DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 393 634 RC 020 529

AUTHOR Andrade de Herrara, Victoria TITLE Education in Mexico: Historical and Contemporary Educational Systems. PUB DATE 96 NOTE 37p.; Translated by Judith LeBlanc Flores. Chapter 3 in: Children of La Frontera: Binational Efforts To Serve Mexican Migrant and Immigrant Students; see RC 020 526. PUB TYPE Historical Materials (060) Reports Descriptive (141) Translations (170)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; *Decentralization; *Early Childhood Education; *Educational Change; *Educational Development; Educational History; *Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Higher Education; Latin American History; Teacher Education IDENTIFIERS *Mexico

ABSTRACT This chapter traces the development of education in Mexico and describes recent reforms and currentorganization of the Mexican educational system. During the colonial period, Catholic religious orders created numerous educational institutions and established the first university (1551). Following independence, education was taken over by the Mexican government(1833), but educational development was disrupted by subsequent strugglesbetween Conservatives and Liberals, war with the United States, andinvasion by France. Following expulsion of the French(1867), Benito Juarez' government established the nonreligious, free, andobligatory aspects of education. During the era of Porfirio Diaz(1876-1910), notable ministers of education expanded primary and secondary schooling, supported women's education and higher education, established dozens of normal schools, and effected progressive federalization of instruction. After the Revolution (1910), increased attention was given to illiteracy, rural education, and the education andsocial integration of indigenous peoples. The present structure of the Mexican educational system is based on:(1) Articles 30 and 31 of the Constitution; (2) the National Agreement for the Modernization of Basic Education, 1992, a massive reform that decentralized the system, restructured and modernized curricula and educational practices, and increased teacher salaries and support for professional development; and (3) the General Law of Education, 1993. Detailed descriptions are provided for each level of education: initial education for children aged 45 days to 3 years and their mothers; preschool education, including kindergarten; primary education (grades 1-6); secondarY education (grades 7-9); media superior (preparatory) education (2-3 years); higher education, technological education, and postgraduate study in public and private universities and technological institutes. Teacher education and adult education in literacy and job skills are also described. Contains 26 references. (SV) MATERIAL"PERMISSION HAS TO BEEN REPRODUCE THIS GRANTED BY CHAPTER 3 TO INFORMATIONTHE EDUCATIONAL CENTER RESOURCES(ERIC)." Education in Mexico: EDUCATiONAL U S DEPARWENTce Eci,,ca:onai Resea,0 CENTER (ERIC)RESOURCES INFORMATION OF EDUCATION reproducedand irnwovernent as Historical and Contemporary Educational Systems 0 ThiS 0document Minor changes have originatingreceived Irom II the person has been been madequality to or organization (TRANSLATED BY JUDITH LEBLANC FLORES)EDITORIALV ICTORIA TRILLAS, ANDRADE MEXICO, DE HERRARA D.F. imprOvePointsdocument reproduction otofficial view doorOERI Opinionsnot position necessarily represent or policy stated in this Statesfrom Mexico and Mexico, or who it are is importantinvolvedTo in for meet U.S. the educators challenge of educating children who a seasonal rotation between the United tohave have recently a current arrived and continuingevolutionthishistorical chapter perspectiveof up describesMexico's to the present ontheeducation the history education time. system,and Education beginning in conditions of differentsystem periods of Mexico. in the The first half of Mexico, like educationin colonial times and adults,systemhaveeverywhere, gained educatinghas grown has political undergone them steadily power.to ever to various include higherReadersThe reform everlevels. secondwill greater half numbers of this chapter describes the movements as different factionssee, however, that Mexico's current organization of of children and 2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE universitydescribeItMexican is a complex schools,its education. scope, and which beginningcomprehensive has undergone with preschool system. The chapter is organizeda massive restructuringto since 1992. up through postgraduate 3 26 EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS LiberalsVICTORIA ANDRADE and Conservatives DE HERRARA continued, further complicated by the separa- 27 Colonial Times The developmentreflected of the education country's in political Mexico development. Historical Background during colonial times has The Spanish conquest Thetion1986, of Reform Texas p. 253: in (Reformo) 1836Salvat, and 1974, the Movement warVol. with 7, p. the 251; United Solana States et al., in 1982,1847 (Larroyo,p. 22). colonization,Mexico'sto nurture educational politicaleducation dependency was system used bywas among Spain in the as handsan of 1521 markedly influenced Native educational Natives. Throughout this period, instrument of do.ninaticnof the Catholic clergy. institutions; during hismanipulatedMinisterIn own 1844, gain, duringof the and Justice problems ascendedone andof his betweenPublic Antonio topresidencies, the Instruction.presidency the de Conservative Santa he named on BarandaAnna, seven educatorand a separateauthoredpicturesque Liberal Manuel occasions.parties the characterGeneralBaranda for in Mexican history, Jesuits.religiousEducationthe middle These orders, developed and religious including upper among classesorders the the Dominicans, acquiredof Natives the New greatand Spain Franciscans,Mestizos Augustines, within ascendancyand somesociety of (Salvat,the of influence 1974, Vol.in 251).zationalPlan of Studies structures and, wcre for theconsigned firstOnce time, to again, legislativeteaching a comprehensive methods norms (Larroyo,and schooleducational 1986, organi- p.project was forgotten when a p.5; 13).numerouspp. 166, 167, educational & 174; Solana, institutions.The Cardill religious The Reyes, orders, especially the Jesuits and Dominicans, to the arts and theologyJesuits were dedicated particularly & Bolanos Martinez, 1982, Dominicans, created andgroupthereunite pursued rights of youngthe proclaimeda legislators, total Liberal reform in whopoliticiansamong thisof proclaimedthe constitution country. a In newwas them 1856, theconstitution Benito thisright group to Juarezrebelled learn. in was1857. In able OctoberAmong to (Salvat,to and,the study beginning 1974, of Vol. the in humanities;5 1526, pp. 166-167). effortsEducational the were initiated advances to obtain quickly demanded the foundation authorization from of a university the Univer- 27;theof the NormalSolana same et year,School al., 1982,the for Liberal p.Teachers 23). president,New had conflicts been Comonfort, established impeded informed the (Barbosa, development Congress 1972, thatof p. educational institutions. The theshieldacquiredsity Spanishissued of ofMexico monarchy.thea Bull gunstitle became(a of ofsolemn InRoyal Castille 1551, the papalUniversity first with and universityletter) theLeon, appropriate and thatand, was ofcoanged in the given approv-.1, 1579, Pope Clemente VIIAmericas.its namc to Royal and the right to use the In 1570, it firstyearsdents:Liberals of these that Zuloaga, and conflictsthe Conservatives. war a Conservative, lasted, was the Juarez WarDuring of andand Threethis Juarez,his struggle, collaboratorsYears a Liberal. (1858-1860) Mexico Duringput had together betweentwo the presi- three the PontificalIndependence University (Salvat, 1974,Mexico's Vol. 5, post-independence p. 178). history is characterized by the struggle of al.,andReformperiod 1982,state, (Reforma) ofp.eliminating 26).tranquility, Laws, religious as one Mexico ofAlthough instruction which was established invadedthe from Liberals public by the France separationeducationtriumphed, in 1864. (Solanaof the church France country et enjoyed only a short twotionalknown opposing systcm as the political Conservativeand place groupsthe it inandThe the LiberalLiberals hands parties.of sought the government. to take away Catholic clerical Centralists and the Federalists, later control of the educa-in 1833 the Public With this in Hapsburg.States,wanted1867) and to constituted create Theimposed French an aempirean parenthetical interventionemperor to oppose on period Mexico:and the the ingrowing reignthe historyAustrian of power Maximilian of Maximilian Mexicanof the United(1864- educa- of Guidancemind,ministrationin Mexico, Liberal for the publicVice of Federal municipal President education District schools Gómez was and controlled Federalcentralized Farias Territories.founded by in Mexico establishment of the Education Minis- the government, with ad- For the first timeCity. This ar- brevitytion.1982, Although of pp. his 26-27). government the emperor did developed notWhen allow Maximilianhis him Law to carryof Public was it out defeated Instruction, (Solana in et 1867, al.,the the government of Benito rangementheadedtryimpeded (Barbosa, by preceded Antonio implementation 1972, the p.de subsequent27; Santa Larroyo,These Anna,of his measures 1986,project.dismissed p. After caused GOmez that, the thc rebellion of Conservative forces, 4 253; Solana et al., 1982, p. 22). Farlas in 1834 andstruggle between which, 274-275;nonreligious,educationJuarez once Solana characteristics again free, et tookand al., obligatory1982,over that the p.continue education32). (Barbosa, to thisof 1972, the day: country, p. Education 29; Larroyo, establishing in Mexico 1986, three pp. is 5 281867, the Organic I..aw of PublicOne of Instruction the first steps in the taken Feeeral byEDUCATION JuirezDistrict, was INelabo- MEXICO:to proclaim HISTORICAL in December AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS of tionssomeVICTORIA madeyears ANDRADE Veracruzlater, DEthe HERRARA Veracruzanathe original siteNormal of one School of the of most Jalapa. important educa- These institu- 29 year,instructiondistinguishedrated bythe Martinez Secondary and positivist. declared de Castro,School primaryThis Ministerfor law Young education established of Instruction; free the and unity andobligatory. Gabinoof the country ThatBarreda, same in a Ladies, The National Preparatory tiongreatertionR6bsamen92-93; reforms in 10 Larroyo,part states,in and of Mexico thehis but1986, country.students within during pp. 313,319-326;adirectly In thefew 1901, n'neteenth years, influenced Rthsamen their Solana century "Reforma" the was et organization(Barbosa, al.,called 1982,extended to 1972,thepp. of overcapitol,55-56). educa- pp. the Lawneering,sionsSchool, of also theand and were Public the fine Academymade Instructionarts forin other studiesof Sciencesof schools. the such Federal andas This medicine, Literature District, project law, publishedwere culminated agriculture, founded. in 1867 with Provi- the engi- and whereDirector1986, he filled p.of 326). the the Normal positions School of theAt until Directorthc national1904, of the Normal level, year "Porfirioism"of Instruction his death (Larroyo,and was the carried out by Joaquin Baranda, Transition277;modified Salvat, in 1875of1974, the (Barbosa, Vol. Educational 8, p. 1972, 22).Beginning Reformp. 28; Larroyo, in to1867, Porfiriolsm 1986,and continuing pp. 273-274; through 276- the first presidential period ministerincreaseGuadalajara,notable of advances.theeducation. supplyMonterrey, He ofDuring professors,established Puebla, Baranda's San othernormal Luis tenure, normal Potosi, schools normal schools and to Colima.traineducation were professors founded To made further in of tion.employedbyPorfirio the Ignacio doctrine Diaz in the Ramirez,(1876-1880), naturalof positivism. sciences,designated Mexican especially in leadership 1876 the to techniqueswork was heavilyout the of experimenta-influencedcomplicated Leaders worked to apply the methods existed(1890);Victoria,1986, 45 andpp. Tamaulipas normal 347-348). Saltillo, schools Coahuila (1889); in the the (1894).Republic capital At (Barbosa,of the the end country of1972, the (1889); p.century, 92; Larroyo, Oaxaca there questionmixture1986, of ofpp. education his 302-303; liberal of idealsSolana the country, and etWith al., those 1982,Ramirez, impressed of theVol. positivisteducation 8, on p. his122). doctrinework received a sensible (Larroyo, a great boost: the spread of primary diverseInstruction.philosopher, backgrounds Sierra and teacher was andable who, the to Baranda gaininbacking 1901, both was became ofthe allaided cooperation members the in hisSubsccretary labors ofof educatorsCongress. by Justoof Public from Sierra, an outstanding historian, In time,tionandRamirez secondaryof official women extended attention instructionand of into higher was otherwas given education broadened; fields to indigenous of wereeducation: the confirmed; importance instruction. he founded and, of theThe for libraries prepara- workthe first of and tensJanuary360). in the 1904, Federal he carefully District planned(Barbosa,After anda 1972,brilliant established p. collaboration98; Larroyo, the first 1986,twowith kindergar- Baranda, pp. 359- Sierra filled various offices (Barbosa,foughtscholarships, to incorporate1972, fomented p. 75; the Larroyo, popularindigenous 1986, education, population pp. 302-303; protected into Solana the the life et fine ofal., the arts, 1982, nation and p. appointment,and,ProfessionalInstruction in 1905, initiated he andInstruction took Fine thecharge Arts, creationin the aof positionFederal Primary of the District Officehe and was Normal, of and the the territories;first Secretaria Preparatory, to fill. the of FinePublic and Arts After his 46).TheRamirez Porfiriato from (Diaz'spublic life Government) in 1877.Ramirez The collaborated work that he with initiated President was continued,Porfirio Diaz until an illness retired federalizationture,School Commerce, of Music of andinstruction and Declamation; Administration. without the affecting Schools theof Artssovereignty and Trades, of the Agricul- states, He carried out the progressive duringandmost Justo"Porfirioism," outstanding Sierra. are with two a ministersbrilliantDuring generationof the public early instruction, ofyears educators. of this Joaquin period,Among education the in Mexico was enriched Baranda (Barbosa,andprimarywho, he insistedin 1972, turn,education proposedonpp. thc 101-103; from constant two instruction Larroyo,Themain revision creation objectives. that1986, of simplyof programs pp. this First, 361-362). Secretariadispenses he andworked plans knowledgeoffice to oftransform conferred study to a great powcr on Sierra, andbystratefirst the Enrique contributionsimportant their Laubscher.theories, essays of they two onIn foundedthe prominent theorystate in of 1883and Veracruz,educators: practice the Model these ofEnrique education.School two C.produced of Rthsamen Orizaba, To demon- the and systemMexican108; forLarroyo, developing educational 1986, in p system,the366). child Second, including new forms he aimed higher of thinking to education. establish (Barbosa, continuity To this 1972, end, in p. thehe 7 obtained30 the support of President Diaz and Congress and EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL founded, in 1910, in secondary SYSTEMS VICTORIAprimaryminister ANDRADE instructionof any DE cult, HERRARA (Barbosa, would be 1972,allowed pp. to 144-145; establish Larroyo, or administer 1986, sep. ools147). of 31 chargedreorganizeandthe Nationalprofessional the theschool School National education. with of Higherpurposes University Education different of Mexico tofrom train those as professors a carriedlay university, out Ia the same year, he also led the effort to during1986, its pp. and primarygiventional responsibilityOffice education. of the The Secretariafor middlethc controlUnder wasschools, andeliminated.the normalneworganization Constitution, schools,The municipalitiesof kindergartenpreparatory, education were wasandand decentralized, and the Na- 370-371).timea series as a Pontificate of national University assembliesThe (Barbosa, unificationdesigned 1972, toof thep. 107; national Larroyo, educational system was advanced bring educators up to date. last of the through commercialnewlywhilegovernments controlcreated schools ofofUniversity distinctthe (among National entities Department others) University (included were (Solana placed of in Mexico these,et under al., 1982,the wasthe Federal control transferredpp. 149-150). District), of the to a assembliesSierra1986, actively p. 370).took participatedplace in September inThe all followingof 1910 these (Barbosa, activities,month, 1971,the and Revolution p. the 107; Larroyo, exploded, led by Francisco Madero the personsfurnishings,functional. with The and the municipalities payscholarly teachers' or Itpedagogical salaries.lacked soon became resources Also, preparation apparent they to hadbuild that difficultynecessary schools, the decentralized locatingprovideto carry governance plan was not Porfiriatoagainstteachthroughoutlished the NativeSchools (Diaz's dictator the people government) ofMexican Porfirio Rudimentary to speak,Diaz. Republic. produced In read,Instruction, a last By and inattempt decree, that write antecedentssame to these Spanishprolong year institutions laws hisofand ruralpower,that to doestab- were to schools basic outtheInterim the National task president (Solana University, Adolfoet al., 1982, deand la the Inpp.Huerta 1920, appointment151-152). named the nation José was Vasconceloswas confirmed shaken byas rectoranotherthe new of assassination: Carranza's. arithmetic.BarraJuneCongress), 1911, (Barbosa, When Porfiriothe law1972,the wasdecreeDiaz p. put115; and was in Larroyo,his place approved cabinet by 1986, the presented by interim P. the 401; Chambers theirpresident,Solana resignations. et (similar Leon to al., 1982, p. de la In succeedededucationlectual,president, was Alvaroprogram.in given getting ObregOn broad To it approved achieve authority (1920-1924). this by to thegoal, carry Congrcss Vasconcelos, he out created a comprehensivein Septembera newa prestigious Secretaria 1921. national intel- Theand The113). Post Revolutionary PeriodOne of the first worries of President Madero, when he came into power, officevelopwork(as thewas towardstudents' old called office more thefull was newpotentialthan designated), Secretaria mere (Barbosa, instruction, toof signify Public 1972, but thatEducation, p. instead 31, the 160-161; new would not Secretaria Instruction Solana work would toet de-al., wassuchnecessary the arealization profound to study ofimpact thethe situationRural on the SchoolsBefore indigenousbefore Project.the launching project population However, evena got underway, however, political upheaval once project that would have he considered it Presidentthe1982, fight p. Obregrin's 158).against During illiteracy,full politicalVasconcelos' thein and thegrowth economic brief tenure of period ruralin support. the between schools, Secretaria, 1921 the he creation to received 1924, cfgreat emphasis was given to againfactionswas changed assassinated. tried the to directioncome into of power the republic: and, consequently, on February progress 22, 1913, in Maderoeducation In the chaos following the President's death, variouc 1911 and February 1917, joinnotwithlibraries, the only foreignindigenous develop support institutes. the worldof fullarts Forwith potentialand Vasconcclos, crafts,that ofof theandthe individual, Hispanic.artistic the educational and Suchbut scientific should a fusionprocess find interchange would a should way to was(Barbosa,there abandoned were 1972, 15 over different p. a 116). long period.ministersIn Between1916, of PublicVenustiano May Instruction Carranza, and leader Fine of Arts the group that obtained power, thoughtAmerica.giveMexican birth they Believingto society. theneeded Mexican To thatto combatmix Indiansidentity in andilliteracy, shouldand participate, to othernot onlyconstitute nationalthus of creating the identities aindigenous group an integrated apart,of Latinpopula- he convenedprimary,sameeducation,This Constitution stipulation Congress secondary, declared inthatwas thethat and educationadopted city education higher of Querétaroon beeducation. February wasnonreligious to to be 5,produce No free 1917. religiou.; and Articlea newnonreligious. corporation,Constitution. 3, dedicated orto applied even to private, This 482;izedtion butpersonnelSolana of all et Mcxicans, al., and 1982, numerous intensepp. 159,In volunteers campaigns his 174-175). support participated were for initiated thc formation (Larroyo, in which of1986, special- the p.essential Mexican identity, 32Vasconcelos patronized diverse aspects of the arts. Artists ofEDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL the stature of SYSTEMS SpanishVICTORIAinstruction ANDRADEwas conceded (Larroyo, DE HERRARA but 1986, with p. the 400). stipulation that all grades be part of :he 33 NationalonMontenegro,and public the Symphony buildings.provinces. Rivera, so Orozco,Visits that it by couldChariot, prominent offer and concerts XavierLatin American toGuerrero teachers in the He also arranged for support to rehabilitate The intellectuals also painted murals capital neweducationthat statedschools, andby he precedinginitiated provided the governments, furnishings constructionIt is notable and Calles of largethat,appropriate increased NIparcels hile buildings. theofthe land purposesbudget for For regionalfor of these rural education remained the same as (Salvat,buildingwere promoted. 1974, of new Vol. schools, 9, p. 256; especially SolanaTo stimulate technical et aL, 1982,reading, schools pp. a176-177). forbasic men element and women in people All of this activity took place without neglecting the becoming self-taught, guides. 406,crops,to 408).have hen educationhouses, rabbit reach hutches, all theCalles' greatand bee pres;dency'population hives (Larroyo, (1924-1928) centers, 1986, both was pp. urban characterized405- and by his determination Theseclassicnentgreat works, libraries literaturedemand. sold and Duringof at every21very circulating his low era management, prices was libraries,published, so the Vasconcelospeople thus along increasingcould with buy teacher access to founded 671 perma- them, were in books andhomenatingrural. giving In me&cinehygiene 1926, classes culturalpractices, and in hortict:iture,first missions givingaid, organizing vaccinations, werezoology, initiated cottage and instructingrural and and chargedconstruction regional teachers with industries, (Barbosa, dissemi- in rural forof people 1923,Indigenous inbasic the organizationalCulture,provinces which (Solana structures hadRural et the al., education, authority 1982,for the pp. establishment too,to 179-180). implement received andattention and support from a Department its plans.selected Byfunctioning and Schoolsame5,0001972, period,p.rural for 181; Teachers,schools, Larroyo,normal 206 school founded1986, urban pp.instruction schools,in 407-409). 1924, and gainedwas By 38 intensified.1928, kindergartens.prestige there when were Duringmorerenowned than the The National chargedof entingprovidinginstructionrural schools withthe Spanish ruralin equipping areaswere populations languageinwith place, local small instructionandprimaryon or social missionaryremote schools and and populations. economic advising,teachers and delivering Theseweresupporting,questions. schools primary Students and began ori- Mexico'steachersEducation. were capitol Theinvited between Sccretaria to teach the of However,there National Education (Larroyo, duringUniversity struggled 1986, Calles' 484-485).and for presidency, laythe instruction;Secretaria there of the were constant conflicts in placessports.learningcooperated ofThese ofconsultation trades in schools, building and forupdated apart school everyone from agricultural furniture, bcing in the educationalcommunity, buildings,practices and centers, andand for the annexes the schoolssoon practice for were the of became responsibilityschoc!,thU.ai..ers:ty Subsecretary pushed for the to allowfirstMoisds 3 for years Sáenz religious of separatedprcparatoryUnivel:ity's control outof school instruction. fromstrength, theand Universitysincewith To reduce thcseit controlled the 5 years of preparatory pp.functioningleftrenamed 404-405;the Secretaria. Village (Aguilar, Solana Houses. Atet 1988; al.,that In p. time, 1924, Barbosa,482). moreafter 1972, athat tremendous 1,000pp. 164-166; Village output, Larroyo, Houses Vasconcelos 1986,were butofformed Education was secondaryassassinated (Barbosa, (middle in 1972,1928. school) pp.A provisionalBefore 17, education, 177). the endpresident, dependent of Calles' Fortes on term, the Gil, Secretaria Obregón and two tried to get himself reelected thediversepeaceful. Department educational Ca Iles of had Indigenous institutions workedThe asCulture totransfer a benefitteacher changed of various andpower favoredits popular fromname thePresident to groups. thespringing Department ObregónIn 1925, up of to President Ca Iles was othersautonomybyeducation various filled andthe onsectors Julythoseperiod. 10,of of the 1929the population, universities (Larroyo, theand,1986, National after p. 438; a student University Solana strike, et obtainedal., supported 1982, its p. Conflicts intensified between the authorities of of bettertheporation.Rural purposes Schools,the Theconditions ofVillage Outside this Department ofHouses Primarytheir ownwere Schools, waslives. once to Therefore,again anddevelop Indigenous called individuals' officials rural Cultural schools. recommended abilities Incor- Among to 257).BremauntzRevolutionary proposed Party (PNR), a modification delegatesIn December to Froylán Article 1933, C.3, replacingManjarrezduring the the and Regular word Alberto lay Convention of the National thespeciallectures.that indigenous teachers program Ca lles instruct population,also to meet considered more its ownthroughthc it continuingneeds. a necessity experience As a importance basisthat thaneach for thethroughregion of participation instruction have classroom its own inof 10 beingmemberwithMay the publicized, 1934 ofword the (Solana PNR,socialist. provoked Narcisoct al., a1982, controversy Bassols, pp. 267-269). drew that up obligattd tht. new Bassols Article to that, resign upon in At this time, the Secretary of Education and 11 34 Notwithstanding strong opposition,EDUCATION the new IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS article was approved by the educationalindustrialVICTORIA ANDRADE institutionspreparation, DE HERRARA in today the country. it embraces Initially all disciplinesgeared to agricultural (Cooms, 1991, and p. 35 wasdateHouse asthat Chamberfollows: Lázaro andCárdenas came occupiedinto effect the on State imparts will be socialistpresidency.December and The 1 text of that of thesame Article year, the 91).aryLaborer, (Middle and School)the Institute Instruction forIn the 1936, Preparationwere the created; Department of inAdministration 1942, of Indigenous of Second- Matters, the University of the these were trans- andfurthermoreArticleactivities prejudice,accurate 3. The will in concept for educationa exclude way which ofthat all thethat permitsreligious school the the universe and a social life within its willdoctrine, organize will its combat instructioncreation fanaticism of and a rational and an youth. tained,History.Historicformed due into MonumentsDistinguished to the the Normal internal was Spanish Superior convertedstruggle intellectual School.in into Spain the The (1936-1939). Instituterefugees Department of in Anthropology MexicoFor of the Artistic orphanedwere andre- schoolsprimary,Onlymentioned the who secondary, governmentFederation, wish must to be and give in normalaccord instruction with the education. Authorization to private State, Municipalitywillin any of the give threefollowing previously norms: ...In each Solanafoundedchildren et in ofal., Michoacán the pp. Spanish 323-324). (Barbosa, war, theAfter 1972, Boarding the pp.Cárdenas 224-225; School period, ofLarroyo, Spain-Mexico subsequent 1986 p. governments 494;was modified plans and Cárdenas' virtue,willintervene theythe1986, religious be in pp, supported any 492-493; formcorporations, economicallyin Solana primary, et al., 1982,the pp. ministers 274-275).secondary of the cults,...will(Barbosa, or normal 1972, schools,not p. 213); nor Larroyo, prepared,guishedsuccessor,programs intellectual, until,without President gradually, any Avilato publicity, the the Camacho, position socialist a modification of appointed features Minister disappeared. ofTorres of Article Education. Bodet, 3. a President distin-It wasBodet tationprograms, was created and textsin 1935 from andTo putplan the new educational the preschool level to the curriculum, the Institute of Socialistin charge of carrying out the newincluded spreading socialist orienta- professional level. Orien-plans, andapprovedCamacho1972, was pp.published bysent 236-237;the the two modification in Chambers Solana the Official etThe andal., to text 1982,Diary,byCongress theof pp.the legislatorsDecember 323-324). Article,in December of -',er30, the 1946the Mexican1945. reform (Barbosa, statesof 1946, read as follows: tionOthereteracy, amongal., responsibilities 1982,and the preparing p. magistrates, 276). of teachers this doing Institute toTo away improve agricultural methods spread culture in indigenous centers and organize collectivewith production fanaticism, eliminating (Solana illit- Thewill education nurturedevelop ingiven harmoniously this bybeing the atstate-federation, the all samethe faculties time thestates, of love the or of humanmunicipalities, Country being and and the populationsystems,levels ofthe professionalfrom Institute the primarydesigned and cultural level of special courses to lift workers and technology. Assimilation brigadescreated. and The instructionnumber of ruralup through the highest the ruralschools consciousnesswillI. Guaranteed guide education, of byinternational Article which 24, solidarity, willthe freedommaintain in independence of itself beliefs completely is theand criterion in apart justice. from that scientific wascentersculture increasedactivities for failed. indigenous bysuch Teachers 2,200 as educationorganizing protestedThe were assemblies,part the of the plan that called (Solana et al,, 1982, pp. 276-277). for preparationburden of teachers of developing to multiple social clubs, committee organizations, spread withandprogress,any prejudice religiousReforms thus and (Politicalfightingdoctrine Additions, against Constitutionand 1969).base ignorance itself of theon and Unitedthe its results effects, States of fanaticismof Mexico academicshopsandan commissions unpopular to guide subject cooperative profession, toprograms, solicit public and it is easy to increasingly so after numerousproduction. rural services in addition to developing Add to this list fulfillingdeduce that the teaching became teachers work- werethemodificationssome period created: of Presidentthe National of little Alemán InInstitute consequence; each (1946-1952), of of the Fine followingothers, Arts the (1946),of following greatpresidential the scope. institutions Duringperiods, education underwent Indigenous etwere al., 1935attacked 1982, of pp. the physically 281, National 287). PolytechnicOne of the positive initiatives of by those opposed to this type of Institute (IPN), one ofthe the Cárdenas most period was the12 education (Solana creation inimportant AutonomousInstitutevarious (1948), branches University the throughoutNational of Mexico Institute Mexico City of City. Youth was These constructed (1950), branches and (1952), the included National with the 13 36 EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONALServices; SYSTEMS Physical curriculumVICTORIA ANDRADE would DE be HERRARA presented by content areas or by academic disciplines. 37 TeachingNurseries.Education;(Larroyo, Institute As Spectacle1986, of 1995,and pp. Administrative 534-535, Sports;this University and 548; Residential, Solana Research enrolls et more al., andParks, 1982, that pp. and100,000 Horticultural students.344-346). who was suc- proposedinandIn placethe the end, other until by about ex-president half 1992, halfwith the of academic yearall Salinas secondary that disciplines. de the Gortari present schools (1988-1994).These reform worked arrangements came with intocontent remainedeffect areas as asceeded recountingMinister by LOpez of his Education. accomplishments Mateos (1958-1964),BodetAlemán took during was the who succeeded the again Camacho appointed by Ruizadministration. Cortines (1942-1958), position with reserved gratitude, Torreswhich Bodet had as heldEducation.installed over a 3 National Community,months inCommission which local, teachers,In regional, Januaryfor Consultation parents, state, 1991, and researchers, the onnational Secretary the Modernization meetingsexperts, of Education, repre- were of Manuel Bartlett-Dfaz, Althoughclassrooms,primaryits principal eductaion. Bodet's rehabilitationend the work Meeting solution was ofIn difficult,the to1960,the demandthe existing Torresgrowing upon required ones,Bodethanding demand and presentedthe over for the his Plan of Eleven Years, teacherconstruction preparation. of new national quality Secretaria to comprehensivederivedpaperssentatives were from of socialgiven. this change study. sectors, of plansand authorities and programs participated. of basic More education than 65,000 of the The Program for Educational Modernizatica wasIt is the foundation document for initiating a (Larroyo,completedhis successor, 1986, in thein pp. 1964, urban 546-547; he areas considered SolanaIn and respect 62 et thatal.,percent to 1982, secondaryhis plancompleted pp. had education, been in rural the areas National Technical 369-371). 83Council percent of and pro- education,countrythe obtained (Program primary, results for and the and secondaryEducational the ideasIn 1990 (juniorcontributed Modernization the high) Program by schools. teachers 1989-1994).was fieldThe and analysistested educational in ofa limited number of preschool weeksgramsEducationcountry)dents ofand who study. (reformed addedcould felt The obligated 14count Councilhours in on1958) to ofa abandonreducedbasic technological revised preparation thetheir and studies organizedactivities for (a a frequentlife weeklythe of plans work situationso that (Barbosa, stu- number of academic hours to 22 in the for thetheauthorities Modernization Congress guided modified of the Basic elaboration two EducationTo Constitutional carry of (ANMEB),aout document this Articlesthe comprehensive signedtitled National May 30th 18, andplan Agreement1992. 31stand to modernize Mexico's schools, Booksresources1972, p. for 36; was Elementary Larroyo, the 1958 1986, Schools.creation Ap. 380).measure of the Nationalreceived with enthusiasm by persons of scarce From 1960 to 1964, the Commission Commission of Free Text economic (Politicallastreferredapproved1994 stage Edition;to of Constitution aas theGeneral the reorganization FederalArticles Law of Law and theof Education, theUnitedof Education, plansLaw). States and With enacted programs Dailyof the Mexico, National in Office ofJuly study Editorial 1993of Agreement, thewas (hereafter Federation, initiatedTrillas, the distributedthebothals. SecretaryThis instruction 107,155,755measure of andEducation sought booksbooks to continuedavailablemakeand workbooks a primary at producing no cost andeducation to494,255 and families. distributing truly teachers' freeFrom by manu-free1964 texts on, making primaryproceededJuly 13, instruction,1993). to develop didactic its first guides,After series publicationand of supplementaryfree textbooks of the first materialsfor preschoolplans forand teach- programsand in 1993, the Council et al.,teachersin primary 1982, andp. schools 367). specialists across fromthe countryIn diverse 1973, (Larroyo, during fields thegathered 1986, presidency pp. in 547-548; Chetumal of Luis Echeverria, a large select group Solana and of ers. Leqal Basis of the Present Educational System socialbasic25,approved Section areasgeography, a IIplanof of study: theof and studies Federal (1) civics) Social for Law andbasic Sciencesof (2) Education.secondary Natural (including Sciences Theeducation, new history, (includingplan based on Article called for two economics, physics,363 of ModernizationArticlesEducation. 30 and Each of31 Basic ofof the these Education Constitution, componentsThe present (ANMEB), (2) is structure the described National and of(3) thein the Agreement this Mexican General uction. Educational Lawfor the of System is based on (1) chemistry,ents,plinesChetumal, it protested was biology, August agreed energetically. 31,and that 1974). physical the directorSeveral After geography) manyof sectors each meetings school (Agreementwho favored of teachers 16 the study and par- of individual academic disci- 14 would decide if the Constitutional Articles 30governmentFederation,Article and 3130. Every individual States, has the and right Municipalitieswill to receive an education. impart The 15 38 educationpreschool, are primary, obligatory. and secondaryEDUCATION education. IN MEXICO: Primary HISTORICAL and secondary AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA military,primary andaccording secondary to the education terms established and to take by law. an active part in the 39 religiousbe1. Guaranteedlay and, doctrine. because by Article of that, it will remain completely apart from any 24 on liberty of thought, said education will nottheirimportant stop children until in thebasic Mexic6, pupil education finishes becauseArticle to secondary such numerous an extent education. parents that theirof This scarce obligation requirement economic does is re- 31 institutes the responsibility of parents to endeavor to get for Republic....ofIII. IV.study ... [t]heAll for the Federal primary, education Executive secondary, that the will state and determine normalimparts educationthewill plans be free. andfor theprograms entire 55).ofwork.sources the AtUnited abstain present, States from these ofsending Mexico,parents their are Trillas children outside Editorial, theto school law Tenth (Political and Edition, obligate Constitution 1994, them p.to officialandVI. Privatemodalities. value schools on the will studies be able carried to impart out in educationprivate schools. in all of its types . . .[t]he State will grant and decline recognition of (ANational NMEB) Agreement forThe the ANMEB Modernization was signed of Basicon May Education 18, 1992, by Ernesto Zedillo, then It represents the toresponsibilityuponVII. educate, Thewhich Universities theinvestigate, of law governing bestows and and thethemselves, autonomy, diffuse other institutionsculture willand havewill in accordancerealize theof higherauthority their education purposeswith the and the furthermore,thcobjectivesagreementMinister states ofthe throughof Education an technical,various instrument federal interest (nowadministrative, education of President groupsplanning and within andofthat to the share financialrequires the country). countryamong aresponsibilities. restructuring theto reachfederation common of It andthe is, Please note that this Articleprinciplesideas....appointments, of this research, article, andrespecting the free examinationthe liberty of and professorial discussion of izationSecretariaeducational of Basicof system Public Education, andEducation diverse 1992).This (SEP, reforms Agreement National in the AgreementorganizationcontainF three for of thewatershed the Modern- office changes:of socialguarantees conditionto the right a offree all education, individualsregardless provided by of the age, state; nationality, or 2.3. refbrmulation1. decentralization of content of the andeducational educational system, materials, and establishescalprimaryinstruction; Constitution levelsboth unlike primary (Official of theprevious United Diary law, ofStates the which Federation, of Mexico, stipulated March Editorial only preschool Trillas, 10th and and secondary (junior high) as parts of basic 5, 1993; Politi- Each of these changes is discussed below. reevaluation of the teaching function. educationtheassignsEdition, authority to thewhile toFederal determine allowing Executive statesthe program (throughsome latitude,of the study Secretaria asfor long basic ofas and Education)their normal plans 1994, pages 10 and 11); normal,marythedecentralization state (including and governments special ofindigenous the institutions. thefederal administration education),Decentralization educational This includes secondary of system, preschool the of management the Zedillo(junior educationeducational transferredhigh) of andschool, around system. pri- to As a first step toward conformbeingallows thatto private the they basic obtainschools criterion the to necessary carry established out authorization education, by the Federation; the from only the requirementand State. students1992,115,000100,000 p. (SEP, 131).realadministrative Generalestate properties Management posts, with2.9 million furnishings,of Information, class hours, Executive and 13.5 Rcport million 513,000 teaching posts, 31st, reproduced in part below.ArticlechildrenAnother 31. orconstitutional dupils attend article public modified or private by schools,the Union in Congressorder to obtain was the Obligations of all Mexican citizens to assure that their 16 lishedties.lack ofThese several understanding problems, sets of obligations: andfortunately, theThis resistance decentralization, were ofovercome. some local accomplished The educational agreement with authori- estab- great effort, came up against a 17 Obligations40 of the Federationto expeditecarry out generalArticle standards30 of the Constitution,ofCOUCATION education, IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND (..;ONTEMPORARY t DUCAUONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA designbiologybut adoption of at athe new ofsecondary theschool discipline calendar(junior approachhigh) that level.guarantees to physics, 200 chemistry,days of classes and 41 Obligations of the Statesto directevaluateformulate state the plans schools; educational and programs, system. and technologicalupdatingarticulationrenovationduring the of schoolof of educational methodsadvances; the year;distinct and and processes educational processes in of levels; accordance instruction; with scientific and Obligations of the Municipalitiestoaspects; toformassume propose collegiate/professional responsibility regional criteria. for the councils; technical, and administrative, and financial (SEP,portreachingthrough and Executive establishingagreement the use Report, of with satellitean 1993).impetusthe Secretary communication for long-distance, of Communications and parabolical televised and learning antennasTrans- Obligations of the federationto and tomaintaincreate recognizestate municipal teams and the equip National education schools. Syndicate councils, of and Educational Laborers (SNTE) as takingsituationpalities,teachers other had theirfrequently deterioratedjobs salaries and obligated neglecting were over onlyReevaluation theteachers theiryearsa little students. to above themeet of point the theirminimum teachingthat, financial in somewage. function. needs munici- by The economic situation of Other teachers simply This tions;toofficials assignstimulatestrengthen and of greater labor social the resourcesrelationscapacity participation; forofto thetik:the teacher,mostteachers needy parent, association; entities and andstudent regions; organiza- abandonedEducationalfor professional the Modernization,teaching development, professionTo May, alleviate several (SEP, 1994, Executive actions teachers'p. 16; Executive were financialReport, taken: Report,1993, distress (Advances p. 1993, 134).and to p.in respond to their requests debatethe second forums watershed were conductedchangeto of Reformulationcreate the during school the educational 1992-93 of educational school councils. year.content and materials. To carry out National Agreement, consultation and The 134). reformtheimplementation certificate of entrance of of revirements prepacatory a system for to (equivalent teachera normal training school to a [U.S.]in program, each high state; such school that di- areasrequirementsprogramspurpose versus of of the instructionatstudy forumsthe primaryand was forby andacademictextbooks.to solicit secondary inputdisciplines levels to optimize for (SEP, instruction Generalplanning by Manage- forcontent new Adjustments were made to the initiationpercentimprovementapplicationploma) isincrease; required;of of a inaTeacher modernized teachers' Training salaries, educational Career as of Mayprogram;program 1993, to to stimulate the tune teacherof a 70 ment of Information, ExecutiveAmong Reportapplicationtionreform of these 1993, plansof educational changes,of p.and a 134). new programs thepreschool content most of significant studyand educational curriculum and textbooks;include program; through the total renova- endowmentsprofessionalasersacademic length to increase ofimprovement, service,development to their school level academic book organized of (80 income collections percentlevel, as according upgraded aof career allto supportteachers laddertotraining, evaluation the havethat preparation,performance permits participated); criteria teach- such and of discontinuationprimaryincreaseapplication and in of instructionalsecondary a new of the emergent levels;content hours primary areas in mathematics of education instruction program;and approach Spanish in at social both Thehousingimplementationthe General staff; for and Law teachers. of of Education. a special program The General to promote Law of the Education development came of continuationhigh)relatedsciences, school but and independent levels;of adoption the content disciplinesof the area study of naturalat of the geography, primary sciences and athistory, secondarythe primary civics, (junior level and 18 agenciesnewinto effectlaw (Officialclearly July 14, specifies Diary 1993, of replacing theSome Federationrights the of and theold ofrightsobligationsFederal July and 13, Law obligations1993). of of all Education. educational it contains The are outlined below. 19 42 EDLIC!`.110N IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDLCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA 43 secular,Thement. new basic law educationprovides forsupport all Mexicans for Article as an 30's guaranteeobligation of a free, of the govern-the law establishes the throughis imparted a constitutional in the Centers mandate) Thisof Infantile initial in federal, education Development state, isdependency, dedicated (CENDI) toand children (created private age 45 days to 3 years. It In 1992, 142,000 infants attended; however, the enormous Withtrative,ties.normslosing regard It forconfers and sight relationsto financialthe ofon federalizationthe the between objectives states aspects the ofofresponsibility federalitseducation, educational education. the federation and the states and municipali- for the technical, adminis- This measureinstitutions, permits without Toanddemandinstitutions. this their end, would parents the have curriculum are requireddesignedThe has a to supplyprograms,been prepare infused of childrenup support to with 216,000 for materials,content preschool more about andslots. education. ecology,educational resources for infants strengtheningthatments.In are view To responsive ofsupport of the nation] fact regional to that the unity theneeds development, quality without and ofcharacteristics weakeningthe educational process educational services are set up of each region. regional develop-200 school days. is one of the participation,indigenoushygieneincludet. habits, incommunities. thecontent and adult nutrition, thateducation Taking encourages of great programs.into importance account attentiveness the especially importance to infants in the of has ruralparental been and TheprincipalTheabout Lawknowledge, law the purposes,also recognizes level confirms abilities,of the progress the school the experienceand right of calendarskills, their of parents thuschildren.of issome extendedgiving to personsbe official to on certification informed periodically the basis of their if they produced.oldermethods infants, nurture didactic expressiveness, packagesIn addition tiedcreativity, to to preschool stimulating and artistic education children's sensibility. have distinct been abilities, the suggested For Themeetandboards,role law the invitingof broadensevaluation parentsseeking society theinmore standards. thesocial to involvement educationalparticipate participation in of process, the various in production education creatingcommunication by of schoolfree supporting the textbooks. mediums,advisory internationalawareness.participation Other organizationsof various efforts communicationsareAt interested underway present, in to the obtainbroadenmedia well-being the to participation, helpcooperation ofpromote infants of efforts public(SEP, those are underway to solicit Edt,.:ation in Mexico comprises the following educationalPresent stages: basic Structure of the Educational System andPreschoolPerformance constitutes Education Report, the first 1993). contactIn of Mexico, the child public with formalpreschool education. education To consistsenter of 2 years of instruction andpreschool,ization,tion postgraduate of July May,primary, 13, 1994). (Federal 1993; secondary Each SEP, Law level Mexico,(junior of Education,is described high), Advances prep Official in school, ofthis the Diarysection. Educational higher of the education, Federa- Modern- calledprivatekindergarten,native pre-primary, kindergartens, language, a child preschool childrenmust where have alternate aeducation reachedforeign betweenlanguagehis takes or her3 languagesyears. isfourth taught During birthday. alongand the learn withIn last many ele- theyear, education.Basicspecial Education education. Basic Education comprises initial, preschool, primary, sccondary, and In addition, it includes physical, artistic, and cultural toTheymillionments the were child'sof children reading taught natural were byand overand enrolledwriting social116,000The in environment both. Mexico'scontent teachers of preschoolin the andover new seeks 52,000 preschool education to schools.tie this program program. educa- of studies is taught in relation In the 1993-94 school year, 2.9 theirInitialand mothers indigenousEducation (increasing communities numbersThe spawned ofneeds whom ofthe approximatelyare creation employed) of a new in9 millionurban, type of children under the age of 4 and infor-rural, emphasizetionaltalsnature stageof thestudy, tomathematics, Theoretical-Methodology what and comesdevelopment orallater. and With of writtenpsycho-motor this of the objective, language, Preschool abilities the artistic Educationalproposed (SEP. sensibility, activitiesFundamen- Program, mothersmalties.new schooling. parenting in the care These methods and new attention to "schools" their of home their pursue childrenenvironments two and objectives: to help mothers to empower adapt 20 through diverse activi- revisingout1992, in 19 pp. thestates 11-23).content of the of Republic. the pedagogicalFollowing The results guidesthe provided first used ycar useful during of implementation, information the 1992-93 in an evaluation was carried 21 school44 year. Approximately 687,000 copies of the programEDUCATION were distrib- IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS PrimaryVICTORIA ANDRADE Education DE HERRARA Until recently, basic and primary education were synonymous in Mexico. 45 Notebookgamesuted to ofteachers (Mi primary Cuaderno (SEP, graphics; Performance de Trabajo); modulesExamples Report, didactic about of program 1993).musical packages materialsinstruments; integrated include cassette with a book for children, My Work tosystem.higherPrimary which (fifthIn school,inhabitants many and communitiesdivided sixth) had access.grades into acrosslower constituted the(first, country, second, the baseit was and of the thirdthe only educational years) education and manceaffective,simpletapes; a Report,crafts. music intellectual, Together,book;1993, 287).and and theother social material material development is thatdesigned stimulates of tostudents support creativity (SEP, the physical, Perfor- through bridgethannearly between85,000 14.5 millionMexican preschool students primary and Today, secondary.were schools. taught primary During by overschool the 488,000 1993-94 continues teachers school to carry inyear, more out its important role as the 2program yearserslagged were of was behind experience, installed established was andconsidered this insoftware effort 141In kindergartens successful;to1992, manuals address an innovativean distributed,in in aspect1994, the 178of information education Micro-SEP that database comput- had and computer literacy Federal District.which After would benefit communicationtiestoAmong strengthen considered main goals reading, capacities;basic of theto writing, the plan development of and studies oral for expressionintellectual of primary permanent students learning are abili- and moreabandoningintegrationmance than Report, 32,000 of their isolated1993, students. traditional 288). indigenous (SEP,One ways Officeof the groups,of concernslife. of General some of of the whom Secretaria have ofresisted Public Education has been the The Secretaria initiated the Information, Perfor- to environment,especiallytolife;learn obtain mathematical basic the andrelationship knowledge rational concepts use ofneeded andhygiene of applynatural to comprehendand them resources; health to problems care, natural protection of phenomena, everyday of the teachingPerformanceelementsdisplacing of Spanishof the Spanish Report, distinct as a 1993,are nationalNative easily 287). languages language assimilated andin the bytraditional preschool children customs. ofgroups this age withoutThe (SEP, basic toing toacquire an practice understanding anfundamental appreciationthese values of knowledge other ofin thetheir countries students' relations of history and rights with of and Mexico andothers; geography, responsibilities in particular; thus and g ain- forNativeseffectiveness the Indigenous of the indigenous of theTeacher Manual communities. and wasFor were evaluatedthis prepared task, These inbilingual throughthe mentors states teachersspecial ofJalisco,received courses. were aMichofican, Manual counted The on, most of whom were Thetoartistic enjoyappreciate contents achievements physical outlined and exercise enjoy ofabove humanity; music, and are sports. considered painting, and dance,fundamental literature, to the and develop- other andpreparation,288). Puebla (The teachers Office receivedof General 5,876Rural Information, workareas guides also Performance received and didactic special Report, packages materials. 1993, for In addition to previous meditationofalongment knowledge ofwith the these(SEP, whole is necessary associatedPlan student. and Programsabilities Teacherswith the for ofexercise arepermanent Study encouraged 1993,of intellectuallearning, Elementary, to make the abilities acquisition sure p. 14). that, and 59,114national1993, students p. 288).education (The reformOffice effortofOne General isof to the support Information. commitments the professional Performance of the Secretaria development Report, of Public Education in this designedistsnecessitated were and invited implemented the development to compete in first,to ofFor rewrite new third, the materials 1993-94tcxtbooks. and fifth and school grades.New free curriculum year,textbooks. These new changes planshasSpecial- now and programs of study were outnars,of Generalteachers. through and a Information,course In the 1993, General on 126,911 Preschool Performance Project teachers Teaching-Learning of TeachingReport, attended pp. Empowermenttraining 288-290). methodology workshops, (Office semi- of carried workingbeenhours-150 implemented days hours and in 4-hourmore all six than class grades.The previous days, development which cycles. translates Theof the distribution new into plan 800 requiresof annual instruc- an annual calendar of 200 techniqueorganization;ment in andthe affective,mcthods and the socialinsocial, preschool Themesfunction intellectual, education; coveredof the and school. inphysicalearly the childhoodpreschool domains; develop- course program included fundamentals of 22 Spanishtional14). time (45 is percent shown ofin Tableclass time), 1Notice (SEP, and Planthat mathematics beginningand Programs (30 in thepercent).of Studyfirst grade, 1993,In these p.special attention is given to 23 46 EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY Table 1 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA Table 2 47 Distribution of Work Time (1993 Plan) First and Second Grades Weekly Annual Distribution of Work Time (1993 Plan) Third to Sixth Grades Weekly Annual SubjectSpanish hours 9 hours 360 SubjectMathematicsSpanish hours 356 hours 200240 KnowledgeMathematics of the(Natural Environment Sciences, History, 6 240 GeographyHistoryNatural Sciences 1.511.5 120 60 Artistic EducationGeography, Civic Education) 31 120 4040 ArtisticCivicPhysical Education Education Education 1 40 PhysicalSource: Education SEP Plan and programsTotals of study 1993, p. 14 20 800 Source: SEP Plan and programsTotals of study 1993 20 800 sciences,two grades, history, under geography,the rubric of and Knowledge civic education of the arc integrated. Environment, the natural The last and tary,lessons pp. taught 91-140). previously (SEP. Plan and programs of study 1993, Elemen- politicalthreeSpanishtinue subjects to entity receive programs are where anthe integrated mostthewas students the attention, Instudy study third, live. of asof fourth,grammaticalshown the community, infifth, Table andstructure 2. municipality,sixth The focus grades,and of Spanish and mathematics con- linguistic earlier Officeematics,consisted of znd Generalof four history, courses Information, and addressing threeFor Chapter courses the problems1993-94 on about Education, academic inclassroom teaching p. year, 133). planningSpanish, the new (SEP.math- Program for Updating Teachers communicationforms.of Study The 1993,central capacity Elementary, purpose in speakingof Thethepp. new14mathematics andand programs writing15). program (SEP.is the developmentPlan develops and Programs the capacity to recognize, plan, of the and graphs,students and and teacher teachers guides. received Of AInthese, more Programthe nearly schoolthan of 113 46 Environmentalperiod millionmillion that were books, began freeProtection state textbooks.in Svtember mono- was developed 1993, primary in the 1993-94 school solvementstion, problems; and (SEP, measure Plan anticipate andand programsuse and measurementThe verify ofcontents studyresults; design1993,of estimate the Elementary, naturaland computationalresults sciences ofp. computa- are grouped in five thematic axes: 52). instru- Mexicoreducingcreateschool anyear City, awarenesscontamination in Guadalajara, Mexico in City students in andas various an Monterrey. extracurricularof the cities important of the activity. rolecountry, they Its purpose couldespecially play was into becauseFromtion;living matter, thirdbeings; of theirgrade energy the importance on,human and3 hours bodychange; in athe andweek preservation and health; are science, set the aside environmentof technology, health for the and natural andthe and its protec- protection sciencessociety. andthem.geography. writing Outstanding in Spanish,These services students arithmetic areThe who offeredelements, literacy wish toto services and childrencontinue basic in and Mexican theirthe adults indigenous studies history who are request and communitiesgiven focus on reading of sciencesnatural1993, resources Elementary,unit, which and p.replacedthe 74). environmentAn fragmented important (SEP. modification geography, Plan and Programs washistory, the developmentofand of an integrated 24 Studycivicssocial economicGeneralcurrently help. Information, stands The literacyat about Chaptcr campaigns 8 percent Inon coordination Education, have of the helped p. populationwith 138). lower specialists illiteracy, (SEP. in 20Office which indigenous of languages and dialects, 4 r 48 EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA As in primary school, the program of study emphasizes Spanish instruc- 49 writingbooksprocessregional were in of indigenousconditions. prepared indigenous for languages.At primaryfirst- the same and Content time, a supportwas schooling was distributed to teachers.second-grade This instruction in reading and manualtailored onto thematch educational specific Studyrecreation,programtion, which 1993, consists andreceivesSecondary reflection of four 5 p.class axes: 20). on hours thespoken language weekly language, at(SEP, all written three Plan grade and Programs levels. The of language, literary usedChihuahua,manualOffice for was instructionof General Hidalgo,based on Information,in andtest Spanish; Morelos.programs 101,000Performance Approximately conducted in indigenous languagesReport, (SEP, p. 289). the Primaryin theProgram states offor Chiapas, 152,000 copies were 1993,ity;program and, Secondary, arein ninth grouped grade,p. 37). in five trigonometryMathematics, areas: arithmetic; (SEP, too, Plan algebra; receives and geometry;Programs 5 weekly of class Study hours. The themes of the probabil- Migrantbylic.agricultural the [See ChildrenMexican chapters laborers. Secretariawas 6 and developedTheseTo 8 for serveof students Publicmore topopulations benefitinformation Educationmigrate with that specialserve needs, within 14 states10,000 of the children Repub- ofabout migrant programs sponsored migrant students Sketch of the Subjects of the Three Grades of Secondary Education and Number of Weekly Hours who travelSecondary into the (Junior United States.] High) EducationIn contrast to primary, the secondary (middle Although the 1865 Law of school) level occupied a SpanishSubjects (7th grade) (8th grade)5 hours (9th grade)first second5 hours 5 hoursthird styleInstructionplaceMexicountil of of 1925,the little was includesFrench afterimportanceborn lyceums twolanguage(Larroyo, presidential inof about earlier1986,that era secondary 461-462). decrees,eras. (covered education,that in 7 the or 8secondary years),organized it wasschool on notthe in WorldMathematicsGeographyGeneralHistory History of Geography Mexico of Mexico 3 hours35 hours 235 hours 35 hours governmentcomponentgreat importance in an a obligationbasic on secondary education to Theincrease education in 1993 Mexico. thereform by number includingThat resulting reform of secondaryit from as created an Article obligatory schools for 30 of the Constitution conferred the IntroBiologyElectiveCivicsEduc. to Orientation Physics Subject & Chemistry 3 hours 2 hours2 hours 3 hours 46).ninthacquireavailable grade the to right (SEP, serve and Program those obligation students for toEducational go who, on to upon secondary Modernization finishing education primary 1989-1994, through school, the p. ForeignChemistryPhysics Language 3 hours 3 hours 3 hours p.Federation,provided 133). for 10.5 81.2 percent; percent and Theof private the decentralization demand schools, for 8.2 secondary percent of the educational(SEP, education; Education, system the meant that the states Developmental Activities indicatinggrowthmiddle of school.that 1 percent many Even students that though year, Duringpassing theeducational enrollment the out 1993-94 of authorities primary in middleschool school are year, schooladopting did student notregistered measures enter enrollment a stood at 4,311,800, TechnologicalArtisticSource:Physical Expression SEP,Education Education Plan & Appreciationand Programs of Study 1993, Secondary, p. 16 2 hours3 hours 32 hours 32 hours visitto pp.thebetter primary importance133-134). publicize schools and this to obligation service. inform sixth-gradeAmong of continuing other students strategies, their andstudies theirgroups (SEP, parents of Education, about 26 teachers of biology, physics, chemistry,In and previous physical years, geography. the natural Two sciences courses course now consisted of the rudiments 27 50secondaryandhave chemistry been established(7th grade)courses forwith tie each physicsin theof those natural and disciplines.chemistry sciences courses Introductory of theEDUCATION infirst the year IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL physicssecondSYSTEMS of andcourses;VICTORIA scholarships ANDRADE standardized DE for HERRARA students exams forin ruralstudents communities. who failed one to three subjects; 51 (8thand1993, grade) civics. Secondary and third [Middle (9th grade) School],Under years p. (SEP,the13). old Plan program, and Programs social sciences integrated history, geography, In the current plan, these disciplines are studied separately. of Study establishedSpecialtorylanguage hours and programsmust of Private the dedicate official as Schoolsthe extra public schoolThe hours majorityones program. to do. that Thoseof language Some private that solve apartteachMexican the fromwith problem schools athe foreign obliga. with must comply with the same (SEP,reasons,secondaryin Plan public and level: schools. ProgramsFrench. English, ThreeSome of Study,preferred hoursof Withthe , 1993,weeklypurposes byregard the Secondary, are majority to for foreign studying p.of 14).languageschools a foreign for studies, language only two are offered at dedicated to these languages obvious the Secondarytionclassroomadditional supplied subjectsafternoonEducation by Professor in hours;ofthe the foreign Homero SEP). others, language Sanchezwithin and the Najera, othersregular Inspectorin hours,Spanish teach General (Informa- some of include appreciationdevelopmentthe acquisition forof anone's ofattitude linguisticown ofculture, respect basics and for that the allow ideas ofstudents others, who go on to ColegioSchool), JaponésColegioLiceo Frances Suizo(Japanese (the(Swiss School),FrenchOther School), privateLyceum), and Colegio many schools, Colegio othersIrlandes such Aleminare as(Irish governed el Colegio(German School), by Americano (The American expression and appreciation (music,Developmentalmandhigher another drawing,education language andactivities the painting), choice (SEP, in of thePlan physicaladvancing secondary and Programs edu- in programtheir of knowledge Study consist 1993, of p.artistic and com- 133). (informationthesecanaccordancebicultural students schools. agreements with who suppliedThe the plan certificates educational to thatby continue professor allow issued programs their these byHomero studies theseschools of the schoolsinSanchez sponsoring otherto deliver arecountries Nijera, valid country.instruction incanInspector Mexico attendMexi- in danceconsistscationStudy with(sports of1993, diversethe and Secondaryregion activitiesgymnasium), in which[Middle from itAs and whichisSchool], in located technological the each lower p. (SEP, 14.)school levels Plan education. may of and schooling,select Programs The in accor- latterthe of modification of the secondary becauseadvisedGeneral theofto Secondarycontinue official Mexican their Education, studies schoolsStudents SEP). in oneaccept who of dividethestudents aforementioned their from time other between countries schools, Mexico and another country are educationwritefree.One difference Thesetheir program works texts from called areaccording the produced for primary the to development theby program privateprograms is publishing andthat put publicationthe forth secondary houses. by the of new SecretariatextsThe texts.authorsare not of onlyMediathat when otherwise Superiorthe courses correspond (Preparatory) taken areto these recognizedStudents courses. Education who and completethe students their take secondary the exams education may continue their sionPublicthe that teaching-learning Education takes into (SEP). consideration processesThe texts Theaccuracy, areemployed. approved then revisedcurrentness, books by appeara Findingsand the in efficacythe Commis- SEP catalog. The teachers select one of versityNacionalarestudies under ofin AutemomatheMexico].one direction of numerous The de of MexicoInstituto the preparatorySEP, (UNAM) Politicnico and others schools [The areNacional National directedin Mexico. (IPN) Autonomousby the Some[The Universidad National of theseUni- or didacticteachers800,000more texts. ofguidebooks seventh To to acquaintof the eachand materials eighth subject educators grades. in from his with In orpublishers addition,her specialty eachand (SEP,gaveteacher them Education, to the the new texts, SEP acquired received a nologiesemiddlePolytechnical Industriales schools, and Manufacturing de Institute]and Servicio along withrelies (CETIS) Service], Centros on Technical [Centers deequivalent Estudios of Schools, Scientific toCientIficos, the preparatories. equivalent Studies, Tecnológicos Tech-to The the secondaryEducationp. 134). schoolsprogram (SEP, was initiated.Education,OtherIn the p.new1993-94 134). measures school recently year, the implemented Introduction include to Computers remedial in summer Basic Five computer centers were set up in 28 City,IPNin studies duration.courses are taken In incorporated almost during all the institutionsto Infirst SEP. the 2 college ycars of arethis preparatory the type same that forschool, function all students. programs in Mexico In vary between 2 and 3 years 29 52the third year, studente must decide if they wish to EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY with the choice made, theycontinue with university EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA Higher education is divided into three principal subsystems: studiesreceive1989). or technicala list of required studies, subjectsand in accordanceIn and the electivesmajority of preparatory schools, students physical-mathematics, chemical-biological, economic- (UNAM, Plan of Studies, select from the follow- of percentatonomy);36baccalaureate national public of universities thenetwork totaldegree enrollment of with (1989 87 64regional figures) percent (most technological operateof(most the totalenjoy under enrollment administrath SEPinstitutes, controls) at thewi Physical-Mathematicsofadministrative,ing ematician,professions four areas: engineer, andand specialties.humanities. areand professions actuary. For Each example, areasuch preparesas physicist, astronomer, corresponding to the area of students for a number math- tieslastmately35 private groupare 120autonomous, representsuniversities small institutions 16while of percent diverse others with of means dependprogramsthe total and on ehrollment.quality, of SEP remedial (Cooms as well Some studies. inas uniSEapi followingstudentsEducation, were year pp.taught saw 134-135). byan 115,343increaseSEP's teachers in registries enrollment in 4,812 report of preparatory that in the 1992-93 school year, 60,000 students (SEP, schools.1.77 The million haveuntil, technologicalpresently, almost institutes. all MexicanAfterFoundation the states seventies, havefor Economic state the higheruniversities Culture, education and 1991 system p. 25). began decentra This decentralization has resulted schools,management,programs especially have administration, been in the started science-relatedThe in growthrural the areasaccounting, in fields.enrollment was due, in part, to of broadcasting, land and cattle developmentthe of creationlivestockSixteen ofnew 128 vocational new proportionshowofincreased the that, students SES althoughin relation enrollmentenrolled the to number thein outside universitiesrest of thestudentsof Mexico country in Mexico has City.has grown diminished City.Previously, in MexicoRecent by 70 staabiCh p farming,inforrrants,ducted andhorticulture, through tourism. various Thishospital growth communication maintenance, is also mediahotel management, and .:condary school graduates including promotional due to targeted efforts to better orientation programs campaigns con- restau- considerablepercentTechnological (Cooms, prestige. 1991,Institute pp.The of 25-26). UniversitiesMonterreySome of inthe of Nuevo universitiesGuadalajara, Leon attract and Jalisco, technologicalever-incr( at institutes have ac( cation,carriedprofession, p.out 135). by theserved National 19.7 SystempercentThe expansion of more Educational students system, in which allows workers to Orientationfinish their (SEP, studies Edu- in1993-94 a than in the of the ningCentralnumbers and American budgeting.of students locations. The from Subsecretary theSEP rest hasof Mexico ofjurisdiction Higher and Education fromover allvarious otherand Scil U.levels of education, including precedingNationalcation. Thiscycle. Commission restructuring for for Planningwasthe Planningdone and to integrate Programmingof Higher these Education. programs This growth may be due to the restructuring through consultation with different social of Preparatory Edu- Plans and with the (Cooms,caltionsInvestigation Education with 1991, the anduniversities. p.controls 27). the General the The system DirectorSubsecretary of publicof Higher of technologicalResearch Education and Techn handhinstit programsknowledge.sectors,weresystem of developed;and studyof includecurriculum were of themodified those, development,contributions 69 plans 119of plans During the 1992-93 school year, by means of a and the entire number of programs of specialists from diverse fields of and 1,499 programs of study modular protestsMexicandecidinghas been supported independentitspesos) budget and, bydistribution. insomedespite developing political Sincevarious The its1929, annualgroups attemptsplans The student haveand National to programs stopped increase fees Autonomous arc theof them,symbol study,adopt s University of Mexico (U1 studyHigher are functioning Education (SEP, Education,In the higherp. 135). education system (SES), there exists major differences representsincreases,followis increased UNAM's amore major by needed privateportion model; as donations.of others each the monies haveyear Many passes.created coming universities their into ownUNAM. throughoutsystems. This st N The government st andmeans,betweenamong expansion. thequality the public leading of facilitiesuniversities and private and of universities. faculties, and prospectsthe capital for and development those of the states, and 30 These differences relate to City(UAM) has [Thea special Autonomous place. Thc AmongMetropolitan UAM the is organizedpublic University] universities, academically located the Universidad inby N c AutOnoma Metrop 31 54Frenchments, differentstyle. The from UAM the was UNAM, planned by a group EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY organized by schools in the Spanish and of the most severe critics EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS completeneededVICTORIA forANDRADE teaching Mexico's DE HERRARAof development. the careersThe thatIPN Divided theyendeavors attempt, into cycles,to formfrom these professionalsprep consistschool ofto in technical careers that are 55 of facultydom.organizationthe UNAM, The who UAM teachof who the enrolls andproposeduniversities conduct about to 50,000 of researchcreate the Unitedstudents, an activities in undergraduate and Statesinstitution and the United inspired King- byand the has a large, full-time tion,sistsprofessional ofascending schools to postgraduate tothat the have National varyingThe work Polytechnic unique levels(Solana four-level of Instituteet preparatory al., 1982, Mexican (IPN), p. and 480).which system higher takes of educa- technological in a education con- universitiesgraduateVarious programs universities follow (Cooms, the stand model 1991,outMexico of for thep. the 28). UNAM;also quality has ofnumerous private and technological universities. Some their teaching,others, including that theof the UAM. netdedicated of1935. 87 smaller Its primarily establishment technological to teaching respondedAs institutes mentioned technical to (Cooms, the and earlier, President's scientific 1991, the p.IPN callsubject 91). wasfor anmatter founded institution that by President Cirdenas in TechnologicalIberoamericana,country,Instituto isTecnológico financed Institute Panamericana, by ofAutónomo the Mexico], students' AnShuac, de one collegeMexico andof the most fees and by private(11AM)LaSalle, contribu- [The amongAutonomous others. El prestigious in the institutionsandAtwould the those haveonset, of has practicalthe notable narrowedUNAM, applicationdifferences but the the differences. diversification toexisted the needs betweenThe ofIPN of a thecountry thehas plans IPN'sbroadened inof plansdevelopment. study its of of scopestudy both tions.existence,scientific Nevertheless, researchonly 40 in carry atMexico, the out university investigative thereTo enter does level. into not research. the university, students must Ofexist the 400an effective universitieshave system finished in of preparatory intotechnologicalsivelyand areas offers thcsuch doctoralUNAM's as areas medicine, (Cooms,degrees domain. economics, in 1991, many pp. socialfields, 91-92; sciences,which Solana were and et al., inadministration the1982, past p. exclu- 480). The UNAM, in turn, has entered some theschoolstudiesthese private with schools in universities athe bachillerato samedo not university. havehave (preparatory totheir pass Due own entrance to or preparatory a high student exams school diploma).strike, Many the of students of the if they continueschools; their students in andPostgraduate doctorate degree programs.Postgraduate These can be education accomplished consists in the of UNAM,specialization studies and master's Onpublicthat the dopreparatoriesother not hand, have preparatorythe no entrance longer presentprograms examIn contrast is exams required (Cooms, to of the UAM, where a large number 1991,admissionin p. the 29). private to the universities UNAM. of teachers work full- date,Duringthe UAM, of thiswhich the period, IPN,94 correspond and199 in plans various toMore and the privateprograms universitythan 55,000 universities. of area studystudents and were 105 were tobrought enrolledthe techno- up in to these programs in 1993-94. plishedtimetime,In toprivateonly teaching.scholars 25 universities, percent who This devoteof is tcachers becausethe amajority great employed many part of ofof the thebytheir professors theteachers time to are UNAM devote all their works on an hourly their professions. highly accom- eight(SEP,Metallurgylogical integrated Education, area. and The programs. Materials UNAMp. 137). Forstarted and its the part,the specialization university the IPN createdpostgraduate in Thermal the doctorate system,Engineering within Technologicalbasis (Cooms, 1991, Education p. 29). In 1958, when the Subsecretary of Higher Technical Education was put technological education programs.ScienceNacional and de In Ciencia Technology],1993, it y gave Tecnologia approximatelywhichAn important stimulates(CONACYT) institution 650 research scholarships, [The supporting throughNational representing scholarshippostgraduateCouncil of a study is in the Consejo asInstitutoin logicalchargeanMexico, institution Politécnico institutions,of twothe coordinationofareas a Nacionalhigher among of activities themand(IPN) development the were[The technical Nationaldesignated: of secondary academic level and (2) to direct other techno- Polytechnic Institution] (1)schools, to direct the the Cen- granted142).institutions30 percent 3,555 increase andscholarships 649 from for studiesthe to carryprevious in out foreign year.postgraduate Thecountries educational studies (SEP, sector,Education,in national in turn, p. , cal administration;tersStudies, of Scientific under currently andthe SecretaryTechnological the office of Public Institutes.is Studies, called Education the This Subsecretary subsecretary has changed names with and the Regional Technologi- (SEP, 1995).32 each presidential of Technical consultationNormal Education with students andAll theteachers information of the Escuela contained Nacional in this de section Mae- was obtained in direct 33 06stros (The Normal School of Teachers), the EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND LONTEmPORARY tOUCATIONAL SYSTEMS magisterial profession, and trainingVICTORIA ANDRADEservices DE would HERRARA be transferred from the federal government to the 57 withpoliticalUniversity the scholarship history of the of Americas). the holders country of Normaland, the despiteUniversidad education its importance, de has las undergone Americas has received numerous (The less reforms throughout the Adultstates (SEP, Education Education, p. 136).In Mexico, adult education is fundamental. According to the 1990 supporttion, the than whole other country professions. now has ThanksThe normal basic to schools. theteaching decentralization profession is studied in Mexico in the Escuela of educa- aryThiaiscensus, the education, Institute charge 12.4 percentof developsand the work National of activitiesMexicans requirements Institute related could for not toMexicansthe illiteracy, read Education or olderwrite. primary of than AdultAdults 15and educationwho (INEA).second- have schools,Nacionalsufficientgivenfoundation to andde the Maestrosto in of careerenroll some the National ofin(theMexican professorthis National institution School private that School ofonly schools.and, Teachers, of a after middleTeachers), In 3 the yearsso school littlefirst in of the yearscertificationstudies,importance state after normal students was the neverread,Education, gone of whom to p. school 137). 8.3 percent or who wereDuring did indigenousnot the finish 1993-94 theirpersons; school basic 73.7 educationyear, percent the INEA werelural (SEP, taught 1.13 million adults to receivedfourthintense(graduation the semester,student title from of teaching Professorpreparatorythe degree experience ofAt ofschool).Elementary present, Licenciatura with The to primary Instruction.studiesenroll (Baccalaureate) ingroupslast the 4 yearssame beginning and,school, n primary after the an bachillerato is required in the Togroupsprogramsage,inhabitants, help two were adults systems at andformedfixed exercise 18 were times percentand used: readingprovidedand were repeated(1) and a urbanwith radio writing themaudiocassettes inhabitants. literacy during skills, service the workshopsTo and day;extend transmitted cassette and thewere (2) players. cover- study radiocon- educationcanments enroll as is teachers obtained.in the Escuela of primary NormalStudents instruction. Superior who Ifobtain (Higher they thewish Licenciatura to are certified to receive appoint- Normal School) or the aim higher, they schoolingmatelyducted 1.56that and producedmillion 30 percent people, diverse had of types whomPrimarysome of middle70 materials andpercent secondary schooling. had(SEP, some Education, classesThrough previous for an p.primaryadults agree-138). were attended by approxi- acquiresciences,riorUniversidad institutes, the social degree Pedagógica specialties science, of Licenciatura and(theare foreignoffered Pedagogic (Baccalaureate) suchlanguage. University). as Spanish, Graduates in mathematics,secondaryIn the of Normalthis educationinstitution natural Supe- groups,schoolandment services, to program.promoteappropriate 400,000 adult Taking educational workerseducation into were consideration materialsin industries included and ofin textsthe the special privateprimarywere adopted. needssector and secondary ofMateri- goodsthese anddegree.Pedagogical fill secondary University teaching are posts designedSince throughout 1992, to result as Mexico. an inincentive a master's The studiesto improve or doctorate in the teaching, the Educational Mod- alsSummaryregional developed monographs, for adults andin rural 22 books areas ofcomprise history (SEP,six state Education, biographies, p. 138). 26 ernizationrequirements,thefront Centers of Agreementtheir of peers obtainTeacher atestablished anall Modernization annualthe instructional aeconomic plan for and, gradethebenefit. if reevaluation they levels. The complete TheSecretary of teachers teachcrsthe ofstringent Publicattend in Theestablisher',out states its own are particular allowedat the Federal latitudeeducational Thelevel. as decentralization long programs as they to conform meet process state towill andbasic continue local criteria needs. as each state plans and carries SEP specifies standards and values, Education,pointtion.teachers average, inscholarships cooperation must taketo with obtain an the admission the Bank master's of Mexico, exam or doctorate at grants the university todegrees distinguishedScholarship in of educa- their holders, apart from having obtained a superior grade- systemsors,system.thereby teaulers, in 1c contrasthemtrolling state and Secretariesto others i.e.,Mexico's the will national of highlyneed Education, timc regulated character to schooladjust and of tocentralizedadministrators,Mexico's a more autonomouseducational educational profes- (ANMEB),choice.and personnel established resources in May neededThe 1992, National to states provide that Agreement normal responsibility education for the for Modernization andmaterial teacher of Basic Education 34 system of previous years. 35 58 EDUCATION IN MEXICO: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS VICTORIA ANDRADE DE HERRARA 59 Bibliography administrative use. 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