŞųŅƴĜÚåÆåƋƋåųƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋű׉üXŅĹkƼŸƋåųϱųÚŸØÆĜčÚ±Ƌ±±ĹÚÏŅĹƋ±ÏƋĬ域ޱƼĵåĹƋŸţŰ Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

ƋĘåƼ ÚųĜƴåũ œĘ±Ƌ ÚŅ ƋĘåƼ ÚŅ ƵĘåĹ ƋĘåƼ don’t take us?”66

Others might learn with TfL’s help. The agency has liberally shared its data with more than 6,000 apps and services, eschewing its own in favor of meeting its ÏƚŸƋŅĵåųŸƵĘåųåƴåųƋĘåƼ±ųåţ‰ĘĜŸƋų±ÚåŅý means that TfL has little direct contact with passengers through their phones. Meanwhile, the London-based startup Citymapper has raised $40 million for a route-mapper and journey-planner built on the bedrock of TfL’s real-time feeds.67 But that only gets you so far, Citymapper CEO Azmat Yusuf explained. “Open transit data ĜŸĹűƋŸƚþÏĜåĹƋüŅųÆƚĜĬÚĜĹč±ÆƚŸĜĹ域ţŰ68

BåűÚĜĹƴåŸƋåÚĘå±ƴĜĬƼĜĹƋŅŅĬŸüŅųĀĬĬĜĹč豪Ÿ and adding informal modes and paths left ŅƚƋ Ņü XŅĹÚŅĹűŸ ±ĹÚ ŅƋĘåų ÏĜƋĜåŸű ŅþÏĜ±Ĭ transport systems.69 And he had no intention of telling them what they’d overlooked. TfL’s Photo above: Citymapper Blog. © Citymapper. Ú±Ƌ±āŅƵåÚĜĹƋŅƋĘå±ŞŞØÆƚƋĜƋƼĵ±ŞŞåųűŸ ĹåƵě±ĹÚěĜĵŞųŅƴåÚ ƴåųŸĜŅĹ ÚĜÚ ĹŅƋ āŅƵ ‰ĘĜŸ ÚĜýåųåĹÏå ĜŸ ƵʱƋ ‰üXűŸ Ęå±Ú Ņü back out again. ÆƚŸĜĹ域 ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋØ a±ƋƋĘåƵ BƚÚŸŅĹØ had described earlier as “the overhead Meanwhile, Uber continuously collects data you pay for being a public body.”71 As from drivers and passengers alike, even private connected mobility companies when the former are in between fares.70 By grow in scope and scale, just how steep contrast, London’s black cab drivers long will this penalty become? Arup associate resisted accepting credit card payments director and former Future Cities Catapult ó±ÏʱĹčåƋʱƋƵĜĬĬĀűĬĬƼčŅĜĹƋŅåýåÏƋĜĹ ÏĘĜåüÚåŸĜčĹŅþÏåų%±ĹBĜĬĬʱŸÚåŸÏųĜÆåÚ October 2016. this predicament as “the problem of the

66 X±ƚųåĹ„±čåųœåĜĹŸƋåĜĹØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųţ 67 Lomas, “Urban Transport App Citymapper Snags $40M From Index, Benchmark, Yuri Milner, Others.” 68 Azmat Yusuf, interview with the author. 69 See the Manila section for more on informal transport. 70 ±ŸŸ±ĹŅØŮBŅƵŽÆåų{ųŅĀƋŸ)ƴåĹœĘĜĬåFƋŸ%ųĜƴåųŸeųåĹűƋ)±ųĹĜĹčaŅĹåƼţŰ 71 a±ƋƋĘåƵBƚÚŸŅĹØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųţ 26 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

adjacent incumbent.”72 “It could be that Mobility-as-a-Service Uber, et al. seriously destabilise existing public transport agencies,” he wrote, FĹ œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹØ UĬåĜĹ ʱÚ Ĝĵ±čĜĹåÚ ± “simply by working an adjacent patch to public transport app so compelling, Lyft them, mopping up bits of their business would happily pay a cut for every ride without having to work with their constraints sourced through that system. This is the like universal service.”73 aim of “mobility-as-a-service,” a platform taking Klein’s idea and incorporating every The question debated within TfL over private hire regulations might best be summarized available transport mode — including as: how do you internalize the externalities bike-sharing, car-sharing, ride-hailing, and would-be disruptors represent? Rather than microtransit — as a solution to the adjacent banning them — or capping their numbers, incumbent problem. Although only a or otherwise restricting them as many few such services have made it past the European cities and nations have done — prototype stage, their proponents envision how can they be folded back into the larger replacing single rides on single modes system? Just as TfL had transformed itself with all-you-can-eat monthly subscriptions once before from a transport operator into modeled on streaming media services such a mobility manager, could it do so again, ±ŸcåƋāĜƻ±ĹÚ„ŞŅƋĜüƼţ this time as a total network orchestrator?

Modes of Transport One Stop Shop

Above: Mobility-as-a-Service. © New Cities Foundation

72 BĜĬĬØŮ)ŸŸ±Ƽ×ĬŅÏĩƵŅųĩĜƋƼØåŸŞŅĹŸĜƴåĜƋƼØ{ųåÚĜÏƋĜƴåĜƋƼ±ĹÚeÚģ±ÏåĹƋFĹÏƚĵÆåĹƋŸţŰ 73 Ibid×ŮBåųåØƵåĵĜčĘƋÚåŸÏųĜÆåƚĹĜƴåųŸ±ĬŸåųƴĜÏ屟ƋĘåÚåĬĜƴåųƼŅü±ÏŅĹŸĜŸƋåĹƋƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŸåųƴĜÏå±Ƌ±ÏŅĹŸĜŸƋåĹƋØ ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåŞųĜÏåƋŅåƴåųƼŅĹåĜĹƋĘåÏĜƋƼØĜųųåŸŞåÏƋĜƴåŅüĹåƋƵŅųƋĘŅųĬŅϱƋĜŅĹñ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹØüŅųåƻ±ĵŞĬåØ ʱŸƋŅÚåĬĜƴåųƋʱƋØƵĘĜĬŸƋĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜĹčſŽÆåųØüŅųåƻ±ĵŞĬåØŸĜĵŞĬƼčåƋŸƋŅŞĜÏĩŅýƋĘåĬŅƵʱĹčĜĹčüųƚĜƋĜĹƋĘåĵĜÚÚĬå of town, moving freely as a 21ŸƋÏåĹƋƚųƼĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼÆƚŸĜĹ域ØāŅ±ƋĜĹč±ÏųŅŸŸƋ±ƻĜěĬĜĩåŸØĘĜųåěϱųŸØÚåĬĜƴåųƼŸåųƴĜÏåŸ and ultimately minibuses and privately-owned cars generally. Essentially, given half a chance, Uber’s trajectory will envelop most mobility in the city, not merely taxis.” 27 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Roughly a dozen MaaS-style systems exist, in Germany and the United States. In April ĵŅŸƋĬƼ ĜĹ )ƚųŅŞåØ å±ÏĘ ƵĜƋĘ ± ÚĜýåųåĹƋ 2016ØƋĘåÏŅĵޱĹƼĜĹƋåčų±ƋåÚƋĘåB±ĵÆƚųč mix of modes, digital sophistication, and Transport Association into its app, not institutional integration. Their capabilities only giving local users the option to book might include, in ascending order of and pay for public transport, but also pre- complexity: existing taxis (Flinkster; mytaxi); car-sharing ŠÏ±ųƖčŅšØ ±ĹÚ ĜĹƋåųÏĜƋƼ Ƌų±ĜĹŸ Š%åƚƋŸÏĘå • An intermodal trip planner with real-time Bahn).74 In May, Moovel North America (a data about the location and availability of merger of RideScout and GlobeSherpa) modes along each path; released a new version of Portland’s TriMet ‰ĜÏĩåƋŸ ±ŞŞ ĜĹƋåčų±ƋĜĹč ϱųƖčŅ ±ĹÚ XƼüƋţ75 • Integrated booking and payment Other examples include Xerox’s Go LA and mechanisms able to seamlessly access Go Denver apps in the United States, and multiple ticketing systems while the Berlin-based Ally. presenting users with a single fare; ŅƋƋŅĵěƚŞ ŸƼŸƋåĵŸ ĜĹÏĬƚÚå B±ĹŅƴåųűŸ • Personalized mobility packages bundling “Mobility Shop,” a joint partnership between trains, buses, taxis, and so forth to help ĬŅϱĬ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŞųŅƴĜÚåųŸ ƟŸƋų± ±ĹÚ :šB drive and shape demand; Š:ųå±Ƌåų B±ĹŅƴåų ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ eŸŸŅÏĜ±ƋĜŅĹš ƋŅ Ņýåų ŸƚÆŸÏųĜÆåųŸ ÏƚŸƋŅĵ ÆƚĹÚĬåŸ Ņü • Predictive analytics to both anticipate mobility options, with a single monthly bill. users’ preferences and to balance supply Although originally aimed at holders of in the aggregate. annual transit passes, the newest version of the service includes a standalone plan In addition to possessing some or all incorporating heavily discounted car- of these features, MaaS systems might sharing, taxi, and inter-city Deutsche Bahn usefully be sorted into top-down and ŞĜƋÏĘåÚƋŅϱųŅƵĹåųŸţšĜåĹűűŸåƻŞåųĜĵåĹƋ±Ĭ ÆŅƋƋŅĵěƚŞţ‰ŅŞěÚŅƵĹåýŅųƋŸƋƼŞĜϱĬĬƼŸƋ±ųƋ „aFX) ŞĬ±ƋüŅųĵ ÏŅĵÆĜĹåÚ œĜåĹåų XĜĹĜåĹ with the interface — such as trip-planning Š{ƚÆĬĜωų±ĹŸŞŅųƋšĜåĹűšØĜƋƼÆĜĩåØϱųƖ:ŅØ features like Citymapper’s — and drill and taxis with ÖBB (Austrian Railways) and a downward, adding features and modes national charging network for electric cars. as they go. Bottom-up networks are more systematic, seeking to integrate a critical But perhaps the most ambitious project is mass of partners and modes before launch, œĘĜĵرĹĹŅƚĹÏåÚĜĹBåĬŸĜĹĩĜĜĹIƚĹåƖLjŎƅ lest they disappoint users. by parent company MaaS Global. Integrating public transport, taxis, and car-sharing at A top-down example is Daimler’s Moovel Ĭ±ƚĹÏĘØœĘĜĵ±ÚÚŸŸåƴåų±ĬƵųĜĹĩĬåŸƋŅƋĘå Group, which operates MaaS-style services standard MaaS formula.

74 aŅŅƴåĬØŮkĹåěŸƋŅŞěŸĘŅŞüŅųƚųƱĹĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĜĹB±ĵÆƚųčţŰ 75 Moovel N.A. “moovel N.A. Launches RideTap Pilot in Portland, OR.”

28 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

kĹå ĜŸ ƋʱƋ œĘĜĵ ĜŸ ± ŞųĜƴ±ƋåØ üŅųěŞųŅĀƋ that is so compelling for partners and service working closely with – and not passengers alike, they’ll eagerly opt-in. in competition with – public transit. Because transit will most likely comprise MaaS Global founder and CEO Sampo the backbone of these services if not run BĜåƋ±ĹåĹ ÚåŸÏųĜÆåŸ œĘĜĵ ±Ÿ ƋĘå ĀųŸƋ Ņü them, MaaS operators would happily play potentially many “mobility operators” along when it comes to policy. In a best- positioned between transport providers case scenario, freely sharing data between and subscribers, purchasing trips from the partners will lead to a rapidly evolving and former at wholesale prices and repackaging improving system in which analytics wring them at retail for the latter. ƋĘå ĜĹåþÏĜåĹÏĜåŸ ŅƚƋ Ņü Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋØ ĵ±ĩĜĹč ĜƋ more competitive versus other modes. eĹŅƋĘåų ÚĜýåųåĹÏå ĜŸ ƋĘå ±ĬĬěƼŅƚěϱĹě å±Ƌ ĵŅÚåĬţ ‰Ņ Ņýåų ŸƚÆŸÏųĜÆåųŸ ƚĹĬĜĵĜƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼØ œĘĜĵ ƵĜĬĬ ±čųåå ƋŅ ±ŸŸƚĵå ƋĘå ųĜŸĩØÆåƋƋĜĹčƋʱƋĜƋϱĹųåĀĹåĜƋŸŞųåÚĜÏƋĜƴå algorithms to the point where it can model ŅĹěÚåĵ±ĹÚ ƚŸ±čå åþÏĜåĹƋĬƼ åĹŅƚčĘ ƋŅ ƋƚųĹ ± ŞųŅĀƋ ŅĹ ĵŅĹƋĘĬƼ ޱÏĩ±čåŸ ŞųĜÏåÚ between 300-600 Euros — less than the total cost of car ownership.

Finally, MaaS Global is already trying to ÚåĀĹåŅŞåĹe{FŸ±ĹÚĹåƋƵŅųĩŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸƋŅ guarantee interoperability across multiple cities and regions. Just as Nokia once built a multi-billion dollar mobile phone business on the back of standards it helped create and Ƶ±ŸĀųŸƋƋŅÚåŞĬŅƼØa±±„:ĬŅƱĬĘŅŞåŸƋŅÚŅ ƋĘ埱ĵåüŅų±ÚĜýåųåĹƋƋƼŞåŅüĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼţ‰Ņ that end, it has formed the “MaaS Alliance,” a public-private consortium including several universities, ministries from the Finnish and Swedish governments, Ericsson, Xerox, the International Railways Union, and Barcelona’s Autoritat del Transport {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴåלĘĜĵeŞŞĬĜϱƋĜŅĹţÙa±±Ÿ:ĬŅƱĬěœĘĜĵţ Metropolità. Given this vision, it’s safe to say many in As far as public transport is concerned, public transport hope MaaS will prove to be the logic of MaaS is simple: instead of the one-app-that-rules-them-all. It’s even ÏŅĵŞåƋĜĹč ƵĜƋĘ ‰cŸØ ŅƚƋā±Ĺĩ ƋĘåĵ ÆƼ safer to say that many are skeptical that it building a bigger and broader platform can.

29 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

‰Ęå ĀųŸƋ ŧƚåŸƋĜŅĹ ĜŸ ƵĘåƋĘåų ÏŅĹŸƚĵåųŸ If so: how much, with whom, and what even want mobility-as-a-service, or is this data will they receive from the MaaS an answer in search of a question?76 Data operator in return? Customer privacy, legal on this issue is understandably scarce, but transparency, and open standards for data one source comes from yet another pilot in provisioning will all be crucial — and as of Gothenburg, Sweden named UbiGo, which ƼåƋ±ųåŸƋĜĬĬĬ±ųčåĬƼƚĹÚåĀĹåÚţ ran for six months starting in 2013ţB±ĬüŅü the respondents in after-the-fact surveys Disputes over data and who controls the reported using public transport more often customer relationship may lead to the while the service was active, and nearly half biggest competitive stumbling block, which reported a decline in private vehicle usage. is the refusal of key mobility providers (Small sample size caveats apply.)77 ƋŅ ޱųƋĜÏĜޱƋåţ ‰üXűŸ a±ƋƋĘåƵ BƚÚŸŅĹ argued that a truly open system would )ĹÏŅƚų±čĜĹčĬƼØĹå±ųĬƼüŅƚųěĜĹěĀƴ埱ĜÚƋĘåƼ be irresistible to startups, as they could would be interested in becoming a regular never achieve such scale on their own. This customer if the service resumed, although naturally assumes it’s in their best interest responses from non-participants reveal the ƋŅÏŅĬĬåÏƋĜƴåĬƼÆåĹåĀƋüųŅĵĹåƋƵŅųĩåýåÏƋŸØ most common reason for declining was but that isn’t always the case. that UbiGo was more expensive than their current transport solutions.78 Clearly, the pricing of these services will be critical in their reception.

Beyond costs to the consumer, there are obstacles at every turn. Simply integrating ticketing schemes at both a technological and institutional level have ŞųŅƴåĹ åĹŅųĵŅƚŸĬƼ ÚĜþÏƚĬƋ Úƚå ƋŅ Ĭåč±ÏƼ ÏŅŸƋŸØ ŞųŅŞųĜåƋ±ųƼ ʱųÚƵ±ųåØ ±ĹÚ ÚĜýåųĜĹč jurisdictions. Aligning terms of service, resolving public service obligations, and determining passenger liability and customer service issues all need to be resolved before MaaS systems can scale.

Data may prove to be the biggest sticking point — will participants agree to share it? Photo above: Go LA Application. © Go LA.

76 œĜƋʱŞŅĬŅčĜåŸƋŅåÚųĜÏ{ųĜÏå×ىåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼĜŸƋĘå±ĹŸƵåųñÆƚƋƵʱƋƵ±ŸƋĘåŧƚåŸƋĜŅĹũŰ 77 Sochor, et al. “Travelers’ Motives For Adopting A New, Innovative Travel Service.” 78 UbiGo intends to relaunch in 2016 with technical support from Ericsson. 30 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

In Los Angeles, for instance, Xerox originally its partners.79 In the SFMTA’s Smart City sought participation from both Uber and Lyft Challenge proposal, the University of in its Go LA app. Initially, both companies California Berkeley’s Transportation agreed to make their services visible within „ƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĜĬĜƋƼ åŸå±ųÏĘ åĹƋåų üƚĬĀĬĬŸ ƋĘĜŸ the app, albeit not simultaneously — users function, responding to requests from the would have to toggle between one or the city and its partners and returning answers other. Even this ultimately proved to be with the narrowest possible scope.80 too much for Uber, which withdrew shortly ÆåüŅųåĬ±ƚĹÏĘţœų±ĹčĬĜĹčޱųƋĹåųŸƚĹƵĜĬĬĜĹč The biggest threat to MaaS isn’t Uber, ƋŅ ÏŅěåƻĜŸƋ ĵ±Ƽ ŞųŅƴå ÚĜþÏƚĬƋØ åŸŞåÏĜ±ĬĬƼ but the transit agencies themselves. As when they are many times your size. Transport Systems Catapult noted in its ųåŞŅųƋØŅþÏĜ±ĬŸĵ±ƼųåüƚŸåƋŅޱųƋĜÏĜޱƋåŅų One solution might be to designate a third fatally drag their feet on changing business party to safeguard participants’ data and to models. The intense discussions at TfL broker requests under the terms of service. The U.K.’s public-private mobility incubator, suggest that even an agency of its size Transport Systems Catapult recommends and sophistication may not be big enough the creation of a “data provider” role to survive disruption. Embrace and extend independent of the MaaS service and may be the only way.

79 Datson, “Mobility As A Service: Exploring The Opportunity For Mobility As A Service In The UK.” 80 SFMTA. “City of San Francisco: Meeting the Smart City Challenge.” 31 KeyExecutive Lessons Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

ŽŸåÚ±Ƌ±ƋŅÚåĀĹåĵåƋųĜÏŸ±ĹÚ cŅƋ åƴåĹ ‰üX ĜŸ Ĭ±ųčå ŸåƋƚűĵÆĜčƚŅƚŸŞŅĬĜÏƼčŅ±ĬŸţFĹ åĹŅƚčĘ ƋŅ ĜĹƋåųűĬĜDŽå XŅĹÚŅĹØƋĘåÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹŞųĜÏĜĹč 1 ƋĘåÏŅŸƋŸŅüŞųŅŞųĜåƋ±ųƼ DŽŅĹåʱŸĵ±ÚåĜƋÆŅƋĘŞŅŸŸĜÆĬå technologies, as it ƋŅƋų±ÏĩŽÆåųűŸĜĹāƚåĹÏåŅĹƋĘå eventually discovered ĹƚĵÆåųŅüŞųĜƴ±ƋåĘĜųåƴåĘĜÏĬåŸ with the Oyster card. ±ĹÚ ƋŅ č±Ĭƴ±ĹĜDŽå ± ųåŸŞŅĹŸå Industry consortia are üųŅĵ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹţ 2 ĹååÚåÚƋŅÚåĀĹåŅŞåĹ ŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸüŅųޱƼĵåĹƋØ ticketing, ride-hailing, ±ĹÚŅƋĘåųŞĜåÏåŸŅüƋĘå ŸŅüƋƵ±ųåŸƋ±ÏĩŸŅ±ŸƋŅ more widely share the ÏŅŸƋŸŠ±ĹÚÆåĹåĀƋŸšŅü kŞåĹÚ±Ƌ±ʱŸŞųŅƴåĹƋŅÆå±Ĺ ƋĘåĜųÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋţ åýåÏƋĜƴåØĬŅƵěÏŅŸƋĵåƋĘŅÚüŅų 3 seeding real-time scheduling ±ĹÚŸåųƴĜÏåÚĜŸųƚŞƋĜŅĹÚ±Ƌ±ĜĹ ŞŅŞƚĬ±ų±ŞŞŸĬĜĩåĜƋƼĵ±ŞŞåųţ But transit agencies should ±ĬŸŅ ƵŅųĩ ƵĜƋĘ ޱųƋĹåųŸ Šåţčţ 4 Xe%k‰ ±ĹÚ £åųŅƻš ƋŅ ųåÏåĜƴå ±Ƌ Ĭ屟Ƌ ± ĵ屟ƚųå Ņü ƋųĜŞ ŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹč ±ĹÚ ŅƋĘåų ƚŸåų Ú±Ƌ± in return.

Think carrots, not sticks when it comes ƋŅ ųåčƚĬ±ƋĜĹč ‰cŸ ±ĹÚ ŅƋĘåųŸţ a±±„ ŞųŅĵĜŸåŸƋŅÏųå±Ƌå±ŞĬ±ƋüŅųĵŸŅÆųŅ±Ú ±ĹÚ ŸŅ ÏŅĵŞåĬĬĜĹč ƋʱƋ ÏŅĵŞåƋĜƋŅųŸ ƵĜĬĬ Ę±ŞŞĜĬƼ ŞĬ±Ƽ ±ĬŅĹčţ kĹĬƼ ÆƼ ƚŸĜĹč ±ĬĬ Ņü ƋĘå ĵŅÚåŸ ±Ƌ ƋĘåĜų ÚĜŸŞŅŸ±ĬØ ±ĹÚ ĜĹ ĹåƵ ÏŅĵÆĜűƋĜŅĹŸØ ϱĹ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸĜĹƋåųűĬĜDŽååĵåųčĜĹčƋĘųå±ƋŸ ±ŸޱųƋĹåųŸţ

32 Photo: London. Flickr © Christian Schreiter. Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

São Paulo

„ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅ ÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸ ŸƵĜƋÏĘĜĹč ĬĜĹåŸ ±Ƌ public transport in favor of building rush hour between the Paulista and highways gutting the urban core. For ŅĹŸŅĬ±ÓÅŅ ĵåƋųŅ ŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹŸ ĵƚŸƋ åĹÚƚųå years, the percentage of overall trips has what is locally known in Portuguese as the inevitably tilted in favor of cars. Today, the “march of the penguins.” The phenomenon city’s passenger rail system is less than half takes its name from passengers’ involuntary the size of London’s or New York’s despite ŸĘƚÿĜĹč üųŅĵ ŸĜÚåěƋŅěŸĜÚå ±Ÿ ƋĘåƼ ŸĬŅƵĬƼ ŸåųƴĜĹč ± ŸĜčĹĜĀϱĹƋĬƼ Ĭ±ųčåų ±ųå±ţ81 The squeeze through the subterranean tunnel ųåŸƚĬƋŸ Ƶåųå ŞųåÚĜÏƋ±ÆĬå ó „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅűŸ linking the stations. Once on the far side, average commute of 43 minutes was the many riders elect to sit for a while on the world’s second-highest in 2013,82 while immaculate concrete platform, occasionally ƋĘåœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩåŸƋĜĵ±ƋåÚƋʱƋÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹ glancing up from their phones as crowds had cost the city USD $17.8 billion a year fruitlessly press against the doors of earlier, equal to nearly a percentage point arriving trains. They’re waiting for the peak of Brazil’s GDP.83 ƋŅŸƚÆŸĜÚåØƵŅĹÚåųĜĹčƵĘåĹĜƋƵĜĬĬĀűĬĬƼÆå safe to board the train. a±ĩĜĹč ƋĘå ŸĜƋƚ±ƋĜŅĹ ƵŅųŸå ĜŸ „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅűŸ structural and spatial inequality. Even after 8Ņų ÚåϱÚåŸØ „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅ ʱŸ ÆååĹ ŸĬŅƵĬƼ ųåŸĜÚåĹƋŸāåÚÚŅƵĹƋŅƵĹØåĵŞĬŅƼåųŸŸƋ±ƼåÚ grinding to a halt. The military regime that behind — today, the core contains 17% of the ruled Brazil through the 1980s neglected city’s jobs, but only 4% of the population.84

{ĘŅƋŅeÆŅƴå×ƚŸĘĘŅƚų±Ƌ)ŸƋ±ÓÅŅÚ±XƚDŽţųå±ĩĜĹčŅųÚåųŸÙœ±Ĭĩåų%±ƵŸŅĹ

81ĜÚåųĵ±ĹØلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸŽųƱʼnų±ĹŸŞŅųƋFĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåţŰ 82åƴĜĹŸØىĘ儱Ņ{±ƚĬŅÏŅĵĵƚƋåל±ĬĩØÆƚŸØƋų±ĜĹØƋų±ĜĹØƋų±ĜĹØÆƚŸØƵ±ĬĩţåŞå±ƋţŰ 83 œŅųĬÚ±ĹĩØŮʱĹčĜĹčŅĵĵƚƋåųŸűĘŅĜÏåŸBåĬŞŸ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅåÚƚÏå‰ų±þÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹţŰ 84 BŅĬĵåŸØلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅFŸåƋƋĜĹčåƋƋåųŽųƱĹ{Ĭ±ĹĹĜĹč±Ĺ„ŅĬƴå±BŅƚŸĜĹčųĜŸĜŸţŰ 33 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Rural migrants have tended to settle in the administration announced it was seeking a south and east, leading to punishing multi- $614 ĵĜĬĬĜŅĹ ĬŅ±Ĺ ƋŅ ĀűĹÏå ÏŅĹŸƋųƚÏƋĜŅĹ hour, multi-modal trips. Rush hours are a of another 150 km of bus lanes before maelstrom, as epic numbers of commuters his term ended later that year.89 A 2030 pass through the system in a massive peak. ĵ±ŸƋåų ŞĬ±Ĺ ų±ƋĜĀåÚ ĜĹ 8åÆųƚ±ųƼ ϱĬĬŸ üŅų ÆƚĜĬÚĜĹč ƋĘŅƚŸ±ĹÚŸ Ņü ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå ĘŅƚŸĜĹč All of this comes with a cost. Paulistanos ƚĹĜƋŸ ±ĬŅĹč ƋĘåŸå ÏŅųųĜÚŅųŸ ĜĹ ±Ĺ åýŅųƋ ƋŅ earning the minimum monthly wage lessen commutes through transit-oriented spend nearly a quarter of their incomes on development.90 commuting,85 which explains why a $0.09 fare hike in June 2013 triggered protests that swelled into the millions and spread across the country, becoming a referendum on the high taxes Brazilians paid for abysmal public services.

Following the protests, the debate over transport switched focus to the policies Ņü a±ƼŅų 8åųűĹÚŅ B±ÚÚ±ÚØ ± ĬåüƋěƵĜĹč economist who pledged to “humanize”

ƋĘåĵåč±ÏĜƋƼţBĜŸŞŅĬĜÏĜåŸÏŅĹƴåųƋåÚĬ±ųčå {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴå×ĜÏƼÏĬåX±ĹåŸØ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţ8ĬĜÏĩųÙ%ƼĬ±Ĺ swaths of roads into 250 miles of dedicated Passmore. bicycling lanes.86 )ýŅųƋŸ ƋŅ ϱĬĵ Ƌų±þÏ The decision to focus on BRT is a political as and transform streets into public spaces well as pragmatic one, as SPTrans controls succeeded in reducing air pollution and the city’s buses while the rail networks are pedestrian deaths while earning the ire of administered by the state, whose current drivers.87 čŅƴåųĹŅų ÆĜƋƋåųĬƼ ŅŞŞŅŸåŸ B±ÚÚ±ÚűŸ œŅųĩåųŸ{±ųƋƼţ But the real work of moving of the city is done by its buses. The failure of the metro The challenge facing the city and SPTrans to keep pace with the city’s growth means isn’t losing passengers to new mobility that two-thirds of residents rely on SPTrans, services — it has gridlocked streets, packed including 175 km of BRT lanes that carry trains, and crowded buses — but whether it 3.5 million passengers daily — the busiest can use data to identify just enough savings system in the world.88 In April 2016ØB±ÚÚ±ÚűŸ and slack in the system to buy it time to add

85 Ferdman, “Brazilians Spend as Much as 26 Percent of Their Income to Ride the Bus.” 86IŅĘĹŸŅűĹÚIåĬĵ±ƼåųØŮa±ƼŅų8åųűĹÚŅB±ÚÚ±ÚűŸ{ųŅěĜĩå{ƚŸĘ{ŅĬ±ųĜDŽåŸ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţŰ 87 Romero, “Fighting Resistance, a Mayor Strives to Ease Gridlock in a Brazilian Megacity.” 88 BRTData: Brazil. 89 {ĜĹĘŅØŮB±ÚÚ±ÚƋåĹƋ±åĵŞųæŸƋĜĵŅÚåâ2 bi para obras de mobilidade e drenagem.” 90 ±ƴ±ĬϱĹƋĜØلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸĹåƵĵ±ŸƋåųŞĬ±ĹŞųĜŅųĜƋĜDŽåŸŸƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬåƚųƱĹÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋţŰ 34 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

ϱޱÏĜƋƼţ‰ĘåÏĬŅÏĩƋĜÏĩŸü±ŸƋåų±ŸB±ÚÚ±ÚűŸ eĹÚ ƵʱƋ ĜĹüŅųĵ±ƋĜŅĹ ÚĜÚ Ęå Ƶ±ĹƋũ ŮBŅƵ prospects for re-election dim. much it costs me on each route,” he replied. “I don’t know that right now. And how much MobiLab: Faster, Cheaper, Better? I get from each route — we know some ±ųå ƴåųƼØ ƴåųƼ ŞųŅĀƋ±ÆĬåØ ±ĹÚ ŸŅĵå ±ųåĹűƋ The person charged with creating that slack ŞųŅĀƋ±ÆĬå ±Ƌ ±ĬĬţ ƚƋ F ÚŅĹűƋ ĩĹŅƵ ƵĘĜÏĘţŰ ĜŸ ĜųŅ ĜÚåųĵ±ĹØ üŅųĵåųĬƼ ÏĘĜåü Ņü ŸƋ±ý ±Ƌ œĜƋĘ ĵŅųå ŞųåÏĜŸå Ú±Ƌ±Ø Ęå åƻŞĬ±ĜĹåÚØ SPTrans and now the head of innovation SPTrans could dial down service on some at SP Negocios, the city’s business ųŅƚƋåŸÚƚųĜĹčŅýĘŅƚųŸ±ĹÚÚĜ±ĬĜƋƚŞÚƚųĜĹč ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋ ±ųĵţ BåűŸ ±ĬŸŅ ƋĘå üŅƚĹÚåų peaks. It could redraw routes altogether, or and director of MobiLab, a data laboratory crowdsource new ones — all in an attempt started in  ĜĹ ƵĘĜÏĘ Ƌå±ĵŸ Ņü Ƌų±þÏ 2014 to wring additional capacity out of an engineers, students, and resident startups overtaxed system. are invited to experiment with SPTrans’ trove of more than 30 million data points arriving daily from fare cards and the buses’ GPS units.91

Biderman had originally pitched the lab as part of the city government’s commitment to transparency, but his ambitions were broader. Could small teams, using open transit data and open source tools, innovate faster and less expensively than the standard procurement process? Under

SPTrans’ current contract with Microsoft, {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴåׄ{‰ų±ĹŸØ‰ųŅĬĬåƼÆƚŸţœĜĩĜŞåÚĜ±Ù±ü±åĬě for instance, the system is “outdated %B‰ţ and very slow, and doesn’t give us the Biderman and his team are playing at ĜĹüŅųĵ±ƋĜŅĹƵåƵ±ĹƋØŰĘ埱ĜÚĜĹĘĜŸŅþÏå±Ƌ ƋĘå ĵ±ųčĜĹŸ Ņü „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅűŸ čųĜÚĬŅÏĩØ ÆƚƋ SP Negocios. “Support costs [$ , ] per 610 000 the margins might be all he needs. As it year for a closed system.” Using MobiLab’s ƋƚųĹŸ ŅƚƋØ Ƌų±þÏ ÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹ ĜŸĹűƋ ĬĜĹå±ųţ methods, “I can have the information I want Using cellphone data, in 2013, a team of for half that, and you can do dozens of researchers at MIT found that canceling things with it.”92 Done right, he would end up or delaying the trips of 1% of all drivers in with a virtuous circle, plowing the savings Boston or San Francisco would reduce from each project into the next batch of delays from congestion by only about 3% experiments. percent. But when they delved more deeply,

91¬ŅƋƋĜŸØŮBŅƵƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼϱĹƋų±ĹŸüŅųĵƚųƱĹĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ×e}¼eƵĜƋĘ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸĜųŅĜÚåųĵ±ĹţŰ 92 Ciro Biderman, interview with the author.

35 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

they discovered that by shifting the peak by Townsend has provisionally coined 1% in a handful of select neighborhoods Townsend’s Law: “A ten-percent reduction and suburbs, you could reduce commutes in peak urban system load allows for twice across the entire network by 14-18%.93 A as much growth to be accommodated at the similar experiment by Japanese researchers same level of service and corresponding in 2009 revealed that by shifting slightly overall quality of life.”97 Seen in this light, more — between 2-5% — they could reduce MobiLab’s projects act as a sort of urban delays by as much as 35%.94 acupuncture, searching for pressure points capable of alleviating stress across the These savings have implications that go far entire system. beyond shorter commutes. “You have to size transit systems for the peak of the peak,”95 Soon, MobiLab may have a new storehouse Ÿ±ĜÚ B±ĹƼ 8±ĵØ ŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋ Ņü a±ŸƋåų±ųÚ of data to analyze — the granular details of Enterprise Partnerships, which is working every TNC trip taken in the megacity, the with C40 and cities including London result of a regulatory scheme designed by and Chicago to implement what he calls ĜÚåųĵ±Ĺ±ĹÚ±ŞŞųŅƴåÚÆƼB±ÚÚ±ÚĜĹa±Ƽ “active demand management.”96 “The peak 2016. The regulation stipulates that Uber typically lasts 25-30 minutes in a 24-hour and local rivals such as 99Taxis must agree day,” he continued. “If we can push 5-7% to pay the city an average fee of $.03 per Ņü ÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸ Ņý ƋʱƋØ ƋĘĜŸ ʱŸ ƋĘå åýåÏƋ kilometer, which Biderman expects will of pushing the [capital expense] curve out raise around $11.5 million per year. Perhaps by two years.” In a city like London or New more important, the city will guarantee York, he said, the savings on interest alone compliance by collecting its own origin and amounted to $150-$200 million per year. destination data from software embedded in drivers’ phones — bypassing the need And in cities that can’t or won’t make ƋŅ±ŸĩŽÆåųŅų±ĹƼŅƋĘåų‰cƋŅŸĘ±ųåţٜå infrastructure investments immediately, need the trip details, otherwise, how can ĬĜĩå„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅØŸĘĜüƋĜĹčƋĘåŞå±ĩϱĹŞųŅƴĜÚå I charge them per kilometer?” Biderman critical breathing room. In observing this asked rhetorically. Perhaps it might yield phenomenon, Smart Cities author Anthony the pressure points he needs.

93 œ±ĹčØåƋ±ĬţَĹÚåųŸƋ±ĹÚĜĹčŅ±ÚŽŸ±čå{±ƋƋåųĹŸĜĹŽųƱĹeų屟ţŰ 94£ĜĹčØåƋ±ĬţŮaĜƋĜč±ƋĜŅĹŅüåƻŞų域Ƶ±ƼƋų±þÏÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹƋĘųŅƚčĘƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹÚåĵ±ĹÚĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋƵĜƋĘƋŅĬĬ discount.” 95 B±ĹƼ8±ĵØƋåĬåŞĘŅĹåĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųţ 96 MasterCard, “MasterCard and C40 Partner to Rally Megacities Around Sustainable Mobility.” 97 Townsend, “Peak City.” 36 KeyExecutive Lessons Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion cŅƋ ±ĬĬ ƋųĜŞŸ ±ųå åŧƚ±Ĭţ eϱÚåĵĜÏ research has demonstrated how ĵ±Ĺ±čĜĹčÚåĵ±ĹÚĜĹŅĹĬƼ±ʱĹÚüƚĬ aŅŸƋ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŸƋų±ƋåčĜåŸ Ņü±ų屟ϱĹʱƴåŸƼŸƋåĵĜÏåýåÏƋŸ üŅÏƚŸ ŅĹ ÆŅĬŸƋåųĜĹč ŸƚŞŞĬƼţ ƚƋ ĜĹ ŅĹŸƚųü±ÏåÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹţ%ĜŸÏŅƴåųĜĹč ĀűĹÏĜ±ĬĬƼě±ĹÚϱޱÏĜƋƼěÏŅĹŸƋų±ĜĹåÚ ±ĹÚ±ÚÚų域ĜĹčƋĘåŸåÆŅƋƋĬåĹåÏĩŸ cities such as São Paulo, the most ĵ±Ƽ Ņýåų ƋĘå ĘĜčĘåŸƋ ŸĘŅųƋěƋåųĵ åýåÏƋĜƴå ŸĘŅųƋěƋåųĵ ŸŅĬƚƋĜŅĹ ĵ±Ƽ kFŅĹÏŅĬĬåÏƋĜĹčƋų±þÏÚ±Ƌ±ţ lie in managing demand. Using ÏĬå±ų ÏŅĵĵƚĹĜϱƋĜŅĹ ±ĹÚ ϱųåüƚĬĬƼ designed incentives, transit agencies ŸĘŅƚĬÚåƻŞĬŅųåƋ±ÏƋĜÏŸüŅųŸĘĜüƋĜĹčŅų åĬĜĵĜűƋĜĹčŸŅĵåƋųĜŞŸţ 2

1 ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸ ϱĹűƋ ÏŅĵŞåƋå ƵĜƋĘ:ŅŅčĬåŅųŽÆåųƵĘåĹĜƋÏŅĵåŸ ƋŅƵųĜƋĜĹčŸŅüƋƵ±ųåØÆƚƋƋĘåƼÚŅĹűƋ 4 have to. Small teams addressing 3 ÚĜŸÏųåƋå ŞųŅÆĬåĵŸ ƵĜƋĘ ÏĬå±ų ÆåĹåĀƋŸϱĹŞųŅÚƚÏ埱ƴĜĹčŸƋʱƋ ĵŅųåƋʱĹģƚŸƋĜüƼƋĘåĜĹƴåŸƋĵåĹƋØ ŸåƋƋĜĹč ƋĘå ŸƋ±čå üŅų ƋĘå ĹåƻƋ ųŅƚĹÚ Ņü åƻŞåųĜĵåĹƋŸţ {±ųƋĹåų ‰Ęå ŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚ ŸŅüƋƵ±ųå ŞųŅÏƚųåĵåĹƋ ƵĜƋĘ ƚĹĜƴåųŸĜƋĜåŸØ ŸƋ±ųƋƚŞŸØ ±ĹÚ ĵŅÚåĬ ĜŸ ĜĹŸƚþÏĜåĹƋØ Ĝü ĹŅƋ ÆųŅĩåĹţ ŅƋĘåų ÚåŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŸ ƋŅ Ĭåƴåų±čå ečåĹÏĜåŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ åĵÆų±Ïå ŅŞåĹ talent and data. ŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸØŅŞåĹÚ±Ƌ±Ø±ĹÚŅŞåĹŸŅƚųÏå ŸŅüƋƵ±ųå ó ±ĬĬ Ņü ƵĘĜÏĘ ųåŧƚĜųå ± čųå±ƋåųƚŞěüųŅĹƋĜĹƴåŸƋĵåĹƋĜĹÆƚĜĬÚĜĹč ĜĹƋåųűĬ ϱޱÏĜƋƼØ ÆƚƋ ĜĹ ƋĘå ĬŅĹč ųƚĹ 5 Ņýåų±ĬŅƵåųƋŅƋ±ĬÏŅŸƋŅüŅƵĹåųŸĘĜŞţ

„{‰ų±ĹűŸ ĵƚƋƚ±ĬĬƼ Ÿ±ƋĜŸüƼĜĹč ŞųŅŞŅŸ±Ĭ ƋŅ ųåčƚĬ±Ƌå ‰cŸ Ƶ±Ÿ ƋĘå ųåŸƚĬƋ Ņü ĹåčŅƋĜ±ƋĜĹč üųŅĵ ± ŞŅŸĜƋĜŅĹ Ņü ŸƋųåĹčƋĘ ±ĹÚ Ƌ±ĩĜĹč ƋĘå ĜĹĜƋĜ±ƋĜƴåţ ĜƋĜåŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ ŸƋųĜƴå ƋŅ ÚŅ ƋĘå Ÿ±ĵåƵĘåĹ ÏŅĹüųŅĹƋåÚ ÆƼ üƚƋƚųåƚŞŸƋ±ųƋŸØĹåĜƋĘåųϱŞĜƋƚĬ±ƋĜĹčƋŅƋĘåĜųÚåĵ±ĹÚŸôƚĹĬ域ƋĘåƼ ŅýåųÏŅĹÏųåƋåÏŅƚĹƋåųěŞųŅŞŅŸ±ĬŸƋʱƋĘŅĬÚƋĘåŞŅŸŸĜÆĜĬĜƋƼŅü±ƵĜĹě ƵĜĹôĹŅųĜĹÚåĀĹĜƋåĬƼŅÆŸƋųƚÏƋĜĹčƋĘåĵţ

37 {ĘŅƋŅׄÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţ8ĬĜÏĩųÙa±ųÏåĬŅ%ųƚÏĩţ Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Manila

Rush hour in Manila at times resembles a This line of thinking guarantees additional scene from Mad Maxţ œå±ƴĜĹč ÆåƋƵååĹ Ƌų±þÏţ±ųŸŞųåŸåĹƋĬƼ±ÏÏŅƚĹƋüŅųĬ域ƋʱĹ the cars, taxis, motorcycles, and private a third of all passengers on Manila’s roads, buses are jeepneys — aging, gaudily but comprise nearly three-quarters of decorated passenger jeeps seating congestion103 — the world’s worst, according twenty.98 Festooned with chrome and ƋŅƚŸåųŸŅüœ±DŽåţ104 That congestion carries painted with names like “Cold Fusion” and a cost in lost time and productivity: $57 لŅĬÚĜåų Ņü 8ŅųƋƚĹåØŰ ƋĘå ĀųŸƋƵåųå ʱÏĩåÚ million a day, according to the Japan together here 70 years ago. Their name is a International Cooperation Agency, which portmanteau of “jeep” and “jitney,” the latter predicts it may nearly triple by 2030.105 referring to early automobiles repurposed as transit — a mode that has returned with a vengeance in the form of TNCs.99

Nearly half of Metro Manila’s 24 million inhabitants take one of its 45,000 jeepneys daily,100 more than double the number of passengers riding buses and trains.101 That’s changing rapidly, however, as Manila continues its economic and population ÆŅŅĵţ ‰Ęå ±ÚÚĜƋĜŅĹ Ņü ƅ ĵĜĬĬĜŅĹ ĹåƵ residents since 2000, coupled with an emergent middle class, has led to an Photo above: Jeepneys. © Greg Lindsay explosion in private vehicles — new car The challenge facing Manila and its sales in the Philippines practically doubled jeepneys is a common one in cities where between 2013 and 2015.102 The logic is public transport is scarce or non-existent. undeniable: why breathe a jeepney’s black First, a shadowy network of informal transit exhaust when one can opt for a comfortable, āŅƚųĜŸĘåŸØ üŅĬĬŅƵåÚ ĜĹåƴĜƋ±ÆĬƼ ÆƼ ± Ÿƚųčå air-conditioned commute instead? in private cars.106 œĘåƋĘåų ƋĘå ÏĜƋĜåŸ ±ĹÚ

98 Dancel, “End of the road for Manila’s jeepneys.” 99 Kalanick, “Uber’s plan to get more people into fewer cars.” 100 Sherielysse Reyes Bonifacio, interview with the author. 101 8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅØŮ8ĜƻĜĹčƋų±þÏ×IååŞŸåƼåÚ±ŸüååÚåųŸƋŅÆƚŸųŅƚƋåŸţŰ 102 The Economist, “Jam today.” 103 Ibid.

104 eĬƱØŮFʼnĘåĜƋƼœĜƋʉĘåœŅųĬÚűŸœŅųŸƋ‰ų±þÏØŽÆåųFŸeĹeƵĩƵ±ųÚ8ĜƋţŰ 105 ŅÚĜŸØŮa±ĹĜĬ±űŸƋų±þÏģ±ĵŸÏŅŸƋâ57 million a day.” 106 Gao and Zielke, “A road map to the future for the auto industry.” 38 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

vehicles in question are Nairobi (matatus), Mexico City (pesero), Mumbai (auto- rickshaws) or Bangkok (songthaew), informal transit has proven to be an unsustainable substitute for public transport when owning a car becomes an option.107

Complicating things further are land use ޱƋƋåųĹŸţŽĹĬĜĩåœåŸƋåųĹÏĜƋĜåŸűÚåĹŸåƚųƱĹ cores and outlying suburbs — or even the polycentric edge cities of mature suburbia —Manila exhibits a pattern known in urban geography as desakota. Coined from the Indonesian words meaning “village” and “city,” the term describes the commingling of urban and rural settlements cheek-by- jowl.108

%埱ĩŅƋ±űŸ āƚÏƋƚ±ƋĜĹč ÚåĹŸĜƋƼ ±ĹÚ development (e.g. skyscrapers next to ŅŞåĹ ĀåĬÚŸš ÚåĀåŸ ŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹč ±ĹÚ ĘĜĹÚåųŸ ƋĘååþϱÏƼŅüƋų±ĹŸĜƋţ8Ņųåƻ±ĵŞĬåØI±ĩ±ųƋ±űŸ aggressive sprawl and congestion have {ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴå×a±ĹĜĬ±ţœĜĩĜŞåÚĜ±Ù{±ƋųĜÏĩŅŧƚå outpaced the growth of the city’s equally ambitious BRT system carrying 370,000 ‰Ęå ŞĬ±ƼÆŅŅĩ ĜĹ ĵ±ĹƼ ÏĜƋĜåŸ ŠŸƚÏĘ ±Ÿ „ÅŅ passengers daily over 129 miles along a Paulo) would call for digging more trains dozen lines.109 and building dedicated BRT lanes anyway. And that’s exactly what the Philippines’ In Metro Manila, desakota has made Department of Transportation (DOTr) congestion worse by funneling the majority has called for. The job of designing such Ņü Ƌų±þÏ üųŅĵ ųåŸĜÚåĹƋĜ±Ĭ åĹÏĬ±ƴåŸ ĜĹ ƋĘå a system fell to assistant secretary for north to the city’s main business districts ŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹč ±ĹÚ ĀűĹÏå „ĘåųĜåĬƼŸŸå åƼåŸ in the south along just a handful of trunk “Booey” Bonifacio, who was tasked in 2014 routes. Commuters must choose between with the impossible mission of restructuring riding a jeepney to an overcrowded train to the government’s dysfunctional PPP on its another jeepney, or else drive or ride on a most critical rail line while identifying the perpetually clogged highway. most promising bus corridors — all in just

107šĜÚ±ĬØŮů‰ĘåųåĜŸĹŅåŸÏ±Şåű×c±ĜųŅÆĜűŸ±ĜųŞŅĬĬƚƋĜŅĹŸŞ±ųĩŸeüųĜϱĘå±ĬƋĘƵ±ųĹĜĹčţŰ 108 Moench and Gyawali, “Desakota: Reinterpreting the Urban-Rural Continuum.” 109 BRTData: Jakarta. 39 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

{ĘŅƋŅ±ÆŅƴå×ĬŅččåÚBĜčĘƵ±ƼŸØa±ĹĜĬ±ţÙ:ųåčXĜĹÚŸ±Ƽ

two years110. The former is still tied up in the The challenge, then, is to understand these courts,111 but Bonifacio and her team chose systems and use the resulting data to either seventeen candidates for BRT.112 Aquino reformat them as feeders to more formal ±ŞŞųŅƴåÚŅĹåÆåüŅųåĬå±ƴĜĹčŅþÏåţ113 modes such as BRT, or more audaciously, to make Metro Manila the front line for œĘ±Ƌ ųŅĬå ÚŅåŸ ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ʱƴå microtransit. Given mounting congestion, to play in megacities like Manila, where could a cleaner, safer, connected jeepney institutions are weak, sprawl confounds compete with owning a car? And if so, could Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋØ ±ĹÚ åýŅųƋŸ ƋŅ ÆƚĜĬÚ ĘĜčĘěϱޱÏĜƋƼ algorithms chart a course through the city systems have faltered? In these places, where planners could not? a rich mobility mesh already exists, but is invisible to most residents beyond a handful Learning from Nairobi: Mapping of local links. A third of the 100 largest cities Nairobi’s Matatus in the world lack complete maps of their The answers to these questions begin transit networks, including nearly all of in Nairobi, where matatus — fourteen- the 25 largest low and low-middle income seat minibuses analogous to jeepneys cities.114 The simple ability to visualize these — emerged to carry a third of the city’s systems could be transformative for citizens commuters after bus service collapsed ±ĹÚƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ±ĬĜĩåţ in the 1990s.115 In 2011, a team led by

110 Cupin, “Catch up: The DOTC’s race to 2016.” 111 Camus, “Gov’t buyout of MRT-3 dims.” 112 Francisco. 113 Calica, “P-Noy OKs P4-B Manila-Quezon City bus rapid transit system.” 114 Krambeck, et al. “Completion Report Urban Transport and ICT Capacity Building.” 115 Klopp, “Cities in motion: how we mapped the matatus of Nairobi.” 40 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

researchers from New York’s Columbia This data was used in turn to print maps, University and the University of Nairobi ÚåĀĹåųŅƚƋåŸØ±ĹÚŸŞƚųĜĹƋåųåŸƋĜĹ±ŞŞŸĬĜĩå ųåŸŅĬƴåÚ ƋŅ ÚåĀĹĜƋĜƴåĬƼ ĵ±Ş ƋĘå ĜĬĬåčĜÆĬå Ma3Route ó Ĝţåţœ±DŽå üŅų ĵ±Ƌ±ƋƚŸţ FƋ ±ĬŸŅ network whose schedules are “in many, served to legitimize matatus in the eyes of many heads, but fragmented,” according to government policymakers who had never Columbia’s Jacqueline Klopp.116 ĜĹÏŅųŞŅų±ƋåÚƋĘåĵĜĹƋŅŅþÏĜ±ĬŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹčţ

The “Digital Matatus” project employed Mapping Manila’s Jeepneys a team of students riding matatus for The Nairobi project quickly caught the months, taking care to log each of the city’s åƼåŅüųåŸå±ųÏĘåųŸ±ƋƋĘåœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩØƵĘŅ 130 routes using smartphones and GPS embarked on a similar project with DOTr units. The coordinates for each stop were in 2012 to trace Metro Manila’s jeepneys. translated into data compatible with the The Bank’s team discovered no one had :åĹåų±Ĭ ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ 8ååÚ „ŞåÏĜĀϱƋĜŅĹ Š:‰8„šţ ever mapped the megacity’s overlapping Originally developed by Google, GTFS transit systems — despite jeepney routes has become the lingua franca of transit being licensed. The reasons, they wrote data thanks to the ease of integration in their report, were alternately cultural with open source tools like Open Trip ŠƵŅƚĬÚ±ĹƼŅĹåƚŸåƋĘåĵũšØĜĹŸƋĜƋƚƋĜŅűĬŠĀƴå Planner and the ubiquity of Google Maps.117 agencies couldn’t agree on one database),

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$#) '$# new transport master plan, including the Above: Digital Matatus Project Map. © Digital Matatus BRT corridors. One piece of that plan was to

116 Jacqueline Klopp, interview with the author. 117 ±Ĺ±ĬåŸØٜĘƼ%åƴåĬŅŞĜĹčĜƋĜ埄ĘŅƚĬÚ„Ƌ±ĹÚ±ųÚĜDŽå±ĹÚkŞåʼnĘåĜų‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ%±Ƌ±ţŰ 118 Krambeck, et al. 119 BŅĬĬƼUų±ĵÆåÏĩØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųţ 120 Krambeck, et al. 41 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

rationalize the number of jeepney and bus Local entrepreneurs weren’t waiting. One of routes by nearly 90%, with a corresponding them was Congressman Sigfrido “Freddie” 23% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, Tiñga, whose startup GET Philippines is according to the Bank’s estimates121 — the marketing an American-made electric equivalent of removing 105,000 cars from jeepney named the Comet. Rather than Manila’s roads.122 disrupt existing franchises, Tiñga intends to sell them his jeepney-as-a-service; All it would take is 20 billion pesos ($43 in exchange for an upfront purchase of million), Bonifacio estimated, to purchase $35,000 to $40,000, GET will hire the drivers, and retire its existing jeepney franchises. ÏŅĬĬåÏƋ ü±ųåŸ ±ĹÚ ŸåĬĬ ±ÚŸţ Bå ÆåĬĜåƴåŸ For less than half the cost of starting the jeepneys aren’t a bridge to BRT, but their ÏĜƋƼűŸĀųŸƋ‰ųŅƚƋåØƋĘåčŅƴåųĹĵåĹƋÏŅƚĬÚ replacement. “The world will best be served draw a new map and tender new routes by these twenty-seat electric vehicles in a linking neighborhoods to future train and āååƋěĵ±Ĺ±čåÚŸƼŸƋåĵØŰĘåŞųåÚĜÏƋŸţ125 bus lines.123 Something is missing from both visions: Integral to her plan was reinventing the data, software, and connections. In a jeepney itself. During the waning days of ÏĜƋƼ ƵĘåųå œ±DŽå ĜŸ ƚÆĜŧƚĜƋŅƚŸ ±ĹÚ ÆŅƋĘ the Aquino administration, she and her Uber and Grab are wildly popular, the ŸƋ±ý Ƶåųå ÆƚŸĜĬƼ Úų±üƋĜĹč ƋĘå ųåüåųåĹÏå ƚĹŧƚåŸƋĜŅĹĜĹč ±ŸŸƚĵŞƋĜŅĹ Ņü ĀƻåÚ ųŅƚƋåě ŸŞåÏĜĀϱƋĜŅĹ üŅų ± ĵŅÚåųĹĜDŽåÚ ƴåųŸĜŅĹ ó service is out of step with the capabilities one with windows, air-conditioning, Ņü ƵĜÚåĬƼ ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå Ÿĵ±ųƋŞĘŅĹåŸţ ±ƋĘåų seatbelts, doors, and less air pollution. than chain together trips to overcrowded œĘåĹ ĜƋ Ƶ±Ÿ ųå±ÚƼØ ƋĘåƼ ƵŅƚĬÚ ŸŅĬĜÏĜƋ Ƌų±ĜĹŸ±ĹÚĹŅĹěåƻĜŸƋåĹƋÆƚŸåŸØƵʱƋĜü±āååƋ proposals from vehicle manufacturers of Tiñga’s electric jeepneys permanently with experience in the region (e.g. Kia, Tata, traced dynamic routes through the city, Isuzu).124 delivering riders just close enough to their destinations to satisfy all of them?126

121 Ibid. 122 ‰Ęå±ĹĩåŸƋĜĵ±ƋåŸ:B:ŸƵŅƚĬÚÚåÏĬĜĹåÆƼ500,000 metric tons. According to the Environmental Protection ečåĹÏƼűŸ:B:)ŧƚĜƴ±ĬåĹÏĜ埱ĬÏƚĬ±ƋŅųر500,000 metric ton reduction in Carbon Dioxide emissions is equivalent to removing 105,617 cars from the road. Calculator available at: https://www.epa.gov/energy/ greenhouse-gas-equivalencies-calculator 123 Sherielysse Reyes Bonifacio, interview with the author. 124 Bonifacio. 125 Sigfrido Tiñga, telephone interview with the author. 126 This is precisely what Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk was alluding to in July 2016 when he published Tesla aŅƋŅųŸűŮa±ŸƋåų{Ĭ±ĹØ{±ųƋ%åƚƻØŰƵĘĜÏĘĜĹÏĬƚÚåÚĘĜŸƋĘŅƚčĘƋŸŅĹÆƚŸåŸ×ٜĜƋĘƋĘå±ÚƴåĹƋŅü±ƚƋŅĹŅĵƼØĜƋƵĜĬĬ ŞųŅƱÆĬƼĵ±ĩåŸåĹŸåƋŅŸĘųĜĹĩƋĘåŸĜDŽåŅüÆƚŸåŸ±ĹÚƋų±ĹŸĜƋĜŅĹƋĘåųŅĬåŅüÆƚŸÚųĜƴåųƋŅƋʱƋŅüāååƋĵ±Ĺ±čåųñ It would also take people all the way to their destination.”

42 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Photo above: The Comet. © Global Electric Transport. http://getevee.com/

FƋ ƵŅƚĬÚ ±ĬŸŅ ÆųĜĹč āåÚčĬĜĹč ĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋ and energy be better spent yoking together ŸåųƴĜÏ域ƚÏʱŸšĜ±±ĹÚųĜÚģüƚĬĬÏĜųÏĬåţ‰Ęå the transport they have? FŸų±åĬĜ üŅƚĹÚåųŸ Ņü šĜ±Ø üŅų åƻ±ĵŞĬåØ Ƶåųå inspired by sherut — Tel Aviv’s answer to the Is the Future “Stream Mobility”? jeepney. “One way to use our technology is One answer to the leapfrogging question to allow cities with large informal systems ÏŅĵåŸ üųŅĵ „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅØ ƵĘåųå ± ĬŅčĜŸƋĜÏŸ to centralize their jitney services and gain platform named Loggi has harnessed insight on how they’re performing,” said a growing fraction of the megacity’s ¬±ÏʱųƼœ±ŸŸåųĵ±ĹØšĜ±űŸƴĜÏåŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋŅü estimated 300,000 motorcycle messengers ŸƋų±ƋåčƼţٜåűųåƋ±ĬĩĜĹčƋŅŞåŅŞĬåĜĹ„ŅƚƋĘ into a real-time, continuous delivery service. America and have had conversations in Its messengers rarely delivered their 8,000 Africa about how our technology could daily packages from A to B; more often, upgrade jitneys and optimize them.”127 they are asked to stop by C and D along the way. For the most part, Loggi substitutes Arguably the most important debate algorithms for warehouses to keep goods in connected mobility circles — one moving in what co-founder and chief subsuming both TNCs and autonomous ƋåÏĘĹĜϱĬŅþÏåųeųƋĘƚų%åÆåųƋÚåŸÏųĜÆåÚ±Ÿ cars — is whether bits can ultimately “stream logistics.” ŸƚÆŸƋĜƋƚƋå üŅų ±ƋŅĵŸţ œŅƚĬÚ a±ĹĜĬ± ±ĹÚ its sister cities across the Global South be Just as Global South cities had leapfrogged ÆåƋƋåųŅýƋųƼĜĹčƋŅĬå±ŞüųŅčŅƴåų‰ƵĜƋĘ Ņƴåų ĀƻåÚ ƋåĬåŞĘŅĹƼ ĜĹ ü±ƴŅų Ņü ĵŅÆĜĬå ±ĬčŅųĜƋĘĵĜÏ ģååŞĹåƼŸũ ‰ĘĜŸ ĜŸ ƋĘå āĜŞŸĜÚå phones and voice-over-IP, so too, would to arguing whether TNCs are undermining they bypass centralized distribution transit in the Global North — that is, for cities networks in favor of decentralized intelligent that lack strong systems, would their time

127¬±ÏʱųƼœ±ŸŸåųĵ±ĹØƋåĬåŞĘŅĹåĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųţ

43 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

ŅĹåŸ ƋʱƋƵåųå ĵŅųå āåƻĜÆĬåØ ŸƚŞŞĬåØ ±ĹÚ resilient. “Brazil has totally missed the boat on traditional logistics,” Debert explained. ٜåϱĹűƋÚŅ±8åÚåƻŅųŽ{„ĘåųåţƚƋƵå don’t need it.”128 Neither would megacities in Southeast Asia or anyplace else where desakota is the norm.

Debert didn’t think stream logistics would work everywhere, but he might be wrong. In 2015, Uber’s Travis Kalanick outlined a feature named “Perpetual Trip”129 amounting to an UberPOOL that never ended — or a jeepney ride. If Debert (and Kalanick) are correct, UPS-style hub-and- spoke mobility may be the equivalent of copper wire to every home — a once- Ƌų±ĹŸüŅųĵ±ƋĜƴåƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼĹŅƵƋŅŅÚĜþÏƚĬƋ and too expensive to install. Photo above: Loggi Motorcycle. © Loggi.

128 Arthur Debert, interview with the author. 129 ƚĘųØŮXƼüƋXĜĹå:åƋŸFĹƋŅ{åųŞåƋƚ±ĬĜÚå‰åųųĜƋŅųƼœĜƋʉųĜŞĬåa±ƋÏĘ„åųƴĜÏåţŰ 44 KeyExecutive Lessons Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

cåƻƋØ ĵ±Ş ƋĘåŸå ŸƼŸƋåĵŸ ƚŸĜĹč ŅŞåĹ FĹ ĵ±ĹƼ ÏĜƋĜåŸØ ĜĹüŅųĵ±Ĭ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ŸŅƚųÏå Ú±Ƌ± üŅųĵ±ƋŸ Šåţčţ :‰8„š ĜŸƋų±ĹŸĜƋţ{ƚÆĬĜÏŅþÏĜ±ĬŸŸĘŅƚĬÚ ±ĹÚ ŸŅüƋƵ±ųå Š‰ų±ĹŸĜƋœ±ĹÚšţ a±ĩå ųåÏŅčĹĜDŽå ±ĹÚ ÆåƋƋåų ųåčƚĬ±Ƌå ƋĘåŸå Ú±Ƌ±Æ±ŸåŸ üųåå ±ĹÚ ŅŞåĹ üŅų ƋĘåŸå ŸƼŸƋåĵŸØ åĜƋĘåų ±Ÿ ޱųƋ ƚŸå ĜĹ ųŅƚƋåěŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹč ±ĹÚ ŅƋĘåų Ņü±ޱƋĘƋŅƋĘåĜųųåŞĬ±ÏåĵåĹƋØ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ±ŞŞŸţšĜŸƚ±ĬĜDŽååƻĜŸƋĜĹč Ņų ±Ÿ ƋĘå ĀųŸƋ ŸƋåŞ ƋŅƵ±ųÚ ųŅƚƋåŸ ĜĹ ƋĘå ÏŅĹƋåƻƋ Ņü ÏĜƋĜåŸű Ĭ±ųčåų augmenting them. transit networks. 1

1 2

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ŽŸåƋĘåŸåĵ±ŞŸƋŅų±ƋĜŅűĬĜDŽå ŮaĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋŰ ŸåųƴĜÏåŸ ŸƚÏĘ ±Ÿ šĜ± åƻĜŸƋĜĹč ŸƼŸƋåĵŸ üŅų čųå±Ƌåų ±ĹÚ ųĜÚģ ±ųå 域åĹƋĜ±ĬĬƼ ĹåƋƵŅųĩåÚØ åþÏĜåĹÏƼ ±ĹÚ ±ÏÏ域ĜÆĜĬĜƋƼ ÆƼ ±ĬčŅųĜƋĘĵĜϱĬĬƼěčƚĜÚåÚƋų±ĹŸĜƋţ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ weeding out redundant routes ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ĜĹ ÏĜƋĜåŸ ƵĜƋĘ ± ÏųĜƋĜϱĬ ĵ±ŸŸ Ņü ±ĹÚ ĜÚåĹƋĜüƼĜĹč ƚĹÚåųŸåųƴåÚ ĜĹüŅųĵ±Ĭ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ åƻŞĬŅųå ŞĜĬŅƋĜĹč ±ų屟 ŠĜü ĜĹüŅųĵ±Ĭ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋ ŸåųƴĜÏåŸ ƚŸĜĹč ģååŞĹåƼŸØ ŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸϱĹÆåÏŅĹƴĜĹÏåÚƋŅ dollar vans, matatus, etc. ŸåųƴåƋĘåĵšţ

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eƚƋŅĵŅƋĜƴåk)aŸĵ±Ƽʱƴå±ĹŅŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋƼƋŅÏųå±Ƌå±ĹåƵüŅųĵ ŅüƋų±ĹŸĜƋƵĜƋĘŸĜƻěƋŅěƋƵåĹƋƼŸå±ƋŸØÚåŞåĹÚĜĹčŅĹŅŞåų±ƋĜĹčÏŅŸƋŸ ±ĹÚĬŅϱĬÏŅĹƋåƻƋŸţ‰ĘåƼŸĘŅƚĬÚ±ččų域ĜƴåĬƼåƻŞĬŅųåƋĘĜŸĹĜÏĘå ±Ęå±ÚŅüŞŅƋåĹƋĜ±ĬÏŅĵŞåƋĜƋŅųŸŠåţčţ‰åŸĬ±aŅƋŅųŸšţ

45 Photo: Manila. Flickr © travel oriented Recommendations

The second half of this report distills identify future risks, threats, opportunities, lessons from the four case-study cities and responses. This analysis is then used presented above — as well as examples to explore scenarios imagining potential üųŅĵ XŅŸ eĹčåĬåŸØ BåĬŸĜĹĩĜØ „ĜĹ豪ŅųåØ impacts on the current landscape. c±ĜųŅÆĜرĹÚĵ±ĹƼĵŅųåóƋŅŅýåųÏŅĹÏųåƋå Government bodies using this practice recommendations for transit agencies, include the U.S. National Intelligence ŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ±ƚƋĘŅųĜƋĜåŸØ ÏĜƋƼ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸØ Council130±ĹÚƋĘåŽţUţ±ÆĜĹåƋkþÏåţ131 and the private partners needed to make these proposals a reality. The following If such an exercise had been held inside sections are divided into near-term, mid- transit agencies in 2010, the advent of Uber, term, and long-term goals; above all, public the mainstreaming of smartphones, and ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ĵƚŸƋ Ĭå±ųĹ ƋŅ ±ŸŸåųƋ ƋĘåĜų ųŅĬå ±Ÿ early bike-sharing successes might have the managers of an emerging connected ŞŅĜĹƋåÚ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ƋŅƵ±ųÚ üƚƋƚųå mobility ecosystem. Doing so will require ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋŸĜĹųå±ĬěƋĜĵå:{„Ƶ±ƼĀĹÚĜĹčţ strong leadership from mayors, thoughtfully A similar exercise held today might take designed public-private partnerships, and its cues from wearable technologies (e.g. most of all a commitment from within the BŅĬŅXåĹŸØ kÏƚĬƚŸ ĜüƋšØ ±ƚčĵåĹƋåÚ ųå±ĬĜƋƼ organizations to re-imagine how they might Š{ŅĩæĵŅĹ :ŅšØ ±ĹÚ ŞååųěƋŅěŞååų ĹåƋƵŅųĩŸ provision urban mobility in the era of the (Ford Smart Mobility, Getaround) to imagine smartphone — and whatever comes next. how a simple glance at cars in the street would reveal which are available for how Near-Term Strategies: much and how long. If so, what would the impacts be?

1 ųå±Ƌå ± ĵƚĬƋĜěÚĜŸÏĜŞĬĜűųƼØ ĵƚĬƋĜě Transport authorities should create agency steering committee to reconnoiter multi-disciplinary teams and higher-level new technologies, services, and socio- steering committees comprised of multiple åÏŅĹŅĵĜÏ ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋŸ ƋŅ åƻŞĬŅųå ±ĹÚ departments (e.g. ticketing, customer ±ŸŸåŸŸŞŅƋåĹƋĜ±ĬĜĵޱÏƋŸŅĹƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ experience) and agencies (e.g. planning, ŸåųƴĜÏå ±ĹÚ ŞŅĬĜÏƼţ ŮBŅųĜDŽŅĹ ŸÏ±ĹĹĜĹčŰ ĜŸ zoning, parks, public health). Their job is to a term used in strategic foresight groups regularly scan the social and technological to describe the systematic examination of landscape for signs of disruption. The goal new developments and weak signals to

130 U.S. National Intelligence Council, “Global Trends 2030×eĬƋåųűƋĜƴåœŅųĬÚŸţŰ 131 ŽţUţ±ÆĜĹåƋkþÏåţŮBŅųĜDŽŅĹ„ϱĹĹĜĹč{ųŅčų±ĵĵå‰å±ĵţŰ

46 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

isn’t to “predict the future,” but to build ±ÏåĹƋų±ĬĜDŽåÚųåŞŅŸĜƋŅųƼƵĘåųå±ĬĬŸƋ±ý internal awareness and the capacity to ϱĹĀĹÚĜƋţ respond more quickly to change. • %åĀĹĜĹč ŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸ ±ĹÚ ƋåĵŞĬ±ƋåŸ for A horizons steering committee could documentation and sharing. Building APIs meet formally to exchange ideas and best for sharing and querying. practices, or consist of a more ad hoc group convening irregularly to debate. • eÚŅŞƋĜĹčŅŞåĹŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸ for future data Ideally, there would be some combination collection, such as GTFS and GBFS (Global of the two, with a task force of mid-level  ĜĩåŸĘ±ųå8ååÚ„ŞåÏĜĀϱƋĜŅĹšţ ŸƋ±ýåųŸ üųŅĵ ĵƚĬƋĜŞĬå ±čåĹÏĜåŸ ޱŸŸĜĹč thoughts and recommendations to a senior • {±ųƋĹåųĜĹč ƵĜƋĘ ŅƋĘåų ÚåŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŸ, group including external partners. Their agencies, governments, universities, and insights would ultimately be channeled  ĹŅĹěŞųŅĀƋŸ ƋŅ Ĭåƴåų±čå ±Ĺ±ĬƼƋĜϱĬ into design charrettes and similar exercises capabilities. to concretely imagine future services and their impacts on operations and policy. • Renegotiating the terms and conditions  üŅų ŸĘ±ųĜĹč Ú±Ƌ± with commercial trip 2 Know what data you have, what data planners and other potentially valuable you need, and what you can do with it. sources of data. Xerox, Moovel, Moovit, Data is the lifeblood of connected mobility. Citymapper and others have built Understanding how well a city’s moving, businesses around real-time transit data. where it isn’t, who has access, who doesn’t Agencies should require at least some — and why — is essential to building a degree of data sharing in turn, as LADOT more prosperous and equitable one. does with Xerox. Simultaneously, the data collected by third parties ranging from the TNCs to Google • ±ųåüƚĬĬƼ ÚåĀĹĜĹč what data you desire ±ĹÚœ±DŽåƋŅ±ƚƋŅĵ±ĩåųŸ±ĹÚÆĜĩåěŸĘ±ųĜĹč (or require). Uber’s data-sharing deal systems is unprecedented in its granularity. with the city of Boston was touted as the Sharing this data, making sense of it, and de facto industry standard when it was using it to inform decisions, planning, and announced in January 2015. As the city pilots is an essential task for transport quickly discovered, however, quarterly trip ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸĵŅƴĜĹčüŅųƵ±ųÚţ‰ĘåƼŸĘŅƚĬÚƋĘĜĹĩ reports aggregated at the zipcode level carefully about: isn’t especially useful for planning. A better model might be Bridj’s partnership with • Taking an inventory of the data they Ue‰eØƵĘĜÏĘÏĬå±ųĬƼÚåĀĹåŸƵʱƋűŸƋŅÆå ±Ĭųå±ÚƼʱƴåţœĘ±ƋĜŸĜƋũBŅƵƴ±Ĭƚ±ÆĬåĜŸ shared, including: total trips; trips per hour; ĜƋũœĘŅŅƵĹŸŅųĵ±Ĺ±čåŸĜƋũeĹÚƵĘŅʱŸ the number of passengers per hour per permission to use it? vehicle; the average number of stops, and average walking distance to and from the •FÚåĹƋĜüƼĜĹčƚŸåüƚĬÚ±Ƌ±ŸåƋŸcompiled and ƴåĘĜÏĬåŸţFĹčåĹåų±ĬØŞƚÆĬĜÏŅþÏĜ±ĬŸŸĘŅƚĬÚ controlled by other departments; creating push hard for essential “breadcrumb” data 47 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

such as origins-and-destinations, vehicle constraints on their ability to hire data miles traveled, and the cost of operations. scientists, forcing them to contract with consultants. • %ĜŸ±ųĵĜĹč ŞųĜƴ±Ƌå ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ŞųŅƴĜÚåųŸű concerns about sharing data. Uber, Lyft, In addition to creating new multi-disciplinary and other TNCs have been cagey about leadership teams, it will be necessary to sharing data with regulators. Uber’s data- ųåěƋų±ĜĹ ŸƋ±ý ĜĹ ŸƚÏĘ ĹåÏ域±ųƼ ŸĩĜĬĬŸ ±Ÿ sharing deal with Boston, for example, data analysis and visualization, as well as includes provisions forbidding the city from cross-train them within other departments releasing its data in response to Freedom to better understand connected mobility’s of Information Act requests132, while Lyft impact on land-use regulations, for example. shies away from such deals altogether. Doing so will require an audit of expected The SFMTA’s Smart City plan proposes to and desirable skills for each position;   ŸŅĬƴå ŸƚÏĘ ÏŅĹāĜÏƋŸ ÆƼ ŸƋŅųĜĹč ƋĘĜŸ Ú±Ƌ± creating internships, fellowships, and with a trusted third party (i.e. the University ŅƋĘåųŅŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋĜåŸƋŅÏųŅŸŸěƋų±ĜĹŸƋ±ýƵĜƋĘ of California Berkeley’s Transportation universities and other partner institutions; Sustainability Research Center) that would and identifying which departments might   ŅĹĬƼ ŸĘ±ųå Ú±Ƌ± ĜĹ ųåŸŞŅĹŸå ƋŅ ŸŞåÏĜĀÏ fruitfully work together and how to share queries133. It won’t be that easy. According data and expertise relevant to both. to Uber’s own “Transparency Report,” the company tried to negotiate a narrower 4 Xåƴåų±čåØ ųåěƚŸåØ ±ĹÚ ųåŞƚųŞŅŸå scope in response to regulatory data ŞĘƼŸĜϱĬ ±ŸŸåƋŸ ±ĹÚ ĜĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåţ requests in 79% of cases — and succeeded Startups may have all the algorithms, in more than half.134 universal brand awareness, and a seemingly inexhaustible stream of cash, but what 3 ųŅŸŸěƋų±ĜĹŸƋ±ý±ÏųŅŸŸÚĜýåųåĹƋŸĩĜĬĬŸØ they don’t have is infrastructure — streets, ÚåŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŸØ ±ĹÚ ޱųƋĹåųŸ ƋŅ ÆƚŸƋ ŸĜĬŅŸØ sidewalks, parking, and curbspace, not ÆƚĜĬÚϱޱÏĜƋƼرĹÚÚĜŸÏŅƴåųŅŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋĜåŸ to mention the rights to use them. Transit and savings. A common refrain in interviews agencies must make better use of physical ƵĜƋĘ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ Ƶ±Ÿ ƋĘå assets under their direct control — including pressing need to upgrade the skills and the areas around stations — while transport Ƌ±ĬåĹƋŅüÏƚųųåĹƋŸƋ±ýƵĘĜĬå±ƋƋų±ÏƋĜĹčĹåƵ authorities determine how to leverage the Ƌ±ĬåĹƋóƋ±ŸĩŸĵ±ÚåÚĜþÏƚĬƋÆƼŞƚÆĬĜÏŸåÏƋŅų larger city to enhance connected mobility requirements. LADOT’s Reynolds and the options and as a bargaining chip with Philippines DOTr’s Bonifacio had nearly potential partners. identical laments about the bureaucratic

132 City of Boston. “Boston/Uber Data Sharing Agreement.” 133 SFMTA. 134 Uber. “Transparency Report.”

48 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

eŞųåÏåÚåĹƋ±Ĭųå±ÚƼåƻĜŸƋŸüŅųޱųĩĜĹčţœĘåĹ For example, a McKinsey report :±ÆåUĬåĜĹĬ±ƚĹÏĘåÚ¬ĜŞÏ±ųĜĹœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ ÏŅĵĵĜŸŸĜŅĹåÚ±Ƌœae‰eűŸųåŧƚåŸƋĜĹeŞųĜĬ D.C. in 2002, making spaces available in and 2016 ųåÏŅĵĵåĹÚåÚ ŅÿŅ±ÚĜĹč ĜƋŸ ޱųĩĜĹč around Metro stops required convincing assets to private developers.138 But before ųåĬƚÏƋ±ĹƋ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ƋĘųŅƚčĘ ƋĘå ƚŸå engaging in straight asset sales, operators of pilots.135‰ŅÚ±ƼØœae‰e üŅųĵ±ĬĬƼ ĜĹƴĜƋåŸ should solicit proposals from developers’ competitive bids from various car-sharing potential re-use and greater value capture. services for 170 spaces around 42 stations. One of the requirements is an equitable kĹ ƋĘå āĜŞŸĜÚåØ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ distribution throughout the network, rather think more broadly about leveraging than concentrating around the busiest public assets such as libraries, community stations.136 Elsewhere, Seattle’s Department centers, and city-owned buildings as of Transportation has made on-street nodes for connected mobility. LADOT is parking available to car2:ŅűŸ āŅ±ƋĜĹč already pursuing the implementation of vehicle network in exchange for city-wide “integrated mobility hubs” at transit stations distribution. In these and other cases, combining car-sharing, bike-sharing, and access to parking became the means for bicycle-parking with trip-planning and securing equity in addition to revenue. reservation kiosks.139 Transport authorities should partner with other departments, Parking is only the beginning. Given its municipalities, agencies, and communities ĀűĹÏĜ±Ĭ ÚĜþÏƚĬƋĜåŸØ œae‰e ʱŸ ÆåčƚĹ to explore making similar hubs available on experimenting with additional uses for public land. stations, including a six-month pilot with the online grocer Peapod to make commuters’ 5   åƋĘĜĹĩ ÏŅĵĵƚƋåų ÆåĹåĀƋŸ ŸƋų±ƋåčĜåŸ orders available for pickup at a handful ±ĹÚ ϱųěŞŅŅĬĜĹčţ Most transit strategies of stations.137 Transport operators should ŅƴåųĬŅŅĩ ƋĘå ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸ ŅýåųåÚ ÆƼ explore partnerships to enhance and employers at either end of commutes, åƻޱĹÚ ŸåųƴĜÏåŸ ƋĘųŅƚčĘ ƋĘå āåƻĜÆĬå ųåě which is typically free parking.140 œĘåĹ use of space. And given the potential for these incentives change, however, so does a secular decline in parking, they should their employees’ behavior. After Panasonic rethink the highest and best uses of their moved its North American headquarters to ĬŅƋŸ ±ĹÚ ĘŅƵ ÆåŸƋ ƋŅ ĀűĹÏĜ±ĬĬƼ ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųå downtown Newark, New Jersey in 2013, the these arrangements. ÏŅĵޱĹƼ ŅýåųåÚ 50% discounts on transit

135 Klein, Startup City, 137-143 136 Tsay, et al. 137 Lazo, “Coming to a Metro station near you: grocery delivery.” 138 aÏUĜĹŸåƼØŮ8ĜűĹÏĜ±Ĭĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋ±ĹÚŅŞåų±ƋĜŅűĬåýåÏƋĜƴåĹ域Ņ±ųÚå±ÚŅƚƋţŰ 139 Xe%k‰ĜĩåĬŅčţŮaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼBƚÆŸĜĹXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸţŰ 140 TransitCenter and Frontier Group. “Subsidizing Congestion.”

49 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

passes (the legal maximum), eliminated Paulo, the carpooling service Caronetas free parking, and briefed employees boasts 50,000 monthly users drawn from accordingly. Two years later, the share of 1,800 local employers. Drivers are paid in solo commutes had fallen from 88% to 36%, a virtual currency redeemable for goods cutting vehicle miles traveled in half, while and services from participating retailers.143 the share of Panasonic’s employees taking In Seattle, a startup named Luum builds transit to and from work had soared from what are essentially private carpooling 4% to 57% — more than double the city’s platforms on behalf of such clients as the average.141 Gates Foundation, for which it created the Commute Tool — an app guiding and At the same time, the advent of connected rewarding employees who take sustainable mobility has the potential to transform modes of transportation.144 carpooling. In 2015Øœ±DŽåųåĬ屟åÚ±Ĺ±ŞŞ in Israel pairing commuters with drivers Cities should work with local employers to heading in the same direction. Careful create their own carpooling and rewards ĹŅƋƋŅųƚűüŅƚĬŅüĬŅϱĬųåčƚĬ±ƋĜŅĹŸØœ±DŽå networks, either as a single city or region- limited drivers to two rush hour pickups wide opt-in service for employers, or daily. Driver compensation was limited to many such smaller networks and single ƋĘå Ĭåč±ĬĬƼ ÚåĀĹåÚ ÏŅŸƋ Ņü ƋĘå ųĜÚåØ ƵĜƋĘ ĀųĵŸţ ŽŸåÚ ĜĹ ÏŅĵÆĜűƋĜŅĹƵĜƋĘ ŸƋų±ƋåčĜåŸ œ±DŽå ųåÏåĜƴĜĹč ± 15% commission. A year ±ĹÚ ƋŅŅĬŸ ƋŅ ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴĜDŽå ÏŅĵĵƚƋĜĹč ±Ƌ Ņýě later, the company’s parent Alphabet peak hours, these programs would not ÆųŅƚčĘƋ œ±DŽå ĜÚåų ƋŅ ƋĘå „±Ĺ 8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅ only reduce vehicle miles traveled and Bay Area for a closed beta test involving as congestion, but also provide cities with many as 25,000 commuters, including many a powerful source of data — a miniature ÆåĬŅĹčĜĹčƋŅŅƋĘåųĀųĵŸŸƚÏʱŸœ±Ĭěa±ųƋ ƴåųŸĜŅĹŅüœ±DŽåóƵĘĜĬåŸƋååųĜĹčĹåƵųĜÚåųŸ and Adobe Systems. Interestingly, Alphabet toward transit, and perhaps eventually to has said it doesn’t plan to vet drivers, mobility-as-a-service platforms. relying instead on the trust of employers. Reportedly, the company’s next step is to 6  )ƻŞĬŅųå Úåĵ±ĹÚěŸĘ±ŞĜĹč ±ĹÚ Şå±ĩě åƻޱĹÚƋĘåŸåųƴĜÏåƋŅĜĹÏĬƚÚååƴåųƼœ±DŽå ŸĘĜüƋĜĹč ƋĘųŅƚčĘ ųå±ĬěƋĜĵå ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸţ user in San Francisco — with no background Much of the discussion around connected checks.142 mobility has focused on increasing supply, whether through new modes, multimodal œ±DŽåƵ±ŸĹűƋƋĘåĀųŸƋرĬƋĘŅƚčĘĜƋŸ±ŞŞŅýåųŸ ÏŅĵÆĜűƋĜŅĹŸØ Ņų čųå±Ƌåų åþÏĜåĹÏƼţ X域 ÏĜƋĜåŸ ±ĹÚ åĵŞĬŅƼåųŸ ĜĹŸƋ±ĹƋ ŸÏ±Ĭåţ FĹ „ÅŅ discussed, although potentially as powerful,

141 I±ýåØŮBŅƵ{±Ĺ±ŸŅĹĜωƚųĹåÚ±ųŅĵĵƚƋåųŸFĹƋŅ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋĜÚåųŸţŰ 142 Nicas, “Google Takes On Uber” 143 Marcio Nigro, Skype interview with the author. 144 a±ÏĩĜåØŮĜĬĬ¼aåĬĜĹÚ±:±ƋåŸ8ŅƚĹÚ±ƋĜŅĹÏƚƋŸŸŅĬŅÚųĜƴĜĹčƵĜƋĘåĵŞĬŅƼååŞųŅčų±ĵŸţŰ

50 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

are opportunities to guide, shape, and curb eŸåýåÏƋĜƴ屟ƋĘåŸåŞųŅčų±ĵŸ±ųåØƋĘåƼűųå demand. Big Data can’t replace a metro, also relatively static. The introduction ÆƚƋ a±ŸƋåų±ųÚűŸ B±ĹƼ 8±ĵ ±ŸŸåųƋŸ ƋʱƋ of transit apps with integrated way- ā±ƋƋåĹĜĹč ƋĘå Şå±ĩ ÆƼ ± üåƵ ŞåųÏåĹƋ±čå ĀĹÚĜĹčØ ޱƼĵåĹƋ ±ĹÚ ƋĜÏĩåƋĜĹč Ïųå±ƋåŸ points may save hundreds of millions ƋĘå ŞŅŸŸĜÆĜĬĜƋƼ Ņü ŅýåųĜĹč ĜĹÚĜƴĜÚƚ±ĬØ ųå±Ĭě of dollars in interest costs on deferred time incentives in response to current capital expenditures,145 while Townsend’s system conditions. Service disruptions or Law posits that a strategic ten-percent ±ÏƚƋå ÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹ ĵĜčĘƋ ŞųŅĵŞƋ ±Ĺ Ņýåų reduction of the peak allows for doubling for discounted travel on alternate lines or growth within current constraints.146 If modes — or to wait an hour, after the peak they’re correct, relatively small nudges in ޱŸŸåŸţ„ĜĵĜĬ±ųŅýåųŸÏŅƚĬÚĘåĬŞųåƱĬ±ĹÏå passenger behavior could yield outsized the supply of such modes as bike-sharing ÆåĹåĀƋŸüŅųÏĜƋĜ埱ĹÚÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸ±ĬĜĩåţ or car-sharing by incentivizing riders where to park, thus reducing the need for manual The best example of a win-win scenario rebalancing.151 ‰ĘåƼűÚ ±ĬŸŅ Ņýåų ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ may be Singapore Mass Rapid Transit’s ĀĹåųěčų±ĜĹåÚ ŞŅĬĜÏƼ ƋŅŅĬŸ ƋʱĹ ÆĬ±ĹĩåƋ å±ųĬƼÆĜųÚŞųŅčų±ĵØĬ±ƚĹÏĘåÚĜĹIƚĹåƖLjŎƐţ subsidies. Passengers leaving one of eighteen high- Ƌų±þÏŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹŸÆåüŅųå7:45 AM on weekdays In London, for example, Mayor Saddiq ųĜÚå üŅų üųååţ œĜƋĘĜĹ ƋĘå ĀųŸƋ Ƽå±ų ±ĬŅĹåØ Khan’s pledge to freeze fares will cost Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŅþÏĜ±ĬŸåŸƋĜĵ±ƋåÚ±7% reduction Transport for London an estimated £450 in the peak.147 MRT has since partnered with million to £1.9 billion in lost revenue over the Google-backed startup Urban Engines four years.152 Perhaps a better approach to create a commuter rewards program would have been to raise the base fare ±Ƶ±ųÚĜĹčŞŅĜĹƋŸüŅųƋųĜŞŸ±ƋŅýěŞå±ĩĘŅƚųŸØ ƵĘĜĬå ŅýåųĜĹč ĜĹÚĜƴĜÚƚ±Ĭ ŸƚÆŸĜÚĜåŸ ƋŅ redeemable for cash.148 Elsewhere, Milan ŧƚ±ĬĜüƼĜĹčųĜÚåųŸóĜĹåýåÏƋƚŸĜĹčƋĘåü±ųåŸ ŅýåųŸ ƚĹĬĜĵĜƋåÚ ŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋ ŅĹ ŸĵŅččƼ paid by city bankers to underwrite their days for the cost of a single fare149, while fellow passengers. ĜĹ 8ĜĹĬ±ĹÚØ ƋĘå ÏĜƋƼ Ņü ‰ƚųĩƚ ŅýåųŸ 720 in free bus fares to drivers (and only drivers) Transit agencies should explore creating applying for a new transit card, in hopes their own rewards programs as a means they might ride more often.150 for increasing ridership, collecting data,

145 B±ĹƼ8±ĵţ 146 Townsend, “Peak City.” 147 I±ýåØلĜĹ豪ŅųåűŸ)±ųĬƼaŅųĹĜĹč8ųåå‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ{ųŅčų±ĵB±ŸååűBƚčå„ƚÏÏ域ţŰ 148 Land Transport Authority of Singapore. “Travel Early, Travel Free, Travel on the MRT.” 149 O’Sullivan, “Milan’s Quick Fix for Bad Smog: Cheap Public Transportation.” 150 O’Sullivan, “A Finnish City Is Giving Drivers Free Fares to Take the Bus.” 151 I±ýåØٱĬ±ĹÏĜĹčĜĩåě„ʱųå„Ƌ±ƋĜŅĹŸB±ŸåÏŅĵ屄åųĜŅƚŸ„ÏĜåĹƋĜĀÏ)ĹÚå±ƴŅųţŰ 152 The Economist, “Going underground.”

51 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

and spurring passengers to reconsider • Bloomberg Philanthropies deploys traveling at peak hours. They should also external “innovation teams”153 to act as study successful experiments in Singapore big-picture consultants striving to solve and elsewhere, partner with universities intractable problems spanning multiple ±ĹÚ ŞųĜƴ±Ƌå ĀųĵŸ ƋŅ ŸƋƚÚƼ ĘŅƵ ĜĹÏåĹƋĜƴåŸ departments and silos. might enable peak-shifting and resource- rebalancing, and keep these capabilities in • The U.S. General Services Administration’s mind when evaluating whether to partner or digital services consultancy, 18F, works build apps of their own. with federal agencies to not only implement discrete projects, but also Mid-Term Strategies introduce more agile development methods and processes.154

1   ųå±Ƌå ± ŮÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ Ĭ±ÆŰ ƋŅ ±ŸŸåŸŸ ±ĹÚ åƻŞĬŅųå ƵĘĜÏĘ ƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčĜåŸ All of these models are useful; so is the ƋŅ ÆƚƼØ ÆƚĜĬÚØ ±ĹÚ ŸĘ±ųåţ It’s a given that “living lab” approach adopted by Finland’s no transit agency should try to go head- Living Lab Bus Project, which makes the to-head with deep pocketed startups åĬåÏƋųĜÏÆƚŸåŸ±ÏŧƚĜųåÚÆƼBåĬŸĜĹĩĜåčĜŅĹ when it comes to data analysis, software Transport available to businesses looking development, and user interface design. to build and test features on top of them. But many government bodies have notched A partnership comprising multiple cities, successes in streamlining procurement, ±čåĹÏĜåŸØ ŸƋ±ųƋƚŞŸ ±ĹÚ ƋĘå š‰‰ ‰åÏĘĹĜϱĬ prototyping new features and services, Research Center, which coordinates the and building capacity through the creation project, the aim is to make public transport of internal “innovation teams” and labs more appealing by making it a hardware Ÿåޱų±ƋåüųŅĵüųŅĹƋěĬĜĹåŸƋ±ýţ‰ĘåŸåƋå±ĵŸ platform for new services. take many forms and can serve many functions: Cities and transit agencies should create connected mobility labs for all of these Î „ÅŅ {±ƚĬŅ „{‰ų±ĹŸű aŅÆĜX±Æ ųåŸĜÚåŸ reasons, and also to lure talent from Google, within a single transport agency, tasking Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter — all of 155   Ÿĵ±ĬĬ ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋ Ƌå±ĵŸ ƵĜƋĘ ŸŞåÏĜĀÏ ƵĘĜÏĘ ʱƴå ĬŅŸƋ ŸƋ±ý ƋŅ 18F. Agencies problems — such as analyzing BRT data to should seek to leverage both local partners   ĜÚåĹƋĜüƼ Ƌų±þÏ ÆŅƋƋĬåĹåÏĩŸ ±ĹÚ ŸƚččåŸƋ — as SPTrans’ MobiLab does in working with new or alternate routes. universities and even high schools — and regional or even national funding streams.

153 Bloomberg Philanthropies, “Innovation Teams Solve Intractable Problems By Bringing Innovation To Life.” 154 Shueh, “The Case for 18F.” 155 8Ņųĵåų„8a‰eÚĜųåÏƋŅųŅüĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅʼnĜĵŅƋĘƼ{±Ş±ĹÚųåŅƚʱŸŸƚččåŸƋåÚåĵŞĬŅƼååŸŅü‰cŸƵĜĬĬĬ±ƋåųĀĹÚ careers in transit agencies. Timothy Papandreou, telephone interview with the author.

52 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

Š8Ņų åƻ±ĵŞĬåØ eųĬĜĹčƋŅĹØ šĜųčĜĹĜ±űŸ aŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ evolve. Examples of this approach include Lab receives funding from Arlington County CityMapper, Transit App, and Moovel. The ŅĵĵƚƋåų„åųƴĜÏåŸØŽţ„ţ%k‰ØšĜųčĜĹĜ±%k‰Ø Ĭ±ƋƋåųʱŸÆƚĜĬƋƵĘĜƋåĬ±ÆåĬ±ŞŞŸüŅųB±ĵÆƚųč ±ĹÚšĜųčĜĹĜ±űŸ%åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŅü±ĜĬ±ĹÚ{ƚÆĬĜÏ ±ĹÚ {ŅųƋĬ±ĹÚ Škš ŅýåųĜĹč ÆŅŅĩĜĹč ±ĹÚ Transportation.) Those unable to secure payment for taxis, trains (Deutsche Bahn), such streams on their own should explore car-sharing (Flinkster, car2Go), and TNCs regional or even state-level partnerships to (Lyft). Xerox intends to do much the same create and share a connected mobility lab with its Go LA and Go Denver apps, the more broadly. üŅųĵåų Ņü ƵĘĜÏĘ Ĭ±ƚĹÏĘåÚ ĜĹ å±ųĬƼ ƖLjŎƅ with a trip-planner capable of combining 2    ųå±Ƌå ± ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼě±Ÿě±ěŸåųƴĜÏå Ša±±„š multiple public (buses, trains, bike-sharing), ųŅ±Úĵ±Şţ 8Ņųĵåų œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ %%k‰ private (bicycles, cars, motorcycles), and ÚĜųåÏƋŅų :±Æå UĬåĜĹ Ÿ±ĜÚ ĜƋ ÆåŸƋ× ٜĘŅåƴåų shared modes (taxis, Zipcar, Lyft) into the owns the customer is going to win.” Transit fastest, cheapest, or most sustainable trips. agencies can’t outrace deep-pocketed, The apps are free; Xerox’s plan is to manage well-managed startups such as Uber, and these “mobility marketplace” on behalf of they can’t out-scale them, either. Owning the the cities by taking a small percentage of customer in an era of smartphone-mediated each transaction.156 ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼƵĜĬĬųåŧƚĜųåŅƚƋā±ĹĩĜĹčÏʱĬĬåĹčåųŸ instead. That will require bringing multiple The best-known bottom-up example is modes to bear. Mobility-as-a-service MaaS Global’s widely anticipated but still- represents the most comprehensive (if ĜĹěÆåƋ± ŸåųƴĜÏåØ œĘĜĵţ åāåÏƋĜĹč )k still-untested) approach toward creating „±ĵŞŅ BĜåƋ±ĹåĹűŸ ÆåĬĜåü ƋʱƋ ƚŸåųŸ ƵŅƚĬÚ a compelling customer proposition along ųåģåÏƋ ± ʱĬüěƱĩåÚ ŅýåųĜĹčØ ƋĘĜŸ ±ŞŞųŅ±ÏĘ ƋĘåŸåĬĜĹåŸţ‰ĘåƋų±ÚåŅýĜŸƚĹŞųåÏåÚåĹƋåÚ marshals commitments from mobility complexity. In practice, creating a MaaS ŞųŅƴĜÚåųŸÆåüŅųåĬ±ƚĹÏĘƋŅŅýåųÏƚŸƋŅĵåųŸ framework will require careful planning to packages tailored to their needs. The intent coordinate the seamless integration of trip- is to quickly build a critical mass of users planning, payment, and ticketing across a Š±ĹÚ Ú±Ƌ±š åűÆĬĜĹč ± ŞųŅĀƋ±ÆĬå ƱĬ±ĹÏå network of partners. Fortunately, there’s of supply and demand. To achieve scale value to be found in each of these steps ÆåƼŅĹÚ ĜƋŸ Ĭ±ƚĹÏĘ ĵ±ųĩåƋ Ņü BåĬŸĜĹĩĜØ ± along the way. public-private “MaaS Alliance” will lobby ƋŅ ÚåĀĹå ŅŞåĹ ŸƋ±ĹÚ±ųÚŸ ±ĹÚ ÚĜŸĵ±ĹƋĬå There are essentially two models for regulatory barriers in hopes of establishing building a MaaS service: top-down and interoperability across Europe. bottom-up. Top-down versions begin with an interface — usually a trip-planner — Practically speaking, most cities interested and add both features and modes as they in MaaS must choose between working

156 David Cummins, telephone interview with the author. 53 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

with a white label development partner launch in evident discomfort at sharing or allying themselves with a larger player  ƋĘåŞĬ±ƋüŅųĵƵĜƋĘXƼüƋţ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ like the MaaS Alliance. Either way, there should think carefully about the full are several principles they should follow size and scope of their broader mobility in drafting their own mobility-as-a-service “ecosystems” and actively solicit pilot:  ޱųƋĹåųŸ ƋŅ ĀĬĬ 豪Ÿ Ņų ŞųŅƴĜÚå competition. • ŅĵĵĜŸŸĜŅĹ ± ƋųĜŞěŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹč ±ŞŞ ƋŅ collect data. Users of Xerox’s Go LA, Î ŽŸå ƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼ ƋŅ ÚųĜƴå ÚååŞåų for example, may elect to share their integration. Xerox, Moovel and other anonymized searches with the company white label developers aspire to provide (and in turn LADOT). This data — the mobility ticketing and payment integration equivalent of Google searches — may ƋĘųŅƚčĘƋĘåϱųåüƚĬÆųŅĩåųĜĹčŅüÚĜýåųĜĹč prove helpful in planning for future rate structures (single-use, daily, monthly, demand and service improvements. etc.), ticket media, and geography.  œĘĜĬå ƋĘĜŸ ϱĹ Æå ƚŸåüƚĬØ ĜƋűŸ ƚĬƋĜĵ±ƋåĬƼ • {±Ƽ ÏĬŅŸå ±ƋƋåĹƋĜŅĹ ƋŅ ƼŅƚų ޱųƋĹåųŸű unsustainable. Transit agencies should  ޱųƋĹåųŸţ Many top-down services use technology as a lever to pursue already have agreements with third-party more systemic integrations. These providers, whether TransLoc’s partnership services should serve as reasons to with Uber, Moovel’s sharing a corporate move forward, not a stopgap measure. parent (Daimler) with car2Go, or Transit App’s close integration with Motivate’s • Carrots or sticks? œĘ±Ƌ Ę±ŞŞåĹŸ Ĝü ƼŅƚų Divvy bike-sharing system in Chicago. partners decide they need you less than The advantages of these arrangements you need them? A mix of carrots and/ are obvious — plug-and-play providers or sticks will be necessary to create the and instant scale. But they also create critical mass of participants for a mobility-  ŞŅŸŸĜÆĜĬĜƋĜåŸ üŅų ÏŅĹāĜÏƋŸěŅüěĜĹƋåųåŸƋ ±ĹÚ as-a-service system. But what will prove the potential for lock-in. Tranist agencies most convincing? The SFMTA’s Smart City must take care to orchestrate their partner proposal suggests the carrot of making mix before their partners do it for them. transit-only lanes available to partners  ƋŅ ĵ±ĩå ƋĘåĜų ŅýåųĜĹčŸ ĵŅųå ±ƋƋų±ÏƋĜƴåţ • eƴŅĜÚåƻÏĬƚŸĜƴĜƋƼţResist the temptation to Another idea is to trade lanes for data. work solely with a partner in any Yet another option — this one a stick — given mode, such as Google Maps’ is to make their legal operation contingent and Citymapper’s defaulting to Uber for upon participation, a strategy available ride-sharing. Occasionally, this may  ŅĹĬƼ ƋŅ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ƵĘŅ ʱƴå ŸƚÏÏ域üƚĬĬƼ be unavoidable. Uber withdrew its denied access to TNCs and others participation in Go LA shortly before before now.

54 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

3  X±ƚĹÏĘ ± ĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋ ŞĜĬŅƋţ Unlike Ņü č±ƚčĜĹč Úåĵ±ĹÚ üŅų üƚƋƚųå ĀƻåÚěųŅƚƋå leading TNCs such as Uber and Didi, two service.158 of the standard-bearers for microtransit ó šĜ± ±ĹÚ ųĜÚģ ó ʱƴå ŸĜčűĬåÚ ƋĘåĜų {±ųƋĹåųĜĹč ƵĜƋĘ ĀųĵŸ ƵĜĬĬĜĹč ƋŅ ĬĜÏåĹŸå willingness to work closely with public their software and share data should be transport. Bridj is well into its one-year pilot a no-brainer for transit agencies, which with KCATA to provide demand-responsive would struggle to build such capabilities trips through its app aboard dedicated on their own. But a number of questions 14ěŸå±Ƌ 8ŅųÚ ĵĜĹĜÆƚŸåŸØ ƵĘĜĬå šĜ± ʱŸ and caveats remain. The most important is partnered with Mercedes-Benz Research adequately balancing supply and demand. and Development to test a similar service in The original microtransit experiment — exurban Orange County, California.157 BåĬŸĜĹĩĜűŸĬ±ƋåØĬ±ĵåĹƋåÚUƚƋŸƚŞĬƚŸóü±ĜĬåÚ in part because it tried to serve a hundred Using on-demand microtransit to extend Ÿŧƚ±ųå ĩĜĬŅĵåƋåųŸ ƵĜƋĘ ŅĹĬƼ ŎĂ ÆƚŸåŸţ ±ĹÚåƻޱĹÚÏŅƴåų±čåĜĹĜĹŸƚþÏĜåĹƋĬƼÚåĹŸå The long distances required increased areas is one of the biggest opportunities costs to unsustainable levels, while the surrounding connected mobility. Transit correspondingly long response times agencies should seek to partner with depressed ridership. microtransit providers at the earliest opportunity to begin testing service in Another issue is determining the interested communities. appropriate vehicle size for such pilots, which, depending on whom you ask, ranges In Kansas City, Bridj has worked with KCATA from six seats to twenty. Careful testing to overlay their pilot on top of neighborhoods must be done in each market to determine ƵĜƋĘƚĹÚåųěƚƋĜĬĜDŽåÚĀƻåÚěųŅƚƋåŸåųƴĜÏåţ‰Ęå what’s needed to achieve breakeven partners hope to galvanize latent passenger passenger-per-mile costs. This is also a demand while comparing Bridj’s passenger- potential opportunity for automotive OEMs ŞåųěĵĜĬåÏŅŸƋŸƵĜƋĘåƻĜŸƋĜĹčųŅƚƋåŸţٜåűųå to introduce a new vehicle type optimized demonstrating reduced bus costs by 80% for this level of service, as Tesla’s Elon Musk and providing more service,” Bridj CEO Matt has vowed to do.159 George reported in May. 8ĜűĬĬƼØ ÆŅƋĘ ųĜÚģ ±ĹÚ šĜ± ŞųŅƴĜÚå ŸåųƴĜÏå Meanwhile, LADOT transportation through their own branded smartphone ƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼ ŸƋų±ƋåčĜŸƋ eŸĘĬåƼ B±ĹÚ ʱŸ apps. This not only raises questions around recommended starting microtransit trials accessibility and equity — especially ƚŸĜĹč ƋĘå ÚåŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋűŸ %e„B ÏĜųÏƚĬ±ƋŅų when testing service in lower-income buses. The city would work with underserved neighborhoods — but also as to who will neighborhoods to test coverage as a means control the customer experience. Agencies

157 BåƚåųØŮƚĜĬÚĜĹč±Ÿå±ĵĬ域ĹåƋƵŅųĩţŰ 158 B±ĹÚØ 58. 159 Musk, “Master Plan, Part Deux.” 55 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

should consider commissioning white- invisible system. As Digital Matatus, the label versions of the app in the event of a œŅųĬÚ ±Ĺĩx%k‰ų ĜĹĜƋĜ±ƋĜƴåØ ±ĹÚ ŅƋĘåų successful pilot. åýŅųƋŸ ʱƴå ÚåĵŅĹŸƋų±ƋåÚØ ĜĹåƻŞåĹŸĜƴå projects to understand the true scope of 4 åƋĘĜĹĩ ĜĹüŅųĵ±Ĭ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋţ œĘ±ƋűŸ ĹŅƵ ƋĘåŸå ĹåƋƵŅųĩŸ ϱĹ ʱƴå Ęƚčå ޱƼŅýŸ called “microtransit” is neither new nor when it comes to revising transport policy. novel. Manila’s jeepneys, Nairobi’s matatus, Although the GTFS standard isn’t perfect, and even New York’s “dollar vans” already üųååØ ŸĜĵŞĬå ƋŅŅĬŸ ŸƚÏĘ ±Ÿ ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋœ±ĹÚ carry hundreds of thousands of passengers (which is available for download through daily.160 In cities across the Global South, Github) make it easy to get started. informal transit is transit. Rather than pursue policies to ultimately replace Once a map exists, the question becomes them, transport authorities should seek to what to do with it. In both New York and ĬåčĜƋĜĵĜDŽå ±ĹÚ ƚŞčų±Úå ƋĘåŸå āååƋŸ ƵĜƋĘ Manila, many dollar vans and jeepneys ply an eye towards integration. In the short ƋĘ埱ĵåĘå±ƴĜĬƼƋų±þÏĩåÚųŅƚƋåŸØÆƼޱŸŸĜĹč run, safer and more convenient jitneys underserved neighborhoods. Rationalizing may prove to be an alternative to auto ųŅƚƋåŸ ±ĹÚ ŅýåųĜĹč ÏŅĹÏ域ĜŅĹŸ ±Ÿ ĀųŸƋě ownership. In the longer run, 14 to 20-seat and-last-mile feeders to trains and buses algorithmically-guided minibuses might may require some level of subsidy, but it prove to be ideal for navigating desakota- could prove more sustainable for all parties like land-use patterns. in the long run.

First, focus on safety and regulatory An alternative is to convert informal transit compliance. In 2015, the Philippines passed into microtransit through a partnership ƋĘå ƵŅųĬÚűŸ ĀųŸƋ űƋĜŅűĬ ųåčƚĬ±ƋĜŅĹŸ üŅų similar to the one described above. In New TNCs such as Grab and Uber. The rules ¥ŅųĩØ üŅų åƻ±ĵŞĬåØ šĜ± ÏĬ±ĜĵŸ ƋŅ ĵ±ĩå ±Ÿ require screening drivers, installing GPS, many as 125,000 trips per week paying and banning vehicles more than seven hourly wages to independent drivers with years old — none of which currently apply to ƴ±ĬĜÚ8ŅųěBĜųåšåĘĜÏĬåŸĬĜÏåĹŸåŸţFĹƋĘåŅųƼØĜƋ jeepneys. DOTr has drafted plans to phase ƵŅƚĬÚĹŅƋÆåƋʱƋÚĜþÏƚĬƋüŅųÏĜƋĜåŸƋʱƋʱƴå ŅƚƋ ŅĬÚåų ģååŞĹåƼŸ ±ĹÚ åƻƋåĹÚ ĀűĹÏĜĹč adopted regulations for TNCs to create a to owners to help them buy new ones, but similar program for jitneys. ƵĜĹĹĜĹčŸƚŞŞŅųƋʱŸÆååĹÚĜþÏƚĬƋţŠ%ųĜƴåųŸ comprise a large and vocal voting bloc.) 5  åƋĘĜĹĩ ޱųĩĜĹčØ DŽŅĹĜĹčØ ±ĹÚ Ĭ±ĹÚě ƚŸå ŞŅĬĜÏĜåŸţ Free parking is never free, Next, use open data standards and open- especially for renters, who pay an average source software to map routes, stops, and of $246 per month in Seattle and $225 schedules (assuming they exist) to produce nationwide to subsidize construction of an accurate map of a perhaps otherwise their mandated parking spot — whether

160 :ŅĬÚƵƼĹØŮe‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ„ƼŸƋåĵBĜÚĜĹčĜĹ{Ĭ±ĜĹ„ĜčĘƋţŰ

56 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

or not they own a car.161 This trend has parking minimums altogether — making it important consequences for cities ƋĘåƵŅųĬÚűŸĀųŸƋĵåč±ÏĜƋƼƋŅÚŅŸŅţ163 worldwide, especially those struggling to ÆƚĜĬÚ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåĘŅƚŸĜĹčƵĜƋʱÏÏ域ƋŅģŅÆŸ Simultaneously, cities should reconsider ±ĹÚƋų±ĹŸĜƋØŸƚÏʱŸ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţ minimum lot sizes and other restrictions on the repurposing and reuse of garages In 2012, researchers at New York University’s and parking spaces. For example, attached Furman Center for Real Estate and Urban residential garages can be converted Policy found that parking minimums — i.e. into accessory dwelling units (ADUs) to ƋĘå ĵ±ĹÚ±ƋŅųƼ ĹƚĵÆåų Ņü ŸŞ±ÏåŸ ÚåĀĹåÚ ÚåĹŸĜüƼ ĘŅƚŸĜĹč ƵĜƋĘŅƚƋ ŸĜčĹĜĀϱĹƋ ĹåƵ by the city’s 1961 zoning code — had construction.164 ±ųƋĜĀÏĜ±ĬĬƼ ĜĹā±ƋåÚ ƋĘå ŸƚŞŞĬƼ Ņü ŸŞ±ÏåŸ ĜĹ New York City, and presumably elsewhere. For their part, commercial developers A year later, newly elected mayor Bill are eager to convert parking into more Úå Ĭ±ŸĜŅ ĵ±Úå ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬå ĘŅƚŸĜĹč ĘĜŸ lucrative uses. Cities should at the very signature initiative. One of his proposals, least codify standards and create programs approved by New York’s City Council in June encouraging developers to subsidize ƖLjŎƅØ ĜŸ ƋĘå Ïųå±ƋĜŅĹ Ņü ±Ĺ ŅƚƋåųěÆŅųŅƚčĘ bike-sharing stations, transit passes, and “transit zone” with a half-mile radius around mobility-as-a-service memberships in ŸƚÆƵ±ƼŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹŸĜĹƵĘĜÏĘŅýěŸƋųååƋޱųĩĜĹč exchange for parking exemptions. And is no longer required for public, senior, or they should also consider the creation of subsidized housing.162 “connected mobility zones” in which these exemptions would be the default. New York is hardly alone in recognizing that parking minimums contribute to higher Longer-Term Strategies residential constructions costs, which

lead in turn to higher rents. Cities must 1 ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ ±čåĹÏĜåŸ ±ĹÚ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ rethink land-use policies in the context of authorities must rethink their roles as connected mobility, starting with parking. ŅŞåų±ƋŅųŸ ±ĹÚ ųåŞŅŸĜƋĜŅĹ ƋĘåĵŸåĬƴåŸ They should reduce, if not eliminate, parking ±Ÿ ĵ±Ĺ±čåųŸ Ņü ±Ĺ ĜĹƋåčų±ƋåÚ ƚųƱĹ minimums (or local equivalents), at least in ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ŸƼŸƋåĵţ This message echoed ±ų屟ÚåŸĜčűƋåÚüŅų±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåĘŅƚŸĜĹčŅų in conversations from Los Angeles to demonstrating a preference for transit and London to Manila — if public transport ŸĘ±ųåÚěƚŸåĵŅÚåŸţ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸĵ±ŸƋåųŞĬ±Ĺ bodies are to meet the challenges and through 2030, which calls for concentrating opportunities posed by connected mobility, growth along transit corridors, abolishes they must stop privileging individual

161 XŅĹÚŅűĹÚœĜĬĬĜ±ĵŸě%åųųƼţ 162 aĜĬĬåųØىĘĜŸa±Ş„ĘŅƵŸœĘåųåÚåĬ±ŸĜŅœ±ĹƋŸƋŅåÚƚÏå{±ųĩĜĹča±ĹÚ±ƋåŸţŰ 163 åĹĜÏÏĘĜŅØلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸ{±ƋĘƋŅ„ƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬå‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋţŰ 164 œååĩŸØل±Ĺ8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅ„ƚŞåųƴĜŸŅųŸųå±ÏʱčųååĵåĹƋŅűÏÏ域ŅųƼÚƵåĬĬĜĹčƚĹĜƋŸţŰ

57 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

modes and focus on outcomes. LADOT’s experience groups to lead the way toward a list of measures includes quality, safety, ÏƚŸƋŅĵåųěÏåĹƋųĜÏ ŅýåųĜĹčţ Xå±ÚåųŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚ security, convenience, sustainability, and also explore hiring designated change ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĜĬĜƋƼţ165 agents along the lines of the “transportation technology strategist” fellowship created This is easier said than done, of course. Local üŅų Xe%k‰űŸ eŸĘĬåƼ B±ĹÚţ eĬƋĘŅƚčĘ ŸƚÏĘ politics, labor contracts, and institutional ĀčƚųåŸ ųƚĹ ƋĘå ųĜŸĩ Ņü ĵ±ųčĜűĬĜDŽ±ƋĜŅĹØ inertia have all conspired to inhibit they can provide fresh perspective and a change, even within agencies possessing framework for where to begin. strong leadership and a broad remit, but ƋĘåųå ±ųå ĵŅÚåĬŸ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ĵĜčĘƋ üŅĬĬŅƵţ 2  )ĵÆų±Ïå ÏŅĹĹåÏƋåÚ ĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ ƵĘĜĬå ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹØ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸ„{‰ų±ĹŸØ ÆųĜÚčĜĹč ƋĘå ÚĜčĜƋ±Ĭ ÚĜƴĜÚåţ Smartphones and the Seoul Development Institute all are not, in fact, ubiquitous. Neither are successfully overhauled their cities’ bus credit cards and bank accounts. This isn’t networks more than a decade ago through a problem for TNCs, nor for car-sharing, holistic strategies combining institutional bike-sharing and other shared-use systems reform with innovative tendering, network that aren’t burdened with the duty to be restructuring, new technologies such as universally accessible. As transit agencies GPS-equipped vehicles and integrated åƻŞåųĜĵåĹƋ ƵĜƋĘ ÚĜčĜƋ±Ĭ Ƶ±ƼĀĹÚĜĹčØ ƋųĜŞě ticketing, and dedicated infrastructure.166 planning, and integrated payment and ticketing, they run the risk of making One way forward might be to adapt these themselves opaque to many of the riders approaches for connected mobility, who depend on them the most. designing new systems marrying seamless ÏŅƴåų±čå ƵĜƋĘ ĵ±ƻĜĵƚĵ āåƻĜÆĜĬĜƋƼ ĜĹ ŮœĘ±Ƌ F üå±ų ĜŸ ƋʱƋ ƋĘå ĬåčĜÆĜĬĜƋƼ Ņü ƋĘå tendering. Another is the mobility-as-a- system becomes invisible to those don’t service model advanced by Finland’s MaaS have it or who fall out of the system,” said Global, in which public transit operators (e.g. Timothy Papandreou, the SFMTA’s former BåĬŸĜĹĩĜåčĜŅʼnų±ĹŸŞŅųƋšŸƚŞŞĬƼŸåųƴĜÏåŸ director of innovation. Those without to private mobility platforms. phones or credit cards or bank accounts óŮBŅƵ±ųåƋĘåƼŸƚŞŞŅŸåÚƋŅűƴĜč±ƋåƋĘĜŸ A more pressing question is: who should invisible terrain?”167 lead this transformation? Strong political support is a given, especially at the mayoral This problem is more pronounced in level. Internally, the shift from thinking the Global South, where informal transit modally to a more holistic view may require networks of jeepneys and matatus operate empowering ticketing and customer on a cash basis rather than farecards.

165 B±ĹÚØƖLjţ 166 Pai, et al. “Decision Making Process In Successful City-wide Bus Reforms.” 167 Papandreou.

58 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

:ŅŅčĬåűŸ åýŅųƋ ƋŅ Ïųå±Ƌå ± ÏŅĹƋ±ÏƋĬ域 vehicles are centrally managed, highly transit card for Nairobi named BebaPay has åþÏĜåĹƋ Ƌ±ƻĜ āååƋŸţ171 BåĬĬ ƵŅƚĬÚ Æå ϱųŸ ĵåƋƵĜƋĘŸƋĜýųåŸĜŸƋ±ĹÏåüųŅĵÚųĜƴåųŸţ168 œĘ±Ƌ endlessly circling the block — because was presented to the public as a means of parking frequently costs money, while reducing thefts and corruption has been roads are free. received by the industry as another form of corruption — a transparent attempt by the Chase’s point was that autonomous vehicles government and its partners to disrupt their ƵŅĹűƋ Ę±ŞŞåĹ ĜĹ ± ƴ±Ïƚƚĵţ BŅƵ ƋĘåƼűųå businesses. deployed and who deploys them will be the product of public policies and private œĘåƋĘåųĜĹ„±Ĺ8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅŅųa±ĹĜĬ±ØƋų±ĹŸĜƋ ±ÏƋŅųŸţ ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ ŅþÏĜ±ĬŸ ŸĘŅƚĬÚĹűƋ Ƶ±ĜƋ agencies and their partners must chart a to see if hell comes to pass, but must act course to the future while guaranteeing swiftly to ensure autonomous vehicles are access for the most vulnerable. A few perceived and deployed as an extension commentators have half-seriously of transit. Several cities, ranging from suggested underwriting smartphone „ĜĹ豪Ņųå ƋŅ åƴåųĬƼ BĜĬĬŸØ ʱƴå ±Ĭųå±ÚƼ ownership as part of transit subsidies.169 ±ĹĹŅƚĹÏåÚ ŞĬ±ĹŸ Ņų ÆåčƚĹ ƋåŸƋĜĹčešŸ ±Ÿ But more likely, they will need to rethink ĀųŸƋě±ĹÚěĬ±ŸƋěĵĜĬå üååÚåųŸ ƋŅ Ƌų±ĹŸĜƋØƵĘĜĬå baseline levels of redundancy, whether trip- Daimler recently unveiled autonomous planning kiosks at stations, basic farecards BRT.172 or tickets with QR codes, and consolidated call centers for users without smartphones. Assuming local regulations allow it, (Even Uber has begun taking requests by Ĭ±ƚĹÏĘĜĹč±ĹešŞĜĬŅƋƵĜĬĬųåŧƚĜųåĹåÏ域±ųƼ SMS message and by phone.) funds, partners, and test beds. In the former’s case, the race between cities, states, and 3   X±ƚĹÏĘ ±Ĺ ±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸ ƴåĘĜÏĬå ŞĜĬŅƋţ nation-states to be seen on the cutting In 2014, Zipcar founder Robin Chase asked edge of mobility has created a groundswell whether a future of autonomous cars would of funding, including U.S. DOT’s pledge of be heaven or hell.170 Bå±ƴåĹØ ŸĘå ±ųčƚåÚØ $4 billion over ten years to test connected would be a world in which autonomous and autonomous vehicles.173

168:åƋƋĬåĵ±ĹØىų±ĹŸĜƋ±ųÚŸƋŅåŞĬ±Ï屟ĘŅĹUåĹƼ±ĹaĜĹĜÆƚŸåŸeųå±B±ųÚ„åĬĬţŰ 169 Anthony Townsend made a similar suggestion at the MIT Media Lab’s “Disrupting Mobility” conference in November 2015. 170 ʱŸåØٜĜĬĬ±œŅųĬÚŅü%ųĜƴåųĬ域±ųŸåBå±ƴåĹŅųBåĬĬũŰ 171 8±čűĹƋØåƋ±ĬţŮkŞåų±ƋĜŅĹŸküe„ʱųåÚeƚƋŅĹŅĵŅĹŅƚŸšåĘĜÏĬå8ĬååƋ8Ņų‰ĘåeƚŸƋĜĹ؉åƻ±Ÿa±ųĩåƋţŰ 172 B±ĵĵåųŸÏĘĵĜÚƋØŮ%±ĜĵĬåųÚåĵŅŸŸåĵĜě±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸÏĜƋƼÆƚŸţŰ 173 U.S. Department of Transportation. “Secretary Foxx Unveils President Obama’s FY17 Budget Proposal of Nearly $4ĜĬĬĜŅĹüŅųeƚƋŅĵ±ƋåÚšåĘĜÏĬ埱ĹÚeĹĹŅƚĹÏåŸ%k‰FĹĜƋĜ±ƋĜƴåŸƋŅeÏÏåĬåų±ƋåšåĘĜÏĬ儱üåƋƼ Innovations.”

59 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

œĘĜĬå ƋĘå ĵŅŸƋ ĹŅƋ±ÆĬå eš ÏŅĬĬ±ÆŅų±ƋĜŅĹŸ The prospect of Chase’s hell full of zero- to date have paired automotive OEMs occupancy vehicles also raises the specter with TNCs (e.g. Toyota-Uber, GM-Lyft, of unintended consequences stemming šŅĬĩŸƵ±čåĹě:åƋƋØ åƋÏţš ƋĘåųå ±ųå ĵ±ĹƼ from poor policies and a lack of regulation. more opportunities to partner with ŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹŞųĜÏĜĹčüŅųešŸĵƚŸƋÆåƵåĜčĘåÚ specialized players. For example, the open- carefully. As the veteran technologist source vehicle manufacturer Local Motors George Gilder once observed of Google’s is exploring a collaboration with Florida’s power-hungry data centers, “in every era, aĜ±ĵĜě%±Úå ŅƚĹƋƼ ƋŅ ƋåŸƋ ĜƋŸ ±ųƋĜĀÏĜ±ĬĬƼ the winning companies are those that intelligent minibus, “Olli,” on public roads.174 waste what is abundant… in order to save The trickiest part will be structuring pilots in what is scarce.175” It isn’t hard to imagine such a way that they are safe while testing how a near-future combining electric operations under real-world conditions, ešŸ ƵĜƋĘ ±ÆƚĹÚ±ĹƋ ŸŅĬ±ų åĹåųčƼØ ƚĹƋŅĬĬåÚ and avoid raising issues around labor and roads, and minimal attention spans could automation. The latter is a sticking point — pave the road to hell. Transport authorities care must be taken to communicate with should be forecasting potential impacts of employees that such a pilot would be a autonomous vehicles as part of their regular learning exercise for future interactions horizon scanning. ƵĜƋĘešŸØĹŅƋ±Ĭ±ÆŅųěŸ±ƴĜĹčĵ屟ƚųåţ

174FaţŮXŅϱĬaŅƋŅųŸ%åÆƚƋŸŮkĬĬĜŰØƋĘå8ĜųŸƋ„åĬüěÚųĜƴĜĹčšåĘĜÏĬåƋŅ‰±ŞƋĘå{ŅƵåųŅüFaœ±ƋŸŅĹţŰ 175 Gilder, “The Information Factories.” 60 Executive Summary Introduction A Tale of Four Cities Recommendations Conclusion

61 {ĘŅƋŅ×c±ƴƼ±eƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸšåĘĜÏĬåţÙc±ƴƼ±ţ Conclusion

This should be the best of times for public mobility operators to remake the world in transportation. The ascendancy of the ƋĘåĜųĜĵ±čåţœĜƋĘŅƚƋĬå±ÚåųŸĘĜŞØųåĬåĹƋĬ域 Ÿĵ±ųƋŞĘŅĹå ʱŸ ĀűĬĬƼ ĵ±Úå ĜƋ ŞŅŸŸĜÆĬå customer focus, the right combination to marry the ease and convenience of of carrots and sticks, and a visceral the automobile — through car-sharing, understanding of connected mobility’s ride-hailing, and (someday) autonomous implications, public transport runs the risk vehicles —with the reliable capacity of of fatal disruption — just as they did in the mass transit. As we’ve seen in the United ÚåϱÚåŸ üŅĬĬŅƵĜĹč ƋĘå ĀųŸƋ āŅƵåųĜĹč Ņü States, this combination has already proven private mobility. ĬĜÆåų±ƋĜĹč üŅų ±ÿƚåĹƋ ƚųƱĹĜŸƋŸØ ƵĘĜĬå providing newfound leverage for residents The case studies and recommendations of suburbia and other less dense, transit- ŅýåųåÚ ĜĹ ƋĘĜŸ ųåŞŅųƋ ±ųå ĵå±ĹƋ ƋŅ starved environments. demonstrate the new possibilities available to cities, public transport, and the public But as this report has argued, it’s not enough itself. The state-of-the-art in transportation to close one’s eyes and wait for TNCs, isn’t the smartphone, per se, but in how we technology companies, and other private use it. It’s time for us to use it wisely.

Connected Mobility. © New Cities Foundation. Flickr Photo: © Rob Gross.

62 Bibliography

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2. Philip Ashlock (chief architect, Data.gov), interview with the author, October 2015.

3. Ciro Biderman (director, SP Negocios; curator, MobiLab), interview with the author, February 2016.

4. Sherielysse Reyes Bonifacio (assistant secretary, Philippines Department of Transportation), interview with the author, March 2016.

5. aĜčƚåĬƚϱĬåĵŠÚĜųåÏƋŅųØŽ„{ĜÚ±Ú埱ƋƋĘåŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼŅü„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘ the author, February 2016.

6. Arnel Casanova (president, Bases Conversion and Development Authority of the Philippines), interview with the author, March 2016.

7. Emily Castor (director of transportation policy, Lyft), telephone interview with the author, June 2016.

8. Philip Cheang (co-founder, By Implication), interview with the author, March 2016.

9. Renato “Red” Constantino (director of the Institute for Climate and Sustainable Cities), interview with the author, March 2016.

10. David Cummins (senior vice president, Xerox), telephone interview with the author, February 2016.

11. Renato Cymbalista (president, Polis Institute; professor of architecture at the ŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼŅü„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼ2016.

12. Arthur Debert (CTO and co-founder, Loggi.com), interview with the author, February 2016.

13. Isabel Dedring (former deputy mayor for Transport, Greater London Authority), interview with the author, October 2015.

14. Arthur Del Eposte (student, MobiLab), interview with the author, February 2016.

63 15. Deevya Desai (regional policy and research manager, Grab), interview with the author, October 2015.

16. šåųĹŅĹ)ƴåųåƋƋŠĵ±Ĺ±čĜĹčÚĜųåÏƋŅųØÏƚŸƋŅĵåųåƻŞåųĜåĹÏå؉ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹšØ interview with the author, February 2016.

17. %±ĹĜåĬ±8±ÏÏĘĜĹĜŠŞųŅģåÏƋ±ĹÚŅŞåų±ƋĜŅĹŸÚĜųåÏƋŅųŅüœFŅŸŸåĹƋåųüŅų„ƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬå Cities), telephone interview with the author, February 2016.

18. B±ĹƼ8±ĵŠŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋŅüåĹƋåųŞųĜŸåޱųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞŸØa±ŸƋåų±ųÚšØƋåĬåŞĘŅĹåĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘ the author, June 2016.

19. 8åųűĹÚŅÚåaåĬĬŅ8ų±ĹÏŅŠŸåÏųåƋ±ųƼŅüƚųƱĹÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋØÏĜƋƼŅü„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅšØ interview with the author, February 2016.

20. „±ĵŞŅBĜåƋ±ĹåĹŠ)kØa±±„:ĬŅƱĬXƋÚţšØƋåĬåŞĘŅĹåĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ November 2015.

21. Matt George (CEO, Bridj), telephone interview with the author, October 2015.

22. Michael Glotz-Richter (senior project manager for sustainable mobility, the City of Bremen), telephone interview with the author, October 2015.

23. Eric Goldwyn (doctoral candidate in urban planning, Columbia University), interview with the author, December 2015.

24. kÚåÚ:ų±ģåƵŠüŅƚĹÚåųØåÚåcŅŸŸ±„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼ 2016.

25. eŸĘĬåƼ¬ţB±ĹÚŠƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼŸƋų±ƋåčĜŸƋüåĬĬŅƵØĜƋƼŅüXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸØ Department of Transportation), telephone interview with the author, December 2015.

26. „ŅĹģ±BåĜĩĩĜĬ·ŠŸåĹĜŅų±ÚƴĜŸåų؉åĩåŸØƋĘå8ĜĹĹĜŸĘ8ƚĹÚĜĹčečåĹÏƼüŅųFĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹšØ interview with the author, June 2015.

27. a±ƋƋĘåƵBƚÚŸŅĹŠĘå±ÚŅüÆƚŸĜĹ域ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋ؉ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵ with the author, February 2016.

28. Jean-Marc Janaillac (CEO, Transdev), interview with the author, October 2015.

29. ŅĵĵåĬ‰ţIƚ±ĹŠŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋØ)ĬåÏƋųĜÏšåĘĜÏĬåeŸŸŅÏĜ±ƋĜŅĹŅüƋĘå{ĘĜĬĜŞŞĜĹ埚ØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵ with the author, March 2016.

30. a±ųĜ±U±ĵ±ųčĜ±ĹĹĜŠĘå±ÚŅüƋĘåŽųƱʼnų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ¼)ĹåųčƼ:ųŅƚޱƋŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼŅĬĬåčå London’s Energy Institute) interview with the author, February 2016. 64 31. Doug Kaufman (CEO, Transloc), interview with the author, January 2016.

32. Ario Keshani (co-founder, CEO, Split), interview with the author, January 2016.

33. Minna Kivimaki (director general, Finnish Transport Ministry), interview with the author, February 2016.

34. David King (assistant professor of Urban Planning at Arizona State University School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning), telephone interview with the author, May 2016.

35. Gabe Klein (co-founder, CityFi), interview with the author, January 2016.

36. Jacqueline Klopp (associate research scholar, Columbia University), interview with the author, April 2014.

37. Joseph Kopser (president, moovel Group N.A.), interview with the author, March 2016.

38. BŅĬĬƼUų±ĵÆåÏĩŠŸåĹĜŅųƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹåÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋØƋĘåœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå author, January 2016.

39. U±ƋĘĬååĹX±ųčŅŠÏŅěüŅƚĹÚåųØœ±Ĭĩa±ĹĜĬ±šØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØa±ųÏĘ2016.

40. :ĜÚåŅĹX±ŸÏŅŠÏŅěüŅƚĹÚåųØœ±Ĭĩa±ĹĜĬ±šØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØa±ųÏĘ2016.

41. Anthony Ling (CEO, Bora), interview with the author, February 2016.

42. Fernanda Magano (student, MobiLab), interview with the author, February 2016.

43. XĜĬĬĜa±ƋŸŅĹŠĘå±ÚŅü„Ƌų±ƋåčƼ¼kƚƋÏŅĵå{Ĭ±ĹĹĜĹč؉ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵ with the author, October 2015.

44. {±ƋųĜÏĜ±a±ųĜ±ĹŅŠŞųŅģåÏƋÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋŅþÏåųØ{ĘĜĬĜŞŞĜĹåŸ%åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋŅü Transportation), telephone interview with the author, March 2016.

45. Marcio Nigro (founder, Caronetas Brasil), telephone interview with the author, March 2016.

46. ‰ĜĵŅƋĘƼ{±Ş±ĹÚųåŅƚŠÚĜųåÏƋŅųØkþÏåŅüFĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹØ„±Ĺ8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅaƚĹĜÏĜޱĬ Transportation Agency), telephone interview with the author, November 2015.

47. Ben Plowden (director, Strategy and Planning, Surface Transport, Transport for London), interview with the author, September 2015.

65 48. IŅĹű{ʼnĬĬ·ĹåĹŠÏŅĬĬ±ÆŅų±ƋĜŅĹĵ±Ĺ±čåųØa±±„:ĬŅƱĬXƋÚţšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ February 2016.

49. ååƋƋ±{ƚƋĩŅĹåĹŠÚĜųåÏƋŅųŅüƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅűĹÚƋų±þÏŞĬ±ĹĹĜĹčÚĜƴĜŸĜŅĹØÏĜƋƼŅü BåĬŸĜĹĩĜšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼ2016.

50. U±ģ{ƼƼĘƋĜ·ŠÏĘĜåüÏƚŸƋŅĵåųåƻŞåųĜåĹÏåŅþÏåųØa±±„:ĬŅƱĬXƋÚţšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå author, February 2016.

51. Seleta Reynolds (general manager, Los Angeles Department of Transportation), telephone interview with the author, February 2016.

52. „±ĵĜ„±Ę±Ĭ±ŠF‰„ÏĘĜåü±ÚƴĜŸŅųØÏĜƋƼŅüBåĬŸĜĹĩĜšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼ 2016.

53. Juned Sondido (lecturer, University of the Philippines Science and Society Program), interview with the author, March 2016.

54. Dan Tangherlini (president, Seamless Docs Federal), telephone interview with the author, February 2016.

55. Sigfrido “Freddie” Tinga (president, GET Philippines), telephone interview with the author, March 2016.

56. Lucinda Turner (head of sub-regional strategy and policy, Transport for London), interview with the author, February 2016.

57. ¬±ÏʱųƼœ±ŸŸåųĵ±ĹŠƴĜÏåŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋØŸƋų±ƋåčƼØšĜ±šØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØeŞųĜĬ 2016

58. a±ųĩœ±ƋƋŸŠåƻåÏƚƋĜƴåÚĜųåÏƋŅųØ40 Cities Climate Leadership Group), interview with the author, January 2016.

59. I±ĵĜåœåĜĹƱƚĵŠkkØ%ĜƋƋŅåŸĜÚåĹƋĜ±ĬšØƋåĬåŞĘŅĹåĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå±ƚƋĘŅųØ February 2016.

60. X±ƚųåĹ„±čåųœåĜĹŸƋåĜĹŠĘå±ÚŅü±Ĺ±ĬƼƋĜϟ؉ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹšØĜĹƋåųƴĜåƵƵĜƋĘƋĘå author, February 2016.

61. %±ĹĜåĬœĜĹŸƋŅĹŠÏŅěüŅƚĹÚåųØÚĜųåÏƋŅųŅüŸƋų±ƋåčƼ±ĹÚÆƚŸĜĹ域ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋØ„ŞĬĜƋšØ interview with the author, January 2016.

62. Azmat Yusuf (CEO, Citymapper), interview with the author, February 2016.

66 63. ±ŸĘåŧ¬±ųĜüŠŸåĹĜŅųĵ±Ĺ±čåųØƚŸĜĹ域FĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅűƋaåųÏåÚåŸěåĹDŽåŸå±ųÏĘ¼ Development North America, Inc.), telephone interview with the author, March 2016. Documents

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2. óóóţŮFʼnĘåĜƋƼœĜƋʉĘåœŅųĬÚűŸœŅųŸƋ‰ų±þÏØŽÆåųFŸeĹeƵĩƵ±ųÚ8ĜƋţŰœĜųåÚØ %åÏåĵÆåųŎƖØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţƵĜųåÚţÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxŎƖxĜĹě±ěÏĜƋƼěƵĜƋĘěƋĘåěƵŅųĬÚŸěƵŅųŸƋě Ƌų±þÏěƚÆåųěƋųĜåŸěƋŅěĀƋěĜĹx

3. Angel, Shlomo (Solly) and Alejandro Blei. “Commuting and the Productivity of eĵåųĜϱĹĜƋĜåŸţŰcåƵ¥ŅųĩŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼƀØƖLjŎĂţhttp://marroninstitute.nyu. edu/content/case-studies/commuting-and-the-productivity-of-american-cities

4. eų±Ƌ±ĹĜØXŅųĜţŮ%ţţűŸĹåƵĜÚåĹƋĜƋƼũeĘƚÆüŅųƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ {ŅŸƋØIƚĹåƖŎØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƵ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹŞŅŸƋţÏŅĵxĬŅϱĬxƋų±þϱĹÚÏŅĵĵƚƋĜĹčx ÚÏŸěĹåƵěĜÚåĹƋĜƋƼě±ěĘƚÆěüŅųěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹěĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹxƖLjŎĂxLjƅxƖLjxĂLjÚÚ±±üƖěüíåŎě ŎŎåĉě±ŎƐÏěŎĿƐÆŎƖĉŎÚĂŎ±ƣŸƋŅųƼţĘƋĵĬ

5. Atwal, Ranjit, Isabelle Durand, Kanae Maita, Annette Jump, Lillian Tay, Roberta Cozza, ‰ƚŅĹčBţcčƚƼåĹØųƚĹŅX±ĩåʱĬØaĜĩ±ĩŅUĜƋ±č±Ƶ±Ø‰ų±ÏƼ‰Ÿ±ĜØeĹĹåƋƋå¬Ĝĵĵåųĵ±ĹĹØ eƋŸƚųŅ„±ƋŅ±ĹÚUXƚţŮ8ŅųåϱŸƋ×{ŸØŽĬƋų±ĵŅÆĜĬ埱ĹÚaŅÆĜĬå{ĘŅĹåŸØœŅųĬÚƵĜÚåØ ƖLjŎƐěƖLjƖLjØŎ}ŎƅŽŞÚ±ƋåţŰ:±ųƋĹåųØƖLjŎƅţ

6. ±ÚčåųØ)ĵĜĬƼţىĘåĹåƻƋÏĜƴĜĬųĜčĘƋŸĜŸŸƚåŅüŅƚųƋĜĵåţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ{ŅŸƋØ%åÏåĵÆåų ƖƖØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƵ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹŞŅŸƋţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸxƵŅĹĩxƵŞxƖLjŎĂxŎƖxƖƖxƋĘåěĹåƻƋě civil-rights-issue-of-our-time/

7. ±ųƋåĬŸØX±ųųƼţŮĜÏĘŞåŅŞĬåųƚĬåúŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ{ŅŸƋØeŞųĜĬíØƖLjŎĉţhttps://www. Ƶ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹŞŅŸƋţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸxĵŅĹĩåƼěϱčåxƵŞxƖLjŎĉxLjĉxLjíxųĜÏĘěŞåŅŞĬåěųƚĬåx

8. åĹĜÏÏĘĜŅ؉ĘĜ±čŅţلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸ{±ƋĘƋŅ„ƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬå‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋţŰ„ƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬå‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋØ œĜĹƋåųƖLjŎĂØcŅţƖƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţĜƋÚŞţŅųčxƵŞěÏŅĹƋåĹƋxƚŞĬŅ±ÚŸxƖLjŎĂxLjŎx„‰ƖƅƣƵåÆţ pdf

9. åƴĜĬ±Ïŧƚ±Øa±ƋƋţŮa±ƼÆåa±ųč±ųåƋ‰Ę±ƋÏĘåų%ĜÚĹűƋB±ƋåƚŸåŸeŸaƚÏĘeŸœå ‰ĘŅƚčĘƋţŰcåƻƋĜƋƼØeŞųĜĬíØƖLjŎƐţhttps://nextcity.org/daily/entry/maybe-margaret- thatcher-didnt-hate-buses-as-much-as-we-thought

67 10. åƴĜĹŸØšĜĹÏåĹƋţىĘ儱Ņ{±ƚĬŅÏŅĵĵƚƋåל±ĬĩØÆƚŸØƋų±ĜĹØƋų±ĜĹØƋų±ĜĹØÆƚŸØƵ±Ĭĩţ åŞå±ƋţŰXŅŸeĹčåĬ埉ĜĵåŸØa±ųÏĘŎƐØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĬ±ƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƵŅųĬÚxĬ±ěüčěÏŎě ýěÆų±DŽĜĬěĵåč±ÏĜƋƼěÏŅĵĵƚƋåěƖLjŎĂLjƐŎƐěŸƋŅųƼţĘƋĵĬ

11. ĜÚåųĵ±ĹØĜųŅţلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸŽųƱʼnų±ĹŸŞŅųƋFĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåţŰX„)ĜƋĜåŸØ%åÏåĵÆåų ƖLjLjíţhttps://lsecities.net/media/objects/articles/sao-paulo-urban-transport- infrastructure/en-gb/

12. Bidgood, J. “Revived Focus on Lagging Night Life as Boston Ends Late Transit „åųƴĜÏåţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØa±ųÏĘŎƀØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĹƼƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjƐxŎíx us/revived-focus-on-lagging-night-life-as-boston-ends-late-transit-service.html

13. Bloomberg Philanthropies. “Innovation Teams Solve Intractable Problems By Bringing FĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅʼnŅXĜüåţŰƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.bloomberg.org/program/government- innovation/innovation-teams/

14. ŅčŅŸƋØF±ĹţٜĜĬĬŅÆŅϱųŸUĜÏĩBƚĵ±ĹŸkýĜƋƼ„ƋųååƋŸũۉĘåeƋĬ±ĹƋĜÏØIƚĹåƖƐØƖLjŎƅţ ĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘå±ƋĬ±ĹƋĜÏţÏŅĵxƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼx±ųÏĘĜƴåxƖLjŎƅxLjƅxųŅÆŅϱųŸěŅĹĬƼxĉííŎƖĿx

15. ‰%±Ƌ±ţŅųčţى%±Ƌ±×ų±DŽĜĬţŰeÏÏ域åÚ„åŞƋåĵÆåųƅØƖLjŎƅţhttp://brtdata.org/ ĬŅϱƋĜŅĹxĬ±ƋĜĹƣ±ĵåųĜϱxÆų±DŽĜĬ

16. óóóţى%±Ƌ±×I±ĩ±ųƋ±ţŰeÏÏ域åÚ„åŞƋåĵÆåųƅØƖLjŎƅţhttp://brtdata.org/location/ asia/indonesia/jakarta

17. ųƚŸƋåĜĹØIŅŸĘƚ±ţŮeƚŸƋĜĹűŸa±ƼŅųFŸUååŞĜĹčĜÚåŸĘ±ųĜĹčœåĜųÚţŰĬŅŅĵÆåųč ‰åÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼØIƚĹåƅØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÆĬŅŅĵÆåųčţÏŅĵxüå±ƋƚųåŸxƖLjŎƅě±ƚŸƋĜĹě ridesharing/

18. óóóţَÆåųűŸœŅųĩüŅųÏåFŸƚĜĬƋƋŅ%ŅaŅųå‰Ę±ĹʱƚýåƚųţŰĬŅŅĵÆåųčØ%åÏåĵÆåų ŎŎØƖLjŎƐţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÆĬŅŅĵÆåųčţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸx±ųƋĜÏĬåŸxƖLjŎƐěŎƖěŎŎxƚÆåųŸěƵŅųĩüŅųÏåěĜŸě ÆƚĜĬƋěƋŅěÚŅěĵŅųåěƋʱĹěÏʱƚýåƚų

19. ƚÏʱűĹØa±ƋƋţلƚųčĜϱĬ„ƚŞŞĬĜåŸţۉĘåeƵĬØ%åÏåĵÆåųŎƅØƖLjŎĂţhttps://theawl. ÏŅĵxŸƚųčĜϱĬěŸƚŞŞĬĜåŸěñíÚƅƀƅƐƐüLjńţ±čƐģLjŞüĂƚ

20. óóóţىų±ƴĜŸU±Ĭ±ĹĜÏĩŅʼnĘåŽÆåų)ĹÚč±ĵåţۉĘåeƵĬØeƚčƚŸƋƖíØƖLjŎĂţhttps:// ƋĘå±ƵĬţÏŅĵxƋų±ƴĜŸěĩ±Ĭ±ĹĜÏĩěŅĹěƋĘåěƚÆåųěåĹÚč±ĵåěƅƀÏÆLjŎĿLjåĉÆåńţĜÆƴĘƻƚ±ƻŧ

21. óóóţىĘåŽÆåų)ĹÚč±ĵåţۉĘåeƵĬØeƚčƚŸƋƖĂØƖLjŎĂţhttps://theawl.com/the-uber- åĹÚč±ĵåěüĿåƅĿƅ±Ɛƀ±í±ńţƐƀåƐŞŧčĿ±

22. ƚĘųØ„±ų±ĘţŮXƼüƋXĜĹå:åƋŸFĹƋŅ{åųŞåƋƚ±ĬĜÚå‰åųųĜƋŅųƼœĜƋʉųĜŞĬåa±ƋÏĘ„åųƴĜÏåţŰ ‰åÏĘųƚĹÏĘØIƚĬƼƖĿØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƋåÏĘÏųƚĹÏĘţÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxLjƀxƖĿxĬƼüƋěĬĜĹåěčåƋŸěĜĹƋŅě perpetual-ride-territory-with-new-triple-match-service/ 68 23. Calica, Aurea. “P-Noy OKs P4-B Manila-Quezon City bus rapid transit ŸƼŸƋåĵţۉĘå{ĘĜĬĜŞŞĜĹå„Ƌ±ųØ%åÏåĵÆåųŎƀØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.philstar.com/ Ęå±ÚĬĜĹåŸxƖLjŎĂxŎƖxŎƀxŎĂƐƐĂƅLjxŞěĹŅƼěŅĩŸěŞĉěÆěĵ±ĹĜĬ±ěŧƚåDŽŅĹěÏĜƋƼěÆƚŸěų±ŞĜÚě transit-system

24. Campbell-Dollaghan, Kelsey. “The Future Of American Cities May Be In Our ±ÏĩƼ±ųÚŸţŰ8±ŸƋŅ%åŸĜčĹØeƚčƚŸƋŎØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţü±ŸƋÏŅÚåŸĜčĹţÏŅĵxƐLjƅƖƐƅƅx the-future-of-american-cities-may-be-in-our-backyards

25. ±ĵƚŸØaĜčƚåĬţţŮ:ŅƴűƋÆƚƼŅƚƋŅüa‰ěƐÚĜĵŸţŰ{ĘĜĬĜŞŞĜĹå%±ĜĬƼFĹŧƚĜųåųØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖƖØ ƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxÆƚŸĜĹ域ţĜĹŧƚĜųåųţĹåƋxƖLjƀĉLjĂxčŅƴƋěÆƚƼŅƚƋěŅüěĵųƋěƐěÚĜĵŸ

26. ±Ĺ±ĬåŸØ%ĜåčŅţٜĘƼ%åƴåĬŅŞĜĹčĜƋĜ埄ĘŅƚĬÚ„Ƌ±ĹÚ±ųÚĜDŽå±ĹÚkŞåʼnĘåĜų‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ %±Ƌ±ţۉĘåĜƋƼ8ĜƻØkÏƋŅÆåųƖƖØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƋĘåÏĜƋƼĀƻţÏŅĵxÆĬŅčxƵĘƼěÚåƴåĬŅŞĜĹčě cities-should-standardize-and-open-their-transit-data-diego-canales/

27. ±ŸŸ±ĹŅØI±ƼţŮBŅƵŽÆåų{ųŅĀƋŸ)ƴåĹœĘĜĬåFƋŸ%ųĜƴåųŸeųåĹűƋ)±ųĹĜĹčaŅĹåƼţŰ aŅƋĘåųÆŅ±ųÚØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxĵŅƋĘåųÆŅ±ųÚţƴĜÏåţÏŅĵxųå±ÚxĘŅƵěƚÆåųěŞųŅĀƋŸě even-while-its-drivers-arent-earning-money

28. ±ƴ±ĬϱĹƋĜØa±ųĜ±8ţلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸĹåƵĵ±ŸƋåųŞĬ±ĹŞųĜŅųĜƋĜDŽåŸŸƚŸƋ±ĜűÆĬåƚųƱĹ ÚåƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋţۉĘåĜƋƼ8ĜƻØeƚčƚŸƋƀØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƋĘåÏĜƋƼĀƻţÏŅĵxÆĬŅčxŸ±Ņ쪱ƚĬŅě brazil-master-plan-prioritizes-sustainable-urban-development-people-oriented- mobility-public-participation-maria-fernanda-cavalcanti/

29. ʱŸåØŅÆĜĹţٜĜĬĬ±œŅųĬÚŅü%ųĜƴåųĬ域±ųŸåBå±ƴåĹŅųBåĬĬũŰĜƋƼĬ±ÆØeŞųĜĬƐØ ƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏŅĵĵƚƋåxƖLjŎĉxLjĉxƵĜĬĬěƵŅųĬÚěÚųĜƴåųĬ域ěϱųŸěÆåě heaven-or-hell/8784/

30. ĘĜĬ±ĹÚØ)ĬĜģ±ĘţŮåƴåųĬƼBĜĬĬŸ%åƴåĬŅŞĜĹč8ĬååƋŅüŅÆŅƋŽÆåųŸţŰƚųÆåÚØeŞųĜĬŎíØƖLjŎƅţ ĘƋƋŞ×xxĬ±ţÏƚųÆåÚţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxĉxŎíxŎŎĉĂĉĉƖƅxÆåƴåųĬƼěĘĜĬĬŸěÚųĜƴåųĬ域ěϱųŸěƋåŸĬ±ě google

31. ĜƋƼŅüŅŸƋŅĹţŮŅŸƋŅĹxŽÆåų%±Ƌ±„ʱųĜĹčečųååĵåĹƋţŰƖLjŎĂţhttps://www.muckrock. ÏŅĵxüŅĜxÆŅŸƋŅĹěƐxÆŅŸƋŅĹƚÆåųěÚ±Ƌ±ěŸĘ±ųĜĹčě±čųååĵåĹƋěƖĉƖĿƀx

32. ƚŞĜĹØå±ţٱƋÏĘƚŞ×‰Ęå%k‰űŸų±ÏåƋŅƖLjŎƅţŰ±ŞŞĬåųØeŞųĜĬŎíØƖLjŎĉţhttp://www. ų±ŞŞĬåųţÏŅĵxÆƚŸĜĹ域xĜĹÚƚŸƋųĜåŸxĂĂƀLjLjěÚŅƋÏěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹěƖLjŎƅ

33. Dancel, Raul. “End of the road for Manila’s jeepneys.” The Straits Times, December íØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/end-of-the-road-for-manilas- jeepneys

69 34. Datson, James. “Mobility As A Service: Exploring The Opportunity For Mobility As A „åųƴĜÏåFʼnĘåŽUţۉų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ„ƼŸƋåĵŸ±Ƌ±ŞƚĬƋØƖLjŎƅţhttps://ts.catapult.org.uk/wp- ÏŅĹƋåĹƋxƚŞĬŅ±ÚŸxƖLjŎƅxLjƀxaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼě±Ÿě±ě„åųƴĜÏåƣ)ƻŞĬŅųĜĹčěƋĘåěkŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋƼěüŅųě a±±„ěĜĹěƋĘåěŽUěœåÆţŞÚü

35. Dulac, John. “Global Land Transport Infrastructure Requirements: Estimating ųŅ±Ú±ĹÚų±ĜĬƵ±ƼĜĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåϱޱÏĜƋƼ±ĹÚÏŅŸƋŸƋŅƖLjĂLjţŰFĹƋåųűƋĜŅűĬ)ĹåųčƼ ečåĹÏƼØƖLjŎƐţhttp://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋFĹüų±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåFĹŸĜčĘƋŸƣ8FceXƣœ)ţŞÚü

36. )ÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋţŮ:ŅĜĹčƚĹÚåųčųŅƚĹÚţۉĘå)ÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋØa±ƼŎĉØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www. åÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸxÆųĜƋ±ĜĹxƖŎƅĿíƅíLjěϱŞĜƋ±ĬŸěĹåƵěĵ±ƼŅųěĹååÚŸěŞųŅƋåÏƋě investment-public-transport-going-underground

37. óóóţŮI±ĵƋŅÚ±ƼţۉĘå)ÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖĂØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.economist.com/ ĹåƵŸxĬå±ÚåųŸxƖŎƅĿƐĂƀƀěčåƋěƵŅųĬÚŸěÆĜččåŸƋěÏĜƋĜåŸěĵŅƴĜĹčěŸƋŅŞěŸƚÆŸĜÚĜŸĜĹčěÚųĜƴĜĹčě jam-today?fsrc=scn/tw/te/pe/ed/jamtoday

38. óóóţلĬŅƵĬƼÚŅåŸĜƋţۉĘå)ÏŅĹŅĵĜŸƋØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖƀØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.economist. ÏŅĵxĹåƵŸx±ŸĜ±xƖŎƅĿƐƅƐŎěųĜŸĜĹčěϱųěŅƵĹåųŸĘĜŞě±ĹÚě±ŞŞ±ĬĬĜĹčěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋěŞŅĬĜÏĜåŸě block-roads-slowly-does-it

39. 8±ĹÚŅŸØcĜÏĘŅĬ±ŸţŮFĹŸŞåÏƋĜŅĹŸœĜĬĬĬŅŸåœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹØ%ţţØaåƋųŅŅĹœåÚĹåŸÚ±ƼţŰ ‰ĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØa±ųÏĘŎĂØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĹƼƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjƐxŎƅxƚŸx Ƶ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹěÚÏěĵåƋųŅěƋŅěÏĬŅŸåě±ĬĬěÚ±ƼěƵåÚĹåŸÚ±ƼţĘƋĵĬũƣų÷Lj

40. Fagnant, Daniel J., Kara M. Kockelman and Prateek Bansal. “Operations Of A Shared eƚƋŅĹŅĵŅĹŅƚŸšåĘĜÏĬå8ĬååƋ8Ņų‰ĘåeƚŸƋĜĹ؉åƻ±Ÿa±ųĩåƋţۉų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹåŸå±ųÏĘ åÏŅųÚØcŅţƖĂƐƅ×ĿíěŎLjƅØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/kockelman/ ŞƚÆĬĜÏƣĘƋĵĬx‰ŎÄešŸĜĹeƚŸƋĜĹţŞÚü

41. 8åųÚĵ±ĹØŅÆåųƋŅeţŮų±DŽĜĬĜ±ĹŸ„ŞåĹÚ±ŸaƚÏʱŸƖƅ{åųÏåĹƋŅü‰ĘåĜųFĹÏŅĵåƋŅ ĜÚåƋĘåƚŸţŰĜƋƼĬ±ÆØIƚĹåŎíØƖLjŎƐţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏŅĵĵƚƋåxƖLjŎƐxLjƅx Æų±DŽĜĬĜ±ĹŸěŸŞåĹÚěĵƚÏĘěƖƅěŞåųÏåĹƋěƋĘåĜųěĜĹÏŅĵåěųĜÚåěÆƚŸxĂĿĉĿx

42. 8ĜƋDŽŸĜĵĵŅĹŸØ)ĵĵ±:ţَÆåųcŅƋƋŅĬ±ĵåüŅųĜŸåĜĹa±ĹʱƋƋ±Ĺ‰ų±þÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹØ åŞŅųƋ„±ƼŸţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼŎĂØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.nytimes. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxŎƅxĹƼųåčĜŅĹxƚÆåųěĹŅƋěƋŅěÆĬ±ĵåěüŅųěųĜŸåěĜĹěĵ±ĹʱƋƋ±ĹěƋų±þÏě congestion-report-says.html

43. 8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅØU±ƋåųĜűţŮ8ĜƻĜĹčƋų±þÏ×IååŞŸåƼåÚ±ŸüååÚåųŸƋŅÆƚŸųŅƚƋåŸţŰ±ŞŞĬåųØ a±ųÏĘĂØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţų±ŞŞĬåųţÏŅĵxűƋĜŅĹxíĂíƀŎěģååŞĹåƼěüååÚåųěƴåĘĜÏĬåě transport-plan

70 44. óóóţŮœĘ±Ƌ{BϱĹŞĜÏĩƚŞüųŅĵ„åŅƚĬűŸƖLjLjĉÆƚŸųåüŅųĵţŰ±ŞŞĬåųØeŞųĜĬƅØƖLjŎĂţ http://www.rappler.com/nation/88800-philippines-public-transport-seoul-bus- reform

45. 8ųååÚØåĹģ±ĵĜĹţŮaåƋųŅʱĜųĵ±Ĺ‰åĬĬŸŅĹčų域ƋŅĘĜŞĜĹâƐLjLjaĜĬĬĜŅĹ{åų¥å±ųţ ŅĹčų域¥åĬĬŸ±ƋaåƋųŅţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹĜ±ĹØeŞųĜĬŎƐØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.washingtonian. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjĉxŎƐxĵåƋųŅěÏʱĜųĵ±ĹěƋåĬĬŸěÏŅĹčų域ěÏĘĜŞěƐLjLjěĵĜĬĬĜŅĹěŞåųěƼå±ųx

46. 8ųååĵ±ųĩØ¥ŅűĘţٜĜĬĬ±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸϱųŸÏʱĹčåƋĘåųŅĬå±ĹÚƴ±ĬƚåŅüŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹũۉĘå‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ{ŅĬĜƋĜÏØIƚĹåƖƐØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.thetransportpolitic. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxLjƅxƖƐxƵĜĬĬě±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸěϱųŸěÏʱĹčåěƋĘåěųŅĬåě±ĹÚěƴ±ĬƚåěŅüěŞƚÆĬĜÏě transportation/

47. :±ŅØ{±ƚĬØƚŸŸåĬBåĹŸĬåƼ±ĹÚeĹÚų屟¬ĜåĬĩåţŮeųŅ±Úĵ±ŞƋŅƋĘåüƚƋƚųåüŅųƋĘå±ƚƋŅ ĜĹÚƚŸƋųƼţŰaÏUĜĹŸåƼ}ƚ±ųƋåųĬƼØkÏƋŅÆåųƖLjŎĉţhttp://www.mckinsey.com/industries/ automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/a-road-map-to-the-future-for-the-auto- industry

48. :±ųųå±ƚØIŅåĬţ)ÚčåĜƋƼ×XĜüåŅĹƋĘåcåƵ8ųŅĹƋĜåųţcåƵ¥Ņųĩ×eĹÏĘŅųŅŅĩŸØŎĿĿƖţ

49. :åƋƋĬåĵ±ĹØIåýųåƼţىų±ĹŸĜƋ±ųÚŸƋŅåŞĬ±Ï屟ĘŅĹUåĹƼ±ĹaĜĹĜÆƚŸåŸeųå±B±ųÚ „åĬĬţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØIƚĬƼŎĂØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĹƼƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƖLjŎĉxLjƀxŎƅx world/africa/transit-cards-to-replace-cash-on-kenyan-minibuses-a-hard-sell.html

50. :Ĝ±ĵÆųŅĹåØeĹÚųåƵţٱÆÆĜåŸ×ŅĵĵĜŸŸĜŅĹűŸåÆų±ĹÚĜĹč±Ÿů8ŅųěBĜųåšåĘĜÏĬåŸű %åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋ)ĹÚŅüƋĘåŅ±ÚţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹĜƋƼ{±ŞåųØIƚĹåƖƐØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www. Ƶ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹÏĜƋƼޱŞåųţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸxÏĜƋƼěÚåŸĩxÆĬŅčxƖLjíƖƅĉƐŎxÚÏěϱÆěÚųĜƴåųŸěĵŅƚųĹě death-of-taxi-commission

51. óóóţٱŞĜƋ±ĬĜĩåŸĘ±ųå„ååŸåÏŅųÚŽŸå%ƚųĜĹč8ĜųŸƋœååĩŅüaåƋųŅűŸ „±üå‰ų±Ïĩa±ĜĹƋåűĹÏå{Ĭ±ĹţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹĜƋƼ{±ŞåųØIƚĹåŎĂØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www. Ƶ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹÏĜƋƼޱŞåųţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸxÏĜƋƼěÚåŸĩxÆĬŅčxƖLjƀíƖƀLjŎxϱŞĜƋ±ĬěÆĜĩåŸĘ±ųåěŸååŸě ųåÏŅųÚěƚŸåěÚƚųĜĹčěĀųŸƋěƵååĩěŅüěĵåƋųŅŸěŸ±üåƋų±Ïĩěĵ±ĜĹƋåűĹÏåěŞĬ±Ĺ

52. :Ĝ±ĵĵ±ųĜŸåØU±ƋåţٜĘåĹƋų±ĹŸĜƋÏŅŸƋŸ±ųåĜĹÏĬƚÚåÚØŸƋƚÚƼĀĹÚŸů±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåűĘŅƚŸĜĹč ŅüƋåĹĜŸĹűƋţŰ{ĜƋƋŸÆƚųčĘ{ŅŸƋě:±DŽåƋƋåØeŞųĜĬƐØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.post-gazette.com/ ĹåƵŸxƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹxƖLjŎƅxLjĉxLjƐxœĘåĹěƋų±ĹŸĜƋěÏŅŸƋŸě±ųåěĜĹÏĬƚÚåÚěŸƋƚÚƼěĀĹÚŸě ±ýŅųÚ±ÆĬåěĘŅƚŸĜĹčěŅüƋåĹěĜŸĹěƋxŸƋŅųĜåŸxƖLjŎƅLjĉLjƐLjLjíĿ

53. :ĜĬÚåųØ:åŅųčåţىĘåFĹüŅųĵ±ƋĜŅĹ8±ÏƋŅųĜåŸţŰœĜųåÚØkÏƋŅÆåųŎØƖLjLjƅţhttp://www.wired. ÏŅĵxƖLjLjƅxŎLjxÏĬŅƚÚƵ±ųåx

71 54. :ŅĬÚåĹÆåųčØ„ƚDŽ±ĹĹåţŮeŸÏĜƋĜåŸü±ĬĬŅƚƋŅüĬŅƴåƵĜƋĘϱųŸØ‰ŅƼŅƋ±ųåÚåĀĹåŸĜƋŸųŅĬ屟 ůĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼŞųŅƴĜÚåųţűۉĘå:ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØeƚčƚŸƋƖLjØƖLjŎĂţhttps://www.theguardian.com/ ÏĜƋĜåŸxƖLjŎĂx±ƚčxƖLjxƋŅƼŅƋ±ěÏĜƋĜåŸěϱųŸěĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼěŞųŅƴĜÚåųěĬ±ŸƋěĵĜĬåũa{÷ŸĘ±ųåƣÆƋĹƣ link

55. Goldwyn, Eric. “The Most Important Transportation Innovation of the Decade FŸƋĘå„ĵ±ųƋŞĘŅĹåţŰĜƋƼĬ±ÆØ„åŞƋåĵÆåųĉØƖLjŎĉţhttp://www.citylab.com/ ÏŅĵĵƚƋåxƖLjŎĉxLjĿxƋĘåěĵŅŸƋěĜĵŞŅųƋ±ĹƋěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹěĜĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹěŅüěƋĘĜŸěÚåϱÚåě ĜŸěƋĘåěŸĵ±ųƋŞĘŅĹåxƐƀĿĂƖĂx

56. :ŅĬÚƵƼĹØ)ųĜÏXţŮe‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ„ƼŸƋåĵBĜÚĜĹčĜĹ{Ĭ±ĜĹ„ĜčĘƋţŰ{Ę%ÚĜŸŸţØŅĬƚĵÆĜ± ŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼØƖLjŎƅţ

57. :ŅųåĹāŅØcå±ĬţŮBŅƵ{Ĭ±ƋüŅųĵŅŅŞŸ±Ĺå±Ƌ%å±ƋĘ„Ƌ±ųŸXĜĩåŽÆåųƋŅųå±Ƌå± å±Ĭ„ʱųĜĹč)ÏŅĹŅĵƼţŰ„ʱųå±ÆĬåØcŅƴåĵÆåųƐØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.shareable.net/ blog/how-platform-coops-can-beat-death-stars-like-uber-to-create-a-real-sharing- economy

58. :ųååĹĀåĬÚØeÚ±ĵţŮBåĬŸĜĹĩĜűŸ±ĵÆĜƋĜŅƚŸŞĬ±ĹƋŅĵ±ĩåϱųŅƵĹåųŸĘĜŞŞŅĜĹƋĬ域ĜĹŎLj Ƽå±ųŸţۉĘå:ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØIƚĬƼŎLjØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxÏĜƋĜåŸxƖLjŎĉx ģƚĬxŎLjxĘåĬŸĜĹĩĜěŸĘ±ųåÚěŞƚÆĬĜÏěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋěŞĬ±ĹěϱųěŅƵĹåųŸĘĜŞěŞŅĜĹƋĬ域

59. ———. “Uber, or: The technics and politics of socially corrosive mobility.” eÚ±ĵ:ųååĹĀåĬÚűŸ„ŞååÚÆĜųÚØIƚĹåƖĿØƖLjŎĂţhttps://speedbird.wordpress. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxLjƅxƖĿxƚÆåųěŅųěƋĘåěƋåÏĘĹĜÏŸě±ĹÚěŞŅĬĜƋĜÏŸěŅüěŸŅÏĜ±ĬĬƼěÏŅųųŅŸĜƴåěĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼx

60. Griswold, Alison. “Commuting with Uber in New York is cheaper than taking the ŸƚÆƵ±ƼƋĘĜŸŸƚĵĵåųţŰ}ƚ±ųƋDŽØIƚĬƼŎŎØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxŧDŽţÏŅĵxƀƖííƀŎxÏŅĵĵƚƋĜĹčěƵĜƋĘě uber-in-new-york-is-cheaper-than-taking-the-subway-this-summer/

61. B±ĵĜÚĜØ„ĘĜĵ±±ĹÚåĜÚ)ƵĜĹčţŮBŅƵeýŅųÚ±ÆĬåĜŸBŽ%BŅƚŸĜĹčũŰƖLjŎƅţhttps://www. ŸÏųĜÆÚţÏŅĵxÚŅÏxƖĿĿƀŎƖƖƖŎxBŅƵěeýŅųÚ±ÆĬåěĜŸěBŽ%ěeýŅųÚ±ÆĬåěBŅƚŸĜĹčěųåŞŅųƋƴĉ

62. B±ĵĵåųŸÏĘĵĜÚƋØĘųĜŸƋŅŞĘţŮ%±ĜĵĬåųÚåĵŅŸŸåĵĜě±ƚƋŅĹŅĵŅƚŸÏĜƋƼÆƚŸţŰ))‰ĜĵåŸØ IƚĬƼŎíØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.electronics-eetimes.com/news/daimler-demos-semi- autonomous-city-bus

63. B±ĹÚØeŸĘĬåƼ¬ţَųƱĹaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĜű%ĜčĜƋ±Ĭečå×e‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅʼnåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼ„Ƌų±ƋåčƼ üŅųXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸţۉĘåĜƋƼŅüXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸØƖLjŎƅţ

64. B±ƵĩĜĹŸØeĹÚųåƵIţَÆåųƵ±ĹƋŸƼŅƚƋŅʱĜĬ±ųĜÚåƋŅƋʱƋü±ų±Ƶ±ƼÆƚŸŸƋŅŞţۉĘåšåųčåØ I±Ĺƚ±ųƼŎŎØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåƴåųčåţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxŎxŎŎxŎLjƀĂLjLjLjĉxƚÆåųěƋų±ĹŸĬŅÏě public-transportation-partnership

72 65. BĜĬĬØ%±ĹţŮ)ŸŸ±Ƽ×ĬŅÏĩƵŅųĩĜƋƼØåŸŞŅĹŸĜƴåĜƋƼØ{ųåÚĜÏƋĜƴåĜƋƼ±ĹÚeÚģ±ÏåĹƋ FĹÏƚĵÆåĹƋŸţŰĜƋƼŅü„ŅƚĹÚØcŅƴåĵÆåųƐØƖLjŎĉţhttp://www.cityofsound.com/ ÆĬŅčxƖLjŎĉxŎŎx域±ƼěÏĬŅÏĩƵŅųĩěÏĜƋƼěųåŸŞŅĹŸĜƴåěÏĜƋƼěŞųåÚĜÏƋĜƴåěÏĜƋƼţĘƋĵĬ

66. B±ĵĜĬƋŅĹØa±ƋƋţٜ±DŽåØXţeţƋŅŸĘ±ųåÚ±Ƌ±ŅĹƋų±þÏØĘĜƋě±ĹÚěųƚĹŸØĩĜÚĹ±ŞŞĜĹčŸţŰXŅŸ eĹčåĬ埉ĜĵåŸØeŞųĜĬƖŎØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln- č±ųÏåƋƋĜ쪱ųƋĹåųŸĘĜŞěƵ±DŽåěƖLjŎĂLjĉƖŎěŸƋŅųƼţĘƋĵĬ

67. B±ųųĜŸØa±ųĩţلåÏųåƋĜƴåeĬŞĘ±ÆåƋÚĜƴĜŸĜŅĹüƚĹÚåÚÆƼ:ŅŅčĬå±ĜĵŸƋŅĀƻŞƚÆĬĜÏƋų±ĹŸĜƋĜĹ Ž„ţۉĘå:ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØIƚĹåƖƀØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼxƖLjŎƅx ģƚĹxƖƀxčŅŅčĬåěāŅƵěŸĜÚåƵ±ĬĩěĬ±ÆŸěÏŅĬƚĵÆƚŸěŅĘĜŅ쪱ųĩĜĹčěƋų±ĹŸĜƋ

68. B±ƵĩĜĹŸØeĹÚųåƵIţَÆåųBŅŞĜŸŽÆåųűŸĬ±ƋåŸƋĜÚå±üŅųĩĜĬĬĜĹčĵ±ŸŸƋų±ĹŸĜƋţۉĘåšåųčåØ %åÏåĵÆåųíØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåƴåųčåţÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxŎƖxíxĿíƀƐĂĉĉxƚÆåųěĘŅŞě commute-mass-transit-seattle-chicago

69. BåƚåųØ„Ƌåý±ĹţŮƚĜĬÚĜĹč±Ÿå±ĵĬ域ĹåƋƵŅųĩţŰaåųÏåÚåDŽěåĹDŽØeŞųĜĬƀØƖLjŎƅţhttps:// www.mercedes-benz.com/en/mercedes-benz/next/mobility-concept-next/ building-a-seamless-network/

70. BŅÚčåŸØIåųåĵƼţَÆåų„ƚåŸkƴåų‰üXƚĬåŸa±ĩĜĹč%ųĜƴåųŸ‰±ĩå)ĹčĬĜŸĘ)ƻ±ĵŸţŰ ĬŅŅĵÆåųč‰åÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼØeƚčƚŸƋŎƀØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/ ±ųƋĜÏĬåŸxƖLjŎƅěLjíěŎƀxƚÆåųěŸƚåŸěĬŅĹÚŅĹěŅƴåųěųƚĬåŸěüŅųÏĜĹčěÚųĜƴåųŸěƋŅěƋ±ĩåěåĹčĬĜŸĘě exam

71. BŅĬåƼƵåĬĬØƼ±ĹţŮXeaåƋųŅűŸFĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹ{ŅĬĜÏƼ×ŅĹŸĜÚåųeĹƼ:ŅŅÚFÚå±ţŰUĜĹÚåų FĹŸƋĜƋƚƋåØIƚĹåƐLjØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƚųƱĹåÚčåţÆĬŅčŸţųĜÏåţåÚƚxƖLjŎƅxLjƅxƐLjxĬ±ěĵåƋųŅě takes-an-innovation-approach-to-government-considering-any-good-idea/

72. BŅĬĵåŸØ±ƋåŸÆƼţلÅŅ{±ƚĬŅFŸåƋƋĜĹčåƋƋåųŽųƱĹ{Ĭ±ĹĹĜĹč±Ĺ„ŅĬƴå±BŅƚŸĜĹč ųĜŸĜŸţŰcåƻƋĜƋƼØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼíØƖLjŎƅţhttps://nextcity.org/features/view/sao-paulo- housing-crisis-master-plan-zeis-haddad-habitat-iii

73. BŅųƵĜƋDŽØIŅŸĘţŮ%±ƼŸ±üƋåųÆƚƼĜĹčŽÆåųűŸĘĜűÆƚŸĜĹ域Ø%ĜÚĜĜŸƱÏĩĜĹčŽÆåųűŸĀåųÏåŸƋ ųĜƴ±ĬĜĹ„ŅƚƋĘ屟ƋeŸĜ±ţŰ}ƚ±ųƋDŽØeƚčƚŸƋƐØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxŧDŽţÏŅĵxƀĉĿŎŎĂxÚ±ƼŸě±üƋåųě ÆƚƼĜĹčěƚÆåųŸěÏĘĜűěÆƚŸĜĹ域ěÚĜÚĜěĜŸěƱÏĩĜĹčěƚÆåųŸěĀåųÏåŸƋěųĜƴ±ĬěĜĹěŸŅƚƋĘ屟Ƌě±ŸĜ±x

74. FaţŮXŅϱĬaŅƋŅųŸ%åÆƚƋŸŮkĬĬĜŰØƋĘå8ĜųŸƋ„åĬüěÚųĜƴĜĹčšåĘĜÏĬåƋŅ‰±ŞƋĘå{ŅƵåų ŅüFaœ±ƋŸŅĹţŰFaØIƚĹåŎƅØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵěLjƐţĜÆĵţÏŅĵxŞų域xƚŸxåĹx Şų域ųåĬ屟åxĉĿĿĂƀţƵŸŸ

75. FĹƋåųűƋĜŅűĬeŸŸŅÏĜ±ƋĜŅĹŅü{ƚÆĬĜωų±ĹŸŞŅųƋţŮ{ƚÆĬĜωų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ‰ųåĹÚŸţŰŽF‰{ØƖLjŎĂţ http://www.uitp.org/public-transport-trends

73 76. FŸ±±ÏØaĜĩåţŮ:åĹåų±ĬaŅƋŅųŸØ:±DŽĜĹč±Ƌ8ƚƋƚųåØFĹƴåŸƋŸâĂLjLjaĜĬĬĜŅĹĜĹXƼüƋţۉĘåcåƵ ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼĉØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĹƼƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxLjĂxƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼxčĵě ĜĹƴåŸƋŸěĜĹěĬƼüƋţĘƋĵĬũŸĵĜÚ÷ƋƵěŸĘ±ųå¼ƣų÷Lj

77. I±ýåØ)ųĜÏţٱĬ±ĹÏĜĹčĜĩåě„ʱųå„Ƌ±ƋĜŅĹŸB±ŸåÏŅĵ屄åųĜŅƚŸ„ÏĜåĹƋĜĀÏ)ĹÚå±ƴŅųţŰ ĜƋƼĬ±ÆØeƚčƚŸƋƖƀØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏŅĵĵƚƋåxƖLjŎĉxLjíxƱĬ±ĹÏĜĹčě ÆĜĩåěŸĘ±ųåěŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹŸěʱŸěÆåÏŅĵåě±ěŸåųĜŅƚŸěŸÏĜåĹƋĜĀÏěåĹÚå±ƴŅųxƐƀĿŎííx

78. óóóţŮBŅƵ{±Ĺ±ŸŅĹĜωƚųĹåÚ±ųŅĵĵƚƋåųŸFĹƋŅ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋĜÚåųŸţŰĜƋƼĬ±ÆØkÏƋŅÆåų ƖƀØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏĜƋƼĀƻåųxƖLjŎĂxŎLjxĘŅƵ쪱űŸŅĹĜÏěƋƚųĹåÚěϱųě ÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸěĜĹƋŅěƋų±ĹŸĜƋěųĜÚåųŸxĉŎƖĉŎƀx

79. óóóţلĜĹ豪ŅųåűŸ)±ųĬƼaŅųĹĜĹč8ųåå‰ų±ĹŸĜƋ{ųŅčų±ĵB±ŸååűBƚčå„ƚÏÏ域ţŰ ĜƋƼĬ±ÆØIƚĬƼƖĂØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏĜƋƼĀƻåųxƖLjŎĉxLjƀxŸĜĹ豪ŅųåŸěå±ųĬƼě ĵŅųĹĜĹčěüųååěƋų±ĹŸĜƋěŞųŅčų±ĵěʱŸěÆååĹě±ěĘƚčåěŸƚÏÏ域xƐƀĉĿLjĿx

80. IŅĘĹŸŅĹØååÚ±ĹÚŅčåųĜŅIåĬĵ±ƼåųţŮa±ƼŅų8åųűĹÚŅB±ÚÚ±ÚűŸ{ųŅěĜĩå{ƚŸĘ {ŅĬ±ųĜDŽåŸ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅţŰœ±ĬĬ„ƋųååƋIŅƚųűĬØ„åŞƋåĵÆåųƖƐØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.wsj.com/ ±ųƋĜÏĬåŸxĵ±ƼŅųěüåųűĹÚŅěʱÚÚ±ÚŸěŞųŅěÆĜĩåěŞƚŸĘěŞŅĬ±ųĜDŽåŸěŸ±Ņ쪱ƚĬŅěŎĉĉƐLjƐŎƐƀĉ

81. U±Ĭ±ĹĜÏĩ؉ų±ƴĜŸţَÆåųűŸŞĬ±ĹƋŅčåƋĵŅųåŞåŅŞĬåĜĹƋŅüåƵåųϱųŸţۉ)%Øa±ųÏĘƖLjŎƅţ ĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋåÚţÏŅĵxƋ±ĬĩŸxƋų±ƴĜŸƣĩ±Ĭ±ĹĜÏĩƣƚÆåųƣŸƣŞĬ±ĹƣƋŅƣčåƋƣĵŅųåƣŞåŅŞĬåƣĜĹƋŅƣ üåƵåųƣϱųŸxƋų±ĹŸÏųĜŞƋ

82. Kansas City Area Transportation Authority. “RideKC: Bridj Expands Service to the Ĝƴåųa±ųĩåƋţŰa±ŸŸ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋØa±ƼƖØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţĵ±ŸŸƋų±ĹŸĜƋĵ±čţÏŅĵxŞų域ƣ ųåĬ屟åxŎƖƖLjŎíƖĉxųĜÚåĩÏěÆųĜÚģěåƻޱĹÚŸěŸåųƴĜÏåěƋŅěƋĘåěųĜƴåųěĵ±ųĩåƋ

83. U±ƚüĵ±ĹرÏĘåĬţٜĘƼXƼüƋFŸa±ĩĜĹč8ųĜåĹÚŸœĜƋʉų±ĹŸĜƋečåĹÏĜåŸţŰcåƻƋĜƋƼØ cŅƴåĵÆåųĿØƖLjŎĂţhttps://nextcity.org/daily/entry/lyft-transit-agency-partnership- ĀųŸƋěĵĜĬåěĬ±ŸƋěĵĜĬåěčŅ±ĬŸ

84. UĬåĜĹØ:±ÆåƵĜƋĘ%±ƴĜÚěšåč±±ų±ÏĘŅƵĜƋDŽţلƋ±ųƋƚŞĜƋƼ×FĹŸŞĜųĜĹč{ųĜƴ±Ƌå¼{ƚÆĬĜÏ )ĹƋųåŞųåĹåƚųŸĘĜŞØ:åƋƋĜĹč{ųŅģåÏƋŸ%ŅĹåرĹÚB±ƴĜĹč8ƚĹţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ%×FŸĬ±ĹÚ {ų域ØƖLjŎĂţ

85. Klopp, Jacqueline M. “Cities in motion: how we mapped the matatus of Nairobi.” The :ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼŎĿØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxÏĜƋĜåŸxƖLjŎĉxüåÆxŎĿx cities-motion-how-we-mapped-matatus-nairobi

86. UĹĜčĘƋØ„±ĵţŮBŅƵŽÆåųŅĹŧƚåųåÚXŅĹÚŅĹţۉĘå:ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØeŞųĜĬƖƀØƖLjŎƅţhttps:// ƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼxƖLjŎƅx±ŞųxƖƀxĘŅƵěƚÆåųěÏŅĹŧƚåųåÚě ĬŅĹÚŅĹũƋųĩ÷ŞƚĬŸåěÚåƋě±ųƋƣƴĜåƵƣåƻƋ

74 87. Korosec, Kirsten. “Xerox Built the Ultimate Transportation App for Los Angeles.” 8ŅųƋƚĹåØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼƖíØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxüŅųƋƚĹåţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxƖíxƻåųŅƻěĬŅŸě±ĹčåĬåŸěƋų±þÏx

88. Xe%k‰ĜĩåĬŅčţŮaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼBƚÆŸĜĹXŅŸeĹčåĬåŸ×)ĵåųčĜĹčcŅÚåŸŅü‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹţ Xe%k‰ĜĩåĬŅčØkÏƋŅÆåųƖŎØƖLjŎĂţhttps://ladotbikeblog.wordpress. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxŎLjxƖŎxĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼěĘƚÆŸěĜĹěĬŅŸě±ĹčåĬåŸěåĵåųčĜĹčěĹŅÚåŸěŅüěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹx

89. X±DŽŅØXƚDŽţŮŅĵĜĹčƋŅ±aåƋųŅŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹĹå±ųƼŅƚ×čųŅÏåųƼÚåĬĜƴåųƼţœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ {ŅŸƋØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼŎØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr-gridlock/ ƵŞxƖLjŎƅxLjƖxLjŎxĹŅƵě±Ƌě±ěĵåƋųŅěŸƋ±ƋĜŅĹěĹå±ųěƼŅƚěčųŅÏåųƼěÚåĬĜƴåųƼx

90. Lomas, Natasha. “Urban Transport App Citymapper Snags $40M From Index, åĹÏĘĵ±ųĩØ¥ƚųĜaĜĬĹåųØkƋĘåųŸţۉåÏĘųƚĹÏĘØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼƖLjØƖLjŎƅţhttps://techcrunch. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxƖLjxƚųƱĹěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ챪ŞěÏĜƋƼĵ±ŞŞåųěŸĹ±čŸěĉLjĵěüųŅĵěĜĹÚåƻě benchmark-yuri-milner-others/

91. XŅĹÚŅĹØI域å±ĹÚĬ±ųĩœĜĬĬĜ±ĵŸě%åųųƼţٜĘŅ{±ƼŸ8Ņų{±ųĩĜĹčũŰ„ĜčĘƋĬĜĹåFĹŸƋĜƋƚƋåØ ƖLjŎƐţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţŸĜčĘƋĬĜĹåţŅųčxųåŸå±ųÏĘƣĜƋåĵxƵĘŅ쪱ƼŸěüŅų쪱ųĩĜĹčx

92. a±Ï:ĜĬĬĜŸØeĬåÏţىĘå‰ĘĜųÚ±ĜĬţŰ{Ĭ±ÏåŸIŅƚųűĬØa±ųÏĘƖLjŎƅţhttps://placesjournal. org/article/the-third-rail/

93. a±ÏĩĜåØ{±ƚĬţŮĜĬĬ¼aåĬĜĹÚ±:±ƋåŸ8ŅƚĹÚ±ƋĜŅĹÏƚƋŸŸŅĬŅÚųĜƴĜĹčƵĜƋĘåĵŞĬŅƼåå ŞųŅčų±ĵŸţŰaŅÆĜĬĜƋƼX±ÆØa±ƼƖƐØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĬ±ÆţŅųčxƖLjŎƅxLjĂxƖƐxč±ƋåŸě foundation-building-tdm/

94. Marshall, Aarian. “Kansas City Is Embarking on a Great Microtransit Experiment.” ĜƋƼĬ±ÆØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼŎƀØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏĜƋƼĀƻåųxƖLjŎƅxLjƖxĩ±ĹŸ±ŸěÏĜƋƼě ÆųĜÚģěĵĜÏųŅƋų±ĹŸĜƋxĉƅƖƅŎĂx

95. a±ųƋĜĹØ)ĬĬĜŅƋœţ±ĹÚ„ƚŸ±Ĺeţ„ʱĘååĹØŮ)ƴ±Ĭƚ±ƋĜĹčŞƚÆĬĜÏƋų±ĹŸĜƋĵŅÚ±ĬŸĘĜüƋÚƼűĵĜÏŸ in response to bikesharing: a tale of two U.S. cities.” Journal of Transport Geography, %åÏåĵÆåųƖLjŎĉØšŅĬţĉŎØŞŞţƐŎĂôƐƖĉţhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ ŞĜĜx„LjĿƅƅƅĿƖƐŎĉLjLjŎĉLjĿ

96. MasterCard. “MasterCard and C40 Partner to Rally Megacities Around Sustainable aŅÆĜĬĜƋƼţŰa±ŸƋåų±ųÚØ%åÏåĵÆåųƐØƖLjŎĂţhttp://newsroom.mastercard.com/press- releases/mastercard-and-c40-partner-to-rally-megacities-around-sustainable- mobility/

97. a±Ƶ±ÚØa±ųĜå±ĹÚU±ųĜĹa±ƋƚŸŸåĩţَÆåų8ååĬŸŽÆåų{ŅŞB±ĹčŅƴåųœĜƋĘ8ųåĹÏĘØ :åųĵ±ĹXåč±Ĭ„åƋƱÏĩŸţŰĬŅŅĵÆåųč‰åÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼØIƚĹåĿØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www. ÆĬŅŅĵÆåųčţÏŅĵxĹåƵŸx±ųƋĜÏĬåŸxƖLjŎƅěLjƅěLjĿxƚÆåųěƋƵŅěåƻåÏƚƋĜƴåŸěĀĹåÚěÆƼěüųåĹÏĘě court-over-uberpop-service

75 98. aÏ%åųĵŅƋƋØIŅĘĹţىĘåBĜÚÚåĹŅŸƋŸŅü%ųĜƴĜĹčŽÆåųţŰa)XØa±ųÏĘíØƖLjŎƅţhttps:// features.wearemel.com/how-much-can-you-earn-driving-uber-when-accounting- üŅųěƼŅƚųěϱųěŸěÚåŞųåÏĜ±ƋĜŅĹěåüƅƅÚíÚƐƖLjĉÆńţí±ƻÚĿĵŸųÆ

99. aÏUĜĹŸåƼţŮ8ĜűĹÏĜ±Ĭĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋ±ĹÚŅŞåų±ƋĜŅűĬåýåÏƋĜƴåĹ域ſŅ±ųÚųå±ÚŅƚƋţŰ ƖLjŎƅţaÏUĜĹŸåƼØĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţŸÏųĜÆÚţÏŅĵxÚŅÏƚĵåĹƋxƐLjíƖĉƐƅLjíxœae‰eěåŞŅųƋě by-McKinsey-Company

100. aĜĬĬåųØ„ƋåŞĘåĹţىĘĜŸa±Ş„ĘŅƵŸœĘåųåÚåĬ±ŸĜŅœ±ĹƋŸƋŅåÚƚÏå{±ųĩĜĹč a±ĹÚ±ƋåŸţŰ„ƋųååƋŸÆĬŅčÆĬŅčŞŅŸƋŅĹ„åŞƋåĵÆåųƖƐØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.streetsblog. ŅųčxƖLjŎĂxLjĿxƖƐxƋĘĜŸěĵ±ŞěŸĘŅƵŸěƵĘåųåěÚåěÆĬ±ŸĜŅěƵ±ĹƋŸěƋŅěåĬĜĵĜűƋåěŸŅĵåě parking-mandates/

101. Mirani, Leo. “The secret to the Uber economy is wealth inequality.” Quartz, December ŎƅØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxŧDŽţÏŅĵxƐŎƖĂƐƀxƋĘåěŸåÏųåƋěƋŅěƋĘåěƚÆåųěåÏŅĹŅĵƼěĜŸěƵå±ĬƋĘě inequality/

102. Morozov, Evgeny. “Cheap cab ride? You must have missed Uber’s true cost.” The :ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼƐLjØƖLjŎƅţ ĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxÏŅĵĵåĹƋĜŸüųååxƖLjŎƅx ģ±ĹxƐŎxÏĘå±ŞěϱÆěųĜÚåěƚÆåųěƋųƚåěÏŅŸƋěčŅŅčĬåěƵå±ĬƋĘěƋ±ƻ±ƋĜŅĹũa{÷ƋƵƋƣčƚ

103. aƚŸĩØ)ĬŅĹţŮa±ŸƋåų{Ĭ±ĹØ{±ųƋ%åƚƻţۉåŸĬ±aŅƋŅųŸØIƚĬƼƖLjØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.tesla. com/blog/master-plan-part-deux

104. Moench, Marcus and Dipak Gyawali, “Desakota: Reinterpreting the Urban-Rural ŅĹƋĜĹƚƚĵţŰŽţUţ%åŞ±ųƋĵåĹƋüŅųFĹƋåųűƋĜŅűĬ%åƴåĬŅŞĵåĹƋØƖLjLjíţhttps://www.gov. ƚĩxÚĀÚěųåŸå±ųÏĘěŅƚƋŞƚƋŸxĀűĬěųåŞŅųƋěÚ埱ĩŅƋ±ěޱųƋěĜĜě±ěųåĜĹƋåųŞųåƋĜĹčěƋĘåěƚųƱĹě ųƚų±ĬěÏŅĹƋĜĹƚƚĵńÏĜƋ±ƋĜŅĹ

105. aŅŅƴåĬ:ųŅƚŞţŮkĹåěŸƋŅŞěŸĘŅŞüŅųƚųƱĹĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĜĹB±ĵÆƚųč×ÆŅŅĩ±ĹÚޱƼüŅų ģŅƚųĹåƼŸƵĜƋĘϱųƖčŅØ8ĬĜĹĩŸƋåųØĵƼƋ±ƻĜØ%åƚƋŸÏĘå±ĘűĹÚüųŅĵĹŅƵŅűĬŸŅŞƚÆĬĜÏ Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŠBšššÚĜųåÏƋĬƼĜĹƋĘåĵŅŅƴåĬ±ŞŞţŰaŅŅƴåĬ:ųŅƚŞØeŞųĜĬƖĂØƖLjŎƅţhttps:// moovel-group.com/en/press/one-stop-shop-for-urban-mobility-in-hamburg

106. óóóţŮĵŅŅƴåĬcţeţX±ƚĹÏĘåŸĜÚ剱Ş{ĜĬŅƋĜĹ{ŅųƋĬ±ĹÚØkØkýåųŸXƼüƋ±ĹÚϱųƖčŅ ƵĜƋĘĜʼnųĜaåƋ‰ĜÏĩåƋŸeŞŞĬĜϱƋĜŅĹţŰaŅŅƴåĬ:ųŅƚŞØa±ƼĂØƖLjŎƅţhttps://moovel-group. ÏŅĵxåĹxŞų域xĵŅŅƴåĬěĹě±ěĬ±ƚĹÏĘåŸěųĜÚåƋ±ŞěŞĜĬŅƋěĜĹěŞŅųƋĬ±ĹÚěŅųěŅýåųŸěĬƼüƋě±ĹÚě ϱųƖčŅěƵĜƋĘĜĹěƋųĜĵåƋěƋĜÏĩåƋŸě±ŞŞĬĜϱƋĜŅĹ

107. Moss, Stephen. “End of the car age: how cities are outgrowing the automobile.” The :ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØeŞųĜĬƖíØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxÏĜƋĜåŸxƖLjŎĂx±ŞųxƖíxåĹÚěŅüě the-car-age-how-cities-outgrew-the-automobile

76 108. Murgia, Madhumita. “Businesses call on London mayor to rethink onerous Uber ųƚĬåŸţŰ8ĜűĹÏĜ±Ĭ‰ĜĵåŸØeƚčƚŸƋŎĉØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţüƋţÏŅĵxÏĵŸxŸxLjxŎLjŎƐÏÆĂLjěĂü±Ŏě ŎŎåƅě±åƐüěƀƀƱ±ÚåÆŎÏĿƐţĘƋĵĬń±ƻDŽDŽĉB±ĩaÚƐLjLj

109. c±ƴĜč±ĹƋåŸå±ųÏĘţىų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ8ŅųåϱŸƋ×XĜčĘƋ%ƚƋƼšåĘĜÏĬåŸţŰc±ƴĜč±ĹƋ åŸå±ųÏĘØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.navigantresearch.com/research/transportation- forecast-light-duty-vehicles

110. cĜϱŸØI±ÏĩţŮ:ŅŅčĬ剱ĩåŸkĹŽÆåųœĜƋĘcåƵĜÚåě„ʱųå„åųƴĜÏåţŰœ±ĬĬ„ƋųååƋ IŅƚųűĬØeƚčƚŸƋƐLjØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.wsj.com/articles/google-takes-on-uber-with- ĹåƵěųĜÚåěŸĘ±ųåěŸåųƴĜÏåěŎĉƀƖĂíĉƖƐĂ

111. Nisenson, Lisa. “Uber’s new wave of urban design. Are cities ready?” Mobility Lab, „åŞƋåĵÆåųíØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼĬ±ÆţŅųčxƖLjŎĂxLjĿxLjíxƚÆåųŸěĹåƵěƵ±ƴåěŅüěƚųƱĹě design-are-cities-ready/

112. kű%ŅĹŅƴ±ĹرųŅĬĜĹå±ĹÚIåųåĵƼ„ĜĹčåųěšĜĹåţŮBŅƵaƚÏĘŽÆåų%ųĜƴåųŸeÏƋƚ±ĬĬƼ a±ĩå{åųBŅƚųţŰƚDŽDŽ8ååÚcåƵŸØIƚĹåƖƖØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.buzzfeed.com/ ϱųŅĬĜĹåŅÚŅĹŅƴ±ĹxĜĹƋåųűĬěƚÆåųěÚųĜƴåų쪱ƼěĹƚĵÆåųŸũƚƋĵƣƋåųĵ÷ţƼų¬ĩƐeLj{ŞUńţ duPdBrX0kg

113. O’Sullivan, Feargus. “A Finnish City Is Giving Drivers Free Fares to Take the Bus.” ĜƋƼĬ±ÆØa±ųÏĘíØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏĜƋƼĀƻåųxƖLjŎƅxLjƐxƋƚųĩƚěĀĹĬ±ĹÚěüųååě ÆƚŸěü±ųåěÚųĜƴåųŸěƋų±ĹŸĜƋxĉƀƖƀĉƅx

114. ———. “Milan’s Quick Fix for Bad Smog: Cheap Public Transportation.” Citylab, %åÏåĵÆåųŎƅØƖLjŎĂţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏĜƋƼĀƻåųxƖLjŎĂxŎƖxĵĜĬ±ĹěŞƚÆĬĜÏě Ƌų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹěŞŅĬĬƚƋĜŅĹěŸĵŅčxĉƖLjƅƐĿx

115. {±ĜØa±ÚʱƴØeŸĘƵĜĹ{ų±ÆĘƚ±ĹÚ%±ųĜŅBĜÚ±ĬčŅţŮ%åÏĜŸĜŅĹa±ĩĜĹč{ųŅÏ域FĹ Successful City-wide Bus Reforms — Same Story Repeats In Three Continents.” ŎƖƋĘœŅųĬÚŅĹüåųåĹÏåŅʼnų±ĹŸŞŅųƋåŸå±ųÏĘţXĜŸÆŅĹØ{ŅųƋƚč±ĬØŎŎěŎĂIƚĬƼƖLjŎLjţ http://www.wctrs-society.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/abstracts/lisbon/ ŸåĬåÏƋåÚxLjƐŎĉƐţŞÚü

116. {±ųĩåųØĜÏʱųÚţŮBŅƵeƚŸƋĜĹå±ƋŽÆåųţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØa±ƼŎƖØƖLjŎƅţhttp:// ƵƵƵţĹƼƋĜĵåŸţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjĂxŎƖxŅŞĜĹĜŅĹxĘŅƵě±ƚŸƋĜĹěÆå±ƋěƚÆåųţĘƋĵĬ

117. {åűĬŅŸ±Ø)ĹųĜŧƚåţٜĘƼÆƚŸåŸųåŞųåŸåĹƋÚåĵŅÏų±ÏƼĜűÏƋĜŅĹţۉ)%Ø%åÏåĵÆåųƖLjŎƐţ ĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋåÚţÏŅĵxƋ±ĬĩŸxåĹųĜŧƚåƣŞåűĬŅŸ±ƣƵĘƼƣÆƚŸåŸƣųåŞųåŸåĹƋƣÚåĵŅÏų±ÏƼƣĜĹƣ ±ÏƋĜŅĹxƋų±ĹŸÏųĜŞƋũĬ±Ĺčƚ±čå÷åĹńƋěĉLjĂƖLj

77 118. {ĜĹĘŅØa´ųÏĜŅţŮB±ÚÚ±ÚƋåĹƋ±åĵŞųæŸƋĜĵŅÚåâƖÆĜޱų±ŅÆų±ŸÚåĵŅÆĜĬĜÚ±Úå åÚųåűčåĵţ:ĬŅÆŅ:ŎØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƐØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxčŎţčĬŅÆŅţÏŅĵxŸ±Ņ쪱ƚĬŅx ĹŅƋĜÏĜ±xƖLjŎƅxLjƖxʱÚÚ±ÚěƋåĹƋ±ěåĵŞųåŸƋĜĵŅěÚåěųěƖěÆĜ쪱ų±ěŅÆų±ŸěÚåěĵŅÆĜĬĜÚ±Úåěåě drenagem.html

119. ±ĵĜųåDŽØ)Ĭ±ĜĹåţŮeüƋåųčåƋƋĜĹčüŅųÏåÚŅƚƋŅü„ŅƚƋĘUŅųå±ØŽÆåųŞųåŞ±ųåŸƋŅĀčĘƋ ƱÏĩţۉåÏĘĜĹeŸĜ±Ø%åÏåĵÆåųƐØƖLjŎĂţhttps://www.techinasia.com/uber-relaunch- south-korea

120. Ries, Brian and Jenni Ryall. “Uber intros surge pricing during Sydney hostage siege, ƋĘåĹƱÏĩƋų±ÏĩŸ±üƋåųƚŸåųŅƚƋÏųƼţŰa±ŸĘ±ÆĬåØ%åÏåĵÆåųŎĉØƖLjŎĉţhttp://mashable. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎĉxŎƖxŎĉxƚÆåųěŸƼÚĹåƼěŸƚųčåěŞųĜÏĜĹčx

121. ŅÚĜŸØţŮa±ĹĜĬ±űŸƋų±þÏģ±ĵŸÏŅŸƋâĂƀĵĜĬĬĜŅűڱƼţŰ{ĘĜĬĜŞŞĜĹå%±ĜĬƼFĹŧƚĜųåųØ kÏƋŅÆåųƖƐØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxčĬŅƱĬűƋĜŅĹţĜĹŧƚĜųåųţĹåƋxŎŎƐƖƅĿxĵ±ĹĜĬ±ŸěƋų±þÏěģ±ĵŸěÏŅŸƋě ĂƀěĵĜĬĬĜŅĹě±ěÚ±Ƽ

122. ŅčåųŸØeÚ±ĵţٜåĬÏŅĵåƋŅƋĘåaåƋ±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųå׉ĘåcåƵFĹƋåųĹåƋŅü‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹţŰ œĜųåÚØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼĉØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƵĜųåÚţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxƋĘåěĵåƋ±ŸƋųƚÏƋƚųåě transportation/

123. Romero, Simon. “Fighting Resistance, a Mayor Strives to Ease Gridlock in a ų±DŽĜĬĜ±Ĺaåč±ÏĜƋƼţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØkÏƋŅÆåųĉØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.nytimes. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎĂxŎLjxLjĂxƵŅųĬÚx±ĵåųĜϱŸxĵ±ƼŅųěüåųűĹÚŅěʱÚÚ±ÚěŅüěŸ±Ņ쪱ŅĬŅěŸƋųĜƴåŸě to-ease-gridlock.html

124. Salam, Reihan. “The Coming Private Transit Revolution.” National Review, August ƀØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţűƋĜŅűĬųåƴĜåƵţÏŅĵx±čåĹÚ±xƐíĉíLjƖxÏŅĵĜĹčěŞųĜƴ±ƋåěƋų±ĹŸĜƋě revolution-reihan-salam

125. „ÏĘŅĬDŽØ‰ųåÆŅų±ĹÚc±ƋʱĹ„ÏĘĹåĜÚåųţىĘå{åŅŞĬåűŸŽÆåųלĘƼ‰Ęå„ʱųĜĹč )ÏŅĹŅĵƼaƚŸƋ„ʱųåkƵĹåųŸĘĜŞţŰ8±ŸƋŅĵޱĹƼØkÏƋŅÆåųƀØƖLjŎĂţhttps://www. ü±ŸƋÏŅåƻĜŸƋţÏŅĵxƐLjĂŎíĉĂxƋĘåěŞåŅŞĬåŸěƚÆåųěƵĘƼěƋĘåěŸĘ±ųĜĹčěåÏŅĹŅĵƼěĵƚŸƋěŸĘ±ųåě ownership

126. San Francisco Municipal Transit Agency. “City of San Francisco: Meeting the „ĵ±ųƋĜƋƼʱĬĬåĹčåţŰ„8a‰eØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţŸüĵƋ±ţÏŅĵxŸĜƋåŸxÚåü±ƚĬƋxĀĬåŸx ŞųŅģåÏƋŸxƖLjŎƅx„8ŢƖLj„ĵ±ųƋŢƖLjĜƋƼŢƖLjʱĬĬåĹčåƣ8ĜűĬţŞÚü

127. „ĘƚåĘØI±ŸŅĹţىĘ屟åüŅųŎí8לĘƼ8åÚåų±ĬF‰{ųŅÏƚųåĵåĹƋØŅĹƋų±ÏƋĜĹčcååÚƋŅ ʱĹčåţŰ:ŅƴåųĹĵåĹƋ‰åÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼØIƚĬƼŎƖØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.govtech.com/data/The- ±ŸåěüŅųěŎí8ěœĘƼě8åÚåų±ĬěF‰ě{ųŅÏƚųåĵåĹƋěŅĹƋų±ÏƋĜĹčěcååÚěƋŅěʱĹčåţĘƋĵĬ

78 128. „ĜÚÚĜŧƚĜØ8±ĜDŽţŮXƼüƋƵĜĬĬŅýåųŸƋååŞÚĜŸÏŅƚĹƋŸƋŅ±ƋƋų±ÏƋÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸÚƚųĜĹčaåƋųŅűŸ „±üå‰ų±ÏĩţŰœ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ{ŅŸƋØIƚĹåŎØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ ÚųěčųĜÚĬŅÏĩxƵŞxƖLjŎƅxLjƅxLjŎxĬƼüƋěƵĜĬĬěŅýåųěŸƋååŞěÚĜŸÏŅƚĹƋŸěƋŅě±ƋƋų±ÏƋěÏŅĵĵƚƋåųŸě during-metros-safetrack/

129. „ĜŸŸŅĹØ{±ƋųĜÏĩţŮBŅƵ%ųĜƴåųĬ域±ųŸ±ĹåŸĘ±ŞåkƚųĜƋĜåŸţŰƚųÆåÚØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖĂØ ƖLjŎƅţ

130. Land Transport Authority of Singapore. “Travel Early, Travel Free, Travel on the a‰ţŰX±ĹÚ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋeƚƋĘŅųĜƋƼŅü„ĜĹ豪ŅųåØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ ltaweb/en/public-transport/mrt-and-lrt-trains/travel-smart/for-commuters.html

131. Smith, Aaron. “Shared, Collaborative and On Demand: The New Digital Economy.” {åƵåŸå±ųÏĘåĹƋåųØƖLjŎƅĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţŞåƵĜĹƋåųĹåƋţŅųčxƖLjŎƅxLjĂxŎĿxƋĘåěĹåƵě digital-economy/

132. Smith, Amy and Andrew Salzberg. “Uber in Towns of All Sizes: Reliable Transportation ŅĹa±ĜĹ„ƋųååƋţŰŽÆåųŽĹÚåųƋĘåBŅŅÚØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼŎƅØƖLjŎƅţhttps://medium.com/uber- under-the-hood/uber-in-towns-of-all-sizes-reliable-transportation-on-main-street- ƀƱƐŎÏĉ±ÆÆŎŎńţĬƼŎĘĵŸģčƅ

133. „ŅÏĘŅųØI±Ĺ±XţØBåĬåű„ƋųʼnĵÆåųč±ĹÚa±ųĜeĹĹåU±ųĬŸŸŅĹØىų±ƴåĬåųŸűaŅƋĜƴåŸ8Ņų Adopting A New, Innovative Travel Service: Insights From The UbiGo Field Operational ‰åŸƋFĹ:ŅƋĘåĹÆƚųčØ„ƵåÚåĹţŰƖŎŸƋœŅųĬÚŅĹčų域ŅĹFĹƋåĬĬĜčåĹƋ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹ „ƼŸƋåĵŸØ%åƋųŅĜƋØ„åŞƋåĵÆåųƀěŎŎØƖLjŎĉţ

134. „ŞåÏƋŅųØIƚĬĜ±ĹţٜĘƼ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋečåĹÏĜåŸeųå8ĜűĬĬƼ)ĵÆų±ÏĜĹčŽÆåųţŰĜƋƼĬ±ÆØeŞųĜĬ ŎŎØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÏĜƋƼĬ±ÆţÏŅĵxÏŅĵĵƚƋåxƖLjŎƅxLjĉxƚÆåųěĬƼüƋěųĜÚåŸĘ±ųĜĹčě±ŞŞŸě ŞƚÆĬĜÏěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹxĉƀĂĿLjíx

135. „ƋŅĬÆåųčØ„ĘåųƼĬ:ţ±ĹÚcĜÏĘŅĬ±Ÿ8±ĹÚŅŸţٜ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹaåƋųŅØĉLj±ĹÚųå±ĩĜĹčØ „Ƌ±ų埱Ƌ±aĜÚĬĜüåųĜŸĜŸţۉĘåcåƵ¥Ņųĩ‰ĜĵåŸØeŞųĜĬƐØƖLjŎƅţhttp://www.nytimes. ÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjĉxLjĉxƚŸxƵ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹěĵåƋųŅěĉLjě±ĹÚěÏųå±ĩĜĹčěŸƋ±ųåŸě±Ƌě±ěĵĜÚĬĜüåěÏųĜŸĜŸţ html

136. ‰ĘŅĵŞŸŅĹØĬĜƴåţŮcŅ{±ųĩĜĹčBåųåţŰaŅƋĘåųIŅĹåŸØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼx8åÆųƚ±ųƼƖLjŎƅţhttp:// ƵƵƵţĵŅƋĘåųģŅĹåŸţÏŅĵxåĹƴĜųŅĹĵåĹƋxƖLjŎƅxLjŎxüƚƋƚųå쪱ųĩĜĹčěŸåĬüěÚųĜƴĜĹčěϱųŸ

137. Thomson, Robert. “Metro ridership continues to plummet along with service.” œ±ŸĘĜĹčƋŅĹ{ŅŸƋØ8åÆųƚ±ųƼĿØƖLjŎƅţhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/dr- čųĜÚĬŅÏĩxƵŞxƖLjŎƅxLjƖxLjĿxĵåƋųŅě±Ÿěų±ĜĬěŸåųƴĜÏåěÚåÏĬĜĹåŸěŸŅěÚŅåŸěųĜÚåųŸĘĜŞx

79 138. Tomer, Adie, Elizabeth Kneebone, Robert Puentes and Alan Berube. “Missed kŞŞŅųƋƚĹĜƋƼ׉ų±ĹŸĜƋ±ĹÚIŅÆŸĜĹaåƋųŅŞŅĬĜƋ±ĹeĵåųĜϱţŰųŅŅĩĜĹčŸFĹŸƋĜƋƚƋĜŅĹØƖLjŎŎţ ĘƋƋŞ×xxƵƵƵţÆųŅŅĩĜĹčŸţåÚƚxųåŸå±ųÏĘxųåŞŅųƋŸxƖLjŎŎxLjĂxŎƖěģŅÆŸě±ĹÚěƋų±ĹŸĜƋ

139. ‰ŅƵĹŸåĹÚØeĹƋĘŅĹƼţŮ{å±ĩĜƋƼţŰaåÚĜƚĵØcŅƴåĵÆåųƖƖØƖLjŎĂţhttps://medium. ÏŅĵxıĹƋĘŅĹƼĵŅÆĜĬåxŞå±ĩěÏĜƋƼěÆĂĉĂƀíĉƅÏåŎŎńţĬŸĬDŽčƐĉĿĩ

140. ———. “Re-Programming Mobility: The Digital Transformation of Transportation in the ŽĹĜƋåÚ„Ƌ±ƋåŸţŰcåƵ¥ŅųĩŽĹĜƴåųŸĜƋƼØƖLjŎĉţhttp://reprogrammingmobility.org

141. ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋåĹƋåų±ĹÚ8ųŅĹƋĜåų:ųŅƚŞţلƚÆŸĜÚĜDŽĜĹčŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹţۉų±ĹŸĜƋåĹƋåųØƖLjŎĉţ ĘƋƋŞ×xxƋų±ĹŸĜƋÏåĹƋåųţŅųčxƵŞěÏŅĹƋåĹƋxƚŞĬŅ±ÚŸxƖLjŎĉxŎŎx„ƚÆŸĜÚĜDŽĜĹčŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹě FINAL.pdf

142. ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋüŅųXŅĹÚŅĹţŮʱĹčåŸƋŅŞųĜƴ±ƋåĘĜųåųåčƚĬ±ƋĜŅĹţŰeÏÏ域åÚŅĹeƚčƚŸƋŎƀØ ƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƋāţčŅƴţƚĩxĜĹüŅěüŅųxƋ±ƻĜŸě±ĹÚěŞųĜƴ±ƋåěĘĜųåxĹåƵěŞųĜƴ±ƋåěĘĜųåěųåčƚĬ±ƋĜŅĹŸ

143. Tsay, Shin-pei, Zak Accuardi, and Bruce Schaller. “Private Mobility, Public Interest: BŅƵŞƚÆĬĜϱčåĹÏĜåŸϱĹƵŅųĩƵĜƋĘåĵåųčĜĹčĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼŞųŅƴĜÚåųŸţŰcåƵ¥ŅųĩØc¥× ‰ų±ĹŸĜƋåĹƋåųØƖLjŎƅţ

144. ŽÆåųţŮIƚĬƼ{kkX{±ŸŸ×ĜÚåüŅų±ŞåĹĹƼ±ĬĬĵŅĹƋĘĬŅĹčţŰŽÆåųØIƚĹåŎĿØƖLjŎƅţhttps:// newsroom.uber.com/us-massachusetts/july-pool-pass-ride-for-a-penny-all-month- long/

145. ŽÆåųţىų±ĹŸŞ±ųåĹÏƼåŞŅųƋţŰŽÆåųØƖLjŎƅţhttps://transparencyreport.uber.com

146. Uber. “Uber and Altamonte Springs launch pilot program to improve transportation ±ÏÏ域ţŰŽÆåųØa±ųÏĘƖŎØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxĹåƵŸųŅŅĵţƚÆåųţÏŅĵxƚŸěāŅųĜÚ±x±ĬƋ±ĵŅĹƋåě springs/

147. ŽţUţ±ÆĜĹåƋkþÏåţŮBŅųĜDŽŅĹ„ϱĹĹĜĹč{ųŅčų±ĵĵå‰å±ĵţŰŽţUţ±ÆĜĹåƋkþÏåţhttps:// ƵƵƵţčŅƴţƚĩxčŅƴåųĹĵåĹƋxčųŅƚŞŸxĘŅųĜDŽŅĹěŸÏ±ĹĹĜĹčěŞųŅčų±ĵĵåěƋå±ĵńųŅĬå

148. U.S. Department of Transportation. “Secretary Foxx Unveils President Obama’s 8¥ŎƀƚÚčåƋ{ųŅŞŅŸ±ĬŅücå±ųĬƼâĉĜĬĬĜŅĹüŅųeƚƋŅĵ±ƋåÚšåĘĜÏĬ埱ĹÚeĹĹŅƚĹÏåŸ %k‰FĹĜƋĜ±ƋĜƴåŸƋŅeÏÏåĬåų±ƋåšåĘĜÏĬ儱üåƋƼFĹĹŅƴ±ƋĜŅĹŸţŰŽţ„ţ%k‰ØI±Ĺƚ±ųƼŎĉØƖLjŎƅţ ĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹţčŅƴxÆųĜåĀĹčěųŅŅĵxŸåÏųåƋ±ųƼěüŅƻƻěƚĹƴåĜĬŸěŞųåŸĜÚåĹƋě ŅƱĵ±űŸěüƼŎƀěÆƚÚčåƋěŞųŅŞŅŸ±ĬěĹå±ųĬƼěĉěÆĜĬĬĜŅĹ

149. Žţ„ţc±ƋĜŅűĬFĹƋåĬĬĜčåĹÏåŅƚĹÏĜĬţŮ:ĬŅƱĬ‰ųåĹÚŸƖLjƐLj×eĬƋåųűƋĜƴåœŅųĬÚŸţŰƖLjŎƖţ ĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţÚĹĜţčŅƴxĀĬåŸxÚŅÏƚĵåĹƋŸx:ĬŅƱĬ‰ųåĹÚŸƣƖLjƐLjţŞÚü

80 150. šĜÚ±ĬØIŅĘĹţŮů‰ĘåųåĜŸĹŅåŸÏ±Şåű×c±ĜųŅÆĜűŸ±ĜųŞŅĬĬƚƋĜŅĹŸŞ±ųĩŸeüųĜϱĘå±ĬƋĘƵ±ųĹĜĹčţŰ ‰Ęå:ƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹØIƚĬƼŎLjØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞŸ×xxƵƵƵţƋĘåčƚ±ųÚĜ±ĹţÏŅĵxÏĜƋĜåŸxƖLjŎƅxģƚĬxŎLjxĹŅě escape-nairobi-air-pollution-sparks-africa-health-warning

151. œ±ĬĩåųØeĬĜŸŸ±ţŮFü¥Ņƚœ±ĹƋåƋƋåų{ƚÆĬĜωų±ĹŸĜƋØ¥Ņƚ{ųŅƱÆĬƼ„ĘŅƚĬÚĹűƋŽŸåŽÆåųţŰ :ĜDŽĵŅÚŅØeƚčƚŸƋƖƅØƖLjŎĂţhttp://gizmodo.com/if-you-want-better-public-transit- ƼŅƚěŞųŅƱÆĬƼěŸĘŅƚĬÚĹěŎƀƖƅĉƅĿĉƅŎ

152. œ±ĬŸĘØ„Ƌ±ĹţŮŮ%±Ƌ±ĘåĬŞŸƚŸŞųŅƴĜÚåÆåƋƋåųƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋŰ׉üXŅĹkƼŸƋåųϱųÚŸØÆĜčÚ±Ƌ± ±ĹÚÏŅĹƋ±ÏƋĬ域ޱƼĵåĹƋŸţŰĜƋƼĵåƋųĜÏØ„åŞƋåĵÆåųŎíØƖLjŎĂţhttp://www.citymetric. ÏŅĵxƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋxÚ±Ƌ±ěĘåĬŞŸěƚŸěŞųŅƴĜÚåěÆåƋƋåųěƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋěƋāěŅƼŸƋåųěϱųÚŸěÆĜčěÚ±Ƌ±ě ±ĹÚěÏŅĹƋ±ÏƋĬåŸŸěŞ±ƼĵåĹƋŸěŎƐĿƅ

153. œ±ĹčØ{ƚ؉ĜĵŅƋĘƼBƚĹƋåųØeĬåƻ±ĹÚųåaţ±ƼåĹØU±Ƌģ±„ÏĘåÏĘƋĹåųرĹÚa±ųƋ±ţ :ŅĹDŽ±ĬåDŽØَĹÚåųŸƋ±ĹÚĜĹčŅ±ÚŽŸ±čå{±ƋƋåųĹŸĜĹŽųƱĹeų屟ţŰ„ÏĜåĹƋĜĀÏåŞŅųƋŸØ šŅĬţƖØeųƋĜÏĬåcŅţŎLjLjŎţ{ƚÆĬĜŸĘåÚŅĹĬĜĹå%åÏåĵÆåųƖLjØƖLjŎƖţhttp://www.nature.com/ ±ųƋĜÏĬåŸxŸųåŞLjŎLjLjŎ

154. œååĩŸØeĬĬĜŸŅĹţل±Ĺ8ų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅ„ƚŞåųƴĜŸŅųŸųå±ÏʱčųååĵåĹƋŅűÏÏ域ŅųƼÚƵåĬĬĜĹč ƚĹĜƋŸţŰUkcØIƚĬƼŎíØƖLjŎƅţĘƋƋŞ×xxĩųŅĹĉţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxLjƀxŎíxŸ±Ĺěüų±ĹÏĜŸÏŅěŸƚŞåųƴĜŸŅųŸě reach-agreement-on-accessory-dwelling-units/

155. œŅŅÚĵ±ĹØ„ŞåĹÏåųţٜåĬÏŅĵåƋŅŽÆåųƴĜĬĬåţۉĘåšåųčåØ„åŞƋåĵÆåųŎØƖLjŎƅţhttp:// ƵƵƵţƋĘåƴåųčåţÏŅĵxƖLjŎƅxĿxŎxŎƖƀƐĂƅƅƅxƚÆåųě±ĬƋ±ĵŅĹƋåěŸŞųĜĹčŸěāěŞƚÆĬĜÏě transportation-taxi-system

156. ‰ĘåœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩţŮʱĹčĜĹčŅĵĵƚƋåųŸűĘŅĜÏåŸBåĬŞŸ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅåÚƚÏå‰ų±þÏ ŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹţۉĘåœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩØa±ƼŎØƖLjŎĉţhttp://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ üå±ƋƚųåxƖLjŎĉxLjĂxLjŎxÏʱĹčĜĹčěÏŅĵĵƚƋåųěÏĘŅĜÏåŸěĘåĬŞŸěŸ±Ņ쪱ƚĬŅěųåÚƚÏåěƋų±þÏě congestion

157. Uų±ĵÆåÏĩØBŅĬĬƼØšĜÏƋŅųcţ%±ƋŅرĹÚc±Ƌ±ŸĘ±åŸÏĘŅųĹåųţŮŅĵŞĬåƋĜŅĹåŞŅųƋŽųƱĹ ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ĹÚF‰±Ş±ÏĜƋƼƚĜĬÚĜĹčţŰœŅųĬÚ±ĹĩØƖLjŎĂţhttp://trilliumtransit.com/wp- ÏŅĹƋåĹƋxƚŞĬŅ±ÚŸxƖLjŎƅxLjƀxŽųƱĹě‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋě±ĹÚěF‰ě±Ş±ÏĜƋƼěƚĜĬÚĜĹčě{ŎƐLjƐĉƅţŞÚü

158. £ĜĹčØIĜ±ĹŞĜĹčØBĜųŅŸĘĜ‰±ĩ±Ę±ŸĘĜ±ĹÚBĜųŅĩ±DŽƚU±ĵåŅĩ±ØŮaĜƋĜč±ƋĜŅĹŅüåƻŞų域Ƶ±Ƽ Ƌų±þÏÏŅĹčåŸƋĜŅĹƋĘųŅƚčĘƋų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ±ƋĜŅĹÚåĵ±ĹÚĵ±Ĺ±čåĵåĹƋƵĜƋĘƋŅĬĬÚĜŸÏŅƚĹƋţŰF)‰ FĹƋåĬĬĜčåĹƋ‰ų±ĹŸŞŅųƋ„ƼŸƋåĵŸØƴŅĬţĉØĹŅţŎØŞŞţĂLjěƅLjØa±ųÏĘƖLjŎLjţhttp://ieeexplore. ĜåååţŅųčxŸƋ±ĵŞxŸƋ±ĵŞţģŸŞũƋŞ÷¼±ųĹƚĵÆåų÷ĂĉLjĿƅƖƖ¼ĜŸĹƚĵÆåų÷ĂĉLjĿƅŎLj

159. ¬ŅƋƋĜŸXƚĝŸ±ţŮBŅƵƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼϱĹƋų±ĹŸüŅųĵƚųƱĹĵŅÆĜĬĜƋƼ×e}¼eƵĜƋĘ„ÅŅ{±ƚĬŅűŸ ĜųŅĜÚåųĵ±ĹţۉĘåĜƋƼ8ĜƻØkÏƋŅÆåųƅØƖLjŎĉţĘƋƋŞ×xxƋĘåÏĜƋƼĀƻţÏŅĵxÆĬŅčxƋåÏĘĹŅĬŅčƼě transform-urban-mobility-q-a-sao-paulo-brazil-ciro-biderman-mobi-lab-luisa-zottis/

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