Translating Spanishness: Courtiers, Pícaros, and Gypsies at the Crossroads of Spain and Italy Ca 1528-1622

The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters

Citation Gonzalez, Goretti Teresa. 2016. Translating Spanishness: Courtiers, Pícaros, and Gypsies at the Crossroads of Spain and Italy Ca 1528-1622. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences.

Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33493302

Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA ! ! ! Translating!Spanishness:!Courtiers,!Pícaros,!and!Gypsies!at!the!Crossroads!of! Spain!and!Italy!ca!1528>1622! ! ! ! ! ! ! A!dissertation!presented!! ! ! by! ! ! Goretti!González! ! to!! ! The!Department!of!Romance!Languages!and!Literatures! ! in!partial!fulfillment!of!the!requirements! ! for!the!degree!of!! ! Doctor!of!Philosophy!! ! in!the!subject!of!! ! Romance!Languages!and!Literatures!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Harvard!University!! ! Cambridge,!Massachusetts!! ! May!2016!! ! ! ! ! ! !

©!2016!Goretti!González!!

All!rights!reserved!

! ! !

Dissertation!advisor:!Mary!Gaylord!! ! ! ! Goretti!González!!

! Translating!Spanishness:!Courtiers,!Pícaros,!and!Gypsies!at!the!Crossroads!of! Spain!and!Italy!ca!1528>1622! ! Abstract( !

"Translating!Spanishness:!Courtiers,!Pícaros,!and!Gypsies!at!the!Crossroads!of!

Spain!and!Italy!ca!1528>1622”!examines!the!role!of!printing!and!translation!in! the!formation!and!transformation!of!early!modern!Spanish!national!identities! and!two!of(its!principal!literary!forms:!the!early!Comedia!and!the!inchoate!

Picaresque.!The!Spanish!cortegiano’s!uniformed!costuming!is!crucial!to!the! construction!of!national!identities,!the!shape!shifting!pícaro!undermines! projected!national!and!class!hierarchies,!and!the!Gypsy,!by!definition,!is!always! transforming!and!translating.!Within!this!Spanishness,!the!texts!examined! suggest!a!steady!progress!from!the!vision!of!the!Spanish!cortegiano!to!the!pícaro! and!the!Gypsy.!Each!in!its!own!way!is!a!kind!of!“limit!case,”!a!test!case!for!the! project!of!fashioning!coherent!national!identities.!

iii! ! !

Contents!

! ! ! ! ! ! !!

!!!!!!!!!Introduction!!!!!!!!!!1!

Translating!Spanishness:!Darkly>clad!Burladores!in!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano5555551555!

From!Sprezzatura5to!Sosiego:!Dismantling!Spanish!Sobriety!in!!!!!!!74!! Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache5! 5 ! 3! ! Interpreting!the!Gitana:!Cross>Dressing!and!Translation!in!Lope!de!Rueda’s!!!!116!! Medora5! ! ! 4! ! Found!in!Translation:!Barezzo!Barezzi!and!the!Spanish!Pícaros!!!!!156! ! ! ! ! ! Conclusion!!!211!! !

Bibliography!!!!!219!

iv! ! Acknowledgements!

I!am!fortunate!to!have!been!led!by!an!extraordinary!committee:!Mary!

Gaylord,!my!committee!chair;!Luis!Girón>Negrón;!Laura!Bass.!They!have! significantly!shaped!my!intellectual!and!personal!growth!and!my!work!has!been! vastly!improved!by!their!guidance!and!devotion!to!producing!research!of!the!highest! quality.!Apart!from!extraordinary!mentors,!I!also!value!the!friendship!we!have! developed!over!the!years.!!

At!Harvard,!Luis!Fernández!Cifuentes!has!been!extremely!helpful!behind!the! scenes.!I!am!very!grateful!to!Lino!Pertile!for!inviting!me!to!Harvard’s!Villa!I!Tatti!as!a! graduate!fellow.!I!also!thank!Santiago!Lopéz>Ríos!Moreno!for!hosting!me!as!a! visiting!scholar!at!the!Universidad!Complutense!de!Madrid!and!offering!me!his! friendship.!At!UCLA,!I!would!like!to!extend!my!gratitude!to!Roberta!Johnson,!whose! support!was!fundamental!in!the!continuation!of!my!graduate!studies.!I!would!also! like!to!tip!my!hat!in!honour!of!the!late!Carroll!B.!Johnson,!under!whose!tutelage!the! first!paragraphs!of!what!would!become!this!dissertation!took!their!first!shape.!!

To!my!friends,!Sanam!Nader!and!Caroline!Kline,!who!have!supported!me!with! their!brilliant!minds!and!generous!hearts.!To!my!family,!who!has!allowed!me!to! follow!my!own!path.!I!am!especially!grateful!to!my!husband,!Guillermo!Lasarte,!who! has!been!an!essential!source!of!encouragement,!advice,!support,!and!unconditional! love.!!

1! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! Introduction!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 2! ! Garcilaso!y!Boscán,!siendo!llegados!! Al!lugar!donde!están!los!trovadores! Que!en!esta!nuestra!lengua!y!sus!primores! Fueron!en!este!siglo!señalados,! ! Los!unos!a!los!otros!alterados! Se!miran,!con!mudança!de!colores,! Temiéndose!que!fuesen!corredores! Espías!o!enemigos!desmandados;! ! Y!juzgando!primero!por!el!traje,! Paresciéronles!ser,!como!debía,! Gentiles!españoles!caballeros;! ! Y!oyéndoles!hablar!nuevo!lenguaje! Mezclado!de!estranjera!poesía,! Con!ojos!los!miraban!de!estranjeros! ! Boscán5y5Garcilaso>,!Cristobal!de!Castillejo! ! ! This!is!a!study!of!the!role!of!translation!and!printing!in!the!formation!and! transformation!of!early!modern!Spanish!national!identities!and!two!of(its!principal! literary!forms:!the!early!Comedia!and!the!inchoate!picaresque.!Much!ink!has!been! spilt!documenting!the!cultural!rivalry!that!resulted!from!imperial!Spanish! usurpation!of!Italy’s!Mediterranean!political!supremacy!and!appropriation!of!Italian! poetic!forms.!While!Spain!claimed!political!dominance,!Italy!boasted!artistic! preeminence.!Herrera’s!Obras5de5Garcilaso5con5anotaciones5de5Fernando5de5Herrera5

(1580)!details!Garcilaso!de!la!Vega’s!poetic!incursions!with!the!Petrarchan!sonnet!as! a!belated!traslatio5studii!of!Italianate!forms,!while!arguing!for!the!superiority!of!the!

Spanish!language.!In!1534!Juan!Boscán!had!already!compared!Spanish!poetry! favorably!to!its!Italian!counterpart!and!had!even!declared!it!potentially!superior.!!

3! ! Instead!of!concentrating!on!traditional!movement,!from!east!to!west—Italy! to!Spain—!this!study!looks!at!key!instances!within!the!reciprocal!imitation!and! influence!that!resulted!from!the!constant!human,!cultural!and!linguistic!traffic,! between!the!two.!While!the!cultural!and!literary!commerce!is!bidirectional,!the! focus!of!analysis!is!centered!in!Spain.!I!look!at!an!Italian!court!manual,!a!Spanish! libro5de5pícaros,5a!play!translated!from!Italian!to!Spanish,!and!a!picaresque!novel! translated!from!Spanish!to!Italian.!I!focus!on!works!by!Baldassare!Castiglione,!Mateo!

Alemán,!Lope!de!Rueda,!and!the!Venetian!translator!of!the!Spanish!picaresque,!

Barezzo!Barezzi.!Among!the!issues!I!explore!are:!the!function!of!the!Venetian!book! trade!and!uniformed!costuming!in!the!construction!of!national!identity!(as!in!

Castiglione’s!Cortegiano);!the!role!of!the!picaresque!genre!and!its!sartorial!discourse! in!buttressing!or!undermining!projected!national!and!class!hierarchies!(in!Alemán’s!

Guzmán5de5Alfarache);!the!role!of!translation!on!the!early!Comedia!(in!Lope!de!

Rueda’s!Medora);!and,!the!influence!of!the!picaresque!in!translation!on!identity!and! genre!(in!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!Picariglio5Castigliano).5!I!argue!that!Spain’s!evolution! from!a!global!power!at!the!summit!of!her!dominance,!under!Charles!V,!to!a! struggling!nation!at!the!junction!of!the!reigns!of!Philip!III!and!IV,!is!in!part,!recorded! and!advertised!through!the!Spanish!identities!examined!in!these!four!representative! cases.!!

Cristobal!de!Castillejo(((1491>1556),(whose!sonnet!is!cited!above,!a!Spanish! poet!who!championed!the!traditional!forms!of!Spanish!poetry!and!criticized!Spanish! appropriation!of!Italianate!forms,!conjures!an!encounter!between!traditional!

4! ! Spanish!troubadours!and!the!self>appointed!ambassadors!of!Italianate!poetry!in!the!

Iberian!Peninsula,!Garcilaso!de!la!Vega!(1501>1536),!a!Spanish!soldier!and!poet,!and!

Juan!Boscán!Almogávar!(1491>1552),!a!Spanish!poet!and!translator.!While!the! second!quatrain!establishes!transformation!(“alterados,”!“mudança”),!the!two! tercets!invoke!recognizable!Spanish!fashion!and!a!new!hybrid!language.!These! stanzas!set!up!the!dichotomy!of!seeing!two!men!dressed!in!the!style!of!noble!

Spanish!gentlemen!(“traje,”!“gentiles!españoles!caballeros”)!and!listening!to!them! speak!in!a!foreign!language!(“nuevo!lenguaje,”!“mezclado,”!“estranjera!poesía”).1!The! perceived!extraordinary!mixture!that!causes!the!troubadours!to!see!Boscán!and!

Garcilaso!as!foreigners!is!the!Spanish!language!spoken!in!an!Italian!poetic!idiom.!

Along!with!the!sonnet!came!other!compositional!types!like!the!canzone,!novel!metric! lines!(heptasyllables!and!hendecasyllables)!that!become!the!prosodic!vehicle!for!

Latin!sub>genres!like!the!oda!(ode),5elegía!(elegy),5égloga!(eglogue),!and!epístola!

(epistle).(In!Castillejo’s!sonnet,!in!spite!of!the!confusion!of!opposing!visual!and! auditory!cues,!Boscán!and!Garcilaso!are!recognized!as!Spanish!gentlemen!by!their! outerwear.!While!their!clothing!certifies!them!as!Spaniards,!their!poetic!language! exposes!their!contact!with!Italy.!(

Spanish!diplomats!and!courtiers!Boscán!and!Garcilaso!de!la!Vega,!along!with!

Venetian!ambassador,!Andrea!Navagero,!form!the!cluster!of!Italian!and!Spanish! gentlemen!credited!with!the!dissemination!of!the!Italian!metric!forms!in!the!Iberian!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1See!Mary!Malcom!Gaylord.!“Jerónimo!de!Aguilar!y!la!alteración!de!la!lengua,”5in! Agencias5Criollas:5La5ambiguedad5“colonial”5en5las5letras5hispanoamericanas.!Ed.!José! ! 5! ! Peninsula.!As!Boscán!explains!in!the!Epístola5nuncupatoria5de5Juan5Boscán5a5la5 duquesa5de5Soma,!a!few!days!after!the!wedding!celebration,!in!Seville!in!1526,!of!

Charles!I!to!Isabel!of!Portugal—!also!attended!by!Baldassare!Castiglione,!Pope!

Clement!VI’s!nuncio!and!author!of!Il5Cortegiano—Boscán!and!Navagero!discuss!the!

Spanish!appropriation!of!the!hendecasyllable!(Navarrete!60;!Menéndez!y!Pelayo!67>

72.)2!The!Epístola5nuncupatoria5de5Juan5Boscán5a5la5duquesa5de5Soma!reconstructs! the!conversation!between!the!two!at!the!Generalife,!Granada.55!!

Estando!un!día!en!Granada!con!el!Navagero,!tratando!con!él!en!cosas! de!ingenio!y!de!letras,!me!dijo!por!qué!no!probaba!en!lengua! castellana!sonetos!y!otras!artes!de!trovas!usadas!por!los!buenos! autores!de!Italia:!y!no!solamente!me!lo!dijo!así!livianamente,!mas!aún! me!rogó!que!lo!hiciere...!Así!comencé!a!tentar!este!género!de!verso,!en! el!cual!hallé!alguna!dificultad!por!ser!muy!artificioso!y!tener!muchas! particularidades!diferentes!del!nuestro.!(“Epístola!nuncupatoria!de! Juan!Boscán!a!la!duquesa!de!Soma”)!( ! Boscán,!who!served!both!in!the!court!of!the!Catholic!Kings,!Isabel!and!Ferdinand,! and!in!that!of!their!grandson,!the!Holy!Roman!Emperor,!Charles!V,!initiates!an! intricate!Spanish>Italian!rhetorical!exchange.!The!Barcelonese!diplomat!ignores! fifteenth>century!practitioners!of!the!Italico5modo!on!Spanish!soil,!such!as!the!

Marqués!de!Santillana.!Situating!the!suggestive!dialogue!in!Granada,!he!implicitly! invokes!the!Spanish!conquest!of!the!Moorish!stronghold!in!1492,!as!well!as!the!site! of!the!Spanish!King’s!modern!Renaissance!palace.!In!the!letter!to!the!Duchess!of!

Soma,!Boscán!envisions!the!Spaniards!surpassing!the!Italians,!if!unrest!(desasosiego)!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!See!Ignacio!Navarrete.!Orphans5of5Petrarch:5Poetry5and5Theory5in5the5Spanish5 Renaissance.5Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1994;!Marcelino!!Menéndez!y! Pelayo.!“Estudio!sobre!Castiglione!y!el!Cortesano,“!in!B.!Castiglione,!El5Cortesano.5 Trans.!Juan!Boscán.!Madrid:!Revista!de!Filologia,!Añejo!XXV,!1942.! 6! ! does!not!impede!it:!“si!los!tiempos!con!sus!desasosiegos!no!lo!estorvan,!podrá!ser! que!antes!de!mucho!se!duelan!los!Italianos!de!ver!lo!bueno!de!su!poesía!transferido! en!España”!(Juan!Boscán,!Obra5Completa,!120).!!

Apart!from!implanting!Italian!meters!and!compositional!types!in!Spain,!

Navagero’s!diplomatic!endeavors!include!another!literary!transfer:!sending!

Giovanni!Battista!Ramusio!all!the!written!material!he!could!find!on!the!New!World.!

At!a!moment!when!their!hold!on!Mediterranean!supremacy!was!being!usurped!by!a! growing!imperial!Spain,!one!that!in!the!sixteenth!century!had!already!claimed!a! third!of!Italian!territory,!Venetian!writers!wielded!their!editorial!tools.!Venetian> born!Giovanni!Batista!Ramusio,!author!of!Navigationi5et5Viaggi!(1550)—boasts!that!

Marco!Polo’s!overland!journey!to!Cathay!was!a!greater!feat!than!that!of!Columbus.!It! was!Andrea!Navagero,!claims!Ramusio,!who!explained!to!the!perplexed!Spanish! court!why!Magellan’s!ship!had!lost!a!calendar!day!circumnavigating!the!globe!

(Horodovich,!2005).!In!this!context!of!competition!between!Italy!and!Spain,!

Castillejo’s!designation!of!these!poetically>minded!ambassadors!as!“corredores,! espías,!o!enemigos!desmandados”!seems!appropriate.!

The!Vatican!territory!became!symbolically!Spanish!from!1492>1503,!when!

Rodrigo!Borgia,!born!Rodrigo!Lanzol!y!de!Borja!in!Valencia,!Spain,!was!chosen!Pope!

Alexander!VI.!In!1505!Fernando!de!Aragón!conquered!Naples!for!Spain.!King!

Fernando’s!presence!in!southern!Italy,!coupled!with!a!Spanish!Pope,!provided!an! ongoing!traffic!of!Spanish!and!Italian!movement,!offering!“enormous!opportunities! to!Spaniards!for!patronage!in!Italy”!(Navarrete,!40).!This!movement!only!increased!

7! ! after!Charles!was!elected!to!the!throne!of!the!Holy!Roman!Empire.!Italian!soil! witnessed!Charles’!capture!of!French!King,!François!I!at!Pavia,!in!1525.!This!victory! also!added!Milan!to!the!Spanish!empire.!It!was!followed!by!the!infamous!sack!of!

Rome!of!1527,!which!secured!the!symbolic!Spanish!domination!of!Italy.!As!

Benedetto!Croce’s!studies!exemplified,!Spain!and!Italy!had!a!complex!relationship.!

For!more!than!two!centuries,!while!Italians!saw!Madrid!as!“the!Court,”!!

Spanish!families!established!themselves!definitively!in!Italy;!both! noble!and!plebeian!Italians!fattened!the!ranks!of!the!Catholic! monarchs'!armies;!Italian!politicians!and!magistrates!figured!in!their! councils;!the!language,!customs,!and!some!of!the!monuments!of! Spanish!literature!ruled!among!us!just!as!our!language,!literature,!and! customs!imposed!themselves!on!Spain.!(11)!3! ! The!constant!human,!cultural!and!linguistic!traffic!between!Italy!and!Spain!left!its! mark.!!

Italy,!for!example,!provided!one!of!the!most!important!platforms!for!the! dissemination!of!Spain’s!exploration!and!discovery.!The!explosion!of!the!Venetian! press,!which!published!between!15,000!and!17,500!editions!in!the!sixteenth!century! alone,!coincided!with!the!accelerated!pace!of!transatlantic!voyages.!Early!modern!

Italian!historian,!Elizabeth!Horodovich!observes,!in!“Armchair!Travelers!and!the!

Venetian!Discovery!of!the!New!World,”!(2005),!that!Italy!was!“one!of!the!greatest! centers!for!the!spread!of!information!about!the!discoveries.”!Within!Italy,!she!notes,!

Venice!produced!both!some!of!the!earliest!and!most!significant!treatments!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!See!Benedetto!Croce.!España5en5la5vida5italiana5del5Renacimiento.!Trans.!Francisco! González!Ríos.!Buenos!Aires:!Ediciones!Imán,!1945.!The!English!translation!is!mine.!! ! ! 8! ! Columbus’!voyages,!including!Fracanzio!da!Montalboddo’s!Paesi5novamente5 retrovati!(Vicenza,!1507),!which!went!through!fifteen!editions!in!four!languages!and! was!“more!instrumental!than!any!other!work!in!disseminating!knowledge!of!

America,!Africa,!and!the!Far!East.”!Venetian!presses!published!twelve!editions!of!

Francisco!López!de!Gómara’s!Historia5general5de5las5Indias!between!1557!and!1599,! and!at!least!six!editions!of!Pedro!Cieza!de!León’s!Chrónica5de5Perú!between!1555! and!1557.!In!this!way,!Venice(became!an!important!mouthpiece!for!Spain’s!evolving! identities.!!

! Early!modern!Spanish>Italian!rhetorical!crossfire!has!inspired!original! critical!works,!beginning!with!Herrera’s!1580!study!of!Garcilaso!and!Petrarch!in!his!

Obras5de5Garcilaso5de5la5Vega5con5anotaciones5de5Fernando5de5Herrera.5!Ignacio!

Navarrete’s!Orphans5of5Petrarch5(1995)!studies!the!evolution!of!Petrarchism!as!the! driving!force!in!Spanish!lyric!poetry!from!Juan!de!la!Encina!to!Francisco!de!Quevedo.!

Navarrete!situates!the!appropriation!and!constant!renewal!of!Petrarch!within!the! larger!cultural!phenomenon!of!imitating!Italian!styles!in!arts,!culture,!and!society.!

He!posits!the!Spanish!legacy!of!a!poet!who!had!been!dead!for!a!century!and!a!half!as! a!reflection!of!cultural!anxiety!that!resulted!from!a!national!inferiority!complex.!The! concern!with!“national!backwardness”!as!Navarrete!labels!it,!can!be!directly!linked! to!what!Ernst!Robert!Curtius!called!Spain's!"cultural!belatedness"!or!“Spanish! difference”!(541).4!Roland!Greene’s!transatlantic!scholarship!in!Unrequited5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!See!Ernst!Robert!Curtius.!European!Literature!and!the!Latin!Middle!Ages.!Trans.! Willard!Trask.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1991.! ! 9! ! Conquests:5Love5and5Empire5in5the5Colonial5Americas!(1999)5also!looks!to!Petrarch.!

Using!central!figures,!including!Christopher!Columbus,!Pero!Vaz!de!Caminha,!Sir!

Philip!Sidney,!and!the!Inca!Garcilaso!de!la!Vega,!Greene!traces!the!reformulation!of! early!modern!lyric—shaped!by!the!Italian!humanist’s!discourse!of!unrequited! love—during!the!early!stages!of!European!colonialism.!(

! Fashioning!oneself!to!be!recognized!as!a!Spaniard!was!crucial!in!an!ever> expanding!imperial!Spain.!Imitations!of!Castiglione’s!court!treatise,!along!with!

Giovanni!della!Casa’s!Galateo5(1558),!and!other!“how!to”!books,!flourished!on!the!

Iberian!Peninsula.5!Purity!of!blood!statutes!(limpieza5de5sangre)!excluded! merchants,!laborers,!and!new!converts!to!Christianity((Conversos)—those!with!

Muslim!or!Jewish!ancestors—!from!holding!government!and!ecclesiastical!positions.!

Upward!mobility!required!a!tweaking!of!the!self.!As!Laura!Bass!notes,!limpieza5de5 sangre“5was!frequently!circumvented!and!seems!to!have!fomented!self>fashioning!in! the!sense!of!faking!or!creating!fictions:!applicants!to!important!posts!or!the!ranks!of! knighthood!often!resorted!to!bribery!or!false!genealogies!to!obtain!certificates!of! purity”!(302).!In5Passing5for5Spain,5Barbara!Fuchs!applies!the!notion!of!self> fashioning!to!Cervantes’!texts!in!order!to!examine!the!mutability!of!individual! identity!in!early!modern!Spain,!in!opposition!to!a!national!identity!constructed!on! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!Luis!de!Milán’s!El5cortesano5(1561),!Lucas!Gracián!Dantisco’s!El5Galateo5español5 (1593,!and!reedited!over!a!dozen!times!in!the!following!three!decades),!and!Alonso! Jerónimo!Salas!de!Barbadillo’s!El5caballero5perfecto5(1623),!and!Baltasar!Gracián’s,! El5héroe5(1637),!El5discreto5(1646),!and!the!Oráculo5manual5y5arte5de5prudencia5 (1647).!!

! 10! ! exclusion!and!difference.!In!Pícaro5and5Cortesano,!Felipe!Ruan,!advances!that!both! conduct!manuals!and!picaresque!novels!emphasize!the!forms!of!capital!that!came!to! sustain!self>fashioning.!Leah!Middlebrook’s!Imperial5Lyric:5New5Poetry5and5New5

Subjects5in5Early5Modern5Spain!studies!the!Spanish!lyric’s!importance!in!shifting! masculine!identity!from!the!medieval!hero!to!the!posture!of!subjects.!

Stephen!Greenblatt!defined!the!notion!of!self>fashioning—the!artful! construction!and!performance!of!identity—!as!an!early!modern!European! phenomenon.!As!Natalie!Zemon!Davis!has!shown,!the!term!derives!from!Michel!de!

Montaigne,!who,!pointing!towards!Machiavellian!dissimulation!as!one!of!the!most! striking!characteristics!of!his!age!(“plus!notable!qualités!de!siècle”),!explains!that!his! peers!form!and!fashion!themselves:!“On!s’y!forme!on!s’y!façonne.”6!Before!it!had!a! name,!the!idea!of!shaping!one’s!identity!was!already!being!disseminated!through!

Baldassare!Castiglione’s!Book5of5the5Courtier5(1528),!completed!while!Castiglione! acted!as!the!Papal!Nuncio!in!the!Iberian!Peninsula,5and5translated!into!Spanish!by!

Juan!Boscán!(1534).!!5

Recent!decades!have!witnessed!a!revision!of!the!notion!of!identity!as!a!fixed! state.!Social!scientists!have!argued!for!a!move!towards!“processes!of!identification.”!

Richard!Jenkins!and!Valentin!Groebner!have!shown!that!these!processes!are!always! a!collective!or!social!enterprise.!Identity!is!in!constant!flux,!continually!being!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!Cited!in!Laura!Bass,!“Self>Fashioning,”!in!Lexikon5of5the5Hispanic5Baroque:5 Transatlantic5Exchanges5and5Transformation.5University!of!Texas!Press:!Austin!2014.! ! 11! ! constructed!and!modified.7!Tamar!Herzog!notes!that!current!scholarship!has! emphasized!the!formation!and!transformation!of!early!modern!Spanish!identity!is! the!result!of!ongoing!encounters!between!“others”—!Native>Americans,!African,!and! other!Europeans!(147).!

This!dissertation!studies!many!manifestations!of!translation.!In!Early5Modern5

Cultures5of5Translation,5Karen!Newman!and!Jane!Tylus!underscore!that!there!would! not!have!been!a!Renaissance!without!translation.8!In!After5Babel5George!Steiner! underlines!the!complex!function!of!translation!in!early!modern!Europe:!!

At!a!time!of!explosive!innovation,!and!amid!a!real!threat!of!surfeit!and! disorder,!translation!absorbed,!shaped,!oriented!the!necessary!raw! material.!It!was,!in!a!full!sense!of!the!term,!the!matière!première!of!the! imagination.!Moreover!it!established!logic!of!relation!between!past! and!present,!and!between!different!tongues!and!traditions,!which! were!splitting!apart!under!stress!of!nationalism!and!religious!conflict.9!

Steiner!is!getting!to!the!root!of!translation,!which!comes!from!the!Latin!translatus,5 past!participle!of!the!verb!meaning!‘to!carry!over’.!Early!modern!translators!must!

“absorb,!shape,!and!orient!”!the!original!text,!moving!knowledge!between!languages! and!carrying!over!the!raw!material!and!all!of!its!baggage.!Steiner!is!suggesting!that! translations!carry!political!weight.!!In!the!mid>fifteenth!century,!the!Spanish!

Humanist!Alfonso!de!Madrigal!specifies!“interpretacion”!as!one!of!two!modes!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!See!Richard!Jenkins.!Social5identity.!London!and!New!York:!Routledge,!2004.! 8>9.15>26;!Valentin!Groebner.!Who5are5you?5Identification,5deception,5and5 surveillance5in5early5modern5Europe.!New!York:!Zone!Books,!2007.!26.! ! 8!See!Early5Modern5Cultures5of5Translation.5Eds.5Karen!Newman!and!Jane!Tylus.! Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2015.!! ! 9!Cited!in!Susan!Bassnet!McGuire’s!Translation5Studies.! 12! ! translation:!“Dos!son!las!maneras!de!trasladar:!una!es!de!palabra!a!palabra,!et! llamase!interpretacion;!otra!es!poniende!la!sentencia!sin!seguir!las!palabras,!la!qual! se!faze!comunmente!por!mas!luengas!palabras,!et!esta!se!llama!exposicion!o! comento!o!glosa.”10!To!translate!word!for!word!is!to!interpret.!When!interpreting,! says!Madrigal,!nothing!is!added,!and!the!resulting!translation!remains!true!to!the! first!author!(“el!que!la!primero!fabrica”).!In!the!second,!much!is!added!and!changed!

(“muchas!adiciones!et!mudamientos”)!and!the!resulting!translation!belongs!to!the! glosser!(glosador),!instead!of!the!original!author.!As!a!carrying!across!of!meaning! from!one!language!to!another,!translation!is!also!marked!by!movement!and! change—!from!one!form!to!another.!Translation!encompasses!diverse!ways!of! transferring!meaning,!from!Italy!to!Spain!and!Spain!to!Italy.!My!study!examines! verbal!translation,!glossing!and!translation!in!its!sartorial!manifestation—cross> dressing.((

This!!study!has!four!chapters.!Chapter!One,!“Translating!Spanishness:!Darkly> clad!burladores!in!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano,”5argues!that!the!text’s!complex! connections!to!Spain!and!the!court!of!Charles!V,!together!with!Juan!Boscán’s!1534! translation,!served!to!shape!and!promote!the!uniformed!image!of!imperial!Spanish! gentlemen!dressed!in!black,!while!paradoxically,!at!the!same!time,!laying!the! foundation!for!the!perception!of!Spaniards!as!pícaros.55 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

10Quoted!in!R.G.!Keightley.!“Alfonso!de!Madrigal!and!the!Chronici5Canones!of! Eusebius,”!in!The5Journal5of5Medieval5and5Renaissance5Studies.57.2!(1977),!225>48.!!

! 13! ! Chapter!Two,!“From!Sprezzatura5to!Sosiego:!Dismantling!Spanish!Sobriety!in!

Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache,”5documents!the!translation!of!Castiglione’s! sprezzatura!as!sosiego,5in!order!to!mask!an!imperial!Spanish!society!torn!by!internal! factions.5Alemán’s!pícaro5protagonist!both!exposes!and!dismantles!the! representations!of!self>possession!that!the!Spanish!nation!performs!through! clothing.!!

!“Interpreting!the!Gitana:!Cross>Dressing!and!Translation!in!Lope!de!Rueda’s!

Medora,”!Chapter!Three,!suggests!that!in!the5play,!cross>dressing!functions!within!a! system!of!translation!that!encompasses!the!fluid!exchange!between!Spanish!and!

Italian!theatre.!!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Medora—featuring!a!Gitana5playing!the5gypsy!and5 the!self>declared!converso5and!indiano,5Gargullo—5underscores!the!importance!of! transformation,!translation,!and!cross>dressing!in!the!genesis!of!the!emerging!

Spanish!Comedia.!

Chapter!Four,!“Found!in!Translation:!Barezzo!Barezzi!and!the!Spanish!

Pícaros,”!argues!that!the!pícaro,5a!fictional!character!conceived!as!socially!and! politically!aberrant!in!the!anonymous!1554!Vida5de5Lazarillo,!morphs!into!a!new! paradigm!for!the!Spaniard,!culminating!in!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!1622!Picariglio5

Castigliano.!Barezzi’s!version!of!the5Lazarillo5extends!the!definition!of!pícaro5and! transforms!the!literary!type!into!a!Spanish!rogue,!while!the!embedded!Gitanilla,! translated!as!Cinganetta!by!Barezzi,!bridges!the!emerging!figure!of!the!Spanish! pícaro5with!that!of!the!gypsy.!

14! ! This!study!suggests!that!encounters!with!“others”—!Italians,!gypsies,!and! pícaros5—kept!Spanishness,!and!thus!national!Spanish!identities,!in!constant!flux.11!

In!these!encounters,!the!protean!Spaniard!was!formed!and!transformed.!The! following!chapters!examine!processes!of!formation!and!transformation!of!imperial!

Spanish!identities!through!continuous!encounters!played!out!in!literary!texts!at!the! crossroads!of!Italy!and!Spain.!My!study!proposes!a!reconsideration!of!the!self> fashioning!paradigm!as!applied!to!the!formation!and!transformation!of!the!Spanish!

Comedia5and!the!picaresque!genre,!as!well!as!evolving!imperial!Spanish!identities,12! as!exemplified!in!the!four!case!studies.((((

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11![Edward!Said!(1994),!Linda!Coley!(1992),!Nicolas!Canny!(1998)!MJ!Rodriguez> Salgado!(1998)!Henry!Kamen!(2003),!and!Irene!Silverblatt!(2004)].! ! 12!While!labels,!such!as!European,!African,!Indian,!and!Spaniard!“may!be!meaningful! to!us,”!explains!Herzog,”!like!all!identities!and!processes!they!were!dynamic! constructions!in!constant!flux.”!! 15! ! ! ! Chapter!One! ! ! ! ! Translating!Spanishness:!Darkly>clad!Burladores!in!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

16! ! “e!cosí!essendo!detto!a!quelle!due!signore!che!quivi!era! capitato!un!Spagnolo!servitore!del!cardinale!Borgia!che! si!chiamava!Castiglio,!ingeniosissimo,!musico,! danzatore,!ballatore!e!piú!accorto!cortegiano!che!fosse! in!tutta!Spagna”!(!Il5Cortegiano!II,!lxxxv)!! “Y!así,!siendo!dicho!a!aquellas!dos!señoras!que!allí!había! llegado!un!español,!criado!del!Cardenal!Borja,!que!se! llamaba!Castillo,!hombre!muy!avisado!y!gran!músico!y! buen!danzador,!y,!en!fin!el!mejor!cortesano!que!hubiese! en!toda!España”!(El5Cortesano,!II,!lxxxv)! ! The!second!book!of!Baldassare!Castiglione’s!court!manual,!the!Cortegiano,! dedicated!to!the!compilations!of!jests,!or!burlas,5describes!the!curious!costuming!of!a! commoner!from!Bergamo!who!is!made!to!pass!as!the!best!of!Spanish!gentleman.!The! court!of!Urbino!serves!as!the!venue!for!a!hoax!orchestrated!by!three!cortegiani5and!a! cowherd,!curiously!renamed,!Castillo,!who!is!said!to!serve!under!the!soon!to!be! named!Spanish!Pope!Borgia.!Under!the!grandee’s!tutelage,!the!noble!ladies!of!the! court!of!Urbino—which!also!provides!the!setting!for!the5Cortegiano—declare!the! lowbred!Italian!the!“piú!accorto!cortegiano!che!fosse!in!tutta!Spagna”!(el!mejor! cortesano!que!hubiese!en!toda!España)!(237;!II,!lxxxv)!(321;!II,!lxxxv).13!This! country!bumpkin!temporarily!embodies!the!ideal!courtier!and!the!most!prized! virtues!of!Iberian!aristocracy.!The!unexpected!outcome!is!a!marvelous!feat.!Two! leading!ladies!of!the!magnificent!court!of!Urbino—the!epitome!of!European! courtliness—are!fooled!by!a!rustic!Italian;!accustomed!to!look!only!after!livestock.!

Castiglione’s!anecdote!of!the!effective!transformation,!by!Italian!noblemen,!of!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13!Both!Castiglione’s!15285Cortegiano!and!Boscán’s!1534!translation!will!be!quoted.! See!Baldassare!Castiglione.!Il5libro5del5Cortegiano.5Ed.!Amedeo!Quondam.!Milano:! Garzanti,!2015!and!Baltsasar!Castiglione.!Los5cuatro5libros5del5cortesano.!!Trans.!Juan! Boscán!Almogaver.!Ed.!Mario!Pozzi.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2011.!! ! 17! ! Milanese!commoner!into!a!Spanish!caballero!of!the!Court!of!Charles!V,!speaks!to!the! didactic!effectiveness!of!Castiglione’s!court!manual!in!the!formation!of!a!universal! perfect!courtier,!to!Castiglione’s!complicated!relationship!with!the!Spanish!emperor! and!his!empire,!and!to!an!early!European!understanding!of!Spanishness.!

On!February!24,!1530—five!years!after!Charles!captured!the!French!King!at!

Pavia!(1525),!three!years!after!the!infamous!sack!of!Rome!(1527)!and!two!years! after!the!publication!of!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano—Charles!V!was!crowned!Holy!

Roman!Emperor!by!Pope!Clement!VII!in!an!elaborate!ceremony!in!Bologna.!Charles! now!ruled!over!a!vast!territory!stretching!from!the!North!Sea!to!the!Mediterranean,! and!from!the!Danube!across!the!Atlantic!to!the!Americas.!His!realm!included!Aragon,!

Castile,!the!Duchy!of!Milan,!the!Kingdom!of!Naples,!the!Spanish!territories!in!the!so> called!New!World,!the!Netherlands,!Flanders,!parts!of!Austria!and!Germany,!and!

Bohemia!and!Hungary.!In!1516!Charles!adopted!the!Plus5ultra!device14—the!image! of!the!pillars!of!Hercules!with!the!motto!Plus5ultra,!to!signal!the!Spanish!empire’s! reach!beyond!the!known!limits!of!the!ancient!world.15!He!addressed!the!enormity!of! ruling!such!a!massive!empire!by!continuously!traveling!between!his!European! territories.!Although!a!quarter!of!his!reign!(1516>1556)!was!spent!en!route,16!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14!The!Plus5ultra!device!was!already!studied!by!Paradin!(1557)!GIovio!(1555)!Alciato! (1531)!Ruscelii!(1556)!in!their!well>known!emblem!books.!In!chapter!VIII!of! Rabelais!Gargantua,!Plus5Ultra,!is!used!to!denote!the!world!discovered!and!explored! inside!the!giant’s!mouth.! ! 15!See!Roy!Strong.!Splendour5at5Court:5Renaissance5Spectacle5and5Theatre5of5Power.! Boston:!Weidenfeld!and!Nicholson,!1973.!80.! ! 16!See!Wim!Blockman.!Emperor5Charles5V.!London:!Arnold,!2002.! 18! ! Imperial!Spanish!court—albeit!an!itinerant!one—became!one!of!the!most!important! political!powers!of!the!sixteenth!century.!Without!a!set!capital!or!palace,!and!with!an! empire!so!vast!that!it!was!said!that!the!sun!never!set!in!his!domains,!Charles’! movable!court!benefitted!from!symbolic!displays!of!unification!for!the!ever> expanding!imperial!Spain.!This!chapter!will!argue!that!Castiglione’s5Cortegiano,5with! its!complex!connections!to!Spain!and!the!court!of!Charles!V,!together!with!Juan!

Boscán’s!1534!translation,!served!to!shape,!promote,!and!disseminate!the! uniformed!image!of!Imperial!Spanish!gentlemen!dressed!in!black,!while! paradoxically,!at!the!same!time,!laying!the!foundation!for!Spaniards!as!proto!pícaros.5!

In!1525!Baldassare!Castiglione!left!his!native!Italy!to!reside!in!the!Iberian!

Peninsula!as!ambassador!for!the!Holy!See.!In!this!role,!he!followed!the!itinerant! court!of!Charles!V!to!Toledo,!Madrid,!Seville,!and!Granada.!Castiglione!attended!the! marriage!celebration!of!Charles!to!Isabelle!of!Portugal!at!the!Generalife5(Granada)!in!

1526.!He!situated!himself!among!the!declared!Emperor’s!inner!circle.!Castiglione! was!held!in!such!high!esteem!that!he!was!designated!by!Charles!as!one!of!only!three! gentlemen!who!would!accompany!him!in!case!of!a!duel!with!France’s!Francois!I!

(Elvezio!Canónica,!1).17!Navarrete!and!Guidi!report!that!Castiglione!uttered:!"non!mi! riputarò!giammai!di!essere!meno!spagnuolo!che!italiano"!(quoted!in!Navarrete,!41;!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17!See!Elvezio!Canónica.!«Le!modèle!et!la!reine!des!modèles:!La!figure!d’Isabelle!la! Catholique!dans!le!Cortegiano!de!Castiglione!et!dans!la!traduction!de!Boscán,!»!in! Exemples5et5exemplarité5en5péninsule5ibérique.!Ed.!Ghislaine!Fournés.!Bordeaux:! Presses!Universitaires!de!Bordeaux,!2011.!! 19! ! Guidi,!201!n.!399).18!Charles!offered!the!author!of!Il5Cortegiano!the!coveted!seat!of! the!Bishop!of!Ávila.!Only!months!after!publishing!the5Cortegiano,!Castiglione’s! sudden!death!in!1529,!while!in!Toledo,!moveD!the!Spanish!Emperor!to!exclaim:!“Yo! os!digo!que!es!muerto!uno!de!los!mejores!caballeros!del!mundo”!(Prólogo!de!

Menéndez!y!Pelayo,!XX).19!Offering!such!praise!to!a!foreign>born!courtier!speaks!of! the!close!and!deep!influence!that!Castiglione!had!on!the!Spanish!court!and!its! monarch.!!

Although!Castiglione!labeled!himself!as!a!loyal!Italian!living!in!the!court!of!

Charles!I,!his!hispanophilia!moved!Pope!Clement!VII!to!accuse!him!of!siding!with!the!

Spanish!during!the!sack!of!Rome.!The!Catholic!leader!blamed!Castiglione!for! permitting!the!circulation!of!Alonso!de!Valdés’5Diálogo5de5las5cosas5acaecidas5en5

Roma,5a!text!that!exonerated!the!Emperor!from!any!wrongdoing,!pointing!instead!to! corruption!within!the!Church’s!hierarchy.!The!dialogue!of!the!Dialogo,!which! registers!an!encounter!in!Valladolid!between!a!young!gentleman!named!Lactancio,! belonging!to!the!court!of!Emperor!Charles,!and!an!archbishop!returning!from!Rome,! details!the!sack!of!Rome!and!the!Pope’s!subsequent!imprisonment!by!Charles!V’s! men.!Castiglione!began!an!epistolary!battle!with!Alfonso!de!Valdés.!Castiglione!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!Ignacio!Navarrete.!Orphans5of5Petrarch:5Poetry5and5Theory5in5the5Spanish5 Renaissance.!Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1994.!José!Guidi,!«!L’Espagne! dans!la!vie!et!dans!l’oeuvre!de!B.!Castiglione:!De!l’équilibre!franco>hispanique!aux! choix!impérial,!»!in!Presence5et5influence5de5l’Espagne5dans5la5culture5italienne5de5la5 Renaissance.!Paris:!Université!de!la!Sorbonne!Nouvelle,!1978.!113>202! ! 19!See!Baltasar!Castiglione.!El5Cortesano.!Trans.!Juan!Boscán!Almogaver.!Ed.! Marcelino!Menéndez!y!Pelayo.!Madrid:!S.!Aguirre!Impresor,!1942.!! 20! ! admonished!Valdés!in!a!biting!letter:!!

Ma!voi!non!siete!tanto!cauto!nello!scrivere!che!non!si!conosca!quale!é! la!persona!del!dialogo!la!cui!sentenza!voi!approvate!e!quella!a!cui!fate! dire!mille!semplicita![perque]!piú!facilmente!sia!redarguita.!E!vedesi! che!le!opinioni!di!Lattanzio!sono!le!vostre,!e!voi!siete!Lattanzio.20!!

(But!you!are!not!so!careful!in!your!writing!that!you!are!able!to!mask! the!identity!of!the!dialogue’s!character,!whose!sentence!you!approved! and!of!whom!you!have!uttered!thousands!of!banal!statements!so!that! it!would!be!easier!to!rebuke.!And!it!is!clear!that!your!opinions!are!that! of!Lattanzio,!and!that!you!are!Lattanzio).21!! !

Ménedez!y!Pelayo!detailed!Castiglione’s!complex!predicament,!especially!after!the! sack!of!Rome:!“No!podemos!menos!de!sentir!debajo!de!sus!ásperas!palabras!la! honda!agitación!de!su!ánimo!perturbado,!no!sólo!por!lo!espantoso!de!la!catástrofe,! sino!por!el!temor!de!haber!perdido!la!confianza!de!Clemente!VII”!(XVIII>XIX).!

Castiglione!constantly!had!to!defend!his!unique!position!between!Spain!and!Italy,! within!Charles’!inner!circle!and!as!the!ambassador!to!Clement!VII.!!

In!the!prologue,!the!author!of!Il5Cortegiano!reports!that!the!printing!of!his! court!manual!is!carried!out!while!he!is!in!Spain,!“Ritrovandomi!adunque!in!Ispagna,”!

(Así!que!hállandome!en!España)!as!a!reaction!to!the!unauthorized!distribution!of!his! manuscript!by!Victoria!Colonna.!Both!in!the!1528!prologue!to!his!book!and!in!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!For!a!reading!of!the!diatribe!between!Castiglione!and!Alfonso!de!Valdés! concerning!the!sack!of!Rome,!see!Margarita!Morreale,!"Para!una!lectura!de!la! diatriba!entre!Castiglione!y!Alfonso!de!Valdés!sobre!el!Saco5de5Roma,"!in!Actas5de5la5 III5Academia5Literaria5Renacentista.!Ed.!Víctor!García!de!la!Concha.!Salamanca:! Universidad.!65>103.! ! 21!Tranlsations!to!English!are!mine.!! 21! ! letter!written!to!Colonna,!from!Burgos,!in!1527,!Castiglione!explains!having!given!a! copy!to!“la!signora!Vittoria!dalla!Colonna,!marchesa!di!Pescara,”!(the!lady!Vittoria! dalla!Colonna,!marquise!of!Pescara)!who!had!in!turn!“fatto!trascrivere!una!gran! parte”!(organized!the!transcription!of!most!of!it).!Castiglione!reports!feeling!

“qualche!fastidio”!(some!annoyance)!and!ultimately!deciding!that!since!“quella!parte! del!libro!si!ritrovava!in!Napoli!in!mano!di!molti;!e,!come!sono!gli!uomini!sempre! cupidi!di!novità,!pare!che!quelli!tali!tentassero!di!farla!imprimere,”!(that!part!of!the! book!had!been!handled!by!many!in!Naples)!it!was!better!to!print!the!text!himself,! with!the!help!of!some!powerful!friends!at!home.22!

In!this!way,!Il5Cortegiano’s51528!publication!at!the!Venetian!press!of!Aldo!

Manuzio!becomes!an!international!operation!orchestrated!via!letters!between!

Castiglione,!in!Spain,!and!Bembo!and!Ramusio,!among!others,!in!Italy.!Castiglione! and!his!highly!influential!network!chose!Aldo!Manuzio,!the!most!famous!publishing! house!in!sixteenth>century!Venice,!which!had!already!published!Bembo’s!dialogues.!

In!a!letter!to!Cristoforo!Tirabosco,!his!steward,!dated!April!9,!1527,!and!sent!from!

Valladolid!to!Venice,!Castiglione!discussed!the!text’s5translatio5from!Spain!to!Italy,! and!from!manuscript!to!printed!book:!!

io!ho!mandato!a!Venezia!il!mio!libro!per!farlo!stampare,!stampandolo! questi!Stampatori!d’Asola.!Il!libro!ha!da!capitar!in!mano!del!Magnifico! Messer!Giovanni!Battista!Ramusio!Segretario!dell’Illustrissima! Signoria!di!Venezia,!e!sua!Magnificenza!parlerà!alli!stampatori,!e!darà! ordine!a!tutto!quello!che!occorre:!e!di!questo!voi!non!dovete!pigliar!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22!See!Baldassare!Castiglione.!Lettere.5Ed.!Guido!La!Rocca.!Milan:!Mondadori,!1978.! 22! ! fastidio!alcun.!(Quondam,!538>39)23!

(I!have!sent!my!book!to!be!published!in!Venice!by!the!d’Asola!printers.! The!book!should!be!in!the!hands!of!the!Magnificent!Mister!Giovanni! Battista!Ramusio,!Secretary!to!the!Illustrious!Lordship!of!Venice,!and! his!Magnificence!will!talk!to!the!printers!and!will!organize!everything;! you!should!not!bother!yourself!with!these!matters).!!

The!letter!reveals!Castiglione’s!hand!in!every!part!of!the!printing!process.!He!has! chosen!Manunzio’s!d’Asola!printers!and!appointed!Ramusio!as!his!go>between.!I!am! interested!in!underlining!his!own!insistence!on!having!sent!his!book!from!Spain!to!

Venice.!Castiglione!made!very!clear!that!he!had!the!final!print!manuscript,!which!he! already!called!a!book,!in!Spain,!and!is!sending!it!to!Venice!!“per!farlo!stampare”!!(to! have!it!printed).!!

An!early!iteration!of!the!text!circulated!in!manuscript!form.!The!first!draft!of! the!court!manual!is!thought!to!have!been!written!between!1513!and!1518,!and! subsequently!edited!in!Rome,!in!the!early!1520’s!(Burke,!40).24!A!version!of!the!

Cortegiano!is!reported!to!have!circulated!among!Castiglione’s!inner!circle!as!early!as!

1518!(Danzi,!293,!301;!Kolsky,!184;!Burke,!57).25!Castiglione!summoned!the!council! of!Pietro!Bembo,!who!was!then!composing!his!Prose5delle5Volgar5Lingua5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 23!See!Amadeo!Quondam.!Questo5Povero5Cortegiano.!Roma:!Bulzoni,!2000.!! ! 24!See!Peter!Burke.!The5Fortunes5of5the5Courtier:5The5European!Reception5of5 Castiglione's5Cortegiano.!Cambridge:!Polity!Press,!1995.! ! 25!See!Massimo!Danzi.!“Girolamo!Cittadini!poeta!milanese!del!primo!Cinquecento,!in! Veronica!Gambara!e!la!poesia!del!suo!tempo!nell'Italia!settentrionale,”in!Atti5del5 convegno5internazionale5di5studi,5Brescia5c5Correggio).!Ed.!C.!Bozzetti,!P.!Gibellini,!E.! Sandal.!Florence:!Olschki,!1989.!293>322;!See!Stephen!Kolsky!and!Mario!Equicola.! The5Real5Courtier.!Geneva:!Librarie!Droz,!1991.!!! 23! ! (1505,1525),!to!look!over!his!manuscript!while!he!was!in!Rome5!(Burke,!40).!As!has! been!discussed,!by!1524!the!poet!Vittoria!Colonna,!widow!of!the!Spanish!nobleman,!

Fernando!Francesco!D’Avalos,!Marquis!of!Pescara,!had!read,!copied,!and!begun!the! unsanctioned!circulation!of!Castiglione’s!dialogue!(Burke,!57).!!

While!Il5Cortegiano,!as!a!book,!was!born!in!Venice,!it!quickly!made!its!way! back!to!Spain,!via!Genoa.!Il5Cortegiano’s5first!edition!was!comprised!of!1,030! volumes.!Thirty!of!these!were!published!with!extra!high!quality!paper,!and!were!to! be!distributed!among!Castiglione’s!inner!circle!(Burke,!58).!In!a!letter!dated!April,!

1528,!Castiglione!asked!Tirabosco!to!send!fifty!volumes!to!him:!“Vorrei!di!questi! centi!libri!se!me!ne!mandassero!in!Ispagna!cinquanta…!che!si!consegnasse!a!Messer!

Selavago!de!Negron,!o!messer!Nicolao!Lomelino,!che!sono!mercatanti!genovese!e! stanno!in!Venezia,!che!hanno!ordine!di!mandar!questa!cassa!a!Genova,!e!da!Genova! in!Spagna!in!mia!mano”!(Out!of!those!one!hundred!books,!I!would!like!you!to!send! fifty!to!Spain…!have!them!delivered!to!Mister!Selavago!de!Negron,!or!Mister!Nicolao!

Lomelino,!who!are!Genoese!merchants!in!Venice,!and!who!have!been!instructed!to! send!it!to!Genoa,!and!from!Genoa!I!will!get!them!myself,!in!Spain)!(Quondam,!543).!

Castiglione!details!the!newly!printed!books’!voyage!from!Aldo!Manuzio’s!press!to!his! hand!on!Spanish!soil!through!Genoese!merchants.!A!few!months!later,!in!September! of!1528,!Castiglione!sent!a!letter!from!Madrid,!in!which!he!asked!his!mother!to!send! seventy!extra!volumes!(“settanta!volumi”)!to!Spain!via!another!Genoese!merchant!

(“mercatante!genovese”):!“e!veder!de!farla!capitare!in!mano!del!ditto!messer!

Giovanni!Battista!Fornari,!che!lui!me!la!manderia!in!Hispagna”!(and!make!it!arrive!in! 24! ! the!hands!of!said!Mister!Giovanni!Battista!Fornari,!who!will!send!it!to!me!in!

Spain)(Quondam,!544).!Castiglione!was!interested!in!disseminating!his!Cortegiano! among!the!Spanish!nobility.!!

Although!in!“Un!ilustre!nunzio!pontificio!del!rinascimento,”!published!in!

1951,!Italian!Academic!Vittorio!Cian!mentions!in!passing!that!Castiglione!finished! his!book!on!Iberian!soil,!it!has!been!generally!accepted!by!scholars,!that!the!version! of!the!Book5of5the5Cortegiano!that!was!circulated!by!Vittoria!Colonna,!and!then! printed!in!Venice!in!1528,!is!the!one!edited!by!Bembo!in!Rome,!and!left!in!Italy! before!Castiglione!went!to!Spain.26!I!argue!here!that!Il5Cortegiano!was!not!only! edited,!but!may!have!been!partially!rewritten!in!the!four!years!that!Castiglione! resided!in!Spain!before!his!untimely!death!in!Toledo,!Spain,!in!1529.!

Let!us!review!the!Cortegiano’s!influence!on!court!culture.!In!a!time!of!great! shifts,!the!European!courts!embraced!the!certainty!of!Castiglione’s!text.!Quondam! refers!to!it!as!a!“macrocodice!universale”!(Il!Libro!del!Cortegiano,!prologue,!xxxvi).!

With!national!borders!constantly!being!retraced!and!the!rise!of!new!nobiliary!titles! won!at!the!expense!of!war,!court!habitus5needed!to!be!explained!and!defined!and! even!redefined.!The!universal!manual!for!courtliness!allowed!for!discrepancies!in! the!evolving!feudal!notion!of!nobility.!In!book!one,!when!Canossa!maintains!that!the! ideal!courtier!must!be!of!noble!birth,!the!Lombard!nobleman,!Gaspare!Pallavicino,! objects!that!many!outstanding!and!virtuous!men!have!been!of!humble!origins.!The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26!See!Vittorio!Cian.!Un5ilustre5nunzio5pontificio5del5rinascimento.!Rome:!Biblioteca! Apostolica!Vaticana,!1951.!! 25! ! other!participants!eventually!agree!that!although!lineage!facilitates!the!forming!of!a! perfect!gentleman,!even!someone!who!is!lowly!born!can!be!a!perfect!courtier!

(“personne!bassissime!altissimi!donni!di!nature”)!(42;!I,!xv)!(hombres!bajos!dones! naturales!de!mucho!precio)!(126;!I,!xv)!since!nobility!can!be!learned!through! imitation!of!the!best!models!from!life!and!history!until!it!becomes!ingrained!and! natural!(I,!xiv>xvii).!James!Hankins!reminds!us!that!humanists!became!champions!of! meritocracy!and!are!“overwhelmingly!on!the!side!of!virtue!as!the!primary,!or!more! often!the!only,!criterion!of!true!nobility!(103).27!The5Cortegiano,!as!a!gentleman,! became!a!model!to!be!emulated,!and!the!text!functioned!as!an!absolute!authority!on! courtliness.!

Baldassare!Castiglione!and!his!celebrated!manual!are!deeply!entwined!with! the!Spanish!Empire.!!In!book!one,!Castiglione!calls!upon!Spanish!serenity!and5 gravitas!as!the!model!to!be!emulated.!The!model!cortegiano!was!not!only!to!excel!in! all!of!his!endeavors,!but!he!was!to!do!so!without!apparent!effort.!In!the!text,!Count!

Ludovico!da!Canossa!underlines!the!importance!of!grace:!“It!is!an!art!which!does!not! seem!to!be!an!art.!One!must!avoid!affectation!and!practice!in!all!things!a!certain! sprezzatura,!disdain!or!carelessness,!so!as!to!conceal!art,!and!make!whatever!is!done! or!said!appear!to!be!without!effort!and!almost!without!any!thought!about!it....! obvious!effort!is!the!antithesis!of!grace."!Sprezzatura,5whose!etymology!is!rooted!in!

“senza!prezzatura”!without!“prezzo,”!or!“priceless,”!later!translated!by!the!Spaniard,!

Juan!Boscán!as!desenvoltura,5requires!a!performance!of!the!greatest!skill.!In!order!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27!!See!James!Hankins.!“Machiavaelli,!Civic!Humanism,!and!the!Humanist!Politics!of! Virtue,”!in55Italian5culture.!Vol.xxxii!No.!2.,!September!2014.!98–109.! 26! ! attain!that!sprezzatura,!the!perfect!Italian!courtier!is!to!follow!the!sosiego!displayed! by!the!Spanish!court’s!famous!men!in!black:!“ma!nel!resto!vorrei!che!mostrassino! quel!riposo!che!molta!serva!la!nazion!spagnola”!(159;!II,!xxvii)!(pero!en!lo!demás! querría!que!mostrasen!el!sosiego!y!gravedad!de!la!nación!española)!(Boscán;!245,!II,! xxvii).!The!papal!nuncio!foregrounds!Spanish!gravitas!and!sosiego.28!!!!!

The!very!title!of!Il5Cortegiano’s!second!book,!Burle,!links!the!treatise!to!the!

Iberian!court!and!underscores!Spaniards!as!burladores.!29!!It!is!dedicated!to!the! compilations!of!jests,!or!burlas.!The!subject!is!introduced!by!Bernardo!Dovizi!da!

Bibbiena,!author!of!the!play,!la5Calandria!(1513),!whose!prologue,!although!now! lost,!was!penned!by!Castiglione.!As!Margherita!Morreale!has!underlined,!Castiglione! specifically!employs!the!Spanish!term,!burle,!instead!of!the!Italian,!facezie:!“Però!noi! ve!ne!giungeremo!la!terza!sorte!che!chiamano!burle”!(191;!II,!xlviii,!quoted!in!

Morreale!217>218)!!(a!estos!dos!nostros!agora!añadarimeos!la!tercera,!que!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!Machiavelli’s!Prince!praises!King!Ferdinand’s!art!of!dissimulation!in!chapter!21,! entitled,!“Quod!principem!deceat!ut!egregius!habeatur.”!In!1641,!Torquato!Accetto! will!speak!to!the!Dissimulazione5honesta!(Naples).!In!“Los!reyes!Católicos!según!! Maquiavelo!y!Castiglione”!in!Los5Reyes5Católicos5y5otros5estudios.!Madrid:!Austral,! 1960,!Menéndez!Pidal!speaks!to!the!reciprocal!influences!of!Machivaelli!and!King! Ferdinand!of!Spain:!“Maquiavelo![....]!habla!de!Fernando!el!Católico!sin!conocimiento! directo,!y!al!ejemplificar!en!él!los!nuevos!conceptos!con!que!el!genial!autor! transforma!el!ideario!político!moderno,!sufre!en!gran!parte!los!efectos!de!un! prejuicio!literario.![...]!Fernando!da!muchos!elementos!a!Maquiavelo!para!su! concepción!del!príncipe,!pero!a!su!vez!Maquiavelo!infunde!mucho!de!su!teoría!en!la! figura!que!nos!da!Fernando”!(46).!!

29!In!de5Sermone,!Liber!III,!Giovano!Pontano,!the!most!important!Neapolitan! humanist!of!the!fifteenth!century.!states:!etsi!Haspani!cum!primis!sunt!facetiarum! studii.”!Pontano!points!to!the!Spanish!preoccupation!with!the!ludicrous!rather!than! with!serious!concepts:!“in!risus!voluptatem!e!iucunditate!conceptam.”! 27! ! llamamos!recaudos5falsos!o!burlas).!(274;!II,!lvxii).30!!While!Castiglione!acknowledges! he!is!borrowing!from!Spain!with!the!third!person!plural!“chiamano!burle!”!(they!call! pranks),!Boscán’s!translation!emphasizes!the!Spanish!provenance!of!the!term!and! notion!of!burla:!we!call!(llamamos)!“reacudos!falsos!o!burlas.”!!The!second!book! registers!the!Italianized!Iberian!term!twenty>four!times.5(217>218).!!

In!the!prologue!Castiglione!defends!his!rhetorical!choices.!He!has!not!written! strictly!following!Boccaccio’s!Toscano,!but!has!done!so!“come!parlo!io,”!(como!yo! hablo)!(Prologue).!!Castiglione!specifically!underlines!his!sensibility!for!“novi! vocabuli:”!“Percio!non!era!conveniente!ch’io!usassi!molte!di!quelle!del!Boccaccio…! perche!il!commerzio!tra!diverse!nazioni!ha!sempre!avuto!forza!di!trasportare! dall’una!all’altra,!quasi!come!le!mercanzie,!cosi!ancor!novi!vocabuli,!I!quali!poi! durano!o!mancano,!secondo!che!sono!dalla!consuetudine!ammesi!o!reprobati”!(“Por! eso!no!convenía!yo!usar!muchas!de!las!del!Bocacio…!porque!el!trato!que!hay!entre! diversas!naciones!ha!tenido!siempre!fuerza!de!llevar!de!la!una!a!la!otra,!casi!como! las!mercadurias,!asi!también!nuevos!vocablos,!los!cuales!después!permanecen!o! caen,!según!son!por!el!uso!admitidos!o!desechados”!(Prologue).!Having!lived!in!the!

Spanish!court!for!three!years!before!he!publishes!his!manuscript,!his!text!is!infused! with!and!reflects!the!translatio!of!words.5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 30!See!Margherita!Morreale.!Castglione5y5Boscán:5el5ideal5cortesano5en5el5 Renacimiento5español,!2!Vols.!Madrid:!Real!Academia!Española,!1959.!! ! 28! ! ! According!to!the!CORDE31!(corpus!diacrónico!del!español),!the!term,!burla,5is! first!noted!in!the!1255!Crónica5de5Sahagún,!and!appears!seven!times!in!the!Libro5de5

Buen5amor,!three!times!in!the!Biblia5Romanceada!(1400),32!and!nine!times!in!the!

Corbacho5(1438).!It!appears!in!Cristopher!Columbus’!letters,!and!there!are!eight! examples!in!Hernán!Cortés’!Cartas5de5Relación.!There!are!sixteen!examples!in!the! translation!of!Tirant!(1511),!twenty>eight!in!Fray!Bartolomé!de!las!Casas’!Historia5de5 las5Indias,5(1527>1561),!sixty>two!in!Fray!Antonio!de!Guevara’s!Reloj5de5Príncipes,!

(1529>1531)!twenty>four!instances!in!Boscán’s!translation!(1534)!of!Castiglione’s!

Cortigiano5!(1528),!nine!in!the!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5(1554),!forty>six!in!Oviedo’s!

Historia,5twenty>nine!in!Salazar’s!Crónica5de5nueva5España!(1560),!twenty>!five!in!

Bernal!Díaz!del!Castillo’s!Historia5Verdadera5(1568),!nineteen!in!Guzmán!(1599)!and! twenty>two!times!in!Guzmán!II!(1604),!twenty!in!the!Quijote5(1605)!and!twenty>one! in!the!Quijote!(1615),!seventy!appearances!in!La5pícara5Justina5(1605)!and!fourteen! in!Tirso’s5Burlador5(1630).5!

! Burlas!can!be!found!in!every!genre!of!early!modern!Spanish!literature.33!In! poetry,!they!range!from!the!Cancionero5de5obras5de5burlas5provocantes5a5risas!(1490>

1511)5and!the!legion!of!“canioneros!burlescos,”!that!followed!it,!to!the!satirical!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!REAL!ACADEMIA!ESPAÑOLA:!Banco!de!datos!(CORDE).!Corpus!diacrónico!del! español.!!! ! 32!The!Biblia!romanceada!where!burla!figures!is!the!one!preserved!in!the!ms.!87!of! the!Real!Academia!de!la!Historia!(there!are!others).!! 33!See!Tiempo5de5burlas:5en5torno5a5la5literatura5burlesca5del5Siglo5de5Oro.!Ed.!Javier! Huerta!Calvo,!Emilio!Peral!Vega,!Jesús!Ponce!Cárdenas.!Madrid:!Editorial!Verbum,! 2001.!! 29! ! sonnets,!“jácaras”,!and!scatological!“letrillas”!of!Lope,!Quevedo,!and!Góngora.!They! abound!In!Joan!de!Timoneda’s!El!Sobremesa5y5Alivio5de5caminantes!and!are!the!!very! essence!of!a!pícaros’5education.!The!anonymous!Lazarillo’s!author,!Salas!Barbadillo,!

Quevedo,!Mateo!Alemán,!Castillo!Solórzano,!Céspedes,!and!countless!others,!made! burlas!central!to!the!development!of!their!plots.!In!Cervantes’!Quixote,!Exemplary5

Novels,!and!Entremeses,!we!find!a!masterful!repository!of!burlas.!From!farce!to! drama,!burlas!flow!into!every!aspect!of!theatre!and!culminate!in!Tirso!de!Molina’s!

Burlador5de5Sevilla.!Don!Juan,!the!burlador!of!Sevilla—!along!with!Don!Quixote!and! la!Celestina—would!go!on!to!become!one!of!the!three!great!Spanish!literary!myths.!!

! The!theme!of!burlas!in!the!Celestina!is!of!particular!interest!to!this!project.!It!is! a!Spanish!text!that!predates!the!Cortegiano5and!whose!popularity!in!Italy!would! have!made!it!a!text!that!Castiglione!would!have!been!familiar!with.!The!text!is! infused!with!burlas5of!every!nature!that!leave!no!sector!of!society!untouched.!As! testament!to!this!infusion!throughout!the!text!are!Rojas’!last!words!to!his!public:!

“Deja!las!burlas,!que!es!paja!y!granzones/Sacando!muy!limpio!de!entre!ellas!el! grano”!(488;!coplas!con!las!que!concluye!el!autor).!When!Pármeno!describes!

Celestina’s!witchcraft!(“es!un!poco!hechicera”)!he!concludes!by!stating!“todo!es! burla!y!mentira”:!

PÁRMENO.>!¡Sí,!santo!Dios!!Y!remediaba!por!caridad!muchas!huérfanas!y! erradas!que!se!encomendaban!a!ella.!Y!en!otro!apartado!tenía!para! remediar!amores!y!para!se!querer!bien.!Tenía!huesos!de!corazón!de! ciervo,!lengua!de!víbora,!cabezas!de!codornices,!sesos!de!asno,!tela!de! caballo,!mantillo!de!niño,!haba!morisca,!guija!marina,!soga!de!ahorcado,! 30! ! flor!de!hiedra,!espina!de!erizo,!pie!de!tejón,!granos!de!helecho,!la!piedra! del!nido!del!águila!y!otras!mil!cosas.!Venían!a!ella!muchos!hombres!y! mujeres,!y!a!unos!demandaba!el!pan!do!mordían;!a!otros,!de!su!ropa;!a! otros,!de!sus!cabellos;!a!otros,!pintaba!en!la!palma!letras!con!azafrán;!a! otros,!con!bermellón;!a!otros!daba!unos!corazones!de!cera!llenos!de! agujas!quebradas,!y!otras!cosas!en!barro!y!en!plomo!hechas,!muy! espantables!al!ver.!Pintaba!figuras,!decía!palabras!en!tierra.!¿Quién!te! podrá!decir!lo!que!esta!vieja!hacía?!Y!todo!era!burla!y!mentira.!(155>156;! I,!vii).!!

Russell!traces!the!use!of!burla!as!“magic”!in!contemporary!texts,!such!as!the! translation!into!Spanish!of!Dante’s!Inferno!by!Fernández!de!Villegas.!34!While!the! notion!of!Celestina!as!sorceress!is!vital!to!understanding!the!tragicomedia!

(tragicomedy),!I!would!like!to!underline!the!importance!given!to!burla5as!the! essence!of!the!great!Celestina.!The!sum!of!Celestina’s!actions—!“lo!que!esta!vieja! hacía”—!can!be!reduced!to!“burla!y!mentira.”!Celestina!is!a!character!crafted! through!her!words!and!actions.!Here,!Celestina!is!a!literary!personification!of!burla.!!!

! The!French!Hispanist,!Monique!Joly,!dedicated!her!dissertation!to!the!study!of!

“burlas”!in!sixteenth!and!seventeenth–century!novels:!La5bourle5et5son5 interpretation:5Recherches5sur5le5passage5de5la5facétie5au5roman!(Espagne5XVIcXVII5 siècles).35!Joly!creates!a!three!hundred>page!glossary!of!instances!of!“burla”!in! picaresque!and!para>picaresque!novels,!such!as!the!Guzmán5de5Alfarache,5Don5

Quixote,5Lazarillo5de5Tormes,!Marcos5Obregón,!and!La!pícara5Justina.!Joly!concludes! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34See!Peter!E.!Russell’s!treatment!of!“burla”!and!magic!in!“La!magia,!tema!integral!de! la!Celestina,”!in!Estudios5sobre5la5Celestina.5Ed.Santiago!López>Ríos.5Madrid:! Ediciones!Itsmo,!2001.! ! 35!See!Monique!Joly.!La5bourle5et5son5interpretation:5Recherches5sur5le5passage5de5la5 facétie5au5roman5Espagne5XVIcXVII5siècles.5Lille:!Atelier!National,!1982.!! 31! ! that!the!study!of!“burlas”!proved!so!fertile!(“ƒéconde”)!that!one!must!consider!how! its!systematic!presence!in!literature!carries!over!into!social!institutions!(Joly,! conclusion).!!

! In!the!Cortegiano,!the!Spanish!Monarchs,!Isabel!and!Ferdinand,!grandparents! of!Charles!V,!are!applauded!for!their!acceptance!and!approval!of!burlas5and!those! who!carry!them!out.!Within!the!ten!chapters!dedicated!to!the!art!of!trickery!in!the!

Cortegiano,!burla5is!employed!twenty>four!times.!This!specific!use!of!the!Castilian! term!invokes!the!persistence!of!burlas!at!the!Spanish!court.!In!the!Spanish!

Cancionero5de!Baena,!courtly!life!is!intimately!linked!to!burlas:!“Tanta!es!la!burlería/!

Que!en!la!corte!veo!andar/!Que!non!la!podríe!contar!un!maestro!en!theologia”(59).36!

Morreale!depicts!the!many!ways!in!which!“la!burla!se!opone!a!la!sana!doctrina,!a!las! ocupaciones!serias,!al!recato!de!la!mujer!y!a!la!dignidad!del!caballero!cristiano”!

(218).!Sebastián!de!Covarrubias!documents!burla!as!“la!cosa!de!poco!valor,!y!de! juguete,!porque!siendo!vil!y!de!poco!precio!el!vestido!de!paño!buriel!…!Hombre!de! burlas!es!el!que!tiene!poco!valor!.!.!.Echarlo!en!burlas,!disimular!lo!que!en!un!colérico! occasion!bastante!para!reñir.!No!saber!de!burlas,!ser!hombre!severo,!o!poco!de! palacio…”!(Tesoro).!!

The!third!book,!dedicated!to!women,!celebrates!Charles!V’s!grandmother,!

Isabel!of!Castile!as!the!model!courtly!lady!to!the!model!courtier.!Although!exemplary! women!from!antiquity!to!the!sixteenth!century!are!lauded,!Castiglione!offers!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!See!Cancionero5de5Baena.!Ed.!Brian!Dutton.!Madrid:!Visor!Libros,!1993.!! 32! ! Spanish!Queen!much!more!detailed!praise.!As!Elvezio!Canónica!suggests,!“il!est! evident!que!la!figure!d’Isabelle!reçoit!un!traitement!de!faveur”!(it!is!clear!that!Isabel! receives!special!treatment)!(9).!According!to!Castiglione’s!mouthpiece,!Gaspar!

Palavicino,!“Isabella!di!Spagna,”!(notice!she!is!Spanish!and!not!only!Castilian)!is!the! clearest!example!of!“bontà,!di!grandeza!di!ánimo,!prudenzia,!di!religione,!d’onestá,!di! cortesia,!di!liberalitá,!in!somma!d’ogni!virtú”!(303;!III,!xxxv)!(“más!glorioso!ejemplo! de!verdadera!bondad,!de!grandeza!de!ánimo,!de!prudencia,!de!temor!de!Dios,!de! honestidad,!de!cortesía,!de!liberalidad,!y!de!toda!virtud,!en!fin,!que!esta!gloriosa!

Reina”!(Boscán;!388;!III,!xxxv).!Boscán’s!translation,!as!Margherita!Morreale!has! noted,!emphasizes!the!Queen’s!attributes!and!that!of!the!Catholic!faith.!For!example,!!

“de!temor!de!Dios”!substitutes!!!“religione,”!!“Regina!Isabella”!becomes!“gloriosa!

Reina,”!“cosas!maravillosas”!takes!the!place!of!“le!sue!azioni,!and!“i!meriti!di!lei”!is! transformed!into!“sus!grandes!hechos.”!These!virtues,!claims!Palavacino,!are!known! and!celebrated!by!all.!Yet,!she!is!not!only!a!virtuous!woman,!but!also!an!admirable! monarch.!Praise!for!her!manner!of!government!is!such!that!Palavicino!looks!to!the! celestial!and!saintly.!In!this!way!Isabella!di!Spagna!is!said!to!have!a:!“divina!maniera! di!governare”(304,!III,!xxxv)(una!manera!tan!divina!de!gobernar)!(Boscán;!389,!III,! xxxv).!It!will!then!not!surprise!us!that!among!Castiglione’s!inventory!!of!the!personal! belongings!that!were!transported!back!to!Italy!after!his!death!on!Spanish!soil!are! two!paintings5of!the!Spanish!Queen!Isabel!(Rebecchini,!23,!47).37!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37!See!Guido!Rebecchini.!The5Book5Collection5and5Other5Possessions5of5Baldassarre5 Castiglione.!Journal!of!the!Warburg!and!Courtauld!Institutes,!Vol.!61!(1998).!17>52.!! 33! ! Notwithstanding!the!apparent!praise!of!a!Spanish!Catholic!Queen!who!is! grandmother!to!the!current!Charles!V,!when!the!passage!is!analyzed!in!terms!of! burle,!its!tone!reveals!Castiglione’s!complicated!predicament—at!the!crossroads!of!

Spain!and!Italy.!Canónica!underlines!that!while!Queen!Isabel!serves!as!the!model! court!lady,!Castiglione!also!uses!her!to!win!favor!with!the!rising!Charles:!

Désormais!nommé!nonce!apostolique!en!Espagne,!il!a!tout!intérêt!à! redorer!son!blason,!et!à!faire!oublier!son!engagement!antiespagnol! lors!des!guerres!d’Italie,!d’autant!plus!que!le!pays!dans!lequel!il! s’apprêtait!à!partir!était!désormais!gouverné!par!le!petit>fils!de!la! reine!catholique,!Charles!V,!appelé!bientôt!à!devenir!l’interlocuteur! principal!de!la!papauté,!en!tant!qu’empereur!du!Saint!Empire!Romain! Germanique.!(16)!!

Regardless!of!being!appointed!apostolic!nuncio!in!Spain,!he!has!every! incentive!to!improve!his!image,!and!to!forget!his!anti>Spanish! engagement!after!the!wars!of!Italy,!especially!as!the!country!he!had! become!a!part!of!was!now!ruled!by!the!grandson!of!the!Catholic! queen,!Charles!V,!soon!set!to!become!the!main!interlocutor!of!the! papacy!as!emperor!of!the!Holy!Roman!Empire.!(16)!

While!I!agree!with!Cánonic!regarding!Castiglione’s!penchant!for!using!the!praise!of!

Queen!Isabel!to!gain!favor!with!King!Charles,!Castiglione’s!language!may!reveal! further!interests.!The!lauding!of!Queen!Isabel!is!preceded!by!a!curious!hypothetical!

“if”!clause:!“Se5I5populi5di5Spagna,!i!signori,!i!privati,!gli!omini!e!le!donne!poveri!e! ricchi,!non5si5son5tutti5accordati5a5voler5mentire!in!laude!di!lei,!non!è!stato!a’!tempo! nostri!al!mondo!più!chiaro!esempio!di!vera!bontà….!(303;!III,!xxxv)!(“Si!los!pueblos! de!España,!los!señores,!los!privados,!los!hombres!y!las!mujeres,!los!pobres!y!los! ricos,!todos,!no!están!concertados!en!querer!mentir!en!loor!della,!no!ha!habido!en!

(Boscán:!388;!III,!xxxv).!!Particularly!fascinating!is!Castiglione’s!oblique!reference!to! the!collective!effort!of!the!Spanish!nation!to!divulge!the!virtues!of!a!Queen!who!has! been!dead!for!twenty!years.!If!all!of!the!Spanish!nation,!with!all!of!its!members,!had! not!conspired!and!agreed!to!a!lie!in!praise!of!Queen!Isabel—“non5si5son5tutti5 accordati5a5voler5mentire5in5laude5di5lei”—!then!it!holds!true!that!she!was!indeed!the! most!glorious!example!of!a!woman!and!ruler.!Why!would!Castiglione!set!up!such!a! construction?!Let!us!recall!the!Celestina’s5use!of!of!“burlas”!and!“mentiras.”!Pármeno! summarizes!all!of!the!character’s!abilities!normally!related!to!witchcraft!and!sorcery! as!“burlas!y!mentiras.”!Is!Castiglione!suggesting!that!Queen!Isabel’s!international! fame!may!be!the!result!of!a!great!Spanish!hoax!or!burla?!!!

Before!reviewing!the!Cortegiano’s!success,!let!us!review!the!goals!of!the!last! book.!While!the!first!three!books!shape!the!perfect!courtier!and!lady!of!the!court,! book!four!emphasizes!the!relationship!of!those!courtiers!to!their!ruler!and!to!divine! love.!The!qualities!of!the!perfect!gentleman!outlined!in!the!previous!dialogues!must! be!put!to!good!use!in!“aiutare!il!suo!principe!al!bene!e!spaventarlo!dal!male!sia!il! vero!frutto!della!cortegiania”!(369;!IV,!v)!(“inclinar!y!traer!su!principe!al!bien!y! apartalle!del!mal!sea!el!verdadero!fruto!desta!cortesanía”)!(Boscán;!452;!IV,!v).!The! goal!of!courtliness!was!to!aid!in!guiding!the!ruler:!!

Il!fin!adunque!del!perfetto!cortigiano,!del!quale!insino!a!qui!non!s'è! parlato,!estimo!io!che!sia!il!guadagnarsi,!per!mezzo!delle!condicioni! attribuitegli!da!questi!signori,!talmente!la!benivolenzia!e!l'animo!di! quel!principe!a!cui!serve,!che!possa!dirgli!e!sempre!gli!dica!la!verità! 35! ! d'ogni!cosa!che!ad!esso!convenga!sapere,!senza!timor!o!periculo!di! dispiacergli;!e,!conoscendo!la!mente!di!quello!inclinata!a!far!cosa!non! conveniente,!ardisca!di!contradirgli,!e!con!gentil!modo!valersi!della! grazia!acquistata!con!le!sue!bone!qualità!per!rimoverlo!da!ogni! intenzion!viciosa!ed!indurlo!al!cammin!della!virtù.!(368;!IV,!v)!!

El!fin!luego!del!perfeto!cortesano,!del!cual!hasta!agora!no!se!ha! tratado,!creo!yo!que!sea!ganar!por!medio!de!las!calidades!en!él! puestas!de!tal!manera!la!voluntad!del!principe!a!quien!sirviere,!que! pueden!decille!la!verdad!y!de!hecho!se!le!diga!en!toda!cosa!y!le! desengañe!sin!miedo!ni!peligro!de!selle!cargado;!y,!conociendo!la! intención!de!inclinarse!a!hacer!alguna!cosa!mal!hecha,!que!ose! estorbársela!y!con!contradecírsela!sin!ningún!empacho!,!y!en!esto!que! tenga!tan!gentil!arte!con!la!gracia!alcanzada!por!sus!buenas!calidades,! que!pueda,!sin!alterar!ni!dejar!llaga,!curalle!del!mal!que!hubiere!hecho! y!atajalle!que!no!haga!más.!(Boscán;!452;!IV,!v)!

The!formation!of!the!perfect5cortegiano!culminates!in!knowing!how!to!counsel!the!

“Prince”!and!have!his!ear.!While!Castiglione!ends!the!description!with!the!moralistic! rhetoric!of!putting!the!prince!on!a!path!of!“virtue,”!Boscán!employs!much!harsher! medical!language!(“dejar!llaga,”!“curar”).!Using!whatever!means!possible,!the! courtier!should!serve!the!Prince!for!the!good!of!the!state.!!A!well>formed!courtly! gentleman!is!vital!to!the!wellbeing!of!his!country.!!

The5Cortegiano!was!an!instant!best>seller!as!a!universal!model!for!the!perfect! courtier.!Between!1528!and!1534,!il5Cortegiano!had!been!re>edited!ten!times!in!

Florence,!Venice,!and!Parma,!and!moved!from!a!substantial!infolio!volume!to!what! we!would!now!be!called!a!pocket!book.!Juan!Boscán,!born!Joan!Bosca!i!Almogaver,! translated!the!Cortegiano!into!Spanish!only!six!years!after!its!initial!publication.!The!

Montpezat!press!of!Barcelona!uses!the!magnificent!infolio!presentation!for!the!first!

Castilian!edition.!The!cover,!which!foregrounds!a!Spanish!coat!of!arms!that!covers!

36! ! more!than!half!of!the!massive!folio,!reads:!“Los!quatro!libros!del!cortesano! compuestos!en!italiano!por!el!conde!Balthasar!castellon!y!agora!nuevamente! traduzidos!en!lengua!castellana!por!Boscán”!(Biblioteca!Nacional,!Madrid).!Colin’s!

French!translation!comes!in!1537,!an!English!translation!in!1560,!and!a!German!one! in!1593.!David!Darst!documents!that!following!the!death!of!Charles!V!in!1558!the!

Cortesano!falls!out!of!favor,!and!it!ceases!being!republished!in!Spain!after!1573.!Yet,! from!1528!to!1573,!Castiglione’s5Cortegiano,!together!with!Boscán’s!1534!Spanish! translation,!taught!Spanish!people!how!to!be!gentlemen.!!

! Even!Charles’!itinerant!court!could!not!cater!to!the!vastness!of!his!territories,! and!Charles!found!inspiration!in!one!of!his!favorite!books,!Il5Cortegiano.!Francisco!

Sansovino,!in!Il5simulacro5di5Carlo5Quinto5Imperatore5,!printed!in!Venice!in!1576,! noted!that!Charles’!favorite!readings!were!the!Discorsi5di5Maquivel,5!Polybius’!

Hitorae5,!and!the!Cortegiano!(cited!in!Cremades).38!Charles!not!only!read!

Castiglione’s!manual,!but!also!embodied!it.!Pedro!Mexia,!court!historian!under!

Charles!V,!personified!Castiglione’s!famous!grace!to!Charles:!

La!una!es!en!saverse!armar!y!mandar!hacer!las!armas!para!ello,!con! tanto!primor!y!gala!(…)!La!otra!es!en!el!ayre!y!postura!que!tiene! armado,!a!pie!y!a!cavallo,!que!cierto!es!y!a!sido!estremada:!tanto!que! algunas!vezes!que!a!querido!entrar!en!justas!y!torneos!encubierto!y! disimulado!a!sido!conocido!por!su!singular!postura!y!gracias.39! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38!See!Fernando!Checa!Cremades.!Carlos5V:5La5Imagen5del5Poder5en5el5Renacimiento.5 Madrid:!El!Viso,!1999.!! ! 39Pedro5Mexia.5Hisoria5del5Emperador5Carlos5V.!Ed.!Juan!de!Mato!Carriazo.!Madrid! 1945,!87.!! 37! ! When!the!Emperor!attempted!to!pass!as!a!fellow!courtier,!he!was!recognized!by!his! grace.!!

To!those!far!from!the!court,!the5Cortegiano!would!have!offered!a!manual!for! courtliness!and!virtuous!courtiers!that!could!be!easily!disseminated.!As!Peter!Burke! has!underlined,!although!Irving!Leonard’s!study!of!book!culture!in!the!colonial!

Spanish!America’s!does!not!account!for!the!Cortegiano,5at!least!three!readers!of!the! text!in!colonial!Peru!have!been!identified!(164>165).!!As!early!as!1545,!Castiglione’s! book!found!its!way!to!Diego!de!Narváez,!in!Cuzco.!Forty!years!later!(1585),!the!

Cortegiano5travelled!to!Lima!and!became!part!of!the!library!of!the!treasurer!of!New!

Castille,!Antonio!Dávalos.!Pedro!Guibovich!Pérez!describes!Fray!Juan!de!Almaraz! presenting!himself,!along!with!a!copy!of!El5Cortesano,!before!the!tribunal!of!the!

Inquisition!in!Lima!in!1585.!The!Cortesano,!claims!Friar!Juan,!contains!“muchas! proposiciones!escandalosas!dirigidas!contra!los!cardenales!que!figuran!en!este! libro,”!and!“enseña!mucha!libertad”!(41>42,!cited!in!Burke!124,!165).!Alonso!de!

Ercilla!y!Züñiga,!author!of!the!epic!poem!La5Araucana,5who!went!to!Chile!in!1554,! followed!the!model!carved!out!by!Castiglione—a!man!of!arms!and!letters!and!a!poet! who!was!also!a!soldier.!While!the!Emperor!stayed!in!Europe,!the!Cortegiano5covered! much!ground.!A!portable!model!for!the!perfect!courtier—loyal!servant!to!King!and! country!and!practitioner!of!human!love!as!a!means!to!divine!love—containing!a! broader!definition!of!nobility,!would!be!advantageous!for!the!diversity!of!the!new! subjects!of!imperial!Spain.!

38! ! !The!enormity!of!Charles’!empire!prompts!a!necessity!for!the!King!to!be! nowhere!and!everywhere.!Within!the5Cortegiano,!Duke!Federico!di!Montefeltro!is! both!absent!and!present.!While!the!four!days!of!the!dialogue!that!make!up!the!

Cortegiano!take!place!within!the!Duke’s!palace,!Federico!himself!does!not! participate.!Book!one!explains!that!these!exchanges!happen!after!dinner.!Yet,!“Il! signor!Duca!continuamente,!per!la!infimità,!dopo!cena!assai!per!tempo,!se!n’andava! a!dormire…”!(21;I,!iv)!(Mas!porque!el!Duque!por!su!dolencia!solía!ordinariamente! irse!a!echar!temprano…)!(107;!I,!iv).!The!Duke,!we!are!left!to!imagine,!is!asleep!in!his! chambers,!while!his5cortegiani5and!ladies!of!the!court!discuss!well!into!the!night.!In! this!way,!it!is!not!Duke!Federico,!but!the!material!possessions!that!personify!him,! that!make!him!part!of!the!dialogues.!Charles’!abdication!speech!in!1556!recalls!his! continuous!peregrinations:!ten!times!to!the!Low!countries,!nine!to!Germany,!seven! to!Italy,!six!to!Spain,!four!times!through!France,!and!twice!to!England!and!to!the!

African!continent!(Strong,!77).!We!know!that!court!portraiture,!for!example,!was! used!to!increase!visibility,!and!that!a!copy!of!Titian’s!Charles!V!in!the!battle!of!

Muhlberg!(1548)!was!sent!to!Mexico!(Figure!1.1)!as!a!representation!of!the!absent!

Monarch.!Like!Federico!in!the5Cortegiano,!the!reach!of!Charles’!power!does!not! require!his!physical!presence.!

! ! ! ! ! ! !

39! ! Figure1.1.!Titian,!Equestrian5Portrait5of5Charles5V5at5Muhlberg,!1548,!Oil!on!canvas,! 335!cm!×!283!cm,!Madrid,!Museo!del!Prado!

! Il!Cortegiano!and!the!court!of!Urbino!would!be!especially!interesting!to!the! ruler!of!an!expanding!empire!in!need!of!legitimization.!Federico!de!Montefeltro— the!illegitimate!son!of!Count!Guidantonio!and!an!unknown!woman,!came!to!rule!

Urbino!after!the!violent!death!of!his!stepbrother.!!Federico!was!raised!outside!the! court,!and!was!educated!in!Venice!and!Mantua.!Apart!from!being!a!successful!man!of! arms!(condottiere),!Duke!Federico!legitimized!himself!through!iconographic!images,! such!as!court!portraiture,!the!construction!of!a!grand!palace,!and!through!his! marvelous!library.!According!to!Marcella!Peruzzi,!“It!was!a!carefully!planned! program!aimed!at!legitimizing!Federico’s!stature!as!a!political!figure,!by!pushing!to! the!background!the!fact!that!he!was!illegitimate!and!that!he!owed!his!position!to!a! bloody!conspiracy”!(38).40!Federico!fashioned!himself!as!an!enlightened!prince!and! a!member!of!the!new!humanist!elite;!a!man!of!arms!and!letters!worthy!of! admiration.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!See!Marcella!Peruzzi.!“The!Library!of!Glorious!Memory:!History!of!the!Montefeltro! Collection,”!in!“Federico!da!Montefeltro!and!his!Library.”!Ed.!Marcello!Simonetta.! Rome:!Y.!Press,!2015.!28>39.!! 40! ! !Charles!had!to!legitimize!himself!as!a!Spaniard.!Although!Charles’!blood!was! noble,!he!had!been!educated!under!Habsburg!influence;!and!the!rightful!heir!to!the! throne!was!his!mother.!Known!as!Juana!la!loca,5she!had!been!claimed!unfit!to!rule!by! her!father,!King!Ferdinand!and!confined!to!the!Real!Monasterio!de!Santa!Clara!in!

Valladolid.!Charles!himself!was!born!in!Ghent!and!raised!in!Flanders,!away!from!the!

Spanish!Court.!The!ruler!of!the!Spanish!Empire!was!not!fluent!in!Castilian!when!he! reached!the!Iberian!Peninsula!in!1517.!His!northern!upbringing!and!the!many! foreign!courtiers!that!accompanied!him!made!the!Spaniards!suspicious.!The!Spanish! nobility!perceived!in!him!a!threat!to!their!Catholic!monarchy,!an!anxiety!that! resulted!in!the!Comunero!uprisings!of!1520>1521.!!

In!order!to!assuage!the!nobility’s!fears,!Charles!constructed!himself!as!the! perfect!Spanish!gentleman.!His!Spanishness!is!first!fashioned!through!legitimizing! bloodlines.!The!1523!Cortes,!celebrated!in!Valladolid,!make!clear!that!the!King!is!to! marry!and!sire!legitimate!heirs,!born!on!Spanish!soil.!The!disgruntled!comuneros! asked!that!their!Queen!not!be!foreign>born!and!suggest!the!Princess!of!Portugal!as!

"muy!amiga!de!nuestra!nasción!y!de!todos!los!castellanos!y!que!habla!nuestro! castellano!como!lo!hablamos.”41!Echoing!past!Cortes,!Charles!is!asked!to!surround! himself!with!"personas!naturales!destos!reynos.”42!Manuel!Fernández!Alvarez!calls!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41!See!José!Antonio!Maravall.!Las5comunidades5de5Castilla:5una5primera5revolución5 moderna.5Madrid:!Alianza!Editorial,51994.!63.!! ! 42!See!Las5Cortes5de5Valladolid5del5año5mil5e5quinientos5e5veynte5e5tres5años.! Salamanca:!Juan!de!Junta,!1551,!fol.!Aiiiv.!Cited!in!José!Luis!Gonzalo!Sánchez> 41! ! the!seven!years!between!1522>1529,!Charles’!“hispanización.”!435This!period!of!

“Hispanification”!begins!after!the!comunero!uprisings!and!culminates!with!the!birth! of!Philip!II,!on!May!21,!1527,!in!Valladolid.!

Charles!first!aimed!to!be!accepted!by!Spaniards!through!a!fusion!of!language! and!outerwear.!The!future!Holy!Roman!Emperor!sought!to!be!fluent!in!his!mother’s! tongue!and!wore!an!Iberian!cape!in!the!Santiago!Cortes5of!1520.!This!garment! introduced!the!performance!of!the!emerging!Spanish!identity!of!a!monarch!who!was! born!and!raised!abroad.!In!1520!the!Bishop!of!Badajoz!addressed!the!suspicious!

Spaniards.!He!explained!that!Charles!is!determined!to!live!and!die!on!Spanish!soil.!

He!cited!his!evolving!image!as!a!Castilian:!“e!así!aprendió!vuestra!lengua!e!vistió! vuestro!hábito,!tomando!vuestros!gentiles!ejercicios!de!caballería.”(Bernis,!20).!

Charles!does!not!want!to!give!conflicting!auditory!and!visual!cues.!The!perceived! extraordinary!mixture!of!language!and!clothing!that!caused!Boscán!and!Garcilaso!to! be!viewed!as!foreigners!would!not!deter!him.!In!the!manner!of!the!three!gentleman! from!Urbino,!who!had!passed!the!Milanese!cow>herd!as!the!perfect!Spanish! gentlemen,!the!young!Charles!would!begin!his!Imperial!enterprise!learning!to!speak,! dress,!and!act!as!a!Spanish!caballero.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Mollero.!Felipe5II5Princeps5Hispaniarum:5La5Castellanización5de5un5príncipe5 Habsburgo:1524>1547.!Madrid:!Manuscrits!16,!1998,!65>85,!71.! ! 43!See!Manuel!Fernández!Alvárez.!La5España5del5Emperador5Carlos5V.!Madrid:! Espasa>Calpe,!1996.!!217.!

42! ! The!performance!of!nationality!and!nobility!and!the!importance!of!first! impressions!are!detailed!in!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano.!Count!Ludovico!Canossa! explains!that!the!success!of!the!perfect!courtier!is!also!dependent!on!witnesses.!In! book!one!Canossa!stresses!the!importance!of!what!Castiglione!terms!universal! opinion:!“avendo!noi!a!formare!un!cortegiano!senza$difetto$alcuno$e$cumulato$d'ogni$ laude,'mi'par'necessario'farlo'nobile,'sí'per'molte'altre'cause,'come'ancor'per'la' opinion%universale,%la%qual%subito%accompagna%la%nobilità”!(43,!I,!xvi).!(que!habiendo! nosotros!de!formar!un!cortesano!sin!tacha,!es!necesario!hacelle!de!buen!linaje.!Y! esto!no!solamente!por!muchas!otras!razones,!más!aún!por!aquella!buena!opinión! general!que!siempre!se!sigue!tras!la!nobleza!y!el!lustre!de!la!buena!sangre”!(127;!I,! xvi).!Nobility!must!be!enacted!and!should!be!measured!by!public!reception.!In!

Boscán’s!translation,!in!a!society!ruled!by!purity!of!blood!(“limpieza!de!sangre”)! nobility!is!also!complemented!by!lineage!(“linaje”)!and!good!blood!(“buena!sangre”)! or!pure!blood.!These!first!impressions!(“imprima!la!bona!opinione!di!sé”)!are!of! paramount!importance!for!the!perfect!courtier.!Canossa!describes!two!men!who! were!found!to!be!unintelligent!and!lacking!in!grace!(“essendo!sciocchi!e!goffissimi”)!

(“en!estremos!locos!y!groseros”)!in!the!court!of!Urbino,!who!went!on!to!be!thought! of!as!great!courtiers!in!other!parts!of!Italy!(“per$tutta$Italia$hanno$però$avuto$fama$di$ grandissimi!cortegiani”).!Although!the!two!passing!as!great!courtiers!were!later! unmasked!as!frauds!(“scoperti!e!conosciuti”),!they!were!able!to!successfully!dupe! other!members!of!the!court.!Rebhorn!explains!that!the!courtier’s!general! comportment!is!“designed!to!make!people!marvel!at!him,!to!transform!himself!into!a!

43! ! beautiful!spectacle!for!others!to!contemplate." 44!This!spectacular!transformation! before!a!chosen!public!is!mirrored!in!the!previously!mentioned!story!of!the!burla!of! costumed!contadino5who$passes$as$a$Spanish$gentleman.$!

As!can!be!seen!in!period!portraiture,!Charles!utilized!outerwear!in!order!to! project!the!rising!prestige!of!the!Spanish!nation.!When!the!proclaimed!“Holy!Roman!

Emperor”!entered!Bologna,!an!unkownn!court!historian!recounts!the!public’s! astonishment!at!the!extraordinary!wealth!displayed!by!the!more!than!150!Spaniards! of!his!retinue.!A!court!historian!records!Charles!leaving!the!palace!accompanied!by! men!of!all!nations.!These!men!represent!the!diversity!of!his!growing!empire.!They! project!its!wealth!and!power!in!the!gold,!pearls,!and!precious!stones!that!make!up! their!outerwear:!!

Y!salió!del!palacio!por!el!pasadizo!su!Magestad!muy!acompañado!de! todas!naciones!…!que!el!que!llevaba!solamente!tela!de!ora!o!de!plata! no!era!mirado!si!no!llevaba!bordadura!de!perlas!y!piedras.!De!estos! bien!vestidos!hubo!pocos!italianos!y!flamencos.!Los!españoles! hicieron!toda!la!fiesta!y!de!tal!manera!que!todos!quedaban!espantados! de!haber!visto!tanta!riqueza,!y!fueron!los!españoles!más!de!ciento! cincuenta.!(cited!in!Bernis!1962,!8)!

This!attending!public!is!astonished!(“espantados”)!in!the!face!of!the!sartorial! performance!of!Spanish!imperial!power.!!

While!much!ink!has!been!written!concerning!the!importance!of!outerwear!in! the!Cortegiano,!we!will!consider!the!courtier's!dress!not!only!as!vital!to!his!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44!See!Wayne!Rebhorn."Baldesar!Castiglione,!Thomas!Wilson,!and!the!Courtly!Body! of!Renaissance!Rhetoric,!"in!Rhetorica511!(3)!(1992).!241–274.! ! 44! ! demonstration!of!nobility,!but!also!as!an!outward!display!of!nationalism.!Within!a! broader!sartorial!discourse,!in!the!Cortegiano5textiles!can!alternatively!perform! power!or!subjugation.!Italy!served!as!the!battleground!for!control!of!Europe!in!the! first!half!of!the!sixteenth!century.!Given!that!at!the!time!of!the!Cortegiano’s5 publication!(1528)!Francois!I!had!not!only!been!defeated!by!Charles!V!at!the!battle! of!Pavia,!but!that!he!and!his!sons!had!been!incarcerated!in!Madrid,!the!Book5of5the5

Courter!aligns!Italian!habitus!with!Spanish,!rather!than!French!taste:!“perché'quella' gravità(riposata(peculiar(dei(Spagnoli(mi(par(molto(più́ (conveniente%a%noi%altri%che%la% pronta'vivacità,'la'qual'nella'nazion'franzese”!(175;!II,!xxxvii).!(“porque!aquella! gravedad!sosegada!natural!de!España!me!parece!más!conforme!a!nosotros!que!la! presta!y!arrebatada!desenvoltura!de!los!franceses”)!(Boscán;!259;!II,!xxxvii).!!

The!Cortegiano5describes!the!ideal!Italian!attire!as!a!“migliore!forma”—!a! compromise!between!the!French!and!German!style,!with!hints!of!Spanish!fashion.!It! is!a!mélange!that!suggests!an!appeasement!of!past,!present,!and!perhaps!future! colonizers.!This!best!of!forms!of!dressing!is!described!precisely!as!avoiding! extremes—the!French!outerwear!being!too!wide!and!the!German!being!too!narrow:!

“per!me!amerei!che!non!fossero!estremi!!(…)!il!franzese!in!troppo!grandezza!e!'l! tedesco!in!troppo!piccolezza,!ma!come!sono!e!l'uno!e!l'altro!corretti!e!ridutti!in! meglior!forma!dagli!Italian!(159;!II,!xxvii).!!(“Verdad!es!que!yo!querría!que!no! siguiesen!los!estremos!(…)!como!el!habita!francés!que!eccede!en!ser!muy!ancho!y!el! tudesco!en!ser!muy!angosto,!sino!que!fuesen!como!los!que,!tomando!del!uno!y!del! otro,!son!corregidos!y!reducidos!en!mejor!forma!por!los!italianos”)!(!244>245;!II,! 45! ! xxvii).!!Il!Magnifico!acknowledges!that!bright!colors!should!be!worn!for!fighting!and! feasting;!he!suggests!darker!hues!in!order!to!show!“quel!riposo!che!molto!serva!la! nazion!spagnola”!(159;!II,!xxvii)!(“el!sosiego!y!la!gravedad!de!la!nación!española’)!

(245,!II,!xxvii).!The!French!sociologist,!Pierre!Bourdieu!sees!power!as!culturally!and! symbolically!created!and!legitimized!through!what!he!calls!“habitus,”!or!socialized! norms!that!guide!behavior.45!Here!abito!(dress)!reflects!Bourdieu’s!“habitus.”!!

The!migliore5forma!must!be!chosen!from!a!motley!assortment!of!various! national!styles.!The!Magnifico!Giuliano!asks!Federico!to!comment!on!the!manner!of! dress!and!adornment!best!suited!to!a!courtier:!“che$ci$mostraste$di$qual$manera$si$ debba%vestire%il%cortegiano%e%che%abito%più́ %se%gli%convenga,%e%circa%tutto%l'ornamento% del!corpo!in!che!modo!debba!governarsi”!(157;!II,!xxvi).!(“que!mostrásedes!de!qué! manera!se!debe!vestir!el!cortesano!y!qué!suerte!de!vestidos!le!convenga!más,!y! acerca!de!los!atavíos!de!su!cuerpo,!como!haya!de!regirse”)!(243;!II,!xvi).!!While!

Castiglione!speaks!of!governing!the!body!(“governarsi,”)!Boscán!choice!of!“regirse”! denotes!a!monarchical!government!which!may!point!to!King!Charles.!The!text! emphasizes!the!infinite!variety!of!dress!currently!used!in!Italian!courts:!!

perché'in'questo'veggiamo'infinite'varietà;'e'chi'si'veste'alla'franzese,' chi$alla$spagnola,$chi$vol$parer$tedesco;$né$ci$mancano$ancor$di$quelli$ che!si!vestono!alla!foggia!de'!Turchi;!chi!porta!la!barba,!chi!no.!Saria! adunque!ben!fatto!saper!in!questa!confusione!eleggere!il!meglio.!(157;! II,!xxvi)!

(porque!en!esto!vemos!infinitas!diferiencias:!los!unos!se!visten!a!la! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45!See!Pierre!Bourdieu.!Distinction:5A5Social5Critique5of5the5Judgement5of5Taste.! London:!Routledge,!1984.!! 46! ! francesa,!los!otros!a!la!española;!hay!algunos!que!quieren!parecer! tudescos,!y!no!faltan!hartos!que!se!vistan!ya!como!turcos;!quien!traen! barba!y!quien!no.!Sería!luego!muy!gran!bien!en!tanta!confusión!saber! escoger!lo!mejor)!(Boscán;!243,!II,!xxvi)!!!

Within!this!sartorial!Tower!of!Babel,!inflicted!by!Italy’s!colonizers,!the!courtier’s! dress!must!be!well!administered,!ruled,!or!governed!(“governarsi,”!“regirse”).!The! migliore5forma!would!eradicate!the!dress!of!the!various!peoples!who!have!ruled!

Italy.!Spanish!gravitas5should!also!be!corrected!and!adapted!“in5migliore5forma”!by! the!Italians.!

The!Italian!migliore5forma!cloaks!itself!in!rhetoric!related!to!colonization!and! administration.!Let!us!recall!that!this!migliore5forma!is!achieved!through!correction! and!reduction:!“corretti!e!ridutti!in!meglior!forma!dagli!Italian”!(159;!II,!xxvii)!

(corregido!y!reducido!en!mejor!forma!por!los!Italianos)!(245;!II,!xxvii).!The! deliberate!use!of!the!term!reduction!(“ridutti,”!“reducido”)!must!not!be!overlooked.!

Reducción!was!the!name!given!to!indigenous!towns!governed!by!the!Spanish!in!the!

“New!World”!and!widely!used!in!military!rhetoric.!Although!already!in!the!

Instrucciones5a5Ovando!of!1501,!the!Crown!demanded!that!indigenous!peoples!live! among!the!Spanish!population,!the!effective!organization!of!these!reducciones5is! delineated!in!the!Segunda!Audiencia!de!Nueva!España!(1531).!The!Latin,!“reducere”! means!to!bring!back!or!restore.!Perhaps!the!Cortegiano5was!seeking!Italian! restoration.!!

While!the!treatise!suggests!that!the!gravitas!and!decorum!that!mark!the! dress!of!the!Spanish!people!should!be!emulated!by!Italians,!it!also!cautions!that!in! 47! ! the!wearing!of!foreign!clothing!the!nationals!are!colonized,!and!subject!themselves! to!future!conquests;!here!Castiglione!employs!outerwear!as!a!trope!for!subjugation.!

Although!former!Italian!outerwear!may!have!been!the!sign!of!their!independence!

(“pur!quelli!forse!erano!segno!di#libertà”)#(158;#II,#xxvi)#(“a#lo#menos#aquéllos#quizá# eran%una%señal%de%libertad”%(Boscán;%244;%II,%xxvi).%Federico%intimates%that%the% current'sartorial'situation'foreshadows'imminent'subjugation'(“come'questi'son' stati%augurio%di%servitú;%il%quale%ormai!parmi!assai!chiaramente!adempiuto”)!(158;!II,! xxvi).!(como!estos!han!sido!un!mal!anuncio!de!sujeción,!el!cual,!en!fin,!ha!habido!de! salir!verdadero”)!(Boscán;!244;!II,!xxvi).!Clothing!becomes!a!prison!for!the!body!and! the!body!politic.!The!textile!morphs$into$a$text$that$announces$conquest.$The$court$ manual&laments&the&many&nations&that&have&conquered&Italy:&“ché&ormai&non&resta& nazione'che'di'noi'non'abbia'fatto'preda,'tanto'che'poco'piú'resta'che'predare'e'pur' ancor!di!predar!non!si!resta”!(158,!II,!xxvi).!(que!ya!no!queda!provincia!ni!tierra!que! no!esté!rica!de!nuestros!despojos,!tanto!que!no!queda!ya!que!despojar!y!aun!la! desventura!no!cesa!de!pasar!cada!día!más!adelante”!(Boscán;!244,!II,!xxvi).!Italy’s! dramatic!situation!is!emphasized!through!the!repetition!of!“resta”!(in!Boscán’s! translation,!“queda”)!and!“preda/predare”!(in!Boscán’s!translation,!

“despojo/despojar”).!!In!the!wearing!of!foreign!outerwear,!the!Italian!people!have! also!taken!on!their!foreign!habitus:"“cosí"l'aver"noi"mutato"gli"abiti"italiani"nei" stranieri!parmi!che!significasse,!tutti!quelli,!negli!abiti!de'!quali!i!nostri!erano! trasformati,!dever!venire!a!subiugarci”!(158;!II,!xxvi)!(“así!el!haber!nostros!tomado! diversas!maneras!de!vestidos!de!diversas!naciones,!pienso!que!haya!sinificado!que!

48! ! todos!aquellos!pueblos!en!cuyos!hábitos!los!nuestros!se!han!mudado,!habían!de! llegar!a!sojuzgarnos!y!tenernos!cativos”!)!(Boscán;!244;!II,!xxvi).!!Boscán!has!added! to!Italy’s!predicament,!with!“sojuzgarnos!y!teneros!cativos.”!!Italy—in!all!of!her! borrowed!robes—has!permitted!foreign!appropriation.!

The!court!manual!offers!a!fabricated!solution!to!a!lack!of!a!uniformed!Italian! identity—an!invented!national!dress.!Sixteenth>century!Italy!was!a!territory!made! up!of!a!mosaic!of!kingdoms—each!having!a!unique!form!of!dress.!The5Cortegiano! underlines!these!regional!distinctions.!For!example,!the!Florentines!are! distinguished!from!the!Venetians!by!their!sleeves:!“quanto!ai!veneziano!il!portar!le! maniche!a!comeo!et!ai!fiorentini!il!capuzzo”!(160;!II,!xxvii)!(cited!in!Quondam,!403)!

(“cuanto!lo!es!a!los!venecianos!el!traer!mangas!anchas!y!a!los!florentinos!capirotes”)!

(Boscán;!246;!II,!xxvii).!After!lamenting!the!myriad!styles!of!outerwear!within!Italy,!

Il!Magnifico!suggests!that!Italy!once!had!a!national!dress:!“Ma!io!non!so!per!qual!fato! intervenga!che!la!Italia!non!abbia,!come!soleva!avere,!abito!che!sia!conosciuto!per! italiano”!(158;!II,!xxvi).!At!a!time!when!garments!placed!a!person!within!a!set! geographical!area—tied!to!a!distinct!urban!nobility!(as!seen!in!Cesare!Vecellio’s! prints)—the!concept!of!a!pan>!Italian!dress!is!implausible!and!fanciful.!Il5Cortegiano5 creates!a!temporarily!unified!Italy!in!creating!a!common!past!moda—even!if!only!in! fiction.!!

! Through!what!Ricado!Padrón!has!called!the!spacious!word,!the!author!of!Il5

Cortegiano5is!creating!a!national!space!that!is!mirrored!in!Boscán’s!translation.!

49! ! Italian!geography!is!present!throughout!the!manual,!and!most!especially!in!the! section!on!burlas.!!(395).!Urbino!is!mentioned!fifteen!times,!Rome!forty>two,!

Mantova!six,!Bologna!seven,!Ferrrara!four,!Genova!two,!Lucca!one,!Milano!two,!

Naples!!eleven,!Venice!!two,!and!Firenze!thirteen!(Quondam!(2000),!398>!399).!

Castiglione!has!rhetorically!morphed!Italy!from!a!collection!of!kingdoms!to!what!

Quondam!refers!to!as!“l’europa!degli!nazioni”!(392).!!

The!introductory!discourse!to!Cesare!Vecellio’s!costume!and!customs!book,!

Habiti5Antichi5et5Moderni!(1580)!reflects!Castiglione’s!sartorial!lament.!Following! the!enumeration!of!all!of!the!principal!cities!of!Italy,!Vecellio!exclaims:!“From!all!this! we!can!conclude!that!this!Italy!of!ours!has!often!fallen!prey!to!foreigners!and!been! the!crossroads!of!fortune.!For!this!reason,!it!is!no!wonder!that!we!can!see!a!greater! diversity!of!dress!here!than!in!any!other!major!nation!or!region”!(59).!46!Vecellio! refers!a!telling!anecdote—the!story!of!a!man!who,!like!Vecellio,!has!made!a!costume! book!that!incorporates!all!of!the!nations!of!the!world.!In!this!costume!book,!the!

Italian!example!is!depicted!naked,!except!for!a!piece!of!cloth!carried!over!his! shoulder.!Italians!are!so!“changeable,!mutable,!and!capricious!in!their!dress,”! explains!the!author,!“that!this!one!had!decided!to!carry!cloth!on!his!shoulders!so! that!he!could!have!the!tailor!cut!his!garments!according!to!his!whim”!(59).!Like!

Castiglione,!Vecellio!foregrounds!fashion!as!a!marker!of!national!identity.!The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 46!See!Cesare!Vecellio.!The5Clothing5of5the5Renaissance5World.5Ed.!Margaret!F.!! Rosenthal!and!Ann!Rosalind!Jones.!London:!Thames!&!Hudson,!2008.! ! 50! ! Emperor!Charles!V!would!implement!these!ideals!in!the!dressing!of!his!subjects— near!and!far.!!

Charles!symbolically!unites!his!motley!assortment!of!territories!through! visual!markers.!The!diversity!of!his!court!is!foregrounded!during!the!coronation!as!

King!of!the!Romans!and!Holy!Roman!Emperor!in!Aachen,!Germany!(1520).!In!Electio5 et5coronatio5Caroli5V!(Cologne,!1530),!Nicolaus!Mameranus,!a!Luxembourgian! soldier!and!historian!under!Charles!V,!describes!an!arch!with!two!provocative! columns!(Checa!Cremades,!52).47!One!shows!the!Emperor’s!attention!to!his!many! subjects!in!the!figure!of!a!wounded!wolf!caring!equally!for!her!cubs.!The!other! column!is!multilingual,!and!translates!the!phrase,!“Ea!contenudit!Imperatorem! mundi!Dominum!N,”!into!pertinent!vernaculars!(noted!in!Checa!Cremades,!55).!

Charles!is!the!Lord!Emperor!of!the!World!who!valiantly!holds!together!his!domains.!

When!Charles!and!his!new!bride,!Isabella!of!Portugal,!entered!Seville!in!1526,!the! final!triumphant!arch,!dedicated!to!Divus5Carolus!et!Diva5Elisabeth,!places!Charles!as! an!Imperial!figure,!with!allegories!for!Glory!and!Fame!around!his!many!victories.!A! symbolic!court!of!figures!dressed!as!Romans,!Spaniards,!Germans,!Moors,!and!

Indigenous!peoples!of!the!Americas!accompanies!this!Imperial!arch!(Checa!

Cremades,!57).!!

While!the!plurality!of!Charles’!vast!Imperial!territories!is!on!display,!I!argue! that!there!is!also!a!need!to!create!cohesiveness!amid!that!diversity.!It!is!for!this! reason!that!black!clothing!is!used!to!promote!a!uniformed!Spanish!identity!for!an! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47!See!Nicolaus!Mameranus.Electio5et5coronatio5Caroli5V.!Cologne:!1550.! ! 51! ! ethnically!and!religiously!diverse!Empire.48!As!Gridley!McKim>Smith!noted,!“the! aristocracy!imitated!the!king,!the!court!functionaries!imitated!the!aristocracy,!the! middle!class!imitated!the!functionaries,!and!black!became!entrenched!as!the!fashion! color”(4).49!Charles!V!propagated!the!wearing!of!clothing!as!an!outward!symbol!of!

Spanish!Imperial!political!power.!Black!came!to!be!the!color!of!choice!for!nobility! and!those!who!imitated!their!dress,!in!the!sixteenth!and!seventeenth!centuries.!

Laura!Bass!underscores!that!Tirso!de!Molina’s!El5vergonzoso5en5palacio!(1621),! stipulates!that!black!is!the!required!dress!for!gentleman.!As!Serafina!cross>dresses! herself!like!a!man!of!the!court,!the!play’s!stage!directions!specify!that!!“el5vestido5sea5 negro”!(52).50!A!man!of!the!court!was!recognized!by!his!black!outerwear.!In!1622,! even!the!British!poet!and!writer,!Henry!Peacham,!proposed!Charles!as!a!model!of! frugality!and!moderation!in!The5Compleat5Gentleman.!The!graduate!of!Cambridge,! explains!that!the!Spanish!King!is!a!model!gentleman!because!“he!dressed!as!plaine! as!any!ordinary!gentleman,!commonly!in!blacke!or!sadde!stuffe,!without!lace!or!any!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!See!Antonio!Domínguez!Ortiz!and!Vincent!Bernard.!Historia5de5los5moriscos,5vida5y5 tragedia5de5una5minoria.!Madrid:!Revista!de!Occidente,!1978;!!A.!Sicroff.!Les5 controversies5des5statuts5de5pureté5de5sang5en5Espagne5de5XVe5siècle.!Paris:!Didier,! 1960;!Los5estatutos5de5limpieza5de5sangre.!Madrid,!1985;!!Bernard!Vincent,!Minorías5 y5marginados5en5la5España5del5XVI.5Granada:!Diputación!provincial!de!Granada,! 1987;!!Henry!Kamen.!Crisis5and5Change5in5Early5Modern5Spain.!Aldershot:!Ashgate,! 1993.! ! 49!Gridley!Mckim>Smith.!“Why!Spaniards!Wore!Black.”!unpublished!paper,!2011.! ! 50!See!Laura!Bass.!The5Drama5of5the5Portrait:5Theatre5and5Visual5Culture5in5Early5 Modern5Spain.!Penn!State!Universty:!Pennsylvania,!2008.!! ! 52! ! other!extraordinary!cost.”51!By!1655,!a!French!traveler!to!Spain!indicates!that!an! ambassador!seeking!audience!with!Philip!IV!is!required!to!wear!black!(Brunel,!174>

75).!!!

Nevertheless,!Spaniards!sparkled!like!new>world!gold!at!pivotal!moments,! like!Charles’!royal!entrances.!Recent!scholarship!shows!that!in!fact!the!color!palette! for!personal!attire!was!much!broader!and!Spaniards!were!even!dressing!a5la5 morisca.52!When!Juan!de!Austria—Charles’!illegitimate!son—entered!Granada!to! suppress!the!Alpujara!rebellion,!he!dresses!in!the!Moorish!fashion.53!!Curiously,! while!Don!Juan!and!other!Christian!soldiers!arrived!“vestidos5a5la5morisca,”!the! morisco!leaders!wear!plain!“black!during!their!subversive!caucuses!to!elect!a!new!

Muslim!king”!(McKim>Smith,!17).!54!!In!general,!as!noted!by!Caro!Baroja,!the! wealthiest!of!moriscos!had!also!appropriated!black!power!dress!and!were!“vestidos5 de5negro5y5bien5tratados.”55!Although!there!are!marked!exceptions,!it!is!widely! accepted!that!black,!more!than!any!other!color,!has!been!associated!with!

Spanishness.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51!See!Henry!Peacham.!The5Compleat5Gentleman.!Oxford:!Clarendon!Press,!1906.! ! 52!Noted!by!Barbara!Fuchs.!Exotic5Nation:5Maurophilia5and5the5Construction5of5Early5 Modern5Spain.!Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2009.!130.! ! 53!See!McKim>Smith,!17.! ! 54!The!exchange!of!identity!via!dress!occurred!on!both!sides.!Mármol!book!6,!! chapter!5,!257.!! ! 55!Lucas!de!Torre,!Boletín5de5la5Real5Academia5de5la5Historia5(B.A.H.),5LXV,5385c91,5 cited5in5Julio!Caro!Baroja,!Los5Moriscos5del5Reino5de5Granada.!Madrid:!Ediciones! Itsmo,!1991,)!170>71,!footnote!109.!!!! ! 53! ! A!panoramic!study!of!the!use!of!black!in!Western!history!finds!that!"it!was!

Spain,!more!than!any!other!nation,!that!was!to!be!responsible!for!the!major! propagation!of!solemn!black!both!throughout!Europe,!and!the!New!World”56!

(Harvey,!72).!!Scholars!have!predominantly!focused!on!Philip!II!as!the!cementer!of!

Spanish!black.!In!his!study!of!the!use!of!black!as!a!power!dress,!Harvey!explains!that!

“it!is!Philip!II!(…)!who!is!something!like!the!pivotal!man!in!black!in!Europe’s!history!

“(72).!This!color!continued!to!prevail!among!Spanish!monarchs.!Even!as!the!Empire! suffered,!Philip!II,!III,!and!IV,!showed!their!genealogy!through!the!black!clothing!of! their!powerful!ancestors.!(Figures!1.2,!1.3,!1.4,!and!1.5).!Black!became!a!symbol!of!

Spain’s!glorious!past!as!a!global!powerhouse.!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!John!Harvey.!Men5in5Black.!Chicago:!U!of!Chicago!Press,!1995.! 54! ! Figure!1.2.!Juan!Pantoja!de!la!Cruz,!Felipe!II!vestido!de!negro,!1590!ca.,!oil!on!canvas,! 181x95!cm,!Patrimonio!Nacional,!Real!Monasterio!de!San!Lorenzo!del!Escorial!

5 5 Figure!1.3.5Alonso5Sánchez5Coello,5Felipe5II5vestido5de5negro,51587,5Oil5on5canvas,5 178x1045cm.,5Florence,5Galleria5Palatina,5Palazzo5Pitt5

55! ! ! Figure!1.4.!Sofonisba!Anguissola,!Felipe!II,!Rey!de!España,!1565>1573,!oil!on!canvas,! 88x72!cm.,!Madrid,!Museo!Nacional!del!Prado!

5 5 5 Figure!1.5.!Diego!Velázquez,!Felipe!IV,!1623>1627,!oil!on!canvas,!198x101,5!cm.,! Madrid,!Museo!Nacional!del!Prado!

! 56! ! ! Although!it!is!not!clear!if!early!modern!society!had!a!scientific!awareness!of! black!as!a!shade!that!incorporates!and!absorbs!every!color,!I!argue!that!black!was! the!ideal!choice!for!the!marker!of!Imperial!Spanish!identity,!near!and!far.!Black,!as!a! fashion!color,!speaks!to!the!complexities!of!the!evolving!Iberian!nation.!It!integrates! and!encompasses!its!magnificent!diversity.!Black!speaks!to!Charles’!Burgundian! roots.!Harvey!has!traced!Spanish!black!to!the!Court!of!Philip!the!Good!(1419>1467).!

Philip!the!Good’s!grave!and!authoritative!dark!outerwear,!along!with!the!visual! marker!of!the!toisson5d’or,5provided!Charles!with!the!sartorial!foundation—rooted!in! the!powerful!Burgundian!court—!for!his!imperial!power!dress.!

Figure!1.6.!Philip!the!Good,!Duke!of!Burgundy,!from!a!dedication!page!of!the! Chroniques!de!Hainault,!1447>1450,!Bibliotheque!Royale!Albert!Ier,!Brussels.!!

! ! King!Philip!made!black!his!official!outerwear!as!a!response!to!his!father’s! assassination!of!1419!(Figure!1.6).!He!wore!black!as!a!sign!of!eternal!mourning,! which!demonstrated!to!his!enemies!that!he!would!avenge!his!father’s!death.!Philip! wore!the!black!suit!along!with!the!chain!of!the!Order!of!the!Golden!Fleece,!which!he!

57! ! had!established!in!1430!(Figure!1.7).!The!prestigious!order!of!chivalry,!worn!today! by!King!Philip!VI!of!Spain!and!Karl!Von!Hapsburg!of!Austria,!was!instated!during!the! celebration!in!Bruges!of!Philip!the!Good’s!third!marriage,!to!Isabella!of!Portugal.!The!

Order!was!used!to!lead!crusades!against!so>called!infidels!in!order!to!regain!the!

Holy!Lands!for!Christendom.!In!a!Christianized!version!of!the!Greek!myth,!Jason! becomes!a!model!of!Christian!knightly!virtue!and!the!Golden!fleece!stands!for!the! grace!of!God!(Vanderjagt).57!As!Harvey!underlines,!Philip!‘le!Bon’s’!“black!is!at!once! dangerous,!retributive,!a!sentence!passed!on!the!killers!of!his!father,!and!Christian,! devout,!judicial.!He!is!the!fifteenth!century’s!picture!of!power!and!virtue!in!one,!a! standing,!authoritative!black!silhouette”!(54).!!As!a!devout!Christian!and!a!judicial! and!authoritative!monarch,!Philip!the!Good!provided!an!ideal5model!for!Charles!V’s! public!persona,!and!that!of!his!emerging!and!expanding!court.!!

Figure!1.7.!Rogier!Van!der!Veyden.!Philip!the!Good,!III!Duke!of!Burgundy!c.!1450,!Oil! on!panel,!30!x!21!cm.!Bruges,!Groeningmuseum!

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 57!See!Arjo!Vaderjagt.!“Practicing!Nobility!in!Fifteenth!Century!Burgundian!Courtly! Culture:!Ideology!and!Politics,”!in!Rhetoric5and5Discourses5of5Power5in5Court5Culture:5 China,5Europe,5and5Japan.5Ed.!David!Knechtges!and!Eugene!Vance.!University!of! Washington!Press:!Seattle,!2005.!! 58! ! ! Imperial!Spanish!black!dress!also!reflected!the!fashion!choices!of!Charles’! maternal!grandfather,!King!Alfonso!V!of!Aragon!(1416–58)!and!I!of!Naples!!(1442–

58).!King!Alfonso!is!described!as!mainly!dressed!in!black!(Harvey).!Grazietta!Butazzi! documents!him!as!darkly!clad!“le!piu!delle!volte!(…)!con!qualche!fermaglio!nel! cappello!o!qualche!catena!d’oro!al!collo;!i!broccati!e!vestiti!di!seta!poco!gli!usava.”58!

In!Le5Blason5des5Couleurs5en5armes,5livrées,5&5devises!(1414),!a!treatise!on!color! symbolism!in!heraldry,!Jehan!(Jacques)!Courtois!developed!an!influential!system! consisting!of!tinctures,!or!colors,!used!to!emblazon!a!coat!of!arms.!Black,!according! to!Courtois,!who!was!also!King!Alfonso’s!liege!Lord,!“signified!justice!in!judges,! simple!honesty!in!women,!penitence!in!sinners,!as!well!as!trustworthiness!in! merchants.”59!King!Alfonso’s!simple!black!dressed!resounded!with!solemn! composure!and!Catholic!virtue.!

Italian!scholars!Butazzi,!Moroni,!Montalto,!and!Pisetzky!stress!that!black! attire!was!worn!in!Naples!as!of!the!middle!of!the!Quatrocento,!under!the!influence!of!

King!Alfonso!V!of!Aragon!(1416–58)!and!I!of!Naples!(1442–58).60!As!cited!in!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58!See!Vespasiano!da!Bisticci’s!testimony,!reported!by!Grazietta!Butazzi,!in!“Intorno! al!Cavaliere!in!nero:!note!sulla!moda!maschile!tra!Cinquecento!e!Seicento,”5in! Giovanni5Battista5Moroni:5il5Cavaliere5in5nero:5l'immagine5del5gentiluomo5nel5 Cinquecento.!Ed.!Annalisa!Zanni!e!Andrea!Di!Lorenzo.!Milano:!Skira,!2005.!47>55.!! ! 59!Cited!in!Colomer,!footnote!65.!See!José!Luis!Colomer.!“El!negro!y!la!imagen!real,”! in!Vestir5a5la5española5en5las5cortes5europeas:5siglos5XVI5y5XVII.!Ed.!José!Luis!Colomer! y!Amalia!Descalzo.!Madrid:!CEEH,!2014.!! ! 60!See!Giovanni!Battista!Moroni,!“Intorno!al!Cavaliere5in5nero:!note!sulla!moda! maschile!tra!Cinquecento!e!Seicento”!in,5Il5Cavaliere5in5nero.!Milan:!Skira,!2005.!47– 55;!L.!Montalto.!La5corte5di5Alfonso5I5di5Aragona.5Vesti5e5gale.!Naples,!1922;!!Rosita! 59! ! Colomer,!chroniclers!describe!the!devoutly!Catholic!and!humble!sovereign!“as! always!being!dressed!in!black,!in!Flemish!damasks,!velvets!and!wool!fabrics”!(85).!

His!grandfather’s!sartorial!choices—infused!with!Iberian!Catholicism!and!

Neapolitan!fashion—provided!a!second!pillar!for!Charles’!black!uniform.!!

Black!also!extends!the!Imperial!Spanish!uniform!towards!the!colonies!of!the! so>called!New!World.!The!international!spread!of!Spanish!black!was!rooted!in!the! introduction!of!new!dyes!from!the!Americas.!Dyestuff!is!reported!as!the!second!most! beneficial!American!import—!after!precious!metal.61!From!the!sixteenth!century! onwards,!cochineal,!from!which!intense!reds!could!be!achieved,!and!logwood,!which! provided!the!famed!dark!black,!became!a!precious!Spanish!commodity.!Palo5de5

Campeche,!or!logwood,!from!the!Campeche!bay!in!Mexico,!provided!a!black!known! as!ala5de5cuervo!(crow’s!wing).!Before!logwood,!black!was!achieved!by!mixing!plants! with!iron!sulfate,!which!was!corrosive!and!caused!fabrics!to!become!coarse.!The! shade!that!resulted!from!this!procedure!is!labeled!as!“ala5de5mosca.”5The!name!itself,5

“wing!of!a!fly,”!denotes!the!lack!of!intensity!in!tone.!Other!methods,!such!as! superimposing!primary!colors,!were!labor!intensive!and!failed!to!provide!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Levi>Pisetzky.!Storia5del5Costume5in5Italia!Vols.!II!&!III.!Milan:!Istituto! Editoriale!Italiano,!1964.! ! 61!See!Colomer,!91>93,!and!J.!Schneider,!“Peacocks!and!Penguins:!The!Political! Economy!of!European!Cloth!and!Colours,”in!American5Ethnologist,!5,!no.!13!(1978).! 413–47.!

60! ! desired!hue.62!The!revolutionary!logwood!simplified!the!dyeing!process!and! resulted!in!the!deep!black!that!was!likened!to!the!wings!of!a!crow!(ala5de5cuervo).63!

Along!with!sobriety,!the!ala5de5cuervo5performed!the!power!associated!with!the! discovery!of!the!Americas.!As!Quevedo!would!later!echo!in!his!celebrated!sonnet,!

“En!breve!cárcel!traigo!aprisionado,”!Charles!V!and!his!men!in!black,!contained!

“todas!las!Indias”!in!their!imperial!uniforms.!!

Castiglione’s!treatise!must!be!foregrounded!in!laying!the!foundation!for!such! a!visual!marker!of!Spanish!gravitas.!While!darkly!clad!Spaniards!propagated!the! look!later!labeled!as!“alla!spagnola,”!the!dissemination!of!Spanishness5seems!to! begin!with!Il5Cortegiano!(see!Quondam!,!2007,!119).!Charles!is!documented!as! dressing!in!black!no!earlier!than!the!1530’s.!The!emperor’s!penchant!for!black!is! depicted!in!his!early!official!portraits.!Around!1532!Christoph!Amberger!depicts!a! darkly!clad!Charles!surrounded!by!the!various!symbols!of!his!power;!the!

Burgundian!Golden!Fleece,!the!double!headed!eagle,!imperial!crown,!and!plus!ultra! devise!(Figure!1.8).!A!year!later!Lucas!Cranach!the!Elder!minimizes!these!symbols!to! include!only!his!black!attire!and!the!Golden!Fleece!(Figure!1.9).!In!equating!Spanish! identity!under!the!reign!of!Charles!V!with!a!darkly!dressed!and!somber!nation!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62!Colomer!describes!that!“both!methods!were!often!combined,!but!the!fabrics! ended!up!smelling!so!foul!that!they!then!needed!to!be!boiled!with!soap!and!left!to! soak!with!aromatic!herbs!for!twenty>four!hours”!(91).!! ! 63!A.!Roquero.!‘Materias!tintóreas!en!la!época!de!Felipe!II.!Introducción!en!Europa!de! los!colorantes!indianos’,!in!Los5ingenios5y5las5máquinas5en5la5época5de5Felipe5II,!exh.! Cat.!Madrid:!1998.!262–75.!

! 61! ! projects!composure!and!solemnity,!Castiglione!helped!to!fabricate!an!important! marker!for!imperial!power.!

! Figure!1.8.!Christoph!Amberger,!Portrait5of5Charles5V,5Holy5Roman5Emperor5(1500c 1558),!ca!1532,!oil!on!canvas,!Berlin!Gemaldegalerie!

! ! ! ! Figure!1.9.!Lucas!Cranach!the!Elder,!Charles!V,!1533,!Madrid,!Museo!Thyssen! Bornemisza!

! !

62! ! A!year!after!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano5connected!the!gravitas!of!black!clothing! to!Spain,!the!first!European!costume!book,!The5Trachtenbuch5(1529)!provided! various!examples!of!Spaniards!donning!the!dark!hue.64!The!German,!Christoph!

Weiditz,!accompanied!the!imperial!Spanish!court!in!1529.!Weiditz!illustrated!

Spanish!fashion!in!a!manuscript!in!which!he!provided!many!examples!of!black!in!the!

Iberian!Peninsula!(Figure!1.10).!The!1529!manuscript!shows!black!worn!“!by!people! of!varying!status:!a!bailiff!and!a!prelate,!but!also!the!conquistador!Hernán!Cortés,! with!whom!Weiditz!coincided!first!in!Toledo!and!later!as!part!of!the!retinue!that! followed!the!emperor!to!Zaragoza!and!Barcelona!(Colomer,!84).!!

Figure!1.10.!Christoph!Weiditz.Hernan!Cortés.!The5Trachtenbuch,51529,!Germany,! Germanisches!Museum!in!Nuremberg!

! !

This!emerging!Imperial!Spanish!black!would!be!noted!in!royal!entrances.!The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64!The!original!is!in!the!Germanisches!Museum!in!Nuremberg.!See!the!facsimile! version!published!in!Valencia,!2001,!with!a!historical!and!scientific!study!by!J.L.! Casado.!! 63! ! chronicler!of!his!second!visit!to!Siena!in!1536!describes!him!“...!in5habito5molto5 semplice,5e5cioè5saio5di5velluto5nero,5in5testa5teneva5un5cappelletto5di5seta5nera5 arricciato,5puro5di5altro5ornamento,5a5collo5haveva5una5collana5d’oro5dalla5quale5 pendeva5un5Agnus5Dei5...”!(cited!in!Colomer,!footnote!9).!Charles’!ekfrastic! description,!dressed!entirely!in!black!and!decorating!his!dark!attire!only!with!the! toisson5d’or!is!also!immortalized!in!painting!by!Titian!in!1548!(Figure!1.11).!For!his! second!entry!into!Milan!of!1536,!he!is!also!!“vestito!di!pano!nero”!(cited!by!

Colomer).!In!1540,!Parisian!nobility!is!recorded!to!have!been!confused!by!the!

Emperor’s!dark!and!simple!attire;!which!they!believed,!did!not!reflect!his!status:!“...! pensavan!que!avía!de!venir!vestido!su!majestad!conforme!al!nombre,!y!estado!que! tiene”!(Butazzi!2005,!51,!cited!in!Colomer,!81!and!footnote!10).!!The!Emperor’s! black!clothing!is!also!seen!in!Taddeo!Zuccaro’s!later!painting!(1559)!of!the!1536! entry!into!Paris,!among!the!frescoes!of!the!Villa!Farnese!in!Vitrebo!(Figure!1.12).!

Although!Zuccaro!chooses!to!place!the!horse’s!face!where!the!golden!fleece!would! normally!be,!Charles’!dark!outerwear!is!nonetheless!!a!bold!fashion!statement;!even! though!the!Spanish!monarch!is!virtually!eclipsed!by!Francois!I’s!magnificent!golden! dress!and!white!horse!and!Alessandro!Farnese’s!red!cardinal’s!attire.!!

64! ! Figure!1.11.!Titian,!Charles5V,!1548,!oil!on!canvas,!205!x!122!cm,!Munich,!Alte! Pinakothek!

! ! ! Figure!1.12.!Taddeo!Zuccaro,!Charles!V’s!entry!into!Paris!of!1536,!1559!of!the!1536,! Viterbo,!frescoes!of!the!Villa!Farnese!

! ! An!early!example!of!this!Spanish!gravitas5can!be!found!in!Benedetto!di!

Falco’s!!Trattato5di5amore5per5messer5Benedetto5di5Falco5napolitano,5published!in!

Naples!in!1538.!65!!The!text!describes!the!arrival!of!a!fashionably!late!gentleman! dressed!entirely!in!black.!!This!grave!man’s!overall!persona!and!clothing!project!the! harmony!of!the!classical5aurea5med[i]ocritas5and!the!dignity!of!a!magnanimous! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65!Quondam!uses!this!text!as!the!prime!example!of!Italian!sprezzatura.5Quondam! attempts!to!Italianize!by!calling!him!Francesco!Ferrante,!and!then!in!parenthesis! adding!“o!Ferrando!o!Ferdinando.”!Published!in!Napoli:!per!Ioanne!Sultzbach! alamano!appresso!alla!gran!corte!della!Vicaria,!1538!a!di!venti!noue!del!mese!di! maggio.! 65! ! sovereign.!Although!the!wedding!has!gathered!all!of!the!local!nobility,!attention!is! focused!on!“l’illustrissimo!segnor!Marchese!di!Pescara,”!Fernando!D’Avalaos.!The!

Marquis!of!Pescara!was!a!vassal!of!the!Spanish!Emperor,!Charles!V.!His!grandfather,!

Iñigo!D’Avalos,!arrived!in!Southern!Italy!with!King!Alfonso!V.!Fernando!was!born!is!

Spanish!Naples!and!his!family!was!of!Aragonese!origin.!As!a!general!of!the!Spanish!

Army,!he!fought!and!died!in!the!Italian!wars.!!The!Marquis!of!Pescara!was!captured! by!the!French,!and!later!released,!at!the!battle!of!Rimini!of!1512.!He!acted!as!chief! commander!of!the!Hapsburg!Armies!during!the!Hapsburg!Valois!wars,!which!were! played!out!on!Italian!soil.!He!famously!defeated!the!French!at!Biocca!and!Pavia,! where!the!King,!François!I,!was!made!a!Spanish!prisoner!(1525)!(Quondam).!!This! perfect!Spanish!gentleman!was!married!to!Vittoria!Colonna,!whom!we!remember!as! the!poetess!whose!circulation!of!Castiglione’s!manuscript!spurred!the!printing!of!Il5

Cortegiano.!

!! This!“illustrissimo!segnor!Marchese!di!Pescara,”!wears!the!black!clothing!and! demeanor!described!in!the!Cortegiano!and!promulgated!by!Charles!V!and!his!many! subjects.!!He!is!described!as!“segnor!di!giusta!persona!e!d’una!segnoril!bellezza,!con! un!marzial!viso!degno!d’imperio,!con!un!portamento!onestissimo,!vestito!di!nero,! come!usano!vestire!gran!re!e!imperatori,!con!sua!virtuosa!spada”.!His!dark!clothing!

“in!the!style!of!great!kings!and!emperors”!and!virtous!sword!astounds!the!Italian! dukes!and!princes!who!in!contrast,!are!“coperti!in!oro.”!The!text!tells!us!that!in! seeing!the!gravity!of!the!Marchese’s!dress,!these!monarchs!are!made!to!reflect!on! the!glory!of!the!Roman!empire!under!Ceasar!and!admonish!their!excessive!

66! ! decoration:!“!ove!si!riposano!con!onore!que’!Cesari!e!Agosti!che!non!con!panni!o!con! oziose!gemme!acquistano!gloria!e!regni,!ma!con!una!solo!spada!e!vertú.”!This!

Spanish!gentleman,!stripped!of!ostentatious!cloth!and!ornamentation!has!earned! glory!through!his!martial!virtues.!As!one!who!will!die!from!battle!wounds!earned!as! a!chief!commander!of!the!Spanish!army,!he!is!decorated!solely!by!the!gleam!of!his! virtuous!sword.!!The!man!of!arms,!dressed!in!regal!in!black,!is!in!the!fashion!of!great! kings!and!emperors.!

Figure!1.13.!Tiziano!Vecellio,!Gentiluomo5in5Nero,!Oil!on!canvas,!179x114!cm,! Firenze,!Galleria!Palatina,!Palazzo!Pitti!

! !

! Another!member!of!Charles’!court!in!Italy,!Diego!Hurtado!de!Mendoza,! represents!an!early!example!of!Spanish!gravitas!in!the!manner!of!Castiglione.!

Hurtado!de!Mendoza,!whose!brother!was!the!Viceroy!to!the!Americas,!Antonio!

Hurtado!de!Mendoza,!served!as!a!Spanish!ambassador!to!Venice!as!of!1539.!Tiziano!

Vecellio’s!Gentiluomo5in5nero,!painted!between!1540>46!features!a!full!portrait!of!

67! ! Hurtado!de!Mendoza,!clad!entirely!in!black!(Figure!1.13).!Letters!exchanged!by!

Francisco!de!Los!Cobos,!who!served!as!secretary!of!State!under!Charles,!in!Spain,! and!Hurtado!de!Mendoza,!between!1540>41,!references!the!painting!that!Tiziano! was!working!on!at!the!time.!Local!Venetian!literati,!Aretino!and!Piccolomini,!wrote! sonnets!commemorating!said!painting.!In!a!letter!to!Marcantonio!D’Urbino,!dated!

August!16,!1540,!Aretino!enclosed!a!sonnet!describing!Titian’s!painting!of!Don!

Diego,!and!describes!it!as!“the!figure!the!marvelous!Titian!made!marvelously!on!his! portrait!from!nature”!(Cited!in!Freedman,!26).66!The!sonnet!equates!Titian!with!

Apelles,!in!showing!“il!Mendozza!sì!vivo!in!pittura/che!nel!silenzio!suo!par!che! favelle.”67!While!Aretino!doesn’t!mention!the!dark!clothing,!he!signals!the!famed! gravitas!of!the!Spaniards:!“ma!i!pensier!alti!de!la!nobil!mente,/che!in!le!sue!gravità! raccolta!e!intera/tanto!scorge!il!futur,!quanto!il!present.”68!The!painting!was!so! successful,!that!it!is!included!in!Vasari’s!Vite5de'5più5eccellenti5pittori,5scultori,5e5 architettori5da5Cimabue5insino5a'5tempi5nostril!(1550):!!

Hurtado!de!Mendozza,!allora!ambasciatore!di!Carlo! V!a!Venezia,!tutto!intero!e!in!piedi,!che!fu!belisima! figura;!e!da!questo!cominció!Tiziano!quello!che!poi! é!venuto!in!uso,!cioé!di!fare!alcuni!ritratti!interi! (...).69!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 66!See!Luba!Freedman.!Titian’s5Portrait5through5Aretino’s5Lens.!Penn!State!University! Press:!University!Park,!1995.!! ! 67!See!Aretino.!Lettere,!t.!II.!218>219.!Also!Freedman,!1995.!18>19.! ! 68!Ibid! ! 69!Vasari,!Le5Vite..,!op.!cit.,!libro!VI.!Descrizione5dell’opere5di5Tiziano5da5Cador5pittore.! Rome:!Ed.!Moderna,!2001.!1291.! 68! ! Vasari’s!description!informs!us!that!the!first!full!body!portrait!completed!by!Titian! was!of!Charles’!ambasasdor!to!Venice;!a!Spanish!man!dressed!entirely!in!black.!

The!distinctive!color!of!“Spanish!style”!was!already!present!in!various!Italian! states!before!Castiglione!attributed!it!to!Spaniards.!Black!was!historically!used!as! the!color!of!mourning!and!melancholy!and!within!religious!groups,!such!as!the!

Dominicans.!As!has!been!noted!above,!black!attire!was!worn!in!Naples!as!of!the! middle!of!the!Quatrocento,!under!the!influence!of!King!Alfonso!V!of!Aragon!(1416–

58)!and!I!of!Naples!(1442–58).!The!donning!of!black!outerwear!became!a!staple!of! the!Neapolitan!court!under!his!son!Ferrante!(1458–1494)!(Buzzati).!

The!citizens!of!the!Venetian!Republic!wore!black!before!Kings!and!courtiers! made!it!fashionable!(Figure!1.14).!A!Milanese!traveler!to!Venice!in!1498,!records! that!“nobody!stirs!abroad!in!any!other!costume;!it!is!a!style!certainly!suited!to!grave! persons.!They!all!look!like!Doctors!of!Law”!(cited!in!Harvey,!66).70!!As!a!type!of! latter>day!Romans,!Venetians!wore!togas;!la5Serenissima’s!men!preferred!them!to!be! black.!As!noted!by!Harvey,!“from!the!age!of!twenty>five!both!patricians!and!the! secondary!class!of!citizens!were!expected!to!wear!both!winter!and!summer,!and! both!when!out!and!at!home,!a!black!‘toga’!or!‘vesta’”!(66).!Venice’s!men!in!black! carried!a!strip!of!black!material,!called!a!becho—which!would!evolve!to!become!a! hood!and!later!a!stole!that!showed!privilege,!over!their!shoulders.!Before!Il5

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 70!Pietro!Casola.!Journey!to!Jerusalem,!quoted!in!W.!Carew!Hazlitt.!The5Venetian5 Republic,5Its5Rise,5its5Growth,5and5its5fall.!London:!!Adam!and!Charles!Black,!1915.! 748.!See!Stella!Mary!Newton.The5Dress5of5the5Venetians:!1495>1525.!Aldershot:! Ashgate,!1988.!9>16.!! 69! ! Cortegiano!and!Charles!V,!in!their!black!robes,!usually!black!caps!(barete),!and!black! hose,!the!merchants!of!Venice!developed!a!much>needed!gravitas.!!

Figure!1.14.!Titian,!Presentation!of!the!Virgin!in!the!Temple,!1539,!Venice,!Galleria! Dell’Accademia!

Pietro!Aretino’s!dialogue!concerning!the!lucrative!business!of!prostitution,!La5

Cortigiana,5Dialogo5nel5quale5la5Nanna5insegna5alla5Pippa,5Ragionamento5della5Nanna5 e5della5Antonia,!published!in!Venice!in!1534,!offers!an!example!of!the!Spanish! appropriation!of!the!Venetian!merchant’s!power!dress.71!In!a!repackaging!of!the! burla5involving!the!Milanese!cowherd!who!passed!as!a!Spanish!gentleman,!Aretino! showcases!a!darkly!clad!gentleman!who!impersonates!a!cardinal’s!nephew!(“il! nipote!posticcio!di!monsignore!reverendissimo”).!The!setting!is!now!a!Venetian! bordello,!instead!of!the!court!of!the!Urbino,!and!the!court!ladies!are!replaced!by! courtesans.!In!order!to!win!the!favor!of!famed!Venetian!courtesans!(“ricche! puttane”)!the!man!dons!“un!giubbone!di!raso!nero,!e!in!berretta,!e!in!scarpe!di! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71!Without!referencing!the!already!established!Venetian!men!in!black,!Quondam! (2007)!quotes!Aretino!in!order!to!underscore!the!first!mention!of!an!italian! “migliore!forma:”!“Practicamente!gia!il!nostro!cavaliere!in!nero”!(119).!!! 70! ! terziopelo!(spagnolescamente!parlando).”!This!“gentleman”!is!wearing!the!Venetian! outerwear!for!merchants!with!a!velvet!beret!and!velvet!shoes.!While!there!is!an!

Italian!term!for!velvet,!velluto,!Aretino!opts!for!the!Spanish!“terziopelo.”!In!this!way! he!is!“parlando!in!spagnolo.”!His!suggestive!choice!of!“spagnolescamente!parlando”! also!points!to!dressing!“alla!spagnola.”!The!black!velvet!cape!worn!by!many!

Spaniards,!including!Charles!V!is!also!showcased!in!Alessandro!Tassoni’s!mock> heroic!epic!poem,!published!in!Paris!in!1622.!The!satire,!which!speaks!of!the!wars! between!Bologna!and!Modena,!highlights!the!velvet!hat!of!the!Spanish!King:!“e!il! cappel!di!terziopelo,!e!al!collo!avea!il!Tosou!del!Re!di!Spagna.”!Only!four!years!after! the!publication!of!Il5Cortegiano,!Aretino!parodies!court!culture!and!blends!Venetian! and!Spanish!black.!The!text!reveals!his!audience’s!implicit!understanding!of!Spanish! outerwear!and!the!notion!of!“alla!spagnola.”!

Given!existing!Italian!associations!with!the!dark!hue,!we!are!left!to!ponder! why!Il5Cortegiano!would!propagate!the!association!of!gravitas!and!black!outerwear! with! Spain.! Raphael’s! 1516! painting! of! Castiglione! reveals! his! own! penchant! for! dressing!almost!entirely!in!black!(Figure!1.15).!During!the!sack!of!Rome,!the!papal! nuncio! had! already! imposed! the! wearing! of! dark! clothing! for! Spanish! gentlemen.!

While! the! Pope! was! imprisoned! at! Sant’Angelo! awaiting! his! release! following! the! tribute!of!70,000!ducats!of!gold,!in!Spain,!Castiglione!ordered!Spanish!noblemen!to! dress! in! black,! as! a! sign! of! mourning! for! the! Catholic! Church.! Under! Castiglione’s! instructions,!these!darkly!clad!Spaniards!pleaded!on!behalf!of!Pope!Clement!(Muñoz!

71! ! Machado).!72!!!

Figure!1.15.!Raphael,!Baldassare!Castiglione,!1516,!oil!on!canvas,!82!x!67!cm.!Paris,! Musée!du!Louvre!

! !

Figure!1.16.!Charles!V!with!Pope!Pius!II!and!Felipe!II,!Santa!María!delle!Grazie,! Curatone,!Italy.!!

! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! 72!See!Santiago!Múñoz!Machado.5Sépulveda,5cronista5del5emperador.5Edhasa:! Barcelona,!2012.!! 72! ! ! ! Figure!1.17.!Giulio!Romano,!Tomb!of!Baldassare!Castiglione,!1529,!Santa!María!delle! Grazie,!Curatone!

Castiglione!died!unexpectedly!in!Toledo!on!February!8,!1529.!His!body!was! transported!to!Italy!and!was!laid!to!rest!at!Curatone,!at!Santa!Maria!delle!Grazie,! outside!of!his!native!Mantua.!Charles!V!and!his!son!Philip!II!stand!beside!Pope!Pius!II!

(Enea!Silvio!Piccollomini)!in!the!characteristic!upper!niches!that!line!the!walls!of!the!

Santuario!Basilica!Marie!delle!Grazie!(Figure!1.16).!There,!his!mother!Luigia!

Gonzaga,!asked!Italian!painter!and!architect,!Giulio!Romano!to!design!a!grand!tomb,! and!Pietro!Bembo,!to!write!the!accompanying!epitaph!(Figure!1.17).!Translated! from!the!Latin!original,!it!reads!as!follows:!!

To!Baldassare!Castiglione!of!Mantua,!endowed!by!nature!with!all! talents,!distinguished!in!many!arts;!learned!in!Greek![letters],!in!Latin! and!Tuscan,!also!a!poet;!on!account!of!his!military!virtue!he!was! granted!a!town/castle!of!Nebularia[?]!by!Pesaro.!He!went!twice!to! 73! ! England!and!Rome!as!diplomat;!while!he!spent!time!in!Spain,!he! managed!the!affairs!of!Pope!Clement!VII,![and!there!=!ibique]!he! completed/wrote![four]!books!on!the!Constitution[=!the!make> up/organization]!of!the!royal!household.!Finally!the!Emperor!Charles! V!ordered!to!make!him!Bishop!of!Avila.!He!ended![functo]!his!life!in! Toledo,![leaving]!before!all!people!a!great!name!(…).73!! !

The!implications!of!the!Latin!verb!Perscripsisset,5which!speaks!directly!to!the!act!of! writing!in!part,!or!even!to!the!completion!of!the!book,!!“the!book!of!the!courtier”!are! suggestive.!Apart!from!letters,!poetry,!and!the!introduction!to!the!Calandria,!the!only! book!written!by!Castiglione!is!the!one!known!as!the!Cortegiano.!Castiglione’s!friends! and!family!wanted!the!text’s!relationship!with!Spain!to!be!set!in!stone.!Castiglione’s5 complex!connections!to!Spain!and!the!court!of!Charles!V,!together!with!the!

Cortegiano!and!Juan!Boscán’s!1534!translation,!served!to!shape!and!promote!the! uniformed!image!of!imperial!Spanish!gentlemen!dressed!in!black,!while!the! celebrated!burlas!also!laid!the!foundation!for!Spaniards!as!!pícaros.5!

! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 73!June!Osborne.!Urbino:5the5Story5of5a5Renaissance5City.!London:!Frances!Lincoln,! 2003.!168);!John!Sherman’s!“Giuilio!Romano!and!Baldassare!Castigliano,”!in!Atti5del5 convegno5internazionale5di5Studdi5su5Giulio5Romano5e5l’espansione5europea5del5 Rinascimento.!Mantova:!Academia!Virgiliana!1>5!October,!1989.!293>301).!Bembo! composed!the!inscription!(cited!by!Will!Durant,!in!The5story5of5civilization!(1953)! BALDASSARI!CASTIGLIONI/!MANTUANO!OMNIBUS!NATURAE/!DOTIBUS!PLURIMIS! BONIS/!ARTIBUS!ORNATO.!GRAECIS/!LITTERIS!ERUDITO.!IN!LATINIS/!ET! HETRUSCIS!ETIAM!POETAE./!OPPIDO!NEBULARIA!IN!PISAUREN./!OB!VIRT.!MILIT.! DONATO.!DUAB(US)/!OBITIS!LEGATION(IBUS)!BRITANNICA/!ET!ROMANA! HISPANIEN(SEM)/!CVM!AGERET!AC!RES!CLEMEN(TIS)!VII/!PONT.!MAX.! PROCURARET!IBIQ!/!LIBROS!DE!INSTITUEN.!REGUM/!E(F)AMIL.!PERSCRIPSISSET!/! POSTREMO!EUM!CAROLUS!V/!IMP.!EPISC.!ABULAE!CREARI!/!MANDASSET!TOLETI/! VITA!FUNCTO!MAGNI!APUD!OMNES/!GENTES!NOMINIS!QUI!VIX.!ANN.!L/!MS.!II.!D.!I.! ALOISIA!GONZAGA/!CONTRA!VOTUM!SUPERSTES/!FIL.!B.!M.!P.!ANN.!D.!MDXXIX! 74! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter!Two!! ! ! ! From!Sprezzatura5to!Sosiego:!Dismantling!Spanish!Sobriety!in!Mateo!Alemán’s! Guzmán5de5Alfarache5 5 5 5 5 5 ! 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 ! 5 ! 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 75! ! !!“Que!hubiera!servido!de!poco!alborotar!tu!sosiego!habiéndote! !! ! ! !!!!dicho!parte!de!mi!vida,!dejando!lo!restante!della”!! ! ! ! !(It!would!have!been!of!little!use!to!agitate!your!serenity!having! ! ! ! told!you!part!of!my!life!and!leaving!the!rest!of!it!out)!! ! ! ! ! Mateo!Alemán,!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!(II,!i,!41)! ! !!

The!protagonist!and!narrator!of!Mateo!Alemán’s!picaresque!novel,!Guzmán5 de5Alfarche!(1599,1604),!calls!attention!to!the!disruption!of!sosiego5that!may!well! accompany!the!reading!of!his!autobiography.!In!the!Tesoro5de5la5lengua5española!

(1611),!Sebastián!de!Covarrubias!defines!sosegar!as!“aquietar,”!or!to!calm,!pacify,!or! placate.!In!order!to!attain!sprezzatura,!the!perfect!Italian!courtier!is!advised!to! follow!the!sosiego!displayed!by!the!Spanish!court’s!famous!men!in!black:!“ma!nel! resto!vorrei!che!mostrassino!quel!riposo!che!molta!serva!la!nazion!spagnola,!le!cose! estrinseche!spesso!fan!testimonio!delle!intrinseche”!(2,!xxvii)!(“Pero!en!lo!demás! querría!que!mostrasen!el!sosiego!y!la!gravedad!de!la!nación!española,!porque!lo!de! fuera!muchas!veces!da!señal!de!lo!de!dentro”(Boscán!2,!xxvii).!Castiglione’s!“riposo,”! translated!by!Boscán!as!sosiego,!speaks!to!Spanish!values!of!mediocritas!and! prudentia.!Juan!de!Borja’s!Empresas5Morales!(Moral!Enterprises!Emblem)!(1581)! encapsulates!the!resurgence!of!Senecan!stoicism!in!glossing!the!motto,!“Sapientis!

Animus.”74!Borja!equates!prudence!to!an!equanimity!that!suffers!adversity!with! calm!and!sosiego.5These!neo>!Stoic!ideals!of!prudence!and!temperance!are!also! allegorically!and!physically!engraved!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 74!In!Seneca5in5Spain,!Alfred!Bluher,!notes!the!“stoic”!nature!of!the!glossed!motto.!See!! Karl!Alfred!Bluher.!Séneca5en5España:5investigaciones5sobre5la5recepción5de5Séneca5en5 España5desde5el5siglo5XII5hasta5el5XVII.!Trans.!Juan!Conde.!Madrid:!Gredos,!1983.!! 76! ! Figure!2.1.!Justus!Tiel!!Allegory5of5the5Education5of5Philip5III!(1592).!Museo!Nacional! del!Prado,!Madrid!

(

77! ! ! onto!a!gilded!and!silver>plated!suit!made!in!1585!for!the!seven>year>old!Felipe!III!

(attributed!to!Lucio!Marliani!of!Milan).!Inscribing!sosiego5within!the!national! rhetoric,!Felipe!wears!this!ensemble!in!a!1592!full>scale!portrait!by!Justus!Tiel,! entitled!Alegoría5de5la5educación5de5Felipe5III!(Allegory!of!the!education!of!Philip!III)!

(Figure!2.1).75!Encased!within!this!armor,!the!young!Prince!projects!the!virtue!that!

Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!(1599!I,!1604!II)!subsequently!aims!to!dismantle.!!

! Américo!Castro’s!De5la5edad5conflictiva5(1976)!situates!sosiego!within!the! socio>historical!context!of!early!modern!Spain.!Castro!defines!the!term!as!a!sense!of! security!that!came!with!being!an!“Old!Christian:”!“Expresión!de!‘estar!en!uno!mismo’! fue!el!famoso!vocablo!sosiego,!el!no!dejarse!afectar!por!las!circunstancias!materiales,! y!el!escaso!interés!por!modificarlas,!pues!eso!quedaba!para!moros,!judíos!o! extranjeros”!(the!famous!term5sosiego!was!an!expression!of!self!sufficiency,!of!not! being!affected!by!material!circumstances!and!having!scant!interest!in!changing! them,!a!task!which!was!left!to!Moors,!Jews,!and!foreigners)!(68).76!Here,!the!Spanish! critic!extends!stoic!sosiego!to!the!early!modern!Spanish!ideal!of!integrity.!A!man’s! entereza5or!wholeness!signifies!that!he!is!lacking!in!nothing,!“que!no!se!dobla,!ni! tuerce,!por!odio,!amor,!o!interés”!(that!he!does!not!bend!nor!twist!because!of!hate,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!Ken!Johnson,!cited!in!the!Art!Review!article!“It’s!a!great!fit,!but!can!you!!breathe!in! there!your!majesty,”!in!New5York5Times,!3!July!2009.!! ! 76!Curiously,!although!Castro!does!not!equate!this!to!Alemán’s!novel,!they!both!use! the!term!“alborotar”!in!relation!to!sosiego.!See!Américo!Castro.!De5la5edad5conflictiva.! Madrid:!Taurus,!1976.!! ! 78! ! love,!or!personal!interest).!77!This!integrity!and!ease,!according!to!Castro,!could!be! disturbed!by!the!mere!suspected!presence!of!foreign!elements!(1976,!68).78!!Mateo!

Alemán’s!disruption!of!sosiego5is!suggestive!in!light!of!Castro’s!insistence!on!the! particular!fragility!of!Spanish5entereza.!Is!Alemán,!the!writer!from!Seville!who! belonged!to!a!family!of!Jewish!converts,!thus!implying!that!his!rogue!interlocutor!is! capable!of!disturbing!not!only!the!reader’s,!but!the5nation’s!precarious!sosiego?!

Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache,!published!while!the!Spanish!crown!relocated! from!the!recently!designed!Madrid!(1561)!to!the!temporary!capital!of!Valladolid!

(1601>1605),!narrates!a!continuously!shifting!life!marked!by!incessant!sartorial! transformations.!In!El5cuerpo5vestido5y5la5construcción5de5la5identidad5en5las5 narrativas5autobiográficas5del5Siglo5de5Oro!(The!clothed!body!and!the!construction!of! identity:!the!autobiographical!novels!of!the!Golden!Age)!Encarnación!Juárez!

Almendros!equates!Guzmán’s!costume!changes!to!a!“personalidad!profundamente! escindida,!y!con!un!sujeto!totalmente!abyecto”!(a!personality!profoundly!divided,! and!with!a!completely!abject!subject)!(5).79!This!chapter!proposes!that!his! undressing,!dressing,!and!even!cross>dressing,!can!be!considered!not!only!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 77!Defined!by!Sebastián!de!Covarrubias,!in!the!Tesoro5de5la5lengua5española!(1611).! ! 78!In!the!sentences!preceding!the!introductory!quote,!Guzmán!disturbs!his!readers’! sosiego!and!requests!that!they!consume,!digest,!and!regurgitate!his!autobiography!in! the!fashion!of!animals.!In!this!way!Guzmán!facilitates!the!insertion!of!strange! elements!into!the!very!center!of!their!bodies!(II,!i,!41).! ! 79!See!Encarnación!Juárez!Almendros.!El5cuerpo5vestido5y5la5construcción5de5la! identidad5en5las5narrativas5autobiográficas5del5siglo5de5oro.!London:!Tamesis.! ! 79! ! reflection!of!a!divided!and!abject!personality,!but!also!as!a!figure!that!un>writes!and! rewrites!itself!through!the!donning!of!material!facades!that!expose!the!agitation!of!a! nation!which!both!constricts!and!constructs!itself!under!the!guise!of!sosiego.!

! The!“divine!Spaniard,”!as!Alemán!was!dubbed!by!admiring!contemporaries,! takes!advantage!of!all!the!existing!discourses!of!the!period,!frequently!incorporating! emblematic,!religious,!mercantile,!financial,!commercial,!legal,!medical,!and! inquisitorial!discourses!that!appear!in!fragmentary!or!elliptical!form!in!his!text.!

Within!this!virtuoso!amalgamation!of!literary!codes,!Alemán’s!protagonist!and! narrator!alternates!between!ecclesiastical!sermons!infused!with!moralistic! commentaries!and!tales!of!rogue!antics!supported!by!popular!refranes.!Guzmán!is! both!the!pícaro!who!narrates!in!the!preterite,!and!the!“Atalaya!de!la!Vida!Humana”!

(watchtower!of!human!life)!who!speaks!in!the!present.!Barbara!Davis!emphasizes!

Alemán’s!“contradictory!devices,”!positing!that!they!“suit!well!a!work!whose!form! seems!antithetical!to!its!purpose!and!whose!narrator!is!a!hybrid!creature!relishing! the!telling!of!the!very!sins!he!is!in!the!process!of!condemning!!(213).!As!Davis! explains,!there!are!times!when!Guzmán,!the!‘famosísimo!ladrón’!and!pícaro!of!old! determines!the!language!and!tone!of!the!writing,!and!others!when!Guzmán,!the!‘muy! buen!estudiante!latino!retórico!y!griego’!predominantes”!(200).!80!Yet!as!Francisco!

Rico!has!noted!and!Davis!reminds!us!‘Guzmán!está!en!Guzmanillo,’!and!the!two!sides! of!Guzmán’s!character!often!merge!into!a!unique!combination!of!seemingly!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 80!See!Barbara!Davis.!“The!Style!of!Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.”!Romanic5 Review566:!(1975),!199–213.!! 80! ! antithetical!elements”!(1975,!200).!Baltasar!Gracián’s!Agudeza5y5arte5de5ingenio!

(1648)5praises!the!superiority!of!Alemán’s!artifice!and!style,!“que!abarcó!en!sí!la! invención!griega,!la!elocuencia!italiana,!la!erudición!francesa,!y!la!agudeza!española”!

(that!it!encompassed!Greek!invention,!Italian!eloquence,!French!erudition,!and!

Spanish!wit)!(572).81!Although!praised!for!his!exemplary!Spanish!verbal!skills,!

Alemán!paradoxically!uses!the!sartorial!discourse!as!a!crucial!element!in! dismantling!the!performance!of!Iberian!serenity.!

! Roland!Barthes’!The5Fashion5System!deepens!our!understanding!of!clothing! as!a!semiotic!code—a!sartorial!discourse—that!can!be!deciphered.!The!mass! production!of!texts!and!textiles,!which!came!about!almost!simultaneously!in!

European!history,!makes!references!to!fashion!ubiquitous!in!early!modern! literature.82!We!cannot!overlook!the!symbolic!value!of!Celestina’s!cord!(“cordón”)!

(1499),!the!Squire’s!clothing!in!Lazarillo5de5Tormes!(1554);!the!cape,!repeatedly! invoked!in!reference!to!Columbus!in!Oviedo’s!Historia5General5y5Natural5de5las5Indias!

(1526),!in5Lope’s!Caballero5de5Olmedo!(1621)!and!in!Quevedo’s!Buscón!(1626?);!the! minutely!detailed!description!of!the5Caballero5del5Verde5Gabán’s!clothing!in!Don5

Quixote5(1615),!and!the!portrayal!of!Rinconete!and!Cortadillo!(1613),!to!cite!but!a! few!examples.!In!Don5Quixote!alone,!Gridley!Mckim>Smith!and!Marcia!L.!Welles!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81!See!Baltasar!Gracián.!Agudeza5y5arte5de5ingenio.!Ed.!Ceferino!Peralta.! Zaragoza:!Prensas!Universitarias!de!Zaragoza,!2004.! ! 82!See!Roland!Barthes.!The5Fashion5System.!Translated!by!Matthew!Ward!and! Richard!Howard.!London:!Cape,!1985.! 81! ! document!“thirty>five!different!kinds!of!cloth,!twenty>four!varieties!of!robes!and! gowns,!twenty>five!types!of!headgear,!seven!kinds!of!shirts!and!bodices,!eleven! varieties!of!dress!as!well!as!stockings!and!gaiters,!thirteen!types!of!breeches,!sixteen! different!types!of!footgear,!and!some!eighteen!different!colors”!(67).83!In!Guzmán5de5

Alfarache5the!pícaro’s5acquired!skills!as!a!tailor!and5the!frequent!description!of!the! character’s!clothing!transform!textiles!into!a!subtext!which!Alemán!uses!to! foreground!his!own!intentions!as!well!as!those!of!his!rogue!protagonist!and! narrator.!!

Alemán’s!picaresque!novel!affords!a!reification!of!the!trade!of!the!tailor.!

Guzmán’s!chosen!last!name,!Alfarache,!closely!resembles!the!Spanish!term!for!tailor,! derived!from!Arabic,5alfayate!(al>xayyāt).845The!customizer!of!clothing’s!soiled! reputation!was!a!staple!of!early!modern!Iberian!satirical!literature.!Texts!such!as!

Francisco!de!Quevedo’s!Sueños!(1605>1622)!and!Hora5de5todos!(1645),!and!

Cervantes’s!Rinconete5y5Cortadillo!(1613),5feature!the!dubious!sartor.!Cervantes’5 pícaro,5Cortadillo,!whose!name!literally!means!cut,!is!in!fact!the!son!of!a!garment! maker.!When!Alemán’s!narrator!speaks!of!the!dishonesty!of!many!professions,!the! reformed!galley!slave!Guzmán!focuses!specifically!on!the!tailor’s!trade:!“Considera!el! de!un!sastre,”!(consider!that!of!the!tailor)!he!tells!us,!“todos!roban,!todos!mienten,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 83!See!Gridley!McKim>Smith!and!Marcia!L.!Welles.!“Material!Girls>and!Boys:! Dressing!Up!in!Cervantes”!in!Cervantes524!(1)!(2004):65–104.! ! 84!The!term!alfayate5is!used!in!the!novel:!“no!seamos!el!alfayate!de!la!esquina,!que! ponía!hasta!el!hilo!de!su!casa”!(let!us!not!be!like!the!corner!tailor!that!employed! even!his!house’s!own!thread”!(II,!iii,!442).!! 82! ! todos!trampean;!ninguno!cumple!con!lo!que!debe,!y!es!lo!peor!que!se!precian!dello”!

(they!all!steal,!they!all!lie,!they!all!cheat;!not!one!carries!out!what!he!should,!and! what!is!worse!is!that!they!pride!themselves!on!this)!(I,!ii,!4).!Yet,!Guzmánillo!offers! many!accounts!of!his!own!tailoring.!Although!the!pícaro!Guzmanillo!can!appreciate!a! tailor’s!ability!to!create!new!personas!through!clothing,!Guzmán,!the!moralizer,! admonishes!their!craft.!In!the!early!days!as!a!rogue,!he!acts!as!a!seamster!in!order!to! adopt!the!persona!of!a!nobleman:!“Fuime!de!allí!a!la!tienda!de!un!mercader!…!corté! un!vestido”!(I!went!from!there!to!a!merchant’s!shop…!I!cut!an!outfit)!(I,!ii,!8).!It!is! important!to!remember!that!Guzmán!admonishes!these!crafters!of!garments!from! the!vantage!point!of!the!galleys.85!Mateo!Alemán,!a!lawyer!by!training!whose! research!on!galley!slaves!brought!to!light!many!injustices!suffered!by!prisoners,! would!have!been!familiar!with!the!edicts!that!could!land!a!sartor!in!the!galleys.!86!

Carmen!Bernis!informs!us!that!“La!pena!mayor!que!podía!recibir!el!que!no!se! ajustase!en!sus!vestidos!a!la!pragmática!era!ser!desterrado!por!cinco!años;!pero!el! sastre,!jubetero!o!guarnicionero!que!cortare,!cosiere,!o!bordase!lo!prohibido,!a!la! segunda!vez!que!desobedeciese!la!pragmática,!sería!condenado!a!servir! perpetuamente!en!galeras”!(the!greatest!sentence!administered!for!those!who!did! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85!Barbara!Davis!emphasizes!Alemán’s!“contradictory!devices,”!positing!that!they! “suit!well!a!work!whose!form!seems!antithetical!to!its!purpose!and!whose!narrator! is!a!hybrid!creature!relishing!the!telling!of!the!very!sins!he!is!in!the!process!of! condemning!(1975,!213).!! ! 86!See!Claudio!Guillén.!“Los!pleitos!extremeños!de!Mateo!Alemán.!El!juez,!‘Dios!de!la! tierra,”!in!Archivo5Hispalense!33!(1960):!387>407;!Germán!Bleiberg,(“Mateo!Alemán! y!los!galeotes,”!in!Revista5de5Occidente,!2a!época,!4!(1966):!330>363;!Germán! Bleiberg.!El5"informe5secreto"5de5Mateo5Alemán5sobre5el5trabajo5forzoso5en5las5minas5 de5Almadén.!London:!Támesis,!1985.! 83! ! not!adhere!to!the!sartorial!edicts!was!to!be!exiled!for!five!years;!but!the!tailor!who! cut,!sewed,!or!stitched!what!was!forbidden,!the!second!time!that!he!disobeyed!the! edict,!would!be!condemned!to!perpetual!service!as!a!galley!slave)!(1962,!14).!

Although!Guzmán!is!never!specifically!linked!to!the!violation!of!a!sartorial!edict,!the! rogue,!who!is!referred!to!as!a!“gentil!galeote”!(genteel!galley!slave)!when!he!first! comes!into!the!picaresque!lifestyle,!narrates!his!autobiography!from!the!galleys.!5

The!recently!created!capital!Madrid!sets!the!stage!for!Guzmán’s!entrance!into! his!new!mode!of!being.!On!the!road5that!takes!him!from!an!“hijo!de!viuda!y!de!ocio”!

(son!of!a!widow!and!of!leisure)!to!the!world!of!constant!shifting,!Guzmán! systematically!rids!himself!of!his!bourgeois!garments:!“Fuime!valiendo!del!vestidillo! que!llevaba!puesto”!(I!made!use!of!the!clothing!that!I!was!wearing)!(I,!ii,!2).!Using! clothing!as!barter,!by!the!time!he!enters!Madrid,!he!is!“hecho!un!gentil!galeote,!bien! a!la!ligera,!en!calzas!y!en!camisa:!eso!muy!sucio,!roto,!y!viejo,!porque!para!el!gasto! fue!todo!menester”!(made!into!a!genteel!galley!slave,!wearing!stockings!and!a!shirt:! all!of!it!very!dirty,!ragged,!and!old,!because!it!all!had!to!be!used!to!cover!the!costs)!!

(I,(ii,!2).!!He!sheds!the!composure!of!perceived!bourgeois!outerwear!and!dons!the! soiled!threadbare!garments!of!the!pícaro.!In!a!capital!that!is!still!in!the!process!of! creating!its!own!identity—soon!to!be!provisionally!superseded!by!Valladolid—

Guzmán!forges!a!temporary!self!that!both!refutes!and!assumes!branding.!!

! The!much>debated!anonymous!writer!of!the!first!picaresque!novel,!Lazarillo5 de5Tormes5(1554),!already!incorporates!the!sartorial!nature!of!Iberian!“serenity”! into!his!narrative.!The!Squire!adopts!the!semblance!of!sosiego!in!order!to!simulate!a!

84! ! noble!façade!that!Alemán!will!later!dismantle.87!The!impoverished!escudero!from!old!

Castile!who!relocates!to!Toledo!walks!with!a!“paso!sosegado!y!el!cuerpo!derecho,! haciendo!con!él!y!con!la!cabeza!muy!gentiles!meneos,!echando!el!cabo!de!la!capa! sobre!el!hombre”!which!makes!him!appear!to!be!of!“tan!gentil!semblante!y! continente,!que!quien!no!le!conosciera!pensara!ser!muy!cercano!pariente!al!Conde! de!Arcos!o!a!lo!menos!camarero!que!le!daba!de!vestir”!(serene!stroll!and!a!very! straight!back,!making!genteel!movements!with!both!body!and!head,!placing!the!tip! of!his!cape!over!his!shoulder)!(such!noble!visage!and!composure!that!those!who!did! not!know!him!would!think!he!was!a!close!relative!of!the!Count!of!Arcos!or!at!least! the!one!who!dressed!him)!(82).!Fed!up!with!the!behavioral!custom!of!social!address,! doffing!one’s!hat!first!to!persons!of!higher!social!status,!he!abandons!Old!Castile!in! defiance!of!imposed!decorum.!This!apparently!simple!gesture!unleashes!a! meditation!on!Spanish5honra!(honor),!which!according!to!the!Squire!constitutes!the! entire!social!capital!of!contemporary!gentlemen!of!his!class.!While!in!Toledo,!his! honor!is!safeguarded!by!his!ever>present!cape!and!with!elaborate!performances!of! public!tooth>pickings!in!lieu!of!actual!meals.!By!1617!sosiego5had!become!such!an! indicator!of!the!Spanish!essence,!that!Carlos!García!uses!it!to!register!the!differences! between!a!Frenchman!and!a!Spaniard.!García,!who!wrote!La5desordenada5codicia5de5 los5bienes5ajenos!(The!uncontrolled!desire!for!the!property!of!others)5(1619),!calls! attention!to!“aquella!acción!mesurada!y!denuedo…!aquel!sosiego!en!el!andar”!(that! controlled!action!…!that!sosiego!in!his!manner!of!walking!(cited!in!Bernis!2001,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87!Lazarillo5de5Tormes,!Chapter!3.!! 85! ! 204).88!Thus!García!observes!in!an!ascetic!treatise!what!the!Lazarillo!already!notes! in!fiction!and!what!Alemán!then!exposes.!(

( The!proverbially!unruffled!appearance!of!Spanish!gentlemen!and!ladies!was! achieved!through!clothing.!Outerwear!shaped!and!molded!the!body!to!the!point!of! deformity,!making!it!conform!to!a!concept!of!beauty!that!sought!to!“mejorar!el! mundo!por!medio!de!la!estética”!(better!the!world!through!aesthetics)!(Sousa!

Congosto,!126).89!In!rigid!articles!of!clothing!such!as!the!restrictive!lechugilla5

(ruffled!collar),!made!more!inflexible!by!the!strictly!enforced!dress!codes!of!the! sumptuary!laws,!textiles!performed!the!much!sought>after!serenity.90!Carmen!

Bernis!underscores!the!aim!of!male!fashion!to!confine!the!body!and!reduce! movement!in!order!to!provide!a!sense!of!“sosiego,!rigidez,!y!empaque”!(calmness,! rigidity,!and!confinement)!(2001,!203).!Francisco!de!Sousa!Congosto!describes!

Iberian!female!fashion!in!a!similar!manner:!“se!trata!de!una!indumentaria!que! determina!empaque!y!gravedad!en!movimientos!y!actitudes,!y!que!sistemáticamente! disimula!las!formas!del!cuerpo!de!la!mujer”!(it!is!a!type!of!clothing!that!determines! confinement!and!graveness!in!movements!and!in!attitude,!and!that!systematically!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 88!See!Carmen!Bernis.!El5traje5y5los5tipos5sociales5en5El5Quijote.!Madrid:!Ediciones!El! Viso,!2001.!! ! 89!See!Francisco!de!Sousa!Congosto!Introducción5a5la5historia5de5la5indumentaria5en5 España.!Madrid:!Istmo,!2007.! ! 90!Juan!Ruiz!de!Alarcón’s!La5verdad5sospechosa!(1634)!describes!a!woman!whose! collar!masked!prior!illnesses.!She!is!instantly!abandoned!by!her!lover!when!he!sees! her!bare!neck!(Act!I,!v!1>16).!!

86! ! draws!attention!away!from!the!woman’s!body)!(2007,!130).!The!armorial!outerwear!

—depicted!by!Alonso!Sánchez!Coello’s!Portrait5of5Philip5II5of5Spain!(Figure!2.2)— drew!attention!away!from!the!individual!in!order!to!subordinate!the!natural!body!to! a!uniformed!appearance!of!serenity.!(

! As!the!nation!begins!to!suffer!under!the!weight!of!inflation,!highly!decorated! clothing!is!held!responsible!for!economic!decline!and!social!instability.!Fernández!de!

Oviedo,!the!Emperor’s!contemporary,!explains:!“I!can!testify!to!many!changes!in! fashion,!I!have!lived!for!seventy>seven!years;!and!although!for!some!time!I!was!in! other!kingdoms!out!of!Spain,!among!no!other!nation!did!I!see!so!many!nor!so! frequent!changes!in!style!of!clothing!as!with!our!country.”91!In!1533,!Antonio!de!

Torquemada,!the!author!of!the!Coloquios5sátiricos!and!the!Jardín5de5flores5curiosas,! affirms!that!when!a!man!thinks!he!is!dressed!for!ten!years,!not!one!year!passes! when!a!new!fashion!is!not!instated!“y!lo!que!estaba!muy!bien!hecho!se!torna!a! deshacer!y!enmendar,!quitando!y!poniendo!...!de!manera!que!los!usos!e!invenciones! nuevas!de!cada!día!desasosiegan!a!las!gentes!y!acaban!las!haciendas”!!(and!what!was! well!made!is!unmade!and!remade,!taking!off!and!putting!on…!so!that!the!customs! and!daily!new!inventions!create!anxiety!among!the!people!and!exhaust!their! financial!resources)!(cited!in!Bernis!1962,!31).!!These!fashions,!like!Alemán’s!pícaro,! are!in!constant!flux!of!fabrication!and!unraveling.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 91!Ibid.! 87! ! ! These!frequent!shifts!are!mirrored!in!the!futile,!albeit!incessant!edicts!to! counteract!the!emerging!cultural!and!financial!anxiety.!Charles!V!finally!derides!the! subjects!who!“spend!the!sum!of!their!worth!on!clothing,!and!thus!cause!the!ruin!of! their!country.”92(Earlier!in!1534!Charles!V!imposed!a!new!law!prohibiting!his! subjects!“osados!de!traer!ni!vestir!brocado!.!.!.!no!echar!guarniciones!en!las!dichas! ropas!ni!en!otra!cosa,!de!hilo!de!oro!ni!de!plata!ni!hilado!ni!tirado,!ni!pudiesen!traer! bordado!ni!recamado!de!seda!ni!cosa!hecha!en!bastidor”!(from!daring!to!wear! brocade….!and!not!to!add!decoration!to!their!clothes!or!other!accessories,!of!gold!or! silver!thread,!nor!could!they!have!embroidery!of!silk!or!anything!made!in!this! fashion!!(cited!in!Bernis!1962,!13).93!!

! The!desire!to!dress!fashionably!and!the!excessive!money!spent!on!outerwear! were!topics!of!discussion!each!time!that!Cortes5were!called.!As!an!indicative!sample! of!a!thirty>year!span,!Cortes!to!create!laws!that!would!control!consumption!were! called!in!1515,!1518,!1523,!1532,!1537,!1548,!1551,!1552,!1555!!(Bernis!!1962).!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92!Carlos!V,!Edict!of!1552,!Ibid.! ! 93!See!Carmen!Bernis.!Indumentaria5española5en5tiempos5de5Carlos5V.!Madrid:! Instituto!Diego!Velázquez,!1962.!! 88! ! Figure!2.2.!Alfonso!Sánchez!Coello,!Portrait5of5Philip5II5in5Black5!(1587).!Galleria! dell'Accademia,!Florence.!!! !

! !

Carol!Collier!Frick!tells!us!that!!“in!clothing,!there!would!be!new!styles,!new! ornaments,!new!everything,!to!keep!one!step!ahead!of!being!the!target!for!the!

89! ! clothing!categories!available!for!the!sumptuary!fashion!police”!(2002,!183).!94!!By!

1552,!Emperor!Carlos!V!details!the!consequences!of!these!obviously!failed!laws,! pointing!to!the!court.!This!consumption,!he!complains,!is!the!“causa!de!que!muchos! gasten!sus!haciendas!y!haya!mucho!desorden!y!nuestros!reinos!se!destruyen!y! empobrecen”!(reason!why!so!many!waste!away!their!wealth,!and!why!there!is!such! unrest,!and!why!our!kingdoms!are!falling!apart!and!impoverished!(cited!in!Bernis!

1962,!14).!Alemán’s!novel!too!records!the!crippling!results!of!expenditure.!Guzmán! first!wife’s!disproportionate!penchant!for!shopping!is!recorded!as!the!cause!of!the! affluent!merchant!family’s!financial!ruin!(II,!iii,!377>431).!Conspicuous!consumption! thwarts!the!pícaro’s5attempt!to!gain!social!status!through!an!advantageous! marriage;!moreover,!he!is!asked!for!restitution!of!her!sizable!dowry!upon!her! sudden!death.!He!flees,!disguised!as!a!scholar!of!divinity!at!the!recently!formed!

University!of!Alcalá!de!Henares.!!

! In!blaming!consumption,!Charles!V!scapegoats!clothing!for!the!nation’s! soaring!inflation,!and!garments!increasingly!become!the!main!subtext!of!Spain’s! decline.!In!fact,!it!was!in!this!disastrous!year!of!1552!that!the!fate!of!Spain!as!a! fledgling!hegemonic!power!became!clear.!Although!in!1547!Charles!assumed!he!had! secured!German!domination!with!his!victory!at!the!battle!of!Muhlberg,!by!March!of!

1552,!as!he!was!driven!out!of!Innsbruck!by!Maurice!of!Saxony,!the!bleak!future!of! his!empire!became!a!painful!reality.!Furthermore,!it!is!that!same!year!that!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 94!See!Carole!Collier!Frick.!Dressing5Renaissance5Florence.5Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins! University!Press,!2002.!! ! 90! ! Emperor!had!finally!lost!all!credibility!with!the!royal!financiers!keeping!the!country! afloat!for!a!decade!(Elliott,!209>210).!In!the!years!to!follow,!the!signs!of!a!recession! that!forced!commerce!to!live!by!credit!became!more!visible.!The!nobles,!now! dressed!in!borrowed!robes,!would!not!until!1600,!with!such!publications!as!that!of! the!arbitrista!Martín!González!de!Cellorigo’s!Memorial,!target!fiscal!policy!as!the!root! of!Spain’s!debacle.!As!Elliott!explains,!“González!de!Cellorigo!was!almost!alone!in! appreciating!that!the!fundamental!problem!lay!not!so!much!in!heavy!spending!by! the!Crown!and!upper!classes>!since!this!spending!created!a!valuable!demand!for! goods!and!services>as!in!the!disproportion!between!expenditure!and!investment”!

(317).95!Spain’s!reversal!of!fortune!is!exposed!in!the!economic!terms!of!inflation,! which!turned!Europe’s!wealthiest!country!into!the!poorest.!It!is!within!these! circumstances!that!Alemán’s!protagonist!and!narrator!negotiates!the!denial!of!

Spain’s!economic!reality!through!sartorial!sosiego.!!

Even!with!the!arbitrista’s!revelation,!early!modern!Spaniards!continued!to! express!anxiety!through!the!more!tangible!target!of!decoration!and!clothing.96!It!is! not!surprising!that!Iberian!society!perceived!cross>dressing,!and!specifically! effeminate!embellishments!donned!by!males,!as!the!root!of!social!and!economic! turmoil—the!opposite!of!sosiego.!Although!the!concern!remained!rooted!in!clothing! and!decoration,!it!also!pointed!to!the!social!construct!of!gender.!Marjorie!Garber! argues!that!cross>dressing!and!transvestism!are!the!markers!of!societal!shifts!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 95!See!J.H.!Elliott.!Imperial5Spain51469–1716.!London:!Penguin,!2002.!! ! 96!This!sartorial!anxiety!is!also!documented!in!England.!! 91! ! result!from!the!“dissolution!of!boundaries!and!of!the!arbitrariness!of!social!law!and! custom”!(1992,!25).97!The!transvestite,!according!to!Garber,!causes!anxiety!by! calling!into!question!the!“set!of!social!codes>!already!demonstrably!under!attack!>!by! which!such!categories!were!policed!and!maintained”!(1992,!32).!98!Sancho!de!

Moncada,!who!in!the!seventeenth!century!founded!the!first!university!center!for!the! study!of!politics,!contested!the!idea!that!the!economic!crisis!resulted!from!inflation,! claiming!instead!that!Spain!finds!itself!in!such!dire!straits!because!“la!gente!anda! toda!tan!regalada!y!afeminada”!(people!are!all!dressed!up!and!effeminate)!(cited!in!

Maravall,!94).99!José!Pellicer!de!Ossau!Salas!y!Tovar,!historian!of!Castile!and!later!of!

Aragón!as!well!as!commentator!of!Góngora,!also!noted!“regalos!y!afeminaciones”!

(luxury!and!effeminacy)!as!the!cause!of!the!nation’s!distress!(cited!in!Maravall,!94).!

In!a!sermon!delivered!in!1635,!Fray!Francisco!de!León,!prior!of!Guadalupe,!points!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 97!Interestingly,!although!cross>dressing!is!heavily!chastised!in!society,!it!is!a! common!topos!in!early!modern!literature.!See!Ana!Felix,!Claudia!Jerónima,!Dorotea! in!Cervantes’!Quixote!and!Tirso!de!Molina’s!Don5Gil5de5las5calzas5verdes.!It!is! primarily!associated!with!women,!even!if!in!Cervantes’!Don5Quixote!!(1605!I,!1615! II)!we!find!a!copia!of!men!who!disguise!themselves!as!women.!Augustin!Redondo,!in! “Nuevas!consideraciones!sobre!el!travestismo!en!El!Quijote,”!informs!us!that!there! are!at!least!five!cases!of!male!cross>dressing:!the!priest!(I,!28),!the!Duke’s!assistant! transformed!as!the!“Dueña!Dolorida”!along!with!the!twelve!disguised!men!who! accompany!him!(II,!36>38),!the!page!who!dresses!as!Dulcinea!(II,!35),!Don!Gaspar! Gregorio!(II,!63),!and!the!young!woman’s!brother!in!Barataria!(II,!49).! ! 98!There!is!the!curious!case!of!Catalina!de!Erauso,!known!as!the!Monja!Alférez.!As! recounted!by!Sherry!Velasco!and!José!Cartagena!Calderón,!after!escaping!from!a! nunnery,!a!few!years!later!she!is!seen!fighting,!dressed!as!a!male!conquistador!in!the! Américas,!under!the!name!of!Alonso!Díaz!Ramírez!de!Guzmán.!She!is!eventually! discovered!and!given!royal!permission!by!Philip!IV!to!live!as!a!man!and!change!her! name!to!Antonio!de!Erauso.! ! 99!José!Antonio!Maravall.!La5cultura5del5barroco.!Barcelona:!Editorial!Ariel,!1986.! ! 92! ! the!same!root!of!the!Spanish!problem:!“los!hombres!convertidos!en!mujeres,!de! soldados!en!afeminados,!llenos!de!tufos,!melenas!y!copetes”!(the!men!converted!into! women,!from!soldiers!to!sissies,!full!of!frills,!long!hair!and!bangs)!(cited!in!Maravall,!

94).!Here!cross>dressing!and!effeminacy!carry!the!mark!of!a!scapegoat!that!Guzmán! will!use!to!his!advantage!through!Alemán’s!pen.!!!

! In!Anotaciones!to!Garcilaso!(1580)!Fernando!de!Herrera!invokes!the!rhetoric! of!containment!to!characterize!the!Spanish!language!when!he!underscores!the! difference!between!the!lascivious!Tuscan5and!the!grave!Spanish!tongue.!As!an! introduction!to!his!commentary!on!Garcilaso!de!la!Vega’s!first!poem,!Herrera!carves! out!a!space!for!the!production!of!a!new!Spanish!poetry!by!assigning!sosiego!to!his! mother!tongue:!“Porque!la!toscana!es!muy!florida,!abundosa!...!lasciva!…!Pero!la! nuestra!es!grave,!religiosa,!onesta,!alta,!manifica!!…!!toda!entera!y!perpetua!muestra! su!castidad!y!cultura!y!admirable!grandeza!y!espíritu!…!Finalmente!la!española!se! debe!tratar!con!más!onra!i!reverencia”!(Because!Tuscan!is!more!florid,!abundant!…! lascivious!…!all!integral!and!perpetually!showing!her!chastity!and!culture!and! admirable!greatness!of!spirit!.!.!.!But!ours!is!grave,!religious,!chaste,!elevated,! magnificent…Finally!Spanish!should!be!treated!with!more!honor!and!reverence!…)!

(278).100!Even!as!her!Tuscan!counterpart’s!abundance!casts!restraint!aside,!Castilian! speech!embodies!pure!composure.!This!religious!and!moral!foundation!provides!her! with!a!gravity!that!demands!respect.!Although!Herrera!does!not!employ!the!term,!he!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 100!See!Fernando!de!Herrera.!Anotaciones5a5la5poesía5de5Garcilaso.5Madrid:!Cátedra,! 2001.! ! 93! ! dresses!Castilian!in!the!very!trappings!of!sosiego:5Herrera’s!mother!tongue!carries! herself!well.!!

Some!sixty!years!after!the!publication!of!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano!(1528),!and! less!than!a!decade!prior!to!the!release!of!Mateo!Alemán’s5Guzmán5de5Alfarache!

(1599),!another!Italian,!Cesare!Vecellio,!depicts!the!Spanish!people!as!“grave!by! nature”!and!dressing!“in!black!more!than!in!any!other!color”5in!his!Habiti5Antichi5et5

Moderni!(1590)!!(Rosenthal!and!Jones!2008,!281).!Spaniards,!explains!Vecellio,!are! grave!by!nature,!shrewd,!and!very!thrifty,!given!to!lust,!but!also!“sober!in!eating!and! moderate!in!drinking,!of!middle!height,!and!dry!rather!than!otherwise!in!their!bodily! humors,!satisfied!with!little!food,!and!vainglorious!in!many!matters.!They!dress!in! black!more!than!in!any!other!color.!The!Spaniard!is!astute,!brave!in!warfare,!and! able!to!endure!every!sort!of!discomfort!when!necessary”!(333).101!For!Vecellio,!the! black!costume!of!the!Spaniards!signals!ascetic!constraint,!moderation,!and! endurance.!

These!Iberian!men!are!personifications!of!the!Spaniards!“daring!Spaniard”!(el! osado!español).!In!the!last!half!of!the!sixteenth!century,!Imperial!Spaniards!were! continuously!at!war!against!Turks!and!Protestants,!with!Moriscos!within!the!Iberian!

Peninsula,!and!beyond!the!Pillars!of!Hercules,!in!the!Americas.!This!constant!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 101!See!Cesare!Vecellio!The5Clothing5of5the5Renaissance5World.5Ed.!Margaret!F.! Rosenthal!and!Ann!Rosalind!Jones.!London:!Thames!&!Hudson,!2008.! ! 94! ! warfare!exceeded!the!numbers!of!aristocratic!caballeros,!and!military!ventures! recruited!Spaniards!from!all!societal!echelons.!!Leah!Middlebrook!explains:!!

With!new!social!organizations!taking!over!within!Imperial!fighting! ranks!and!within!the!context!of!an!ideology!that!presented!victory!as!a! gift!from!God,!any!Spanish!man,!regardless!of!his!rank,!could!claim!a! share!of!Spanish!national!myth!as!‘the!daring!Spaniard’!(el5osado5 español)!and!the!diestro5braço5lost!a!degree!of!purchase!on!the!social! imagination.!(142)102!

Any!Spaniard!could!be!an!“osado!español.”!Vecellio!mirrors!this!societal!shift!in!

Spanish!by!ending!the!section!on!Spanish!noblemen,!noting!that!all!Spaniards!carry! swords:!“they!all!normally!carry!swords,!even!shoemakers!and!tailors!and!other! craftsmen”!(335).!The!charged!black!dress!of!the!Spanish!gentlemen!is!available!to! all!brave!men.!

!Even!though!he!dresses!them!in!Castiglione’s!black,!Vecellio!undermines!

Spaniards!as!fashion!trend>setters!and!originators!of!what!came!to!be!the!Italian! migliore5forma.!Instead!of!sporting!the!outerwear!that!Castiglione!celebrated!in!the!

Cortegiano,!Iberian!fashion!choices!are!reversed,!and!Italy!imposes!its!own!sartorial! trends.!“In!the!present,”!claims!Vecellio,!“Spanish!men,!especially!those!who!mingle! at!the!Catholic!court,!usually!wear!Italianate!clothing”!(334).!Philip!II,!who!reigned! until!1598,!propagated!the!black!clothing!worn!by!his!father.!Yet,!in!1590,!the!

Venetian!author!confers!sartorial!authority!on!his!people.!When!Vecellio!describes!

Spanish!courtiers!flaunting!markers!of!Spanish!distinction,!like!the!cape,!Vecellio! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 102!See!Leah!MIddlebrook.!Imperial5Subjects:!New5Poetry5and5New5Subjects5in5Early5 Modern5Spain.5Penn!State!Up:!University!Park,!2009;!!Michael!Gerli.!Aristotle5in5 Africa;!Anthony!Cascardi.!Ideologies5of5History.5! 95! ! exposes!them!as!passé:!“On!their!backs!they!wear!a!saio5similar!to!those!worn!in!

Italy!twenty>five!years!ago,!and!now!retained!by!scholars!or!old!men”!(334).!The!

Venetian!costume!book!explicitly!casts!imperial!Spanish!gentlemen!as!behind!the! times,!trailing!Italian!moda,5and!imitating!Italian!fashion.!There!is!a!contradiction! between!Vecellio’s!description!of!Spaniard’s!behind!the!times!and!the!arbitrista’s5 complaint!concerning!consumption.!!

In!Spain,!historians!document!that!within!a!country!aiming!to!project! national!sosiego,5sons!of!wealthy!bourgeois!families,!very!much!like!the!fictional!

Guzmán!de!Alfarache,!reject!their!prescribed!social!roles!and!refashion!themselves! as!pícaros.!José!Antonio!Maravall!offers!an!intricate!reading!of!the!invention!of!early! modern!Spanish!identity.!In!La5cultura5del5barroco,!he!depicts!an!ironclad!social! order!that!constrains,!reorganizes!and!deforms!the!liberating!forces!of!individualism!

(91).103!In!this!same!study,!Maravall!chronicles!the!historical!flight!of:!“jóvenes!de! casas!nobles!y!acomodadas!que!huyen!a!perderse!en!medios!de!picaresca”!(young! men!of!noble!and!wealthy!households!who!escape!in!order!to!lose!themselves!into! the!picaresque!environment!(1986,!111).104!The!rogue!lifestyle!carves!out!a!space! where!the!self!can!be!altered!and!refurbished.105! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 103!José!Antonio!Maravall.5La5cultura5del5barroco.5Barcelona:!Editorial!Ariel,51986.! ! 104!This!phenomenon,!which!is!at!the!center!of!Alemán’s!novel,!is!also!relayed!in! Cervantes’!Ilustre5fregona5(1611).! ! ! 105!See!Stephen!Greenblatt.!Renaissance5SelfcFashioning.!Chicago:!University!of! Chicago!Press,!1980.!Greenblatt’s!Renaissance5SelfcFashioning!shapes!our! contemporary!understanding!of!the!early!modern!self!and!the!complexities!of! 96! ! While!sosiego!calls!for!clearly!identifying!rhetoric!and!garments,!Guzmán!is! constantly!making!himself!unrecognizable.!His!roguish!persona!provides!a!tabula5 rasa!on!which!his!many!subsequent!identities!will!be!inscribed.!The!underworld!of! the!picaresque!is!described!as!a!space!devoid!of!social!regulations!and!free!of!the! very!instruments!with!which!tailors!create!garments.!Guzmán!meditates!on!his! recently!acquired!modus5operandi!“¡Qué!linda!cosa!era!y!que!regalada!!Sin!dedal,! hilo,!ni!aguja,!tenaza,!martillo,!ni!barena!ni!otro!algún!instrumento!más!de!una!sola!!

Figure!2.3.!Juan!Pantoja!de!la!Cruz!(attributed!to)!The!Somerset!House!Conference! (c.1604).!National!Portrait!Gallery,!London!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! manipulating!identity,!arguing!that!this!self>creation!was!both!personal!and! imposed!by!inflexible!social!institutions!that!controlled!the!middle!and!upper! classes!(1980).! 97! ! ! capacha,!como!los!hermanos!de!Antón!Martín”!(What!a!beautiful!thing!it!was!and! how!luxurious!!Without!a!thimble,!thread,!or!a!needle,!pliers,!a!hammer,!ruler,!or! any!other!instrument!more!than!a!wicker!basket!(I,!ii,!2).!As!an5esportillero!(porter),! and!without!a!master,!the!self>!employed!rogue!is!free!of!the!complications!imposed! by!society.!Guzmán!finds!such!delight!in!this!modus!operandi!that!he!would!not! change!it!“por!lo!mejor!que!tuvieron!mis!pasados”!(for!the!best!that!my!ancestors! had)!(I,ii,2).!

The!definition!of!pícaro5suggests!a!generic!reading!of!these!rascals.!The! pícaro5appears!in!Covarrubias’s!Tesoro5de5la5lengua!as!“vil!y!de!baja!suerte,!que!anda! mal!vestido!y!en!semblante!de!poco!honor”!(vile!and!of!a!low!sort,!who!is!poorly! dressed!and!has!an!appearance!of!very!little!honor)!as!well!as!a!continuation!of! pícaño,!“el!andrajoso!y!despedazado”!(the!tattered!and!torn).!Carroll!Johnson! observes!that!“in!the!honor>mad!society!he!is!striving!to!enter,!appearance!quite! literally!makes!the!man.!The!progression!is!inevitable:!tattered!clothing!means! pícaro5ladroncillo,!which!in!turn!means!unemployable”!(58).106!While!searching!for! employment!in!Madrid,!Guzmán’s!prospective!masters!describe!him!as!“algún!pícaro! ladroncillo!que!los!había!de!robar”!(some!pícaro!thief!who!would!surely!steal!from! them)!(II,!ii,!2).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 106!See!Carroll!B!Johnson.!Inside5Guzmán5de5Alfarache.!Berkeley:!University!of! California!Press,!1978.! ! 98! ! Alemán’s!pícaro’s5movement!into!the!world!of!roguery!is!marked!by!frequent! undressing!and!dressing!and!by!a!systematic!dismantling!of!his!identity.107!The!hijo5 de5algo!(son!of!something),!but!not!quite!an!hidalgo,!makes!himself!into!a!temporary! hijo5de5nada!(son!of!nothing),5from!which!the!many!desired!personas!can!emerge.!As! he!abandons!his!birthplace!and!shifts!into!the!life!of!the!rogue,!Guzmanillo!performs! a!striptease!that!involves!both!identity!and!clothing.!After!the!death!of!his!Genoese! father,!he!leaves!Seville!and!his!mother.!The!young!Guzmán!explains!that!“para!no! ser!conocido,!no!me!quise!valer!del!apellido!de!mi!padre,!púseme!el!Guzmán!de!mi! madre!y!Alfarache!de!la!heredad,!adonde!tuve!mi!principio.”!(so!I!couldn’t!be! recognized,!I!did!not!want!to!use!my!father’s!last!name,!I!took!Guzmán!from!my! mother!and!Alfarache!from!the!inherited!property!where!I!had!my!beginning)!(I,!i,!

2).!The!protagonist!eliminates!his!paternal!surname,!which!is!never!shared!with!the! reader,!and!thus!begins!the!complete!eradication!of!his!lineage.!Given!both!his! mother!and!his!grandmother’s!avowed!promiscuity,!his!claim!to!a!name!famously! used!to!invoke!a!fictitious!gothic!origin!is!certainly!questionable.!Guzmán!exclaims:!

“Si!mi!madre!enredó!a!dos,!mi!abuela!a!dos!docenas.!.!.!Con!esta!hija!enredó!a!cien!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107!See!Benito!Brancaforte.!Guzmán5de5Alfarache:5¿Conversión5o5proceso5de5dec5 gradación?.5Madison,!WI:!Hispanic!Seminary!of!Medieval!Studies,!1980.! Brancaforte!suggests!that!“desde!el!comienzo!de!la!novela!se!observa!la!importancia! del!nombre,!conforme!a!la!obsesión!de!la!sociedad!española!por!el!linaje!y!la! limpieza!de!sangre.!!El!rasgo!psicológico!que!se!identifica!más!estrechamente!con! Guzmán,!es!el!querer!ser!otro.!!La!novela!comienza!con!el!no!de!Guzmán!respecto!a! su!nombre!y!a!su!linaje”!(from!the!beginning!of!the!novel!the!importance!of!the! name!can!be!seen,!conforming!to!Spanish!society’s!obsession!for!lineage!and!purity! of!blood.!The!psychological!attribute!most!linked!to!Guzmán!is!the!wanting!to!be! someone!else.!The!novel!begins!with!Guzmán’s!“no”!in!respect!to!his!name!and! lineage.!(171).! 99! ! linajes,!diciendo!y!jurando!a!cada!padre!que!era!suya!.!.!.”!(If!my!mother!tangled!two,! my!grandmother!did!so!with!two!dozen...!With!this!daughter!she!embroiled!one! hundred!lineages,!telling!and!swearing!to!each!father!that!she!was!their!own!(I,!i,!2).!

The!last!vestige!of!Guzmán’s!former!life,!his!cape,!disappears!without!a!trace:!“como! azogue!al!fuego!o!humo!al!viento,!se!desapareció!entre!las!manos”!(like!mercury!in! the!fire!or!smoke!in!the!wind,!it!slipped!through!my!hands)!(I,!i,!6).!The!vanishing! cape!also!serves!to!symbolically!sever!ties!to!the!old!caballero!of!the!Alfarache! estate.!!

While!newfound!freedom!affords!him!the!ability!to!travel,!his!role!as!a!tailor! permits!Guzmán!to!differentiate!himself!according!to!his!whims.!The!rogue! underscores!the!importance!of!customizing!his!clothes:!“tú!sabes!mejor!si!te!aprieta,! si!te!aflige,!si!te!angustia!o!cómo!te!viene”!(you!know!best!if!it!is!too!tight,!if!it! bothers!you,!if!it!distresses!you!or!how!it!suits!you!best)!(I,!ii,!4).!The!repentant! rogue!turned!galley!prisoner!justifies!his!itinerant!and!impulsive!fashioning:!“ibame! por!donde!quería,!según!me!lo!pedía!el!gusto!y!primero!se!me!antojaba:!hoy!aquí,! mañana!en!Francia,!sin!parar!en!alguna!parte,!y!siempre!trocando!de!vestidos,!pues! a!parte!no!llegué!donde!lo!pudiese!diferenciar,!que!no!lo!hiciese:!que!todo!era!cien! escudos!más!o!menos”!(I!went!everywhere!I!wanted,!as!my!taste!and!desire! dictated;!here!today,!tomorrow!in!France,!without!stopping!anywhere,!and!always! changing!clothing,!for!I!never!got!to!a!place!where!my!clothing!could!not!be!altered! that!I!would![take!the!opportunity]!to!do!it:!it!all!cost!one!hundred!escudos!more!or!

100! ! less)!(II,!iii,!1).!As!a!creator!of!personalized!clothing,!everywhere!he!goes!he!cuts! himself!new!outerwear!that!in!turn!custom>tailors!novel!identities.!!

Guzmán!shapes!the!first!of!his!many!future!personas!when!confronted!with!a! mirror!image!of!his!past!incarnation.!He!will!dress!up!and!dress!down,!changing!his! identity!and!making!ricos!and!hidalgos!(the!rich!and!the!sons!of!something)!and!the! pobres!and!pecheros5!(the!poor!and!the!taxed)!indistinguishable.5Michel!Cavillac! explains!that!in!Mateo!Alemán’s!novel,!“on!voit!aussi!s’organiser!un!système! discursif!articulé!sur!une!série!de!formules!dichotomiques!opposant!le!‘verdadero! mercader’!au!‘mercader!fingido,’!le!‘pobre!legítimo’!au!‘pobre!fingido,’!et!la!

‘verdadera!nobleza’!à!la!‘nobleza!fingida’!(one!sees!the!organization!of!a!discursive! system!articulated!on!a!series!of!formulaic!dichotomies!that!oppose!the!‘true! merchant’!to!the!‘feigned!merchant,’!the!‘legitimate!poor’!to!the!‘feigned!poor’!and! the!‘true!nobility’!to!the!‘feigned!nobility')!(245).108!!These!dichotomies,!which!blur! social!boundaries,!permit!the!rogue!to!overstep!the!sartorial!regulations!and!cause! further!social!unrest!Alemán’s!novel!addresses!the!picaresque!phenomenon!through! its!main!character!as!well!as!in!his!exchange!of!clothing!with!a!young!man!described! as!a!mirror!image!of!himself!(I,!ii,!7).!In!yet!another!allusion!to!a!wealthy!young! man’s!flight!into!roguish!freedom,!just!as!the!young!Guzmán!first!leaves!his! birthplace,!this!one!too!is!mistaken!for!a!page!recently!accused!of!theft:!“Por!las! señas!que!les!dieron!debía!ser!otro!yo”!(By!the!description!they!were!given!he!must! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108!See!Michel!Cavillac.!Gueux5et5Marchands5dans5le5“Guzmán5de5Alfarache:”! Roman5picaresque5et5mentalité5bourgeoise5dans5l’Espagne5du5Siècle5d’Or.! Bordeaux:!Institut!d’Etudes!Ibériques!et!Ibéro>américaines,!1983.!! ! 101! ! have!been!another!me)!(I,!i,!7).!Outside!the!city!walls!of!Toledo,!which!also!served!as! the!seat!of!Lazarillo!de!Tormes’!self>fashioning,!he!meets!a!young!man!who! represents!the!pre>pícaro!bourgeois!Guzmán.!Our!protagonist!is!well!aware!that!the! current!state!of!his!own!clothing!causes!his!young!friend!to!“misread”!his!lineage.!

His!shabby!dress!warrants!assurance!from!his!better>dressed!new!acquaintance.!

Guzmanillo!volunteers!that!he!is!“tan!buen!hijo!y!de!tan!buenos!padres!como!vos”!

(as!good!a!son!and!of!parents!as!good!as!yours)!!(I,!ii,!7).!To!this!pledge!he!adds!a! claim!for!!“limpieza!de!sangre”!!(purity!of!blood).!In!an!effort!to!deny!a!possible! mixed!heritage!that!comes!from!living!in!Andalucía,!and!specifically!in!the!very! porous!Seville,!he!claims!to!be!from!Vivar!the!birthplace!of!the!most!Christian!and!

Castilian!of!!“Spaniards,”!Rodrigo!Díaz!de!Vivar,!el!Cid.!After!inventing!a!noble5 heritage,!Guzmán!continues!his!artful!manipulation!of!language.!He!convinces!his! alter!ego!to!sell!him!his!clothing:!“el!mozo!deshizo!su!lío,!sacó!dél!un!herreruelo,! calzones,!ropilla,!dos!camisas!y!unas!medias!de!seda”!!(the!young!man!undid!his! purse,!took!out!a!short!cape,!breeches,!two!shirts,!and!some!silk!stockings)!(I,!ii,!7).!

In!the!enumeration!of!the!garments,!Guzmanillo!appropriates!both!clothing!and! identity.109!This!clothing!fits!him!so!well,!causing!him!to!exclaim!that!it!is!“como!si! todo!se!hubiera!hecho!para!mí”!(it!was!as!if!everything!had!been!made!for!me).!

When!Guzmanillo!dons!his!alter!ego’s!clothing!he!effects!an!immediate!translatio!of! characters.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 109!Ann!Jones!and!Peter!Stallybrass!argue,!“in!the!transfer!of!clothes,!identities!are! transformed,!from!an!aristocrat!to!an!actor,!from!an!actor!to!a!master,!from!a!master! to!an!apprentice”!(204).! 102! ! Guzmán!then!recreates!himself!as!a!nobleman!using!the!language!of! emblematic!colors!and!fabrics.!He!embellishes!and!reconstructs!himself:!“al!cuello! del!herreruelo!le!hice!quitar!el!tafetán!que!tenía!y!echar!otro!de!otra!color.!Trastejé! la!ropilla!de!botones!nuevos,!quitéle!las!mangas!de!paños!y!púseselas!de!seda,!con! que!a!poca!costa!lo!desconocí!todo”!(I!made!him!take!off!the!taffeta!collar!and! change!the!color.!I!put!new!buttons!on!the!ropilla!and!I!took!away!the!sleeves!made! of!cotton,!and!I!replaced!them!with!silk,!and!with!very!little!money!I!was!able!to! make!it!all!unrecognizable!(I,!ii,!8).!Lacking!suitable!material,!he!switches!some! fabrics!for!others:!“Por!no!hallar!buen!ante!para!el!coleto,!lo!hice!de!raso!morado,! guarnecido!con!trencillas!de!oro…”!!(Not!having!good!suede!for!the!coleto,5I!made!it! with!common!purple!cloth,!garnished!with!braids!of!gold)!(I,!ii,!8).!In!other!words,! his!new!clothing!is!an!adulterated!version!of!a!nobleman’s!outfit.!(

! Having!dressed!up!in!fabricated!nobility,!Guzmán!then!uses!his!body!to! accentuate!the!costume>>!a!complete!reversal!of!the5restraint!of!sosiego.!His!newly! created!persona!imposes!an!alternate!line!of!vision.!This!man!of!twists!and!turns! takes!his!frugally!fashioned!nobleman!to!church!and!visits!“las!capillas!donde!acudía! más!gente”!(the!chapels!where!more!people!were!present!(I,!i,!1).!In!Book!I,!chapter!

I,!Guzmán’s!Genoese!father!plays!the!part!of!a!faithful!follower.!As!if!he!were!reading! from!a!script,!we!are!told!that!“cada!mañana!oía!su!misa,!sentadas!ambas!rodillas!en! el!suelo,!juntas!las!manos,!levantadas!del!pecho!arriba,!el!sombrero!encima!dellas”!

(every!morning!he!heard!mass,!with!both!knees!placed!on!the!floor,!hands!together,! lifted!up!from!his!chest,!and!his!hat!on!top!of!them)!(I,!i,!1).!!Even!with!such!a!

103! ! consistent!display!of!religious!fervor,!this!converso!is!accused!of!questionable! behavior!in!church:!“Arguyéronle!maldicientes!que!estaba!de!aquella!manera! rezando!para!no!oír!y!el!sombrero!alto!para!no!ver”!(Evil!sayers!said!that!he!was! praying!in!this!way!so!he!could!not!hear,!and!that!he!placed!the!hat!so!high!so!that! he!could!not!see!(I,!i,!1).5Guzmán!exhibits!himself!in!the!most!visible!of!spaces!and! controls!the!perspective!of!his!many!onlooker’s:!!!

Estiréme!de!cuello,!comencé!a!hinchar!la!barriga!y!atiesar!las!piernas.! Tanto!me!desvanecía,!que!de!mis!visajes!y!meneos!todos!tenían!que! notar,!!burlándose!de!mi!necedad;!mas!como!me!miraban,!yo!no! miraba!en!ellos!ni!echaba!de!ver!mis!faltas,!que!era!de!lo!que!los!otros! formaban!risas.!Antes!me!pareció!que!los!admiraba!mi!curiosidad!y! gallardía.! ! (I!strained!my!neck,!I!began!to!expand!my!belly!and!plant!my!legs! firmly.!I!swooned!so!much!that!everyone!had!to!note!my!facial! contortions!and!my!body!movements,!poking!fun!at!my!stubbornness;!!!!!!! but!since!they!were!looking!at!me!I!didn’t!look!at!them,!nor!did!I!see! my!faults,!which!caused!others!to!laugh.!It!seemed!to!me!that!they! admired!my!curiosity!and!gallantry)!(!I,!ii!8)! ! Guzmán!stretches,!swells,!and!moves!vigorously,!giving!his!gawking!public!the! greatest!amount!of!body!surface!area!to!scrutinize.!He!indeed!controls!their!line!of! vision!and!then!averts!his!own!gaze;!he!chooses!not!to!be!troubled!by!the!onlookers’! negative!judgments!and!laughter.(In!another!of!Alemán’s!parodies!of!temperance,! the!decorated!pícaro!explains!that!he!felt!as!if!he!was!“el!rey!de!los!gallos!y!el!que! llevaba!la!gala!y!como!pastor!lozano!hice!plaza!de!todo!el!vestido,!deseando!que!me! vieran!y!enseñar!aun!hasta!las!cintas,!que!eran!del!tudesco”!(the!king!of!the!cocks! and!the!one!that!wore!the!festive!clothing,!and!like!a!handsome!shepherd!I!made!a! show!of!my!dress,!hoping!that!they!would!see!me!exposing!even!the!shoelaces!that!

104! ! were!German!!(I,!ii,!8).!In!his!recapitulation,!the!young!Guzmán!makes!public!show! of!a!pícaro,!who!not!long!ago!looked!like!a!galley!slave,!pulling!himself!up!by!his!

German!shoelaces!(tudesco!cintas)!through!thriftily!bought!clothing.!110!Thus! revealing!Alemán’s!tacit!attack!on!Carlos!V’s!critique!of!consumption.!Moreover,! instead!of!following!suitable!church!behavior,!in!the!spirit!of!Carnaval,!Alemán’s!

Guzmanillo!defies!social!decorum.!!

! Guzmán!further!complicates!these!tenuous!social!markers!through!a! sequence!of!cross>dressing!performances!riddled!with!contradictions.!In!the!first! chapters,!our!pícaro!“stands!ready!to!denounce!his!father!as!homosexual!should!the! latter’s!use!of!cosmetics!be!proved”!(Johnson!1978,!202).!Instead!he!replicates!the! pattern!set!forth!by!Lazarillo!de!Tormes,!who!denounces!his!mother!and!father!and! ends!up!reenacting!their!lives.!Evoking!Achilles,!Guzmán!dons!full!cross>dressing! regalia!as!he!attempts!to!flee!incarceration.!111!The!rogue!feigns!illness!and!takes!to! his!bed:!“Híceme!por!quince!días!enfermo.!No!salí!del!calabozo,!ni!me!levanté!de!la! cama”!(I!pretended!I!was!ill!for!fifteen!days.!I!did!not!leave!the!cell,!nor!did!I!get!out! of!bed!(II,!iii,!7).!Without!revealing!his!sartorial!secrets,!in!the!same!line!we!are!told! that!“al!fin!dellos!ya!tenía!prevenido!un!vestido!de!mujer”!(at!the!end!of!that!time!I! had!readied!a!woman’s!dress)!(II,!iii,!7).!In!two!weeks!and!one!textual!paragraph,!he!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 110!This!might!be!a!reference!to!the!Fuggers,!the!German!moneylenders!of!the! Spanish!monarchy.! ! 111!In!her!study!“Achilles:!Gender!Ambiguity!and!Destiny!in!Golden!Age! Drama,”Anita!K.!Stoll!tells!us!that!we!find!Achilles!or!his!prototype!in!Tirso’s!El5 Aquiles,!Cristobal!y!Monroy’s!El5caballero5dama!and!Hector5y5Achilles,!and!Calderón’s! El!monstruo!de!los5jardines!and!Las5manos5blancas5no5ofenden!(1998).! 105! ! manages!to!recreate!and!present!himself!as!a!woman,!and!thus!to!reconfigure!the! established!borders!of!masculinity,!passing,!and!national!composure.!

! Guzmán!completes!the!illusion!through!actions!summarized!by!the!verb!

“afeitar,”!which!means!not!only!to!shave!but!also!to!apply!cosmetics,!connoting! something!fake!and!unnatural.5Covarrubias!explains!what!was!understood!as!afeite:!

“El!adereço!que!se!ponga!a!alguna!cosa!para!que!parezca!bien,!y!particularmente!el! que!las!mugeres!se!ponen!en!la!cara,!manos!y!pechos,!para!parecer!blancas!y!roxas,! aunque!sean!negras!y!descoloridas.!Afeitar!se!toma!muchas!veces!por!quitarse!los! hombres!el!cabello.”!(The!make>up!that!is!put!on!something!so!that!it!seems!in!a! good!state,!and!particularly!the!one!that!women!wear!on!their!faces,!hands,!and! chest!in!order!to!appear!white!and!pink,!even!if!they!are!black!and!discolored.!It!is! often!used!to!describe!the!shaving!away!of!men’s!hair).!The!beard,!a!visual!symbol!of! his!manhood,!is!violently!removed:!“Con!una!navaja!me!quité!la!barba”!(with!a!razor! knife!I!shaved!off!my!beard)!(II,!iii,!7).!We!might!suggest!that!he!metaphorically! becomes!a!castrato,5or!at!least!that!he!commits!a!symbolic!act!of!emasculation.!The! procedure!continues!with!the!adding!of!a!“tocado,”!a!covering!for!the!head!that! might!hide!some!of!the!face,!until!the!sartorial!conversion!is!complete:!“vestido,! tocado,!y!afeitado!el!rostro”!(dressed,!with!a!head!covering,!and!having!shaved!my! face)!(II,!iii,!VII).!He!adds!the!afeites!(cosmetics):!“mi!blanco!y!poco!de!color”!(my! white!powder!and!a!bit!of!color)!(II,!iii,!7).!Paradoxically,!in!this!negotiation!Guzmán! bares!his!face!only!to!mask!it!with!makeup.!(

106! ! ! As!with!the!entrance!into!Toledo,!the!night’s!darkness!affords!him!a!brief! triumph!as!a!cross>dresser,!only!to!be!identified!by!a!man!appearing!to!have!double! vision.!In!spite!of!this!sartorial!and!cosmetic!feat,!a!porter!who!is!ironically!blind!in! one!eye,!sees,!recognizes,!and!ultimately!detains!our!protagonist.!Cervantes’! picaresque!character,!Ginés!de!Pasamonte,!who!according!to!Agustín!Redondo!is! another!Guzmán!de!Alfarache!has!the!same!visual!“impairment”!(2008,!255).112!

Robert!González!Echevarría!has!analyzed!the!figure!of!the!one>eyed!Ginés!“as!the! very!image!of!the!man!with!imagination,!with!the!ability!to!singularize!and! synthesize!the!images!he!perceives”!(231).113!This!porter,!like!Cervantes’!Ginés,!sees! what!those!with!perfect!vision!are!incapable!of!discerning.!Guzmán!deceives!the! first!two!gatekeepers,!who!are!trained!as!expert!observers:!“ninguno!de!los!porteros! me!habló!palabra”!(neither!one!of!the!porters!spoke!a!word!to!me)!(II,!iii,!7).!The! narrator!emphasizes!their!vision:!“tenían!ambos!buena!vista,!y!sus!ojos!claros!”!

(they!both!had!good!eyesight!and!clear!eyes)!(II,!iii,!7).!This!clarity!of!sight!impedes! them!from!seeing!beyond!an!imposed!superficial!layer!of!temporary!identity.!It!is!a! third!porter,!who!is!“tuerto!de!un!ojo,!¡Qué!a!Dios!pluguiera!y!del!otro!fuera!ciego!!

Detúvome!y!miróme.!Reconocióme!luego!y!dio!el!golpe!a!la!puerta”!(blind!in!one!eye,!

God!willing!he!were!blind!in!the!other!eye!as!well!!He!recognized!me!and!alerted!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 112!See!Agustín!Redondo.“Nuevas!consideraciones!sobre!el!travestismo!en!el! Quijote,”!in!Traditions5and5Innovations5in5Early5modern5Studies.!Ed.!Sherry!Velasco.! Delaware:!Juan!de!La!Cuesta,!2008.!273–92.! ! 113!See!Roberto!González!Echevarría.!“Don!Quixote:!Crossed!Eyes!and!Vision,”!in! Cervantes’5Don5Quixote:5A5casebook.!Ed.!Roberto!González!Echevarría.!Oxford:!Oxford! UP,!2005.! 107! ! them!at!the!door)!(II,!iii,!7).!This!state!of!being!“tuerto,”!defined!by!Covarrubias!as!

“todo!lo!que!no!está!derecho!(everything!that!is!not!straight),!allows!the!one>eyed!or! cross>eyed!porter!to!make!out!the!individual!layers!of!the!rogue’s!outfit!and!point!to! what!has!gone!astray!in!Guzmán’s!dressing.!His!crossed!vision!unravels!Guzmán’s! cross>dressing!and!un>writes!Guzmán’s!female!persona.!!

At!the!end!of!the!text!Guzmán!is!finally!caught!and!punished!for!thievery!with! an!imposed!uniform!and!the!removal!of!all!visible!hair,!putting!a!halt!to!the!rogue’s! incessant!costume!changes.!We!remember!that!Guzmán!is!already!equated!through!

Alemán’s!syntax!to!a!“gentil!galeote”!(gallant!galley!slave)!when!he!is!first!mistaken! as!a!pícaro.!Like!the!rogues,!these!historical!galley!men!–many!of!whom!were! captured!Muslim!and!Christian!slaves>!are!recognized!by!their!outerwear:!“Por!ello,! el!vestido!de!un!galeote!cristiano!que!remaba!en!una!galera!turca!y!el!de!uno! musulmán!que!remaba!en!una!cristiana!eran!semejantes!…!los!cautivos!podían!ser! reconocidos!como!tales!por!su!traje”!!(For!this!reason!the!dress!of!a!Christian!galley! slave!who!rowed!in!a!Turkish!galley!and!that!of!a!Muslim!who!rowed!in!a!Christian! galley!were!similar!…!the!captives!could!be!recognized!as!such!by!their!outerwear)!

(Bernis!2001,!451).!Guzmán!resigns!himself!to!his!given!role:!“Galeote!soy,!rematado! me!veo,!vida!tengo!de!hacer!con!los!de!mi!suerte”!!(I!am!a!galley!slave,!I!see!myself! finished!off,!I!have!to!make!a!life!among!those!that!suffer!the!same!lot)!(II,!iii,!8).!This!

“galeote”!seems!also!to!reference!the!“galateo”!from!Lucas!Gracián!Dantisco’s!

Galateo5Español,!a!manual!of!decorum!in!the!tradition!of!El5Cortesano.!Interestingly,!

Margarita!Morreale,!in!her!introduction,!informs!us!that!it!was!often!published!with!

108! ! Lazarillo.!Dantisco!condemns!effeminate!decoration:!“Pues!por!esto!hallo!que!no!se! deve!el!hombre!adereçar!a!manera!de!mujer,!pues!no!ha!de!ser!el!ornamento!uno!,!y! la!persona!otra!…!Y!ansí!toda!desproporción!parece!mal!…!sin!cuidado!de! abrocharse!y!entallarse!bien!”!(that!is!why!I!find!that!a!man!should!not!dress!himself! in!the!manner!of!a!woman,!for!the!decoration!should!not!be!one!thing,!and!the! person!another!…!And!in!this!manner!all!lack!of!proportion!seems!wrong!…!without! the!care!of!buttoning!and!fitting!the!suit!well!to!the!body)!(1968,!179>180).!!As!a! true!galley!slave,!he!wears!the!uniform!assigned!by!the!King:!“dos!camisas,!dos!pares! de!calzones!de!lienzo,!almilla!colorada,!capote!de!jerga!y!bonete!colorado”!(two! shirts,!two!pairs!of!canvas!trousers,!a!red!bodice,!a!small!cape!made!of!jerga5and!a! red!bonnet)!(II,!iii,!8).!Once!more!his!hair!is!shorn:!“Vino!el!barberote,!rapóme!la! cabeza!y!barba,!que!sentí!mucho!por!lo!mucho!en!que!lo!estimaba”((The!big!barber! came!and!shaved!my!head!and!beard,!a!loss!I!felt!keenly!for!all!that!I!loved!it)!(II,!iii,!

8).!Having!lost!the!afore>mentioned!cape!that!served!to!exemplify!Emperor!Carlos!

V’s!Spanish!essence!and!identified!Guzmanillo’s!bourgeois!birth,!he!is!invested!with! a!cape!of!rough!fiber,!a!shaved!head,!and!identifying!garments!that!take!away!his5 pícaro!individuality!and!mark!his!place!within!this!galeote!group.!!

! !Guzmán!will!not!adhere!to!the!specifications!of!his!uniform.!Bernis!provides! a!detailed!description!of!the!dress!worn!by!all!galley!prisoners!and!slaves.!For!the! purpose!of!this!chapter,!we!will!focus!here!on!the!garment!that!covered!their!naked! torso!and!is!referred!to!as!an!“almilla.”!Covarrubias!describes!it!as!“cierta!vestidura! militar,!corta!y!cerrada!por!todas!partes,!escotada!y!con!sólo!mangas!que!no!llegan!al!

109! ! codo.!Ellas!llevaban!debajo!de!las!armas,!de!donde!tomaron!el!nombre!armilla!.!.!.! corrompidamente!dixeron!almilla”!(a!certain!military!dress,!short!and!closed!on!all! sides,!low>cut!and!with!sleeves!that!don’t!quite!reach!the!elbows.!It!was!worn!under! the!weapons,!from!which!they!took!the!name!“small!arm!or!weapon”!…!then! corrupted!to!“little!soul”).!It!is!precisely!this!garment!whose!etymology!comes!from! a!little!weapon!and!evolves!into!a!“little!soul”!that!Guzmán!decides!to!reinterpret.!

When!his!“almilla”!is!almost!stolen,!the!mere!thought!of!being!without!it!moves!

Guzmán!to!exclaim:!!“mejor!la!pudiera!llamar!alma,!pues!con!aquel!calor!vivificaba!la! sangre!con!que!la!sustentaba”!(it!might!be!more!fitting!to!call!it!a!soul!because!with! that!heat!it!revived!the!blood!with!which!it!was!sustained)!(III,!iii,!8).!Even!though! he!has!earlier!resigned!himself!to!the!loss!of!his!cape,!the!older!Guzmán!plays!with! the!idea!that!this!“almilla”!is!indeed!his!soul,!and!he!will!guard!it!at!all!costs.!Echoing! the!manner!in!which!he!attempts!to!mend!his!life,!Guzmán!literally!creates!a!new!

“almilla”!that!will!act!as!the!protective!outermost!covering,!or!cape.!!

! Despite!enforced!uniformity,!Guzmán!refashions!himself!in!preparation!for! his!magnum5opus,5his!autobiography.!As!Benito!Brancaforte!explains,!“Desde!la! perspectiva!de!la!psicología!existencialista>Sartre!en!particular>!querer!ser!otro! significa!para!Guzmán!no!aceptar!la!imagen!de!él!establecida!por!la!sociedad,!no! conformarse!con!los!límites!impuestos!por!los!otros.”!(From!the!perspective!of! existentialist!psychology>Sartre!in!particular>!wanting!to!be!another!means!that!

Guzmán!will!not!accept!the!image!that!society!has!imposed!for!him!and!will!not!

110! ! conform!to!the!limits!imposed!by!others)!(I71).114!With!what!little!money!he!does! earn,!he!invests!it!all!in!refashioning!himself,!body!and!soul:!“Hice,!con!licencia!de!mi! amo,!de!aquella!ganancia!un!vestidillo!a!uso!de!forzado!viejo;!calzón!y!almilla!de! lienzo!negro!ribeteado,!que!por!ser!verano!era!más!fresca!y!a!propósito”!(I!made,! with!my!master’s!approval,!with!that!sum!a!dress!in!the!style!of!the!old!galley!slaves:! trousers!and!an!almilla!of!black!ribbed!canvas,!that!since!it!was!summer!was!much! cooler!and!more!appropriate)!(III,!iii,!8).!In!place!of!restrictive!clothing,!Guzmán! keeps!to!the!confines!of!the!prescribed!color!scheme!but!opts!for!a!focus!on!comfort! and!easy!fit,!the!ultimate!dismantling!of!sosiego’s5restrictive!clothing.!The!distinction! lies!in!the!fact!that!it!is!his!own!composition.!In!this!way!he!is!only!partially! satisfying!given!norms,!and!in!fact!talking!out!of!both!sides!of!his!mouth;!which!thus! becomes!tailor/writer.!Guzmán!can!thus!promote!his!own!serenity!and!provide!an! example!of!individuality!for!the!other!prisoners.!It!is!from!the!most!restricted!of! quarters,!the!galley,!that!the!young!rogue!finds!his!voice!and!crafts!his!cape!as!the! narrator!and!protagonist!of!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.((((

Mateo!Alemán’s!vested!interest!in!clothing!and!identity!reaches!beyond!the! scope!of!the!pícaro’s5itinerant!narrative.!The!embedded!novellas!of!Momo!(I,vii)!and!

Ozmín!and!Daraja!(I,viii)!concurrently!shift!the!sequence!of!the!novel’s!plotline!and! enlarge!the!subject!at!hand.!While!the!pairing!of!exotic!and!allegorical!novellas!is! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114!See!Benito!Brancaforte.“Mateo!Alemán!y!Miguel!de!Cervantes!frente!a!los! apócrifos.”!Atalayas5del5“Guzmán5de5Alfarache,”5in!Seminario5internacional5sobre5 Mateo5Alemán.5IV5Centenario5de5la5publicación5de5“Guzmán5de5Alfarache”5(1599c 1999).!Ed.!Pedro!M.!Piñero!Ramírez.!Sevilla:!Universidad!de!Sevilla>Diputación!de! Sevilla,!2002.!219>40.!! ! 111! ! common!in!early!modern!literature,!here!they!serve!to!point!to!and!cement!the! novel’s!sartorial!discourse.!Momo’s!tale!is!preceded!by!Guzmán’s!discussion!of! dressed!meats!and!the!theft!of!his!cape:!!

“Quejéme!ayer!de!mañana!de!un!poco!de!cansancio!y!dos!semipollos! que!comí!disfrazados!en!hábito!de!romeros!para!ser!desconocidos.! Vine!después!a!cenar!el!hediondo!vientre!de!un!machuelo!y,!lo!peor,! comer!de!la!carne!y!sesos,!que!casi!era!comer!de!mis!propias!carnes,! por!la!parte!que!a!todos!toca!la!de!su!padre;!y,!para!final!de!desdichas,! hurtarme!la!capa”!(I,i,!7).!! ! (I!complained!yesterday!morning!of!being!tired!and!of!two!semi> chickens!that!I!ate!disguised!as!pilgrims!in!order!to!be!unrecognized.!I! later!came!to!eat!the!putrid!stomach!of!a!mule,!and!the!worst!thing! was!that!it!was!almost!like!eating!my!own!flesh,!on!account!of!what! we!must!all!take!on!from!our!father;!and,!as!a!final!punishment,!to! steal!my!cape)! ! The!gastronomic!rhetoric!of!this!episode!further!expands!and!complicates!the! constant!costuming.!Within!the!fleshy!nature!of!Guzmán’s!images,!chickens!are! cloaked!in!the!same!pilgrim’s!outfit!that!Cervantes’!will!later!employ!to!smuggle!his!

Moor!back!into!Spain!(Don5Quixote,!II,!54),!the!theme!of!passing!is!associated!with! the!banned!meat!of!the!mixed>raced!mule,!and!the!rogue’s!outer!covering!is!stolen.!

The!very!next!paragraph!introduces!the!story!of!mythological!gods,!taken!up!by!

Francisco!de!Quevedo!as!the!frame!to!La5hora5de5todos5(1645),!in!which!the!gods’! anger!over!the!earthlings’!sole!devotion!to5contento!(contentment)!triggers!an! exchange!for!his!identical!brother!descontento!(discontent).!Yet,!this!replacement!is! not!a!mere!substitution:!“Donde!creíste!que!el!contento!estaba,!no!fue!más!del! vestido!y!el!descontento!en!él”!!(Where!you!thought!that!contentment!lay,!there!was! no!more!than!clothing!and!discontent!inside!of!it!(I,!i,7).!Descontento5is!merely!

112! ! dressed!up!in!his!brother’s!trappings.!Borrowing!from5La5historia5dell5Abencerraje55y5 la5hermosa5Jarifa5(1561),!Alemán!then!documents!the!tale!of!the!Muslim!Ozmín,!who! is!able!to!personify!Christians!without!being!detected,!and!Daraja!who!is!dressed!“a! la!castellana.”115!!Alemán!speaks!to!the!larger!imperial!projects!of!Spain,!using!his! novel,!novellas,!and!protagonist!to!expose!a!precarious!social!world!that!cloaks!itself! in!clothing!and!performance.!!!!

As!the!novel!that!cemented!the!picaresque!genre,!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!is! instrumental!in!shaping!a!literary!type!that!both!emerges!from!and!reflects!Spain.!In! the!early!modern!Spain!of!Mateo!Alemán,!moralists,!edicts,!sumptuary!laws,! literature,!court!manuals,!and!costume!books!document!the!desire!for!sosiego!to! mask!a!society!torn!by!internal!factions.!“Lingering!political!divisions!and!conflicting! cultural!identities!spawned!an!‘invertebrate’!Spain,!to!invoke!Ortega!y!Gassett’s! adroit!term!–invertebrate,!in!the!sense!of!its!geographical!and!political! fragmentation”!(Ruiz,!17).116!This!invertebrate!state!calls!for!rigid!outerwear! designed!to!shape!and!secure!national!identity!(Figure!2.3).!In!this!restrictive!milieu,! sosiego5both!outfits!the!Spanish!body!and!protects!the!body!politic!at!the!expense!of! the!individual.!Without!an!intermediary!point!between!sosiego5and!desasosiego,! emphasis!falls!on!an!outward!projection!of!the!self!that!goes!beyond!Aristotle’s! giusto5mezzo!and!Horace’s!aurea5mediocritas.!Alemán’s!pícaro5protagonist!both!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 115!Noted!by!Barbara!Fuchs.!Exotic5Nation:5Maurophilia5and5the5Construction5of5Early5 Modern5Spain.!Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2009.!130.!! ! 116!See!Teófilo!Ruiz.!Spanish5Society,51400–1600.!Essex:!Longman,!2001.!! ! 113! ! exposes!and!dismantles!the!self>possession—5the5Cortegiano’s!famous! sprezzatura—!that!the!Spanish!nation!performs!through!clothing.!Although!the! bourgeois!pícaro!is!made!a!galley!slave,!like!the!“divine!Spaniard”!in!his!various! discourses!and!disguises,!he!will!continuously!ruffle!the!darkly!clad!Spanish!nation! and!his!readers!with!his!protean!textiles!and!the!shifting!folds!of!his!text.!!

! ! ! ! ! ! !

114! ! !

Chapter!Three!

Interpreting!the!Gitana:!Cross>Dressing!and!Translation!in!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Medora!

! ! ! ! !

! 115! ! “valga!el!diablo!en!tan!extraño!hábito,!¿es!hombre!o!! ! ! ! ! ! mujer?!Un!interprete!es!menester!para!entendello”! ! ! ! ! ! ! !>Medora,!Lope!de!Rueda!(scene!4)! 5

The!title!of!Lope!de!Rueda’s!play,!Medora,!embodies!transformation—a! permanently!feminized!version!of!Medoro.!It!is!translated!from!Gigio!Artemio!

Giancarli’s!play!Zingana.!While!Giancarli!showcases!the!Gypsy!(Zingana),!Rueda! foregrounds!translation!and!gender!bending!(Medora).!Medoro!is!always!cross> dressed!on!stage,!a!drag!version!of!of!his!twin!sister,!Angelica.!The!Medora’s5 frontispiece!(see!figure!1)!attempts!to!accommodate!the!character’s!dual!nature.!It! lists!“Medoro!hijo!de!Acario”!and!later!“Armelio!q´es!el!Medoro.”!It!is!the!cross> dressed!Armelio/Medoro,!or!the!never!named!Medora—who!gives!the!play!its! title—who!is!always!on!stage.117!Translation—in!the!form!of!transformation,!cross> dressing,!and!literal!translations—are!the!norm.!

The!sibling>protagonists’!names—Medoro!and!Angelica—!point!to!!a! suggestive!intertext.!They!are!tied!to!Ludovico!Ariosto’s!Orlando5Furioso’s!(1516>

1532)5infamous!lovers,!a!pagan!princess!and!a!Saracen!knight,!who!ultimately!drive!

Orlando!to!madness.!Ariosto!was!a!looming!literary!presence!in!Lope!de!Rueda’s!

Spain,!as!evidenced!in!a!large!corpus!of!ballads!and!spin>offs!of!the!Furioso.!Shortly! after!Ariosto’s!rise!to!fame,!Luis!de!Góngora!and!Lope!de!Vega!began!writing! romances5moriscos5and!romances5de5cautivos.5In!the!Furioso!and!the!following!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117!See!Manuscript!in!Biblioteca!Nacional!Madrid,!12055,!Las5quarto5comedias5y5dos5 Coloquios5Pastoriles.!Valencia:!Joan!de!Timoneda,!1567.!! 116! ! literary!tradition,!Medoro!is!the!Moor!who!helps!unhinge!the!Christian!protagonist! of!the!epic!(or!mock!epic)!poem.!Medoro!is!central!to!the!undermining!of!Christian! identity.!With!this!literary!intertext,!Lope!de!Rueda’s!’s!title!simultaneously!calls! attention!to!gender!(the!shift!from!“o”!Medoro!t!“a”!in!Medora)!and!racial!and! religious!difference,!which!is!then!reflected!in!the!figures!of!the!Gypsy!and!of!

Gargullo.!Although!the!title!seems!to!promise!a!continuation!of!the!Furioso,!the! central!drama!involves!the!Gitana!and!Gargullo.!The!frontispiece!of!the!1567!Cuatro5

Comedias5y5dos5Coloquios5Pastoriles5del5excelente5poeta!Lope5de5Rueda,5edited!by!Juan! de!Timoneda,5showcases!these!two!characters!(See!Figure!3.1).!!The!two!figures,!

“Gargullo!Lacayo¨!and!“Una!Gitana”!make!up!a!third!of!the!page.!!

The!quote!above!is!the!lackey!Gargullo’s!reaction,!not!to!the!kidnapped!and! cross>dressed!Medoro,!but!to!his!Gitana5“foster”!mother,!in!Lope!de!Rueda’s,!

Medora.118!Medora!stages!the!separation!of!fraternal!twins,!Angelica!and!Medoro,!at! the!hand!of!a!Gypsy!woman!who!leaves!her!own!child!in!Medoro’s!place.!The!Gypsy! later!returns!to!cash!in!on!the!family’s!only!male!heir:!a!cross>dressed!Medoro!who! is!the!spitting!image!of!his!sister.!While!Medoro!passes!as!a!mobile!version!of!

Angelica,!the!domestic>bound!nubile!twin!sister!from!whom!he!has!been!separated! for!fourteen!years,!it!is!his!Gypsy!abductor!who!perplexes!Gargullo.!The!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 118!See!Los5Engañados!y!Medora.5Ed.!Fernando!González!Ollé.!Madrid:!Espasa>!Calpe,!! 1973.! ! ! 117! ! Figure!3.1.!Frontispiece,!Medora,!Las5quarto5comedias5y5dos5Coloquios5Pastoriles,! Valencia:!Joan!de!Timoneda,!1567!

! 118! ! “strangeness”!of!the!woman’s!outfit—between!a!man!and!a!woman!(“hombre!o! mujer”)—!appears!to!lie!in!its!inability!to!give!recognizable!outward!signs!of! identity.!Without!discernible!gender!markers,!the!Gypsy—called!simply!Gitana,! throughout!the!play—defies!definition.!An!interpreter!is!needed!to!understand! him—“Un!interprete!es!menester!para!entendello”!(103;!scene!4).!!

!Critics!have!related!Gargullo’s!confusion!to!the!historical!practice!of!! employing!male!cast!members!for!female!roles.!119!Following!the!theory,!an!actor! who!is!not!doing!much!to!hide!his!male!form!may!have!played!the!Gypsy,!and!thus!

Gargullo’s!reaction!to!the!drag!nature!of!the!“extraño!habito”!is!viewed!as!a!comical! wink!to!the!attending!audience.!Continuing!the!work!that!Othon!Arróniz!and!Alfredo!

Hermenegildo!began!on!the!performativity!of!the!play,120!Sidney!Donnell!concludes! that!“Gargullo’s!confusion!underlines!the!anatomy!of!the!actor!playing!the!Gitana…”5

(83).121!The!practice!of!male!cross>dressing!on!stage,!however,!does!not!stand!alone! in!eliciting!Gargullo’s!curious!reaction.!Instead,!I!propose!that!the!encounter! between!the!Gitana5and!Gargullo!be!read!as!a!theatrical!performance!of!translation.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 119!See!Sharon!D.!Voros.!“Lope!de!Rueda,”!in!Spanish5Dramatists5of5the5Golden5Age.! Ed.!Mary!Parker.!Westport:!Greenwood!Press,!1998.!188>204.!Voros!attributes! Medora’s!comedy!to!“the!stage!practice!of!men!dressed!as!women”!(196).!! ! 120!See!Othon!Arróniz.!La5influencia5Italiana5en5el5nacimiento5de5la5comedia5española.5 Madrid:!Editorial!Gredos,!1969);!Alfredo!Hermenegildo.!“Los!signos!de!la! representación:!La!comedia!Medora!de!Lope!de!Rueda,”!in!El5Mundo5del5teatro5 español5en5su5siglo5de5oro.5Ed.!J.M.!Ruano!de!la!Haza.!Ottowa:!Dovehouse!Editions,! 1988.!161>176.! ! 121!See!Sidney!Donnell.!Feminizing5the5enemy:5Imperial5Spain,5transvestite5drama,5and5 the5crisis5of5masculinity.5Lewisburg:!Bucknell!University!Press,!2003.!! ! 119! ! Here,!the!cross>dressed!Gypsy!(“valga!el!Diablo”)!is!the!text!(en!tan!extraño!hábito)! to!be!translated,!and!Gargullo,!initially!a!confused!reader!confronted!by!a!supposed! foreign!language!(“¿es!hombre!o!mujer?”),!later!reveals!himself!as!an!ideal! interpreter!who!has!much!to!gain!from!a!correct!translation!(“Un!interprete!es! menester!para!entendello”).!This!chapter!aims!to!move!beyond!the!ludic!marker! placed!on!the!“strange!getup”!in!order!to!foreground!the!problematics!of!gender! confusion!and!translation!at!the!moment!when!pre>Lope!de!Vega!Spanish!theater! was!itinerant.!!

Building!on!Donnell’s!perception!of!the!early!modern!audience’s! metatheatrical!response!to!the!male!actor!playing!the!Gypsy,!which!underscores!a! male!actor!playing!the!Gitana,!I!would!like!to!suggest!that!in!the5Medora,!cross> dressing!functions!within!an!even!larger!system!of!translation!that!encompasses!the! fluid!exchange!between!Spanish!and!Italian!theater.!As!a!carrying!across!of!meaning! from!one!language!to!another,!translation!is!also!marked!by!movement!and! change—!from!one!form!to!another.!This!aspect!of!transformation!will!be!extended!! to!Italian!and!Spanish!intertexts!in!Rueda’s!Medora!and!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli’s!

Zingana;5outerwear,!in!the!form!of!cross>dressing;!gender!bending;!and!racial,!class,! and!religious!passing.!This!chapter!argues!that!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Medora— exemplified!by!a!Gitana!dressed!ostensibly!in!traditional!gypsy!garb5and5the!self> declared!converso!and!indiano,5Gargullo—underscores!the!importance!of! transformation,!translation,!and!cross>dressing!in!the!genesis!of!the!emerging!

Spanish!Comedia.!

120! ! The!Medora5can!be!read!as!a!palimpsest!of!translations.!!The!play!carries!the! mark!of!Italian!and!Iberian!texts—!Rojas’!Celestina122!(1499),!Ariosto’s!Orlando5

Furioso1235(1532),!and!the!anonymous!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5(1554).!Borrowing!from!

Lazarillo’s!squire,!who!walks!with!a!“paso!sosoegado,”!Gargullo’s!envisoned! economic!status!has!him!walking!through!the!streets!with!a!certain!swagger:!

“Cuando!fuera!por!la!calle!llevaré!un!passo!grave…”!(“solenne”!in!the!Zingana)!(107,! scene!4).124!Lucia!Lazzerini!has!noted!the!use!of!the!gold!chain!that!is!taken!from!the! wealthy!merchant!Acario,!to!be!passed!from!Gargullo!to!the!Gypsy,!as!a!clear! connection!with!the!Celestina.!125!As!we!will!see,!the!Gitana5and5Gargullo!can!be!read! as!evolutions!of!Celestina!and!Pármeno.!The!two!characters!seem!to!embody!the! individualistic!greed!that!drives!Roja’s!Celestina!and!Pármeno,!and!one!can!almost! hear!Gargullo!and!the!Gitana5saying!“juntos!nos!aprovechamos,”!under!their!breath.!!

The!stage!character!of!the!Gypsy!was!introduced!as!a!figure!of!the!theatrical! underworld!in!Farça5das5Ciganas5(1521),!by!Portuguese,!Gil!Vicente.126!The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 122!See!Fernando!de!Rojas.!La5Celestina.5Ed,!Dorothy!Severin.!Madrid:!Catédra,!2005.! ! 123!See!Ludovico!Ariosto.!Orlando5Furioso.!Ed.!E.!Sanguinetie!M.!Turchi,!2!vols.! Milano:!Garzanti,!1964.!! ! 125!See!Lucia!Lazzerini.“Observaciones!textuales!sobree!la!Medora!de!Lope!de!Rueda! y!su!fuente!(la!Zingana!de!Gigio!artemio!Giancarli),”!in!Filologia5dei5testi5a5stampa5 (area5iberica).5Ed.!Patricia!Botta.!Modena:!Mucchi!Editore,!2005.!47>57.!While! Lazzerini!sees!Agata!as!Celestina,!I!view!Celestina’s!role!as!bifurcated!and!played!by! both!Agata!and!the!Zingana.!Lazzerini:!“(…)!nessun!delitto!nella!Zingana,!anzi!la! catena!che!per!Celestina!fu!occasione!di!morte,!per!Agata!è!occasione!di!nozze!(…)”! (2005,!XXII).! ! 126!See!!Gil!Vicente.!Obras5completes."Ed."Marques"Braga,"Vol."5."Lisbon:"Sa"́"da"Costa," 1958.!! 121! ! Spaniard,!Fernando!de!Rojas,!had!already!linked!the!go>between,!Celestina’s,!origins! to!“los!de!Egito,”!as!the!Gypsy!homeland,!in!La5Celestina!(1499).!Calixto’s! manservant,!Pármeno,!declares:!“!Mucha!sospecha!me!pone!el!presto!conceder!de! aquella!señora!y!venir!tan!áyna!en!todo!su!querer!de!Celestina,!engañando!nuestra! voluntad!con!sus!palabras!dulces!y!prestas,!por!hurtar!por!otra!parte,!como!hacen! los!de!Egito!quando!el!signo!nos!catan!en!la!mano”!(Act!XI,!scene!3).!Following!Gil!

Vicente,!the!Italian,!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli,!makes!the!Gypsy!his!protagonist!in!his!

1545!play,!aptly!titled,!Zingana.127!!

The!early!dramaturge!from!Seville,!Lope!de!Rueda,!translated!Giancarli’s5

Zingana!for!the!Spanish!stage!as!Medora.!Rueda!eliminated!the!whole!of!Giancarli’s! first!act,!various!monologues!from!the!second,!and!almost!the!whole!of!the!third!one,! with!the!exception!of!Cassandro’s!encounter!with!the!cross>dressed!Medoro.!The! fourth!and!fifth!acts!were!equally!edited!and!“marginal”!characters!were!created.128!

The!Sevilian’s!dramatic!alterations!are!attributed!in!part!to!theatrical!efficiency:!

“Rueda!ha!empezado!por!deshacerse!de!cuanto!elemento!superfluo!tiene!la!comedia! italiana”!(Arróniz,!120>121).!Yet,!even!Arróniz!will!admit!that!“todo!lo!superfluo!de! la!obra!de!Giancarli!ha!sido!mantenido!por!Rueda”!(!122).!Arróniz!refers!to!the! superfluous,!and!González!Ollé!designates!the!episodes!where!marginal!characters! are!protagonists!as!mere!theatrical!filler:!“En!Medora,5la!materia!argumental!es!muy! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 127!See!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli.!Commedie5La5CaprariacLa5Zingana5con5un5appendice5 sulla5Medora5di5Lope5de5Rueda.5Ed.!Lucia!Lazzerini.!Padova:!Editrice!Antenore,!1991.!! ! 128!See!F.!González!Ollé.!“Introduction!to!Medora,”!in5Los5Engañados5y5Medora.5 Madrid:!Espasa>!Calpe,!1973.!

122! ! escasa!e!inconsistente,!de!modo!que!las!exigencias!del!espectáculo!obligan!a! completarla!con!acciones!marginales…envuelve!un!propósito!constructivo,!al!menos! como!relleno”!(XXXVIII).!Within!this!so>called!excess!are!the!precursors!to!Rueda’s! famous!Pasos.55

Before!delving!into!the!multiple!ways!the!Medora!borrows!and!plays!off!of! numerous!predecessors,!a!basic!explanation!of!plot!and!characters!is!necessary.!

Medora’s5plot!is!introduced!by!a!company!actor,!in!the!“argumento”!which!follows! the!prologue.129!It!explains!that!a!“Micer!Acario”!had!two!very!similar!children!(tan5 semejantes5en5forma5y5gesto5cual5suele5y5puede5cada5día5hazer5la5gran5maestra5 naturaleza)!a!boy!and!a!girl!(indeed!twins),!with!his!wife,!Barbarina.!While!both! parents!are!out!of!the!house!(the!Spanish!versions!omits!Acario!and!Barbarina’s! adulterous!ways),!a!gypsy!woman!breaks!in!and!kidnaps!their!son!Medoro.!In!turn,! she!leaves!her!own!sickly!child,!who!dies!soon!after.!When!the!play!opens,!Angelica,! is!a!maiden!of!marriageable!age,!in!love!with!Casandro,!whose!name!also!seems!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 129«Un5micer5Acario5(nobles5auditores)5tuvo5dos5hijos5en5Barbarina5su5muger,5un5varón5 y5una5hembra,5tan5semejantes5en5forma5y5gesto5cual5suele5y5puede5cada5día5hazer5la5 gran5maestra5naturaleza:5en5este5tiempo5andando5los5gitanos5por5todas5partes,5por5no5 estar5Acario5ni5Barbarina5padres5de5los5niños5en5casa,5una5gitana5entra5y5hurta5a5 Medoro,5que5assí5havía5nombre5el5mochacho,5y5dexa5en5la5cuna5un5gitanillo5hijo5suyo5 muy5malo,5tanto,5que5de5allí5a5pocos5días5murió.5Quedando5Angélica,5que5ansina5se5 llamaba5la5niña,5criándose5en5casa5de5los5padres5y5cresciendo5en5hermosura,5 honestidad5y5buenas5costumbres,5Leandro5gentil5hombre,5de5noble5sangre,5de5Angélica5 se5enamora.5En5este5comedio5allega5la5gitana5que5trae5a5Medoro5en5su5compañía5 vestido5de5hábitos5de5muger5llamándole5Armelio.5El5Casandro5que5la5ve,5pensando5que5 es5Angélica,5le5habla5en5amorosas5palabras,5y5el5mochacho5le5desconoce.5Sobre5esto5 verán5señores5graciossísimas5marañas,5y5de5qué5suerte5descubre5la5gitana5cuyo5hijo5es5 Medoro,5dexando5aparte5los5amores5de5Acario5con5Estela,5y5los5de5Barbarina5con5 Casandro,5y5las5astucias5De5Gargullo5lacayo,5y5las5necedades5de5Ortega5simple.5Porque5 todas5estas5cosas5son5parte5de5la5comedia5para5hazella5más5graciosa,5y5servir5a5vuessas5 mercedes5como5todos5desseamos».! 123! ! be!gender>bent!(the!Italian!version!will!also!tie!Casandro![Cassandro]!romantically! to!her!mother).!With!the!typical!intrigue!plots!of!early!theater,!the!kidnapping!Gypsy! returns,!with!Medoro,!dressed!as!a!woman,!and!passing!as!“Armelio.”!When!

Cassandro!runs!into!the!cross>dressed!Medora,!he!thinks!he!sees!Angelica!and! attempts!to!win!her!love.!The!Gypsy!ultimately!confesses!her!theft!and!order!is! restored!when!the!parents!forgive!all!and!Cassandro!and!Angelica!marry.!

Rueda!not!only!translated!Giancarli’s!text!to!fit!the!Spanish!stage,!he!also! rendered!his!own!plays!into!a!novel!form!called!Pasos.1305Pasos5are5brief!sketches!of! rustic!farce!that!are!the!forerunners!to!entremeses!(theatrical!interludes).5Taken! from!the!Medora,!Gargullo’s!encounter!with!the!reportedly!cross>dressed!Gypsy!has! become!one!of!Rueda’s!most!well!known!Pasos.!The!term,!Pasos!(Steps),!that! describes!the!movement!made!by!moving!feet!in!the!act!of!walking!(it!also!describes! the!floats,!or!pasos,5which!are!carried!on!the!backs!of!costaleros!or!hombres5de5trono5 during!Holy!Week),!pasos!become!a!type!of!translation!themselves.5

The!Valencian!printer!and!editor,!Juan!de!Timoneda,!published!Medora5 posthumously,!in!1576,!thus!translating—in!the!original!sense!of!translatio,5to! transfer!or!carry!across!—de!Rueda’s!text!to!the!printing!press!and!reading!public.!

In!Viaje5Del5Parnaso5(1614),!Cervantes!admonishes!his!“thin”!contribution!in! relation!to!gaining!eternal!literary!fame:“Fue!desto!ejemplo!Juan!de!Timoneda/!que! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 130!Walter!Benjamin!has!proposed!that!“ironically,!translation!transplants!the! original!into!a!more!ultimate!linguistic!domain,!since!it!can!no!longer!be!displaced! by!a!secondary!rendering.!The!original!can!only!be!raised!there!anew!and!at!other! points!in!time”!(258).!See!Walter!Benjamin.“The!Task!of!the!Translator,”!in!Selected5 Writings!Volume!I!1913>1926.!Ed.!Marcus!Bullock!and!Michael!W.!Jennings.! Cambridge:!Harvard!UP,!1996.!! 124! ! con!sólo!imprimir,!se!hizo!eterno/las!comedias!del!gran!Lope!de!Rueda”(chapter!VII,! v.!12>15).131!!The!Italian!play!on!which!the!Medora!was!based,!Giancarli’s!Zingana,!! was!conceived!both!for!the!theater!and!for!print,!and!in!fact!had!great!success!as!a! published!play.!The!Zingana!boasts!at!least!three!early!editions:!Mantua!(1545),!

Venice!(1550,!1564)!and!(1610).!Rueda,!as!Timoneda!reminds!us,!did!not!aim!to! send!his!plays!to!the!presses!“(como!su!autor!no!pensase!imprimirlas)”(“Epístola!al! lector”).!!

There!is!much!speculation!concerning!the!extent!of!Juan!de!Timoneda’s!hand! in!the!Medora.!González>Ollé!argues!that!Timoneda!has!left!a!clear!mark!in!making! the!setting!of!Medora!coincide!with!that!of!his!native!Valencia.!Hermenegildo! suggests!that!the!theater!manuscript!that!Timoneda!had!was!the!one!that!could!have! been!used!when!the!troupe!showed!in!Valencia.!!Timoneda!himself!outlines!the! scope!of!his!amendments!to!Rueda’s!Medora5in!epístola5al5considerado5lector.!

Without!Lope!de!Rueda’s!theater!script!and!the!final!manuscript!used!by!

Timoneda’s!press,!we!cannot!identify!what!the!Valencian!had!the!“necesidad!de! quitar!lo!que!estava!dichos!dos!vezes!en!alguna!dellas,”!nor!where!the!need!was! seen!to!!“poner!otros!en!su!lugar”(Introductory!“epístola”).!

Another!level!of!translation!occurred!in!the!performance!space!itself,!as!

Rueda,!a!goldbeater!by!trade!became!the!empresario—who!wrote,!directed,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 131!See!Miguel!de!Cervantes.!Viaje5del5Parnaso.!Ed.!Vicente!Gaos.!Madrid:!Editorial! Castilla,!1973.!! 125! ! performed!in!plays—!transferred!the!space!of!performance!to!the!streets.132!In!this! way,!his!theatrical!practice!differed!from!that!of!his!early!predecessors!in!Spain.!

Juan!de!la!Encina!(1468>1530),!Iberian!playwright!to!Queen!Isabel!and!Ferdinand,! fellow!dramaturge!from!Salamanca,!Lucas!Fernández!(1474>1542),!and!the! bilingual,!Portuguese!born,!Gil!Vicente!(1470?!>1537?),!all!wrote!for!the!court.!From!

Spanish!Naples,!Bartolome!Torres!Naharro’s!(1480?!>1530?)!new!Italianate,!and! often!multilingual!style!also!catered!to!palace!culture.!While!Rueda!performed!twice! before!the!court,!he!brought!his!work—subsequently!printed!as!five!Comedias,!five!

Coloquios,!and!a!dozen!or!so!Pasos!—to!corrales!and!plazas.!

In!addition!to!transposing!the!theatrical!space,!Rueda!often!performed! translations!of!a!sartorial!nature!—in!the!form!of!cross>dressing—on!his!itinerant! stage.!Rueda’s!four!Italianate!plays,!the!Medora!among!them,!share!a!penchant!for! mistaken!identities,!gender!confusion,!and!cross>dressing.!Until!1587,!when!male!to! female!theatrical!cross>dressing!was!linked!to!perverse!behavior,!all>male!casts! were!encouraged!to!play!female!roles.133!!In!the!prologue!to!Ocho5comedias5y5ocho5 entremeses5nunca5representados5(1615)5Cervantes!talks!both!about!a!type!of!theater!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 132!See!Melveen!McKendrick.!Theater5in5Spain,51490c1700.5Cambridge:!Cambridge! UP,!1989.! ! 133!See!Donnell:!“Cross>dressing!on!stage,!which!had!been!deployed!for!decades!by! all!male!casts,!ostensibly!in!order!to!preserve!public!morality!and!prevent!lust!in! sixteenth>century!audiences>suddenly!turned!into!a!vilified!sign!of!lunacy!and! depravity…!And!so!when!the!state!legislated!gender>appropriate!behavior!on!stage! in!1587,!it!appeared!to!be!defending!the!male!populace!from!the!the!threat!of! feminization!through!transvestite!performance”!(67).!!! 126! ! and!its!themes,!and!about!Rueda’s!versatility!as!an!actor.134!Using!clothing!as!a! metaphor,!Rueda!is!credited!with!taking!the!Spanish!Comedia!from!infacy!(childish! mantillas)!and!giving!her!a!performance!space!and!clothing!her!for!a!gala:!“quien!fue! en!España!el!primero!que!las!sacó!de!mantillas!y!las!puso!en!toldo!y!las!vistió!de!gala! y!apariencia”!(prologue).!While!Rueda!made!the!Comedia5grand,!the!prologue!recalls! the!simple!accessories!with!which!he!accomplished!such!phenomenal!feats:!“en!el! tiempo!de!este!célebre!español,!todos!los!aparatos!de!un!autor!de!comedias!se! encerraban!en!un!costal,!y!se!cifraban!en!cuatro!pellicos!blancos!y!guarnecidos!de! guadamecí!dorado!y!en!cuatro!barbas!y!cabelleras!y!cuatro!cayados,!poco!más!o! menos”!(prologue).!These!simple!costumes!(white!leather!garments!with!gold!trim,! wigs,!beards,!and!shepherd!canes)!allowed!Rueda!tremendous!versatility!within! roles.135!Cervantes!celebrates!Rueda!as!much!for!playing!a!native!of!Biscay!as!for! embodying!a!black!woman.!The!author!of!Don5Quixote5immortalizes!this!“célebre! español”!as!a!masterfully!cross>dresser,!“ya!de!negra,!ya!de!ruffian,!ya!de!bobo,!o!ya! de!vizcaíno;!que!todas!estas!cuatro!figuras!y!otras!muchas!hacía!el!tal!Lope!con!la! mayor!excelencia!y!propiedad!que!pudiera!imaginarse”!(Prologue).!!While!an! exposition!of!cross>dressing!in!the!text!of!the!play!will!be!explored!later!in!the! chapter,!it!is!important!to!understand!this!larger!context!of!cross>dressing!in!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 134!See!Miguel!de!Cervantes.!Entremeses.!Ed.!Nicholas!Spadaccini.!México:!Editorial! Rei,!1987.!! ! 135!In!the!last!quarter!of!the!twentieth!century!Spanish!actor>director!Cristian! Casares!built!a!carro5de5comedias!and!took!it!around!Spain,!playing!to!open>air! audiences!in!plazas!and!corrales.!Casares!performed!!a!one>man!show;!playing!one! part!after!another,!with!just!the!quick>change!of!a!hat!or!shawl.!! 127! ! Rueda’s!plays.!Lope!de!Rueda!is!a!master!of!transformation.!

In!1554—coinciding!with!the!publication!of!the5Lazarillo—Rueda!established! the!first!known!Spanish!traveling!theater!company.!Although!Rueda!might!have! strengthened!his!interest!in!the!stage!with!an!Italian!troupe!passing!through!in!his! native!Seville!in!1538,136!Sanz!Ayan!and!García!García!emphasize!the!existence!of!

“popular”!Iberian!theater,!as!early!as!the!1530’s:!“al!menos!desde!la!década!de!1530,! existía!una!actividad!teatral!popular!en!muchas!ciudades!y!villas!ibéricas,!que!sirvió! de!base!para!el!posterior!desarrollo!profesional!de!las!compañías!de!comediantes!y! los!teatros!comerciales!estables”!(19).137!This!debunks!the!much!propagated!belief! that!it!was!only!through!foreign!influence,!specifically!Italian,!that!Spanish!theater! evolved.!We!are!left!with!a!more!nuanced!understanding!of!Rueda’s!beginningas!as! an!actor>director.!Gil!Vicente’s!Autos!and!Encina’s!Églogas!certainly!paved!the!way! for!what!Lope!de!Rueda!and!later,!Cervantes,!would!do!with!pasos5and!entremeses.!

While!there!is!no!further!documentation!concerning!Rueda’s!professional!shift,!we! know!that!by!the!1540’s!he!was!running!a!company!in!Seville!made!up!of!fellow! artisans!turned!actors—!a!silk!spinner,!a!dancer!and!drummer,!a!stocking>maker,! and!a!carpenter.138!A!decade!later,!in!1552,!his!company!had!gained!enough!public! interest!to!secure!paid!productions!of!Corpus!Christi!plays!in!Valladolid.!Benefiting!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 136!See!McKendrick!41>72.!! ! 137!See!Carmen!Sanz!Ayan!and!Bernardo!J.!Garcia!Garcia.!Teatros5y5Comediantes5en5el5 Madrid5de5Felipe5II.!Madrid:!Editorial!Complutense,!2000.!! ! 138!See!Margaret!Greer.!“The!Development!of!National!Theater,”!in!The5Cambridge5 History5of5Spanish5Literature.5Ed.!David!Gies.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!UP.!238>250.!! 128! ! from!Spain’s!itinerant!court!and!lack!of!permament!capital,!Rueda’s!itinerant! theater,!in!constant!translatio,5thrived.!

!As!an!art!form!that!personifies!translation,!in!merging!oral!and!literary! traditions,139!the!Italian!Commedia5dell”Arte!served!as!an!ideal!platform!for!evolving!

Spanish!theater.!The!Italian!Commedia!surfaced!in!1545!as!a!type!of!improvised! theater,!typified!by!stock!characters—such!as!Arlecchino,!the!mischievous!servant! from!Bergamo!and!Capitano,!a!braggart!soldier!embodying!Spanish!bravado140—! and!the!use!of!characteristic!masks.!In!an!effort!to!differentiate!itself!from!academic! theater!(Commedia5erudita),!which!was!penned!by!literary!circles!or!learned! individuals!and!perfomed!by!amateurs,!the!new!Commedia5dell’5Arte,!was!referred!to! as!Commedia5all’improviso!(improvisational!theater).5While!the!performances!may! have!been!partialy!improvised,!this!was!the!beginning!of!professional!actors!

(comici)!who!perfected!a!specific!role!(or!mask)!and!successful!itinerant!theater! troupes!performing!in!town!plazas!and!palaces,!alike,!as!well!as!a!continuation!of!

“an!eclectic!range!of!popluar!itinerant!performers—storytellers,!ballad>!singers,! carnival!performers,!buffoni!and!mountebanks—holding!forth!in!piazzas,!taverns,! and!fairs,!in!a!tradition!of!oral!performance!issuing!back!to!the!medieval!giulliari! and!beyond”!(Henke,!8).!Continuing!with!the!Commedia5dell’5Arte’s!penchant!for! fusion,!Rueda’s!troupe!accentuated!fast>paced!plots,!while!turning!types!from!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 139!See!Robert!Henke.!Performance5and5Literature5in5the5Commedia5dell’Arte.! Cambridge:!Cambridge!UP,!2002.! ! 140!From!a!1566!letter!of!Ferrante!da!Bagno,!in!D’Ancona,5Origini5dei5teatro5italiano,5 vol!II,!443,!the!Capitano!is!reffered!to!as!“lo!Spagnolo!da!le!comedie.”! 129! ! social!margins—!such!as!the!shifty!pícaro5and!the!traveling!gypsy—!into! quintessential!Spanish!stock!characters.!

Drawing!on!the!success!of!the!Commedia5dell’Arte,!Lope!de!Rueda’s!mobile! company!showcased!Italian!plays!in!translation.!His!Comedias!are!adaptations!of! recently!published!Italian!plays.!Medora!comes!from!Giancarli’s!Zingana;!Los5

Engañados5is!an!adaptation!of!the!Siennese!Intronati’s!Gl’5Ingannati;5Ermelinia! combines!Rainieri’s!Attilla5with!Cecchi’s!Servigale;!and!Eufemia5draws!from!

Boccaccio.!In!Spain!Italian!plays!were!performed!for!the!nobility.!For!example,!

Ariosto’s!I5Suppositi,5in!the!original!Italian,!was!performed!in!Valladolid!for!the! marriage!of!Charles!V’s!daughter,!Maria,!to!his!nephew,!Maximilian.141!This!is!the! first!documented!record!of!the!presence!of!Italian!actors!on!Iberian!soil.!Rueda’s! translations!allow!the!Italianate!intrigue!plots!to!move!from!the!private!space!and! printed!page!into!the!public!arena.!

I!suggest!that!the!Zingana,!first!printed!in!1545!and!dedicated!to!the!Cardinal! of!Mantua,!can!be!read!as!a!transitional!text,!between!Commedia5dell’Arte!and!

Commedia5Erudita.!While!it!is!a!fully!scripted!play!dedicated!to!a!noble!clergyman,!it! also!contains!elements!of!improvisation.!The!Zingana’s!convoluted!plot,!farcical! situations,!stereotypical!characters,!and!fusion!of!languages!embodies!the!Commedia5 dell’5Arte.!Acario,!a!Greek!merchant!living!in!Treviso,!with!his!wife!Barbarina,!and! their!twin!children,!Medoro!and!Angelica,!is!Giancarli’s!version!of!Pantalone.!The! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 141!See!Carmen!Sanz!Ayán.!Hacer&escena.&Capítulos&de&historia&de&la&empresa&teatral& en5el5Siglo5de5Oro.5Madrid:!RAH,!2013.! ! 130! ! Venetian!Pantalone,!based!on!currency!and!ego,!represents!money!within!the!

Commedia.!!Despite!his!age!or!marital!status,!Pantalone!aims!to!have!liaisons!with! many!women,!but!always!fails.!Like!Acario!who!is!tricked!by!Spingarda!(the!Italian!

Gargullo)!and!the!Gypsy,!he!has!the!highest!regards!for!his!own!intelligence!and!his! posssessons,!but!is!indeed!easily!tricked.!!

While!the!Medora!and!the!Zingana5have!been!studied!widely!as!autonomous! texts,!there!seems!to!be!a!conspicuous!absence!of!critical!dialogue!connecting!them.!

In!1891!A.L!Stiefel!denied!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Medora!any!innovation!over!Giancarli’s! play.!!While!almost!125!years!later,!the!German!academic!continues!to!be!a!prime! interlocutor!for!comparative!studies!of!Rueda’s!Medora!and!the!three!Pasos!that! developed!from!it,!in!the!last!fifty!years,!scholarly!attention!to!Rueda’s!innovations! has!seen!a!slight!shift.!Although!in!1901!Emilio!Cotarelo!y!Mori,!heavily!influenced! by!Stiefel,!categorized!the!Medora5as!a!straight!translation,!Alfredo!Hermenegildo’s! more!recent!work!argues!for!novelty!in!Rueda’s!version.142!It!is!from!this!privileged! linguistic!domain—between!Italy!and!Spain—!that!I!analyze!Gargullo’s!reaction!to! the!Gypsy.!

Giancarli’s!Zingana!is!steeped!in!translation.!The!Zingana’s!prologue—not! included!by!Rueda—!already!asks!for!a!translation!between!arts,!and!between!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 142!!See!Stiefel,!Arróniz,!Hermenegildo,!Cotarelo,!and!Lazzerini.!A.L.!Stiefel.!“Lope!de! Rueda!and!das!Italienische!Lustspiel,”!in!Zeitschrift5für5romaische5Philologie,5XV! (1891).!183>216,!318>343,!337);!Emilio!Cotarelo.!“Lope!de!Rueda!y!el!teatro!español! de!su!tiempo,”!in!Revista5de5Archivos,5Bibliotecas,5y5Museos,51898,!II.!150>175,!466> 502;!Lucia!Lazzerini.!“Observaciones!textuales!sobree!la!Medora!de!Lope!de!Rueda!y! su!fuente!(la!Zingana!de!Gigio!artemio!Giancarli),”!in!Filologia5dei5testi5a5stampa5 (area5iberica).5Ed.!Patricia!Botta.!Modena:!Mucchi!Editore,!2005.!47>57.! 131! ! public’s!reality!and!the!fiction!being!crafted!within!the!theater.!A!young!man!

(“fanciullo”)!stands!on!stage!and!demands!that!the!spectators!move!between! painting!and!drama:!“Spettatori,!io!vi!chiedo!il!silenzio!da!parte!di!Gigio,!il!vostro! pittore,!durante!la!rappresentazione!di!una!sua!commedia!tutta!nuova!e!tutta! divertente”!(Prologue).!He!then!asks!them!to!imagine!(“immagenerete”)!and!even! trick!themselves!(“ingannerete”)!in!order!to!transform!(“trasformare”)!and!change!

(“muttamento”)!a!cityscape!into!Treviso!and!fellow!citizens!(“concittadini”)!into! actors.!Before!his!exit,!he!specifies,!“Voglio!appunto!andare!a!cambiarmi!d’abito;!mi! riconescerete,!peró”!(Prologue).!Although!he!will!transform!himself!by!donning!his! character’s!clothing,!the!public!recognition!will!make!him!a!cross>dresser.!Here,!an! active!spectator!is!a!constant!translator.!!!

Just!as!they!are!central!to!the!Zingana,!the!themes!of!translation,! transformation,!and!its!sartorial!manifestation—cross>dressing—!are!central!to!the!

Medora’s!plot.!Medoro!dresses!across!genders!and!embodies!his!sister,!Angelica.!

Medoro’s!father!and!mother!cross>dress!across!social!boundaries—Acario!as!a! woodcutter!(“leñador”)!and!Barbara!as!a!beggar!(“mendicante”).!Angelica!also!seeks! a!transformation—!albeit!a!more!morbid!one.!In!Rueda’s!opening!scene,!Angelica! recalls!her!young!brother’s!sudden!death.!“…!cómo!no!imito!a!mi!hermano!Medoro,! nascido!conmigo!de!un!mismo!parto,!el!cual!dizen!que!se!transformó!en!la!cuna! súbito!y!assi!dizen!que!murió”!(75>76;!scene!I).!The!dead!brother!she!speaks!of,!is!in! fact!the!Gitana’s!child,!left!in!Medoro’s!place.!Here,!a!healthy!merchant’s!son! metamorphoses!(“se!tranformó”)!into!a!sickly!gypsy!child,!and!dies.!In!another! 132! ! scene,!Acario!asks!Gargullo!to!use!an!“escudo”!to!have!his!amorous!feelings!for!the! young!Estela!translated!into!verse!by!a!balladeer!(“copleador”):!“clopeador!d’estos! que!hazen!versicos!y!clopas!y!esto”!(89>90;!scene!II).!The!verse!to!be!translated!from! prose!to!verse!is!based!on!an!alchemic!transmutation!and!contains!a!linguistic! translation,!from!Spanish,!back!to!Italian:!“Estela!de!Plata,!Estela!de!Oro,!Estela!de! argento”!(90;!scene!II).!The!mutation!had!already!been!signaled!with!Acario’s! shifting!“l”!in!clopeador!(copleador)!and!copla!(clopas).!Here,!there!is!also! translation!of!a!proper!term!into!rustic!usage.!In!the!Medora,!form!and!content! reflect!translation.!

Gargullo’s!(Spingarda!in!the!Zingana)!encounter!with!the!reportedly!cross> dressed!Gitana5is!present!in!both!Giancarli!and!Lope!de!Rueda’s!texts,!and!goes!on!to! became!one!of!Rueda’s!most!well!known!Pasos,5the!Paso5de5la5Gitana5y5Gargullo.!

With!slight!variations,!the!scene!involves!an!urban!meeting!between!Gargullo!and! the!Gypsy—two!tricksters!hoping!to!outdo!each!other.!The!episode!makes!up!Atto5 quarto!(scenes!5>6)!in!the5Zingana,!most!of!the!fourth!scene!(Scena5cuarta)!in!

Medora,5and!one!of!fourteen!Pasos5included!in!El5Deleytoso!(1567).!As!we!saw!above,!

Gargullo’s!first!utterance!is!a!reaction!to!the!cryptic5Gitana:!“valga!el!diablo!en!tan! extraño!habito,!¿es!hombre!o!mujer?!Un!interprete!es!menester!para!entendello”!

(103;!scene!4).!In!a!case!of!a!play!within!a!play,!the!Gypsy!feigns!having!stolen!a!local! merchant’s!bag!filled!with!money!and!jewels,!and!Gargullo,!who!has!already!taken!

133! ! his!master’s!cape!and!gold!chain,!wants!in!on!the!winnings.143!The!Gitana!artfully! convinces!him!to!give!her!the!spoils!that!he!has!managed!to!swindle!out!of!his! master!and!then!leaves!him!“guarding”!the!alleged!treasure.!Gargullo!envisions!his! sudden!wealth!in!a!lengthy!monologue,!before!realizing!he!has!been!duped.!!

Upon!seeing!the!cross>dressed!Gypsy,!Gargullo!specifically!asks!for!an! interpreter:!“Un!interprete!es!menester!para!entendello”!(103;!scene!IV).!Giancarli’s5

Zingana5reads:5“è!femina!ó!pur!homo,!bisognerà!uno!interprete!a!decidirlo”!(379;!

Act!IV,!scene!5).!Consulting!the!Italian!original!enriches!and!complicates!the!reading.!

In!the!Italian,!there!is!no!clear!indication!that!the!“lo”!is!used!to!describe!the!Zingana! and/or!the!male!actor!dressed!as!a!female!Gypsy.!The!Italian!pronoun!“lo”!attached! to!“decidirlo,”!“to!decide,”!instead!of!“to!understand,”seems!to!be!pointing!to!the! choice!between!male!or!female—an!interpreter!is!needed!to!decide5it.!Rueda’s! translation!leaves!more!room!for!interpretation—an!interpreter!is!needed!to! understand5it.!Here,!there!is!no!dual!choice!(decidirlo),!but!an!understanding!that! will!come!with!a!translator!(entendello).!!

The!key!to!reading!the!enigmatic!passage!seems!to!lie!in!understanding!the! central!role!of!the!translator!within!the!exchange.!The!Italian5Crusca!of!1611!reads:!

“Interprete:!quello!che!parla!o!risponde,!invece!di!colui!che!non!intende!il! linguaggio.”!Sebastian!de!Covarrubias’s!Tesoro5de5la5lengua!of!1611!defines! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 143!The!anonymous!“Quinto!entremés”!from!the!1609!collection!Las5comedias5del5 famoso5poeta5Lope5de5Vega5Carpio,!feautures!a!thief!and!a!Gypsy!woman.!conspiring! to!steal!the!clothes!off!of!a!corregidor’s!back.

134! ! interpretar!as!“el!que!buelve!las!palabras!y!conceptos!de!una!lengua!en!otra,!en!el! qual!se!requiere!fidelidad,!prudencia,!y!sagacidad,!y!tener!igual!noticias!de!ambas! lenguas.”144!Regardless!of!the!complicity!of!the!audience,!or!the!anatomy!of!the!male! actor,!both!Giancarli!and!Rueda’s!texts!ask!for!the!aid!of!a!translator!in! understanding!the!cross>dressed!Gypsy.!

In!the!mid>fifteenth!century,!the!Spanish!Humanist!Alfonso!de!Madrigal! specifies!“interpretacion”!as!one!of!two!modes!of!translation:!“Dos!son!las!maneras! de!trasladar:!una!es!de!palabra!a!palabra,!et!llamase!interpretacion;!otra!es! poniende!la!sentencia!sin!seguir!las!palabras,!la!qual!se!faze!comunmente!por!mas! luengas!palabras,!et!esta!se!llama!exposicion!o!comento!o!glosa.”145!To!translate! word!for!word!is!to!interpret.!When!interpreting,!says!Madrigal,!nothing!is!added,! and!the!resulting!translation!remains!true!to!the!first!author!(“el!que!la!primero! fabrica”).!In!the!second,!much!is!added!and!changed!(“muchas!adiciones!et! mudamientos”)!and!the!resulting!translation!belongs!to!the!glosser!(glosador),! instead!of!the!original!author.!In!Rueda’s!Medora,5the!Gitana’s!identity!is!the!text!to! be!translated!faithfully.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 144!See!Sebastián!de!Covarrubias!Horozco.5Tesoro5de5la5lengua5castellana,5o5española.! Madrid:!Luis!Sánchez:!1611.!Covarrubias’!description!offers!an!Italian!translation!of! the!Celestina5as!example!of!a!faulty!interpretación:!“como!notan!el!descuydo!del!que! bolvió!la!Celestina,!que!por!las!clausulas!tomó!las!calças!de!Villa!diego,!dixo! simplemente,!Piglio!le!calce!di!villa!Iacome,!aviendo!de!atender!al!sentido!que!era!q! echó!á!huir.”5!

145!Quoted!in!R.G.!Keightley.!“Alfonso!de!Madrigal!and!the!Chronici!Canones!of! Eusebius,”!in!The5Journal5of5Medieval5and5Renaissance5Studies.57.2!(1977).!225>48.!!

! 135! ! The!object!to!be!interpreted!and!therefore!translated!is!not!the!cross>dressed!

Medoro,!but!the!Gypsy.!The!Gitana’s!“extraño!habito”!makes!her!more!challenging!to! read!than!Medoro,!who,!though!in!drag,!seems!to!personify!his!twin!sister! seamlesssly.!Medoro!even!wears!the!unequivocal!sign!of!cross>dressing!in!the!play’s! feminine!turn!of!his!name—Medora.!Yet,!it!is!the!perceived!ambiguity!of!the!Gypsy5 that!is!noted.!The!Gypsy!has!orchestrated!the!return!to!Medoro´s!birthplace!through! outerwear!that!identifies!them!within!their!kin!and!kind.!Ambiguity!was!considered! especially!threatening,!and!even!an!abomination,!in!early!modern!Spain.!In!his! prohibition!of!women!wearing!men’s!clothing,!De5institutione5feminae5christianae,!

(1524),!Juan!Luis!Vives!articulates!that!one!who!is!“promiscuous”!in!dress!is!an! abomination:!“En!consecuencia,!quien!practica!la!promiscuidad!en!la!manera!de! vestir,!con!todo!merecimiento!es!declarado!abominable!por!el!Señor,!porque! pretende!algo!que!se!opone!a!las!leyes!de!la!naturaleza!y!sería!el!punto!de!partida!de! innumerables!peligros!para!la!convivencia!de!los!hombres”!(Chapt.!VIII).146!While! the!youth!“passes!“!as!a!wealthy!maiden,!he!avoids!being!labeled!an!abomination.!

The!Gypsy,!on!the!other!hand,!fits!Vives’!description!of!!“promiscuidad:”!between!

“hombre”!and!“mujer”!(Chapt.!VIII).!The!Gypsy!cannot!be!translated.!

Marjorie!Garber!notes!that!the!sumptuary!laws!in!Renaissance!England! attempted!to!regulate!clothing!in!order!to!ensure!definitive!legibility!of!a!person’s! class,!gender!and!social!station:!“The!ideal!scenario—from!the!point!of!view!of!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 146!See!Juan!Luis!Vives.!De5institutione5Feminae5Christianae5(Español).!Valencia! Ajuntament!de!Valencia,!1994.!! 136! ! regulators—was!one!in!which!a!person’s!social!station,!social!role,!gender!and!other! indicators!of!identity!in!the!world!could!be!read,!without!ambiguity!or!uncertainty.!

The!threat!to!this!legibility!was!confusion”!(26).147!The!Gitana’s5ambiguity!causes! confusion.!In!order!to!appease!the!regulators,!the!cross>dressed!Gypsy!must!be!read! properly!and!interpreted.!!

Despite!the!ambiguity!of!the!Gitana’s!garb,!the!figure!of!the!gypsy!was!a! recognizable!type!on!and!off!the!early!modern!stage.!Gypsies,!or!those!dressing!like! them,!were!subject!to!corporal!punishment!and!banishment.148!Spain!was!not!the! only!country!where!such!suspicions!were!voiced.!!There!are!several!statutes!against!

English!vagabonds!dressing!as!gypsies!or!joining!in!their!ranks.!Pym,!following!

Aydelotte’s!pioneering!study,!reminds!us!that!in!England!gypsy!and!vagabond!were! interchangeable:!“the!life!led!by!the!wandering!vagabonds!was!similar!in!many! respects!to!that!of!the!gypsies,!and!there!is!much!evidence!that!they!were!closely! associated!in!the!popular!mind.!Almost!every!statute!against!rogues!and!vagabonds! includes!‘Egyptians’!as!well”!(18).(149!While!confused!with!rogues!and!vagabonds,!an!

English!statute!from!1562!condemns!those!who!dressed!up!as!Gypsies!and!imitated! their!speech!and!manner.!Romany!attire!was!so!distinct!that!by!1619!it!was!banned! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 147!See!Marjorie!Garber.!Vested5Interests:5Crosscdressing5and5Cultural5Anxiety.!New! York:!Routledge,!1992.!!

148!See!Bernard!Leblon.!Les5Gitans5d’Espagne.5Paris:!Press!Universitaires!de!France:! 1985.!37!and!beyond.!!! ! 149!See!Richard!Pym.!The!Errant!Fortunes!of!‘La!gitanilla’!and!Cervantes's! Performing!Gypsies,”!in!Journal5of5Iberian5and5Latin5American5Studies.12:1,!(2006),! 15>37,!footnote!30.!! 137! ! altogether!in!Spain.!!

Although!we!do!not!have!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli!or!Lope!de!Rueda´s! character!sketches,!we!do!have!the!engraving!chosen!for!the!1567!Medora5(Madrid,!

Biblioteca!Nacional,!R>12055).15055Embedded!within!the!Cuatro5Comedias5y5dos5

Coloquios5Pastoriles5del5excelente5poeta!Lope5de5Rueda,5Timoneda5showcases!the!

Gitana5and5Gargullo!(See!Figure!3.1).!!The!two!figures,!“Gargullo!Lacayo¨!and!“Una!

Gitana”!make!up!a!third!of!the!page.!Gargullo!resembles!a!courtier,!complete!with!a! sword!and!cape,!and!appears!to!be!reverently!saluting!the!Gypsy!with!an!inclined! head!and!gesture!of!doffing!his!hat.!Meanwhile,!the!Gypsy!points!to!Gargullo!with! her!right!hand!and!holds!an!infant!with!the!other.!She!wears!a!long!tunic!with! layered!fabric!and!a!voluminous!headpiece.!The!infant!is!swaddled!in!a!textile!that! appears!to!be!wrapped!around!the!woman´s!shoulders.!!In!the!engraving,!clothing! and!accessories!define!these!characters.!!

Despite!the!limitations!of!early!theater!props!and!costumes,!which!would! have!placed!the5Gitana!in!a!more!crudely!fabricated!variation!of!this!luxurious!outfit,! the!theater!audience!and!the!play´s!interlocutors!would!have!recognized!her!by!her! familiar!and!documented!outerwear.!A!period!description!of!a!Gypsy!woman´s! outerwear!can!be!found!in!Venetian!Cesare!Vecellio´s!Habiti5Antichi5et5Moderni!!

(1580).!Vecellio´s!¨Cingana!Orientale¨!bears!a!striking!resemblance!to!the!Gitana!on!

Medora´s!cover!page!(See!Figure!3.2).!Like!the!Gitana,!the!Cingana!sports!a!multi– !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 150!See!Manuscript!in!Biblioteca!Nacional!Madrid,!12055,!Las5quarto5comedias5y5dos5 Coloquios5Pastoriles.!Valencia:!Joan!de!Timoneda,!1567.! 138! ! layered!tunic!and!sizeable!headgear.!Instead!of!pointing!with!her!right!hand,!she! cradles!a!child!with!both!arms.!The!costume!and!customs!book!explains!the!layered! dress!that!Gypsy!women,!labeled!as!true!errant!women,!wear!as!they!wander!the! world:!!

Cingana!Orientale,!o!vero!donna!errante.!Le!Zengare!non!stanno!mai! ferme!longo!tempo!in!un!luogo,!ma!ogni!due,!o!tre!giorni!mutano! stanza:!&!l!habito!di!ciasccuna!è,!che!porta!in!сapo!una!diadema! accommodata!di!legno!leggiero,!coperta!di!fasce!di!tela!di!molte! braccia!lunghe.!usa!camicie!lavorate!di!seta!!&!d'oro!di!diuersi!color!i! con!molta!bellopera,!&!lunghe!quassi!a´pieddi!le!quale!!hanno!le! maniche!larghe!&!lavorate!con!bellisimmi!riccami,!e!lauori.!si!!lega!un! manto!di!panno!sopra!una!spalla!,!&!se!lo!fa!passare!sotto!l’altro! braccio,!&!e!tanto!lungo,!che!arrriva!quassi!finno!à!ipiedi!.!i!capelli!suoi! cadono!dalla!testa!sopra!le!spalle!,!&!con!qualche!figliuolino!sostenuto! da!qualche!fascia!légata!al!соllo!d'essa!vanno!cossi!vagando.151!!

Like!the!androgynous!Gitana!who!travels!with!her!kidnapped!son!in!drag,!Vecellio’s! richly!dressed!(clad!in!silk,!gold,!and!embroidered!textile)!Gypsy!woman!roams!the! world!with!the!youngest!of!her!children!at!her!neck.!The!Medora’s!Gitana5would! have!been!the!spitting!image!of!the!Gypsy!portrayed!by!Vecellio!when!she!was!able! to!infiltrate!Medoro´s!family!home!and!switch!her!own!child!for!him.55

The!child>snatching!Gypsy!was!a!common!theme!in!legal!ledgers!and!in! fiction.!The!image!of!child–stealing!gypsies!was!conjured!by!Pedro!Salazar!de!

Mendoza,!the!arbitrista!from!Toledo!in!his!motion!for!their!expulsion!of!1618:!“son! sin!número!los!niños!chiquitos!que!han!llevado!a!vender!a!Berbería”!(1618,!p.!6).152!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 151!See!Cesare!Vecellio.The5Clothing5of5the5Renaissance5World.!Ed.!Margaret!F.! Rosenthal!and!Ann!Rosalind!Jones.!London:!Thames!&!Hudson,!2008.!! ! 139! ! Miguel!de!Cervantes’!Gitanilla5immortalized!the!celebratory!denouement!of!a! kidnapping!by!gypsies.5The!first!of!the!Novelas5ejemplares!(1613)!chronicles!the! restoration!of!the!noble!Costanza!by!the!same!gypsy!woman!who!took!her!from!her! paternal!home!and!raised!her!as!Preciosa.!This!trope!of!the!Gypsy!as!both!(foster)! mother!and!kidnapper!of!a!wealthy!child!would!also!be!the!nucleus!of!Antonio!

García!Guttiérez’s!1836!play!Trovador,!which!in!turn!served!as!the!basis!for!

Salvatore!Cammarano’s!libretto!for!Giuseppe!Verdi’s!opera,!Il5Trovatore.!!!

Fig.!3.2.!“Cingana!Orientale,”!Cesare!Vecellio´s!Habiti5Antichi5et5Moderni!(1580).!!

! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 152!See!Pym,!footnote!14.!(

140! ! Medora’s5Gypsy!would!be!acting!within!what!Lionel!Abel!has!called!“meta>! theater”!or!“theater!pieces!about!life!seen!as!already!theatricalized”!(134).!Unlike! figures!in!tragedy,!metatheatrical!characters!are!seen!as!being!aware!of!their!own! theatricality!(134).153!For!example,!Cervantes'!Gitanilla!allows!a!rare!meta– theatrical!glimpse!when!the!narrator!points!to!Preciosa´s!artificial!use!of!the!

Andalusian!ceceo:!“como!gitana,!hablaba!ceceoso,!y!esto!es!artificio!en!ellas,!que!no! naturaleza!(I,!72).154!In!this!way,!the!Gitanilla,!like!many!of!the!characters!in!the! novel,!is!dramatizing!the!Romany!attributes!expected!by!her!public.!!

Rued’a!Gitana5turns!on!the!expected!gypsy!“language”!when!it!is!needed.!At! the!beginning!of!the!scene,!or5Paso,!when!she!is!alone,!and!right!before!Gargullo!asks! for!an!interpreter,!the!Gitana5details!her!plan!in!plain!castellano:!“Lo!que!resta!de! hazer!es!descubrir!a!sus!padres!quien!sea!acqueste!moço!que!no!serán!tan!malos! que!no!me!perdonen!el!hurto!y!me!paguen!la!criança!d’él;!y!en!el!entretanto!es! menester!buscar!para!el!mantenimiento”!(205).!However,!while!speaking!directly!to!

Gargullo,!she!slips!out!of!“proper”!Castilian!and!exclaims:!!“Está!quedo,!burla!si!achi,! burla!si!achi”!(104,!scene!4).!Lope!de!Rueda!does!away!with!the!polyglot!spectacle!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 153!See!Lionel!Abel.!Tragedy5and5Metatheater.5Ed.!Martin!Pichner.!Boulder:!Holmes! and!Meir,!2003.!!

154!Pym!calls!the!aside!a!theatrical!exaggeration:!“Theatrical!exaggeration,!that!is!to! say,!has!its!uses.!Self>parody!can!be!a!technique!as!winning!as!it!is!defensive:!one! recalls!Cervantes’s!curiously!diegetic!(in!the!Socratic!sense)!interruption!of!the! narrative!in!‘La!gitanilla’!to!point!out!that!the!Gypsies’!use!of!ceceo!‘es!artificio!en! ellas,!que!no!naturaleza”!(22).!

141! ! Giancarli’s!text.155!The!language!of!Giancarli’s!original!Zingana!is!much!more! complex!than!that!of!Medora.5Tommasino!argues!that!the!language!of!the!Zingana!is!

“arabo!colloquiale!d’Egitto”!(230).!Rueda’s!Gypsy!does!not!speak!the!Egyptian!

Arabic,!or!any!semblance!of!the!Arabic!of!the!Zingana.1565Although!Rueda!is!from!

Seville,!she!is!not!versed!in!the!Anadalusian!ceceo!of!Vicente’s!Auto5de5las5Gitanas,157! nor!does!she!appear!to!be!fluent!in!the!languge!spoken!by!gypsies,!known!as!calé.158!

Her!invented!speech!is!as!telling!as!her!outerwear.!A!gypsy’s!aptitude!for!languages! had!long!been!part!of!the!mythology!surrounding!them.!Sebastian!Munster’s!1552!

Cosmographia5universalis!claims!that!gypsies!speak!all!the!languages!of!known! nations:!“hablan!el!lenguaje!de!todas!las!naciones.”159!Sancho!de!Moncada!went!as!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 155!For!languages!in!the!Zingana,!see!Lazzerini,!2005:!“Confluyen!en!esta!obra!el! dialecto!veneciano!de!Ágata,!la!mezcla!de!veneciano!estropeado!y!griego!moderno> con!pasajes!muy!interesantes!en!griego!antiguo>!de!messer!Acario,!el!árabe!de!la! Zingana,!el!dialecto!bergamesco!de!Martin,!el!dialecto!pavano!de!Garbuglio…! (Homenaje!a!Ludovico!Ariosto),!de!los!criados!Spingarda!y!Falisco:!un!italiano!que! querría!hacerse!toscano,!pero!se!vuelve!artificioso!y!alguna!vez!cae!en!solecismos”! (48).!! ! 156!See!Pier!Mattia!Tommasino.!“Approfondimenti!sull’arabo!della!Zingana!di!Gigio! Artemio!Giancarli,”in!Lingua5e5Stile.!XI,!December!2006.!203>230.!!

157Cited!by!Ted!Bergman.‘Transversality,!criminality,!and!the!Gypsy,!in!Spanish! baroque!teatro!breve,”!in!Journal5of5Spanish5Cultural5Studies,!2012,!13:3.!276>291:! “In!Gil!Vicente’s!Farsa![or!Auto]!das!ciganas!(1521>1525),!the!pediguin!nature!of!the! character!is!apparent!in!the!second!and!third!lines!of!the!piece.!The!ciganas! (gypsies)!demand,!with!a!ceceo!that!hints!at!Andalusian!origins:!”Dadnuz!limuzna! pur!la!amur!de!Diuz;!/!Cristianuz!sumuz,!veiz!aqui!la!cruz’’(280).!! ! 158!See!Lazzerini,!2005:!“Lope!poda!enérgicamente!el!texto!hipertrófico!de!Gigio! Artemio…!desaparece!el!griego!de!micer!Acario,!y!de!la!lengua!ininteligible!y! deforma!de!la!Zingana!sólo!aparecen!en!el!idioma!de!la!Gitana5manchas!cromáticas,! donde!el!árabe!se!transforma!en!galimatías!sin!sentido”!(48).!!! ! 142! ! far!as!accusing!the!polylinguist!Gypsies!of!being!spies.160!Speaking!a!fabricated! language,!the!Gitana!hides!her!message!in!plain!sight:!“Burla!achi”!“Burla!aquí.”!The! trick!is!here!!!

As!Cervantes’!Ricote!would!later!immortalize!in!fiction,!Gypsies!were! originally!granted!“tourist!visas”!acting,!or!passing,!as!pilgrims.161!The!Romany!are! said!to!have!entered!the!Iberian!Peninsula!in!the!first!quarter!of!the5fifteenth>! century!under!the!guise!of!peregrinos51625traveling!to!the!shrine!of!Santiago!de!

Compostela.!163!Traveling!Gypsies!are!also!documented!passing!as!nobles!in!Hechos5 del5Condestable5D.5Miguel5Lucas5de5Iranzo5(1462).!!As!anti>!Gypsy!hostility!grows,! their!constant!movement!is!no!longer!seen!as!a!simple!penitence!imposed!by!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 159!Bergaman,!217,!quoting!Salazar!de!Mendoza,!1618,!6.!! ! 160!Bergaman,!217.! ! 161!Cervantes!would!later!use!this!same!trope!to!smuggle!Sancho´s!neighbor,!Ricote,! the!exiled!Morisco,!back!into!Spain.!See!Cervantes’!episode!of!the!return!of!Sancho’s! neighbor,!Ricote,!in!the!guise!of!a!pilgrim!to!Santiago!(II,!54).!!See!also!Viaje5de5 Turquía!(1557),!which!chronicles!the!adventures!of!an!ex!Turkish!prisoner,!Pedro! de!Urdemales,!who!returns!to!Spain!dressed!as!a!priest!on!the!Camino5de5 Santiago.Marcel!Bataillon!considered!the!seldom>studied!text!a!literary!masterpiece.! ! 162!See!J.!Quinones.5Discurso5contra5los5gitanos.5Madrid:!1631.!2>6.!! !

163!As!early!as!January!of!1412,!we!have!evidence!of!King!Alfonso!V!conceding!a! “salvoconducto!valedero!por!tres!meses!a!Don!Johan!de!Egipte!Menor!que!se!dirigía! en!peregrinación!a!Santiago!de!Compostela”!(53>57).!See!Alejandro!Martínez!Dhier,! citing!Javier!Aguirre!Felipe.!Alejandro!Martínez!Dhier.!La5condición5social5y5jurídica5 de5los5gitanos5en5la5Legislación5histórica5española.!Granada:!Editorial!de!la! Universidad!de!Granada,!2007,!52!footnote!76;!!Javier!Aguirre!Felipe.!Historia5de5las5 itinerancias5gitanas:5de5la5India5a5Andalucia.!Zaragoza:!Institución!Fernando!el! Católico,!2006,!19.!!

143! ! Pope!for!an!involuntary!omission!of!faith,!but!as!a!curse!received!for!a!major!offense! to!the!Catholic!faith.164!Gypsies!would!have!to!reconstruct!themselves!in!order!to! avoid!being!banished!from!Spain.165!

The!incapacity!to!contain!Gypsies!became!a!European!phenomenon.!The!

Catholic!Kings!of!Castile!and!Aragon!proclaimed!no!less!than!two!thousand!edicts! against!the!Romany5(Ricapito,!11).166!The!first!anti>Gypsy!Spanish!pragmatic!came! in!1499,167!followed!by!Charles!V’s!renewal!in!1523,!1525,!1534,!and!1539.!King!

Philip!II!sought!legal!recourses!against!Gypsies!in!1560!and!1586.168!The!beginning! of!legal!backlash!against!the!Italian!Gypsy!spanned!three!different!Venetian!senate!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 164!Sebastián!de!Covarrubias!documents!their!denial!of!refuge!to!Mary,!the!Mother!of! God:!“no!haber!hospedado!a!la!Virgen!y!Madre!de!Dios!cuando!iba!peregrinando,!les! cayó!la!maldición!de!que!ellos!y!sus!descendientes!anduviesen!peregrinos!por!el! mundo!sin!que!jamás!hallasen!asiento!ni!tuviesen!habitación!permanente.”!Tesoro.! 438>439.!! !! 165!Gypsies!went!from!being!coddled!visitors—cloaked!under!the!guise!of!titles!and! religion—to!dangerous!vagabonds!who!had!overstayed!their!welcome.!Sebastián!de! Covarrubias’!Tesoro5(1611),!defines!Gitanos!as!“gente!perdida!y!vagamunda,! inquieta,!engañadora,!embustera”!(438>439).!These!deceitful!wanderers!no!longer! make!their!way!to!the!shrine!of!Saint!James!as!noble!pilgrims,!but!as!penitents.! Lucas!de!Iranzo!(1462)!notes!the!Gypsies!required!papal!atonement!for!reneging!on! their!Christian!faith!while!at!the!mercy!of!the!Grand!Turk:!“e!porque!después!de!ser! conquistados!paresçe!ser!que!negaron!nuestra!santa!fé,!avía!buenos!días,!que!por! mandando!de!nuestro!muy!Santo!Padre,!andavan!por!todos!los!reynos!e!provincias! de!la!cristiandad!faciendo!penitencia!(42>43).!See5Lucas5de5Iranzo.! ! 166!See!Joseph!V.!Ricapito.!Cervantes's5Novelas5ejemplares:5Between5History5and5 Creativity.!West!Lafayette,!IN:!Purdue!UP,!1996.!! ! 167!See!Elisa!Novi!Chavarria.“Gli!Zingani!in!Eta!Moderna,”!in!Integrazione5ed5 Emarginaziome.!Ed.!Laura!Barletta.!Napoli:!Cuen,!2002.!287>308.!! ! 168!See!María!Helena!Sánchez!Ortega.!Documentación5selecta5sobre5la5situación5de5los5 gitanos5españoles5en5el5siglo5XVIII.!Madrid:!Editorial!Nacional,!1977.!25.!! 144! ! deliberations!that!took!place!in!the!forty!years!between!1549!and!1588!(Fassanelli,!

141).169!Gypsies!were!to!see!the!same!fate!in!Milan!in!1534,!England!in!1530,!and!

Paris!in!1539.!!

Gypsies!could!not!be!controlled,!and!their!position!as!nomads—never!true! citizens—made!them!unclassifiable.!A!1524!decree!from!the!Netherlands,!then! under!Spanish!control,!categorized!Gypsies!as!people!of!any!nation!who!claimed!

Egyptian!ancestry.170!This!malleable!category!allowed!for!confusion.!They!can!be! people!of!any!nation,!but!are!instead!a!people!without!nation.!Sancho!de!Moncada! stresses!that!those!in!Spain!are!not!true!Gypsies,!but!lawless!scoundrels!without! religion:!“los!que!andan!en!España!no!son!Gitanos,!sino!enjambres!de!zánganos,!y! hombres!ateos,!y!sin!ley!ni!religión!alguna.”171!A!1539!royal!ordinance!by!Charles!V! noted!that!Spanish!vagabonds!were!joining!Spain’s!Gypsies.172!It!was!becoming! increasingly!difficult!to!identify!Gypsies.!!

The!obvious!failure!of!measures!to!identify!and!eliminate!Gypsies!soon!ran! into!difficulties!over!differentiating!true!Romany!from!those!who!were!simply!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 169!See!Fassanelli,!Moratori!and!Asseo!in!Bendetto!Fassanelli,!“.!I!Rom!Nella!Repubblica!di!Venezia:!Retoriche!e! Stereotipi,”!in!Acta5Histriae,515,!(2007).!139>154.!!!! !

170!See!Sir!Angus!Fraser.!“The!present!and!future!of!the!Gypsy!past,”!in!Cambridge5 Review5of5International5Affairs,!13:2!(2000),!17>31.!20.!

171!See!Sancho!de!Moncada,!VIII>I.!! ! 172!Cited!in!Bergaman,!footnote!28.!! 145! ! playing!the!part.173!In!La5cultura5del5barroco,!José!Antonio!Maravall!chronicles!the! historical!flight!of!“jóvenes!de!casas!nobles!y!acomodadas!que!huyen!a!perderse!en! medios!de!picaresca”!(1986,!111).174!This!phenomenon!seems!to!have!carried!over! to!the!Gypsy!way!of!life.175!In!literature,!it!is!exemplified!by!Juan/Andrés,!the!young! gentleman!who!adopts!the!Romany!way!of!life!in!the!Gitanilla.!When!the!noble!Juan! de!Cárcamo!takes!on!a!Gypsy!identity,!he!calls!himself!Andrés!Caballero.!!

The!Gitana!artfully!reconstructs!Medoro’s!identity!as!needed.!She!places!her! own!gypsy!child!in!Medoro’s!place,!and!orchestrates!her!biological’s!son’s!passing!as! an!affluent!infant.!Far!from!his!rich!beginnings,!the!Gitana5then!raises!Medoro!as!a! gypsy.!When!they!return!to!his!homewtown,!she!passes!him!as!a!wealthy!young! woman.!!In!her!first!utterance,!the!Gitana5asks!him!to!keep!“este!hábito! discretamente!hasta!que!los!nuestros!negocios!vengan!a!un!fin!próspero!y! agradable”!(83;!scene!1).!We!are!never!told!where!such!“hábitos”!were!procured.!In! the!play’s!Italian!predecessor,!the!Zingana,!the!Gypsy!foster!mother!suggests!that!

Medoro!not!only!dons!female!garb,!but!that!those!garments!match!the!local!fashion:!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 173!See!Fraser:!An!English!Act!from!1562!stressed!the!idea!of!fake!and!real!Gypsies.!It! was!meant!to!punish!people!“following!a!Gypsy!way!of!life,!regardless!of!whether! they!had!been!born!in!England!or!Wales!and!therefore!might!argue!that!they!were! not!'Egyptians'”(20).!! ! 174!For!literary!examples,!see!Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!(1599,1604)!and! Cervantes’!Ilustre5fregona5(1611).!! ! 175!In!Lope!de!Vega’s,!El5Arenal5de5Sevilla!(1603)!the!character,!Lucinda,!also!passes! as!a!Gypsy.!! 146! ! “e!meglio!che!tu!ti!vesta!di!donna!secondo!l’uso!di!qui”!(288;!Act!II,!scene!12).176!In! order!to!make!the!costume!adhere!to!custom,!the!garments!will!be!rented!from!a!

Jew!or!any!other!person!in!the!business!of!lending!clothing!for!a!price:!“giudei!qui!in! citta,!o!qualcun!altro!che!presti!vestiti!a!pagamento,!magari!a!caro!prezzo”!(288,!Act!

II,!scene!12).!In!Rueda’s!play,!the!transformation!is!done!with!such!talent!that!

Medoro!becomes!his!sister.!Angelica!is!the!only!daughter!of!a!wealthy!merchant! family.!As!a!maiden!of!marriageable!age,!she!would!have!donned!the!finest!of! dresses.!The!resemblance!is!so!uncanny!that!it!causes!the!gentleman,!Cassandro,!to! exclaim:!“Ciertamente!es!cosa!maravillosa,!y!digo!que!si!aquel!Apeles,!único!en!el! arte!de!la!pintura!fuera!vivo,!no!bastara!dibujar!en!tabla!o!en!lienzo!una!cosa!que! tanto!se!le!paresciese”!(102;!scene!4).!Representing!Angelica,!in!the!style!of!the!great!

Greek!master!Apelles!of!Kos,!is!no!small!feat.!The!Gitana!is!a!facilitator!in!the!art!of! passing.!!

Gargullo!is!the!ideal!interpreter!or!translator!for!this!artful!Gitana.!Gargullo! portrays!himself!as!a!converso,!and!as!we!will!see,!also!as!a!descendant!of!Hernan!

Cortés.!The!lackey!is!versed!in!at!least!two!tongues!and!a!master!of!passing.!He! fashions!himself!in!Master!Acario’s!cape!and!gold!necklace.!In!order!to!pursue!

Acario’s!adulterous!crush!he!dresses!his!wealthy!merchant!master!as!a!“ganapán”! and!woodcutter!(leñador).!Gargullo!makes!his!master!don!the!trappings!of!a!pauper! and!then!animalizes!him.!While!wearing!said!master’s!clothes,!and!in!a!Rabelaisian!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 176!See!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli.!Commedie5La5CaprariacLa5Zingana5con5un5appendice5 sulla5Medora5di5Lope5de5Rueda.!Ed.!Lucia!Lazzerini.!Padova:!Editrice!Antenore,!1991.! 147! ! carnivalesque!turn,!Gargullo!convinces!Acario!to!carry!him!on!his!shoulders!while! exclaiming!“arre!arre”!(93;!scene!2).!With!four!legs!and!four!arms,!Gargullo!and!

Acario!embody!a!Platonic!hermaphrodite.!While!he!is!donning!the!trappings!of!his! master!or!playing!topsy>turvy!pony!with!him,!he!is!speaking!out!of!both!sides!of!his! mouth.!

Gargullo’s!monologue!has!been!read!as!the!speech!of!a!new!Christian!and!as!a! model!for!the!fashioning!of!exemplary!identities!within!the!Iberian!obsession!with! purity!of!blood!and!lineage.!In!the!initial!meeting,!Gargullo!overhears5the!Gypsy! feigning!having!stolen!a!local!merchant’s!bag!filled!with!money!and!jewels.!Gargullo,! who!has!already!taken!his!own!master’s!cape!and!gold!chain,!wants!in!on!the! winnings.!When!the!Gypsy!leaves!him!alone!with!his!supposed!“treasure,”!Gargullo! gives!a!lengthy!speech!in!which!he!envisions!his!newfound!wealth:!!

Ea,!vezinos,!vezinos,!los!que!andáys!haziendo!cercos!y!conjuros!por! hallar!los!escondidos!thesoros,!acudí!al!venturosíssimo!Gargullo,!el! qual!hoy!sin!cerco!ni!conjuro!y!sin!hábito!de!nigromante!descubrirá! un!tal!thesoro!con!que!remanezca!rico!para!todos!los!días!de!su!vida.! (106,!scene!4)!

Américo!Castro!treats!Gargullo’s!passage!as!a!reflection!of!the!world!inhabited!by!

Cervantes:!“Ya!a!mediados!del!siglo!XVI,!en!una!comedia!de!Lope!de!Rueda,!cuya! representacion!bien!pudo!ver!Cervantes,!el!lacayo!Gargullo!fantasea!sobre!el!empleo! que!va!a!dar!a!un!tesoro!que!espera!venga!a!sus!manos”!(61).177!Castro!gleans!a! recipe!for!the!survival!of!New!Christians.!Barbara!Fuchs!evokes!Castro!to!make!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 177!See!Americo!Castro.!Cervantes5y5los5Castícimos5Españoles.!Madrid:!Editorial! Trotta,!2002.!! 148! ! similar!point:!“As!Castro!points!out,!detaching!oneself!from!one’s!habitual!ties!was!a! crucial!precondition!for!successful!passing!as!an!Old!Christian”!(Fuchs,!94).178!The! two!Cervantes!scholars!base!their!claims!on!the!following!utterance!in!Gargullo’s! monologue:!“Haré!matar!todos!mis!parientes,!que!ofresco!al!Diablo!hombre!que! quede!a!vida,!porque,!viéndome!tan!rico,!no!me!cobdicien!la!muerte!y!también! porque!no!sepan!mi!linaje”(107;!scene!4).!Although!Castro!also!lingers!on!the!notion! of!sosiego!(composure)!as!an!Old!Christian!value,!both!academics!underscore!the! importance!of!the!last!phrase,!“porque!no!sepan!mi!linaje,”!as!a!formula!to!safeguard! honor!through!public!opinion.5Giancarli’s!text!stregthens!this!reading:!“invece! spenderó!volentieri!cento!scudi!per!far!ammazzare!tutti!i!mei!parenti,!di!modo!che! nessuno!di!loro!habia!motivo!in!vita!sua,!di!volermi!morto!come!sucede!di!solito”!

(384;!Act!IV,!scene!6).!While!the5original!Zingana!reflects!a!fear!of!being!precariously! murdered!by!avaricious!family!members!seeking!to!inherit!his!imagined!fortune,!it! does!not!mention!the!erasure!of!ancestry.!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Gargullo!constructs!and! deconstructs!himself!as!needed.!!

Although!scholars!have!noted!that!Gargullo!fashions!himself!as!a!converso,!I! will!add!here!that!he!also!associates!his!lineage!with!Hernán!Cortés.!Gargullo! explains!that!he!is!“hijo!del!más!honrado!potecario!que!hay!en!Castilleja!de!la!

Cuesta”(106;!scene!4).!As!has!been!studied,!apothecary!was!a!profession!closely! associated!with!conversos.!Scholars!have!overlooked!the!Castilleja!de!la!Cuesta! reference.!The!(in)famous!conquistador,!Hernán!Cortés,!lived!out!the!last!of!his! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 178!See!Barbara!Fuchs.!Passing5for5Spain.!Urbana:!University!of!Illinois!Press,!2003.!! 149! ! years!in!this!small!town!near!Seville.!Although!he!is!not!buried!there,!Cortés!died!in!

Castilleja!de!la!Cuesta!in!1546.!A!sixteenth>century!audience!would!surely!connect!

Gargullo’s!hometown!with!the!conquistador!indiano.5As!Mary!Gaylord!suggests,!the! conquistadores!returning!from!the!Americas!had!a!reputation!as!fabricators!of! suspicious!truths:!“Only!the!indiano5had!seen!the!alien!land!on!which!his!tales!were! grounded;!and!because!the!stories!he!told!could!only!be!verified!by!other!travellers,! those!who!stayed!at!home!quite!naturally!linked!tellers!of!tall!tales!with!poets>who,! after!all,!are!veteran!liars”!(230).179!Hinting!at!his!converso!and!indiano!heritage,!

Gargullo!manages!to!cloak!all!of!his!future!words!and!actions!in!suspicion.!

Anticipating!Guzmán’s!treatment!of!his!own!father,!Gargullo!is!willingly!admitting!to! a!complicated!lineage!and!a!divided!nature.!

In!the!last!line!of!Lope!de!Rueda’s!Medora,!Gargullo!addresses!the!audience! and!implores!them!to!go!home.!As!he!sends!them!off,!he!suggests!that!if!they!were! all!to!stay!and!eat,!“bien!podemos!echar!a!cocer!la!mula!y!su!gualdrapa!y!todo,!y!por! tanto!perdonen”!(126;!scene!6).!The!gastronomic!jargon!of!this!concluding! statement!reflects!the!cross>dressed!nature!of!the!household.!If!they!partake!in!the! celebration!of!the!multiple!weddings,!the!audience!would!be!fed!the!banned!meat!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 179!See!Mary!Malcom!Gaylord.!“The5Telling5Lies5of5La5Verdad5Sospechosa,”5in!MLN.!Vol! 103,!No.!2!Hispanic!Issue!(Mar.!1988).!223>238.!Gaylord!argues!that!“for!the! audience!in!his!own!native!Spain,!his!stories!of!things!never!before!seen!or!heard!set! into!play!the!very!tension!between!the!verisimilar!and!the!marvelous,!which!was! one!of!the!16th>!and!17th>!century!literary!theory!basic!tests!for!the!power!of!poetry”! (230).!! 150! ! the!mixed>race!mule!and!participate!in!mixed>race!or!cross>dressed!communion.180!

The!Gitana!is!capable!of!waiting!almost!fifteen!years!to!cash!in!on!a! transaction!in!which!she!gives!up!her!biological!child.!She!rents!Medoro!and!parlays! his!abduction!into!the!protection!of!wealthy!merchants.!181!Like!Gargullo!before!her,! she!will!wear!the!trappings!of!the!wealthy!merchant.!We!know!that!in!the! transaction!she!will!gain!the!cape!and!gold!chain!that!belong!to!Miser!Acario.!She! will!embody!him!when!she!negotiates!the!price!of!his!son!and!her!own!future.!The!

Gitana!spins!her!past!grand!theft!in!her!favor:!“¿No!os!parece!que!habéis!sido! venturoso,!haber!hallado!un!hijo!gentil!hombre!y!hermoso!y!assí!criado!d’esta! suerte?”!(124;!scene!6).!Leblon!documents!a!common!practice!among!the!Roma5of! establishing!bonds!with!important!aristocratic!families!through!baptismal! godparents.!These!“godfathers!could!be!very!useful!when!gypsies!ran!afoul!of!the! law”!(cited!in!Johnson,!96).!As!Carroll!Johnson!has!noted!in!Cervantes5and5the5

Material5World,5this!led!to!an!abundance!of!illustrious!last!names!among!Roma,!like!

Castro,!Maldonado!and!Salazar.!182!!The!Gitana’s!calculated!business!strategy!puts!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 180!In!Ben!Jonson’s!Volpone5(1606),!Androgyno,!Volpone’s!hermaphrodite! companion,!calls!himself!a!“Good!dull!mule”!(Act!I,!Scene!II).!! !

181!See!Bergman,!who!argues!that!the!Gypsy!did!indeed!dupe!Gargullo:!“In!the! middle!section!of!the!‘‘Scena!cuarta’’!of!Medora,!there!is!a!segment!that!has!also! been!dubbed!the!‘‘Paso!de!la!gitana!y!Gargullo’’!or!‘‘El!paso!de!la!gitana!ladrona.’’!In! this!piece,!even!though!the!status!of!the!gitana!character!as!a!thief!is!blatant!to! Gargullo,!he!still!falls!prey!to!her!other!stereotypical!trait,!that!of!deceiver,!by! parting!with!his!money,!cape,!cap,!and!jewelry”!(281).!

182!See!Bernard!Leblon.!“Les!parents!fictives!chez!les!Gitanes!au!siècle!d’or,”!in!Les5 151! ! her!in!the!most!favorable!of!positions—Acario!welcomes!her!into!the!family!as!a! sibling!to!him!and!his!wife,!and!as!mother!to!Angelica!and!Medoro:!“Digo!que!tenéis! razón.!Y!de!aquí!adelante!tenéis!en!mí!un!hermano,!y!en!mi!mugger!una!Hermana,!y! en!cualquiera!d’estos!un!hijo”!(124;!scene!6).!!

Gargullo!can!cross!social!boundaries!and!recognize!the!Gitana5as!a!fellow! cross>dresser!from!whom!he!can!benefit.!He!invests!in!an!equally!lucrative!future.!At! the!end!of!the!play,!after!the!Gitana5has!secured!her!retirement,!he!announces!to!all! that!he!has!married!Estela,!the!very!damsel!his!Master!had!set!his!eye!on.!Acario! accepts!the!union!publicly.!Like!Lazarillo,!who!marries!the!known!lover!of!the! archpriest!who!feeds!him,!the!merchant!Gargullo!has!made!a!long>term! investment.183!In!this!way,!Gargullo!has!indeed!achieved!his!fabled!vision!of!wealth:!

“…!al!venturosíssimo!Gargullo,!el!qual!hoy!sin!cerco!ni!conjuro!y!sin!hábito!de! nigromante!descubrirá!un!tal!thesoro!con!que!remanezca!rico!para!todos!los!días!de! su!vida”!(106;!scene!4)).!Like!the!Gitana,!and!the!gypsies!who!passed!as!pilgrims,!he! has!found!a!treasure!that!will!provide!future!security.!!

While!much!has!been!written!concerning!Early!Modern!Spain’s!most! significant!others—the!exiled!Jews!and!Moors—the!Romany’s!indeterminate!status! as!citizens!until!the!nineteenth!century,!has!generally!denied!them!even!a!well> defined!marginalized!status.!As!exemplified!by!Cervantes’!Gitanilla,!although!they! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! parents5fictives5ne5Espagne5(XVIe5et5XVIIe5siècles.5Ed.!Agustin!Redondo.!Paris:! Publications!de!la!Sorbonne,!1988.!87>94.!90).!See!Carrol!Johnson.!Cervantes5and5the5 Material5World.!Urbana>Champaign:!University!of!Illinois,!2000.!! ! 183!Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán!prostitutes!his!second!wife,!Gracia.!! 152! ! may!venture!into!Madrid,!the!Gypsy’s!place!is!outside!the!city!walls—in!the! borderlands!of!the!“campos!of!Santa!Barbara”!(63).!The!Gitana5and!her!people’s! uncertain!place!within!European,!and!particularly!Iberian!society,!is!ambiguous!at! best.!As!beings!who!occupy!similarly!interstitial!spaces,!the!figure!of!Gargullo!has! much!in!common!with!Gypsies.!Gypsies!and!conversos,!who!may!also!be!indianos,! must!present!themselves!under!a!singular!identity,!if!they!wish!to!be!socially! acceptable.!As!fellow!cross>dressers,!they!Gypsy!and!Gargullo!are!both!concealing! themselves!and!performing!partial!aspects!of!themselves.!!

Althugh!in!Medora,!Rueda!argues!for!the!primacy!of!gender!with!his!title,!he! is!doing!much!more!in!the!body!of!his!play.!Interpretation!is!required!for!a5Gitana,5 perceived!as!androgynous,!who!is!cross>dressing!as!an!Early!Modern!gypsy.!

Gargullo’s!utterance—“valga!el!diablo!en!tan!extraño!hábito,!¿es!hombre!o!mujer?!

Un!interprete!es!menester!para!entendello”—!speaks!to!his!reaction!before!a!gypsy! who!does!not!appear!to!be!hiding!her!identity!or!who!may!indeed!be!playing!the! gypsy.!As!a!flagrant!thief!and!kidnapper!of!wealthy!children!she!has!embodied!the! gypsy!whom!all!wish!to!banish.!In!order!to!complete!her!masterful!performance,!she! speaks!a!fabricated,!nonsensical!language.!She!is!acting!as!a!Gypsy!would!be! expected!to!act,!and!she!is!benefitting!from!it.!Gargullo,!who!as!a!self>declared! converso!and!indiano!also!cross>dresses,!is!able!to!recognize!and!interpret!her.!The! exchange!between!Gargullo!and!the!Gitana5is!a!performance!in!translation,!requiring! two!authors—the!original!and!the!translator.!!

153! ! While!Lope!de!Vega!and!Cervantes!have!credited!Rueda!with!creating! modern!theater,!I!concur,!in!part,!with!Melveena!Mckendrick,!who!proposes!that!his! great!contribution!lies!in!conceiving!theater!as!a!“live!and!fluid!interchange!between! stage!and!audience”!(McKendrick,!46).184!!That!exchange!goes!beyond!the!space!of! the!theater,!to!reflect!the!importance!of!translation!within!the!birth!of!an!Early!

Modern!Comedia—transferred!to!the!public!corrales!and!transforming!itself!through! translation.!Recent!scholarship!has!argued!that!there!would!not!have!been!a!

Renaissance!without!translation.185!!There!would!have!been!no!modern!theater! without!translation,!either.!Lope!de!Rueda’s!theater!was!as!itinerant!as!the!Gypsy,! and!just!as!the!Gyspy!is!a!child!snatcher,!the!playwright!is!a!recycler!of!works!from! elsewhere!and!by!others.!The!Gypsy!is!a!kind!of!“limit!case,”!a!test!case!for!the! project!of!fashioning!coherent!national!identity.!Not!only!are!gypsies!shape!and! dress>changers,!body!snatchers!and!switchers,!but!they!also!can’t!be!pinned!down!to! any!place!(their!“roaming”!is!actually!legislated)!or!to!any!language.!Like!actors!and! performers,!Gypsies!are!always!translating.!De!Rueda’s!Medora!carries!within!itself! the!mark!of!translation.!!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli!made!it!a!theme!of!his!work!and!

Lope!de!Rueda!foregrounds!translation!as!an!object!of!inquiry!to!be!acted!out!by!his! characters.!

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 184!See!Melveena!Mckendrick.!Theater5in5Spain51490c1700.!Cambridge!UP:! Cambridge,!1992.!! ! 185!See!Early5Modern5Cultures5of5Translation.5Eds.5Karen!Newman!and!Jane!Tylus.! Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2015.!! 154! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chapter!Four! ! !

Found!in!Translation:!Barezzo!Barezzi!and!the!Spanish!Pícaros!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 155! ! He! reflexionado! que! es! lícito! ver! en! el! Quijote5 “final”! una! especie! de! palimpsesto,! en! el! que! deben! traslucirse! los! rastros! >Tenues! pero! no! indescifrables>! de! la! “previa”! escritura! de! nuestro! amigo.! Desgraciadamente,! sólo! un! segundo!Pierre!Menard,!invirtiendo!el!trabajo!del! anterior,! podría! exhumar! y! resucitar! esas! Troyas...! >!Jorge!Luis!Borges,!“Pierre!Menard,!autor!del! Quijote”186( !

Bakhtin!underscored!the!variety!and!conflict!of!perspective!and!language,!or! heteroglossia,!out!of!which!new!forms!of!literature,!most!notably!the!modern!novel,! developed.!The!Russian!linguist!suggested!that!this!polyphony!was!already!present! in!the!early!picaresque!and!flourished!in!Cervantes’!Quixote.5Like!Borges’!“Pierre!

Ménard,!autor!del!Quijote,”!Bakhtin!emphasized!the!value!of!literary!palimpsests,! explaining!that!“the!language!of5Amadis!in!the!mouth!of!Don!Quixote!fully!reveals! itself,!and!the!whole!complex!of!its!historical!meaning,!in!the!whole!dialogue!of! languages!found!in!Cervantes’!era”!(412).187!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!1622!version!of!the5

Lazarillo,!provocatively!titled!Picariglio5Castigliano,!interpolates!a!multilingual! apocryphal!adaptation!of!Miguel!de!Cervantes’!La5Gitanilla,!recounted!by!the!Squire! in!an!attempt!to!console!Lázaro!after!being!frightened!by!a!misread!funeral! procession.!Barezzi’s!editorial!choices!underscore!the!virtuoso!manipulations!of!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 186!See!José!Luis!Borges.!“Pierre!Ménard!autor!del!Quijote,”!in!Ficciones.5Madrid:! Alianza!Editorial,!1997.!!55 ! 187!See!Mikhail!Bakhtin.!The5Dialogic5Imagination.!Trans.!Caryl!Emerson!and!Michael! Holquist.!Austin:!University!of!Texas!Press,!1981.! ! 156! ! highly!successful!book!merchant!who!meant!to!strengthen—and!even!create—! associations!with!the!bestselling!Spanish!literature!of!the!time.!!

Although!French,!English,!and!German!incursions!into!the!picaresque!have! been!widely!studied,!Italy!has!not!been!given!the!attention!it!merits.!While!Italy!had! a!rich!tradition!of!the!liber5vagatorum,!or!books!based!on!vagabonds!and!beggars,! the!Tuscan!language!did!not!add!to!the!corpus!of!original!picaresque!literature.!Thus! it!has!virtually!been!left!out!of!the!picaresque!discussion.!Recent!scholarship!on!the! picaresque!novel!in!Europe!mentions!Italian!incursions!into!the!picaresque!only!in! passing.188!In!1977!Harry!Sieber!suggested!that!“the!translations!of!Spanish! picaresque!novels!are!the!key!to!an!understanding!of!the!European!history!of!the! genre”!and!that!translators!should!be!seen!as!close!readers!who!synthesized!their! own!tastes!and!sensibilities!as!well!as!suppliers!who!sought!to!satisfy!a!reading! public!(1977:!59).189!Given!Italy’s!unique!relationship!to!imperial!Spain—as!much!as! a!third!of!the!Italian!territory!came!under!Spanish!rule!in!the!early!sixteenth! century—and!her!role!as!a!printing!powerhouse,!Italian!translations!of!libos5de5 pícaros,!specifically!those!produced!by!the!prolific!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!printing!press,! must!be!emphasized!within!discussions!concerning!the!picaresque.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 188!See!Juan!Antonio!Garrido!Ardila.!La5novela5picaresca5en5Europa51554c1753.! Madrid:!Visor!Libros,!2009;!The5Picaresque5Novel5in5Western5Literature.!! Cambridge:!2015,!Cambridge!University!Press.!Garrido!Ardila!devotes!one! paragraph!of!a!five!hundred>page!study!to!Italy’s!role!within!the!European! picaresque.!! ! 189!See!Harry!Sieber.!The5Picaresque.!London:!Methuen,!1977.!! 157! ! Although!the!Italians!did!not!follow!the!French,!English,!and!German!in!the! production!of!an!autochthonous!picaresque!literature,!Italy!looked!to!translation! and!printing!as!a!way!to!carve!a!space!for!the!language!of!the!tre5corone!within!the! growing!picaresque!corpus.!As!a!publishing!powerhouse,!early!modern!Venice!is! one!greatest!printers!of!Spanish!picaresque!translation!in!the!seventeenth!century! and!of!Spanish!exploration!in!the!cincuecento.!The!Venetian!book!merchant!of!the!

Spanish!picaresque!wrote!and!rewrote!over!the!original5Lazarillo!and!all!of!its! iterations.!The!Picariglio5renegotiates!the!Spanish!raw!material!from!the!Iberian!

Peninsula,!while!infusing!it!with!questions!concerning!national!identity!and!the! inchoate!grouping!of!the!libros5de5pícaros.55In!the!Picariglio5Castigliano5Lázaro!is!no! longer!from!Tormes,!and!thus!Salamanca.!Instead!he!is!Castilian,!or!Spanish.!The! text!has!undergone!a!significant!transformation,!from!a!slight!book!of!fiction! containing!a!hundred!pages,!to!a!tome!of!over!three!hundred.!Continuing!the!work! of!Maria!Consolata!Pangallo,!Maurizio!Masala,!Elisa!Aragone,!Edmond!Cros,!Bruno!

Basile,!and!José!Luis!Colomer,!this!chapter!argues!that!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!Picariglio5

Castigliano!contributed!to!a!pan>European!conflation!of!Spaniards!with!pícaros5and5 linked!Cervantes’5Gitanilla5to5the!growing!corpus!of!picaresque!literature.!

Barezzo!Barezzi!is!the!most!significant!printer,!editor,!translator,!and!writer! of!the!Spanish!picaresque!in!Italy.!Within!the!first!half!of!the!seventeenth!century,!

Barezzi’s!Venetian!printing!press!produced!five!editions!of!the!Vita5del!Picaro5

Gusmano5d’Alfarace!(Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache)(1606,!1615,!1621,!1622,!

1629),!four!translations!of!the!anonymous!Lazarillo!with!Cervantes’!Gitanilla,!

158! ! known!as!the!Picariglio5Castigliano,!5(1622,!1626,!1635),!and!four!adaptations!of!

Francisco!López!de!Úbeda’s!Picara5Justina!(Medina!del!Campo,!1605),!known!as!the!

Vita5della5Picara5Giustina5Diez5(1624!and!1625).!In!1626,!Barezzi’s!press!also! published!the!first!editions!in!Italian!of!Cervantes’5Novelas5ejemplares,5translated!by5

Noviliers!Clavel,!as!Il5noveliere5castigliano.!His!!influence!is!far>reching.!We!know! that!Galileo!had!a!copy!of!Barezzi’s5Picariglio!in!his!personal!library.!Along!with!an!

Italian!translation!of!Don5Quixote,5Galileo!owned!“la!versione!italiana!del!Lazarillo!de!

Tormes,“!translated!as!“Il!picariglio!castigliano!da!Barezzi,”!(Battistini,!2).190!!

Barezzi!was!a!mediator,!between!Spain!and!Italy,!of!Spanish!texts!in! translation.!Broadly!familiar!with!Spanish!literature,!Barezzi!published!L'Essanima5 degl'ingegni!by!Huarte!de!San!Juan!(1600;!1604),!Gonzalo!de!Céspedes!y!Meneses’!

Poema5trágico5del5español5Gerardo!and$posthumously,$the$works$of$San$Juan$de$la$

Cruz%(1643)%and%Santa%Teresa%de%Jesús%(1643%and%1649).%In%“Luis%Sánchez,%Ginés%de%

Pasamonte)y)los)inventores)del)género)picaresco,”)Claudio)Guillén)first)underscored) the!importance!of!Iberian!mediators,!such#as#editors,#booksellers#and#printers,# emphasizing+the+role+that+the+Madrid+printer+Luis+Sánchez+played+in+linking+the+

Lazarillo5and!the!Guzmán,!thus5fueling!the!reprinting!of!the5Lazarillo5(“Genre”!144>6! and!157).191!Felipe!Ruan’s!yet!unpublished!essay,!“The!Field!of!Literary!Production,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 190!See!Andrea!Battistini.!Galileo5e5i5gesuiti:5miti5letterari5e5retorica5della5scienza.! Milano:!Vita!e!Pensiero,!2000.!! ! 191!See!Luis!Sánchez.!“Ginés!de!Pasamonte!y!los!inventores!del!género!picaresco,”! in!Homenaje5a5Antonio5Rodríguez5Moñino.!Madrid:!Castalia,!1966.!I,!221>31.! Reprinted!in“Luis!Sánchez,!Ginés!de!Pasamonte!y!el!descubrimiento!del!género! 159! ! Guzmán5de5Alfarache5and!the!Early!Fashioning!of!Picaresque!Genre,”!further! develops!the!importance!of!these!nodes!of!cultural!production.192!

While!Barezzo!Barezzi!boasted!a!significant!role!within!the!booming!

Venetian!book!market,!our!knowledge!of!his!personal!biography!is!scant.!Maria!

Consolata!Pangallo!and!Elisa!Aragone!explain!that!he!was!born!in!Cremona!around!

1560.!Barezzi!is!thought!to!have!been!the!son!of!a!farmer.!He!moved!to!Venice! before!the!age!of!20,!in!order!to!learn!the!art!of!printing.!Barezzi!gained!access!to!the! workshop!of!the!famed!Francesco!Ziletti,!working!there!for!ten!years.!!We!know!that! he!began!to!use!his!own!name!in!printing!in!1588.!In!that!year!he!was!listed!in!the!

Giunta5di5tre5libri5di5Tomaso5Costo5...5al5compendio5dell'Istoria5del5Regno5di5Napoli.!

Barezzi!is!first!mentioned!in!1591!in!the!Atti5dei5Libreri5Stampatori.!!He!collaborated! with!the!Venetian!merchant!and!printer,!Andrea!Muschio!in!1588!and!1594,!with! editor!and!bookseller!Bernando!Basa,!active!in!Venice!and!Rome!in!1592,!and!in!

1601!with!publisher!Mattia!Collosini.!Barezzi!also!traveled!widely!and!attended! book!fairs!in!search!of!new!material.193!From!these!seasoned!memebers!of!the! publishing!world!Barezzi!gained!the!knowledge!and!skills!that!allowed!him!to! become!the!successful!book!merchant!Barezzo!Barezzi:!editor,!printer,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! picaresco.”!El5primer!Siglo5de5Oro5(Estudios5sobre5géneros5y5modelos).!Barcelona:! Crítica,!1988.!97>211.!! ! 192!See!Felipe!Ruan.“The!Field!of!Literary!Production,!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!and!the! Early!Fashioning!of!Picaresque!Genre.”!Academia.edu.!Web.!! ! 193!See!Elisa!Aragone.!“Barezzo!Barezzi!stampatore!e!ispanista!del!Seicento,”!in! Rivista5di5letterature5moderne5e5comparate.!!XIV,!1961.!284>312.!! 160! ! translator.!

Before!delving!into!Barezzo!Barezzi,!let!us!review!the!versions!and! continuations!of!Lazarillo!that!influenced!the!Picariglio.5In!1554!the!anonymous!

Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5adversidades5was!published! simultaneously!in!Burgos,!Antwerp,!and!Alcalá!de!Henares,!with!variations!among! the!three!examples!(Figures!4.4,!4.5,!4.6,!4.7).194!The!edition!from!Alcalá!holds!the! most!significant!changes!of!the!three!original!texts.!This!Lazarillo5has!several! episodes!that!are!not!even!mentioned!in!the!Burgos!and!Antwerp!examples.!The!

Alcalá!example!concludes!the!seventh!tratado!promising!the!author’s!continuation! of!the!text!at!a!later!date.!Scholars!have!suggested!that!these!nuances!are!the! product!of!an!original!Lazarillo5manuscript!that!was!most!likely!in!circulation!prior! to!1554!and!has!been!lost.!Whatever!the!source!of!the!original!Lazarillo,!by!1559,! the!anonymous!Vida5had!been!placed!on!the!Index5Librorum5Prohibitorum5and!all! further!editions!were!prohibited!inside!Spain.!In!1573,!an!abridged!version—! omitting!tratados5IV!and!V,!along!with!other!items!displeasing!to!a!watchful!

Inquisition—!was!printed.!Reyes!Coll>Tellechea’s!Lazarillo5Castigado:5Historia5de5un5 olvidado5(2011)!finds!that!it!is!the!“mutilated”5Lazarillo5that!circulated!in!Spain!until! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 194!Jack!Weiner!documents!José!Caso!González’s!theory!that!there!were!two!original! manuscripts!that!have!been!lost:!“En!su!edición!de!El5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5(1967),! sugiere!que!la!edición!de!Alcalá!viene!de!un!manuscrito!(X),!ya!perdido,!que!él!llama! distinto!a!otro!manuscrito!extraviado!que!designa!con!la!letra!X,!sobre!la!cual!se! basaron!las!ediciones!de!Amberes!y!de!Burgos.!Además!considera!que!las! interpolaciones!de!Alcalá!«proceden!sin!ningún!género!de!duda!de!la!X!»,!y!que! podrían!ser!del!autor!del!hipotético!Libro5de5Lázaro5de5Tormes”!(1554).5Jack!Weiner.! “Las!interpretaciones!en!el!Lazarillo5de5Tormes”!in!AIH5Alcalá!de!Henares5Actas5IV! (1971).! 161! ! the!nineteenth!century.!Coll>Tellechea!maintains!that!this!edited!version!is!in!fact! court!propaganda!released!by!one!of!Felipe!II’s!highest!officials.!Coll>Tellechea! denies!that!Lazarillo5was!banned!because!of!its!anticlerical!roots,!emphasizing,! instead,!its!rhetorical!gestures!in!opposition!to!court!and!monarchy.195!The! expurgated!Lazarillo5was!published!together!with!Torres!Naharro’s!Propalladia!

(originally!released!in!Naples!in!1517!along!with!Gracián!Dantisco’s!Galateo5español! and!banned!in!1559)!at!least!five!times!between!1599!and!1607.5

Figure!4.1.!Anónimo,!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5adversidades,5 1554,!Burgos!

! !

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 195!For!a!study!of!the!connection!between!court!life!and!the!picaresque,!see!Felipe! Ruan’s!Pícaro5and5Cortesano:5Identity5and5Forms5of5Capital5in5Early5Picaresque5 Narrative5and5Courtesy5Literature.5Lewisburg:!Bucknell!University!Press,!2011.! 162! ! Figure!4.2.!Anónimo,!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5adversidades,5 1554,!Alcalá!

! ( ( ( Figure!4.3.!Anónimo,!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5adversidades,5 1554,!Medina!del!Campo( (

( ! 163! ! Figure!4.4.!Anónimo,!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5adversidades,5 1554,!Antwerp!

( ( As!a!best>selling!text,!the!Lazarillo5quickly!multiplied!in!continuations!and! translations,!both!within!and!beyond!the!Iberian!Peninsula.!Marcel!Bataillon!noted!a! prolongation!already!in!the!1554!Alcalá!example:!“las!interpolaciones196!de!Alcalá!

(1554),!por!precipitadamente!que!fueran!añadidas!al!libro!pueden!ser!consideradas! ya!como!una!especie!de!continuación!y!muy!significativa”!(78).197!Bataillon’s!theory! falls!in!line!with!those!of!Chandler,!Ayala,!and!Sicroff,!who!saw!the!Lazarillo5as!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 196!Jack!Weiner!explains!some!of!the!major!criticism!to!these!additions:!“La!mayoría! de!los!críticos!considera!que!no!sólo!no!son!del!autor!las!interpolaciones!sino!que! son!superfluas!e!impertinentes!y!no!se!relacionan!de!ninguna!manera!con!el!texto.! Por!ejemplo,!Adolfo!Bonilla!y!San!Martín!comenta!que!son!«de!pobre!inventiva,!que! nada!avaloran,!antes!bien!desfiguran!el!original,!despegándose!de!él!a!todas!luces»!>.! Martín!Riquer!observa:!«Se!trata,!pues,!de!adiciones!extemporáneas!y!apócrifas,! introducidas!por!lo!general!de!un!modo!arbitrario!y!rompiendo!la!ilación!de!los! episodios».!“Las!interpretaciones!en!el!Lazarillo5de5Tormes,!”!in!AIH5Actas5IV!(1971).!!

197!See!Marcel!Bataillon.!Novedad5y5fecundidad5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Salamanca:! Anaya,!1968.! 164! ! unfinished.198!If!we!are!to!take!the!Alcalá!(1554)!Lazarillo5as!the!first!extension,!then! the!second!continuation!surfaces!only!a!year!later,!in!Antwerp.!!

The!text,!aptly!titled,!La5Segunda5Parte5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5Sus5

Fortunas5y5Adversidades,5which!chronicles!Lázaro’s!metamorphosis!as!a!tuna!fish! and!his!adventures!in!an!underwater!kingdom,!is!partially!absorbed!into!Barezzi’s!

Picariglio.!Modeled!after!Apuleius’!Golden5Ass,5and!made!up!of!eighteen!chapters,!it! begins!with!the!last!phrase!of!the!seventh!tratado!of!the!original5Lazarillo:!“En!este! tiempo!estaba!en!mi!prosperidad!y!en!la!cumbre!de!toda!buena!fortuna”!(125).199!

Although!this!second!part!did!not!have!much!literary!success,!Bataillon!documents! that!the!first!chapter!served!as!the!culmination,!or!eighth!chapter,!for!various!early! editions!(1968,!81).!The!first!chapter!of!this!second!part!concerns!itself!with!

Lazarillo’s!adventures!with!some!Germans!who!had!arrived!in!Toledo!with!Charles!

V.!This!first!chapter!closes!the!Picariglio5Castigliano.5!Lázaro’s!antics!with!the!

Germans!are!translated!by!Barezzi!in!the!following!way:!!

Così5io5me5ne5stava5godendo5il5Mondo,5ritrovandomi5in5una5felice5 prosperità,5e5nel5colmo5d’ogni5buona5fortuna,5perché5cotidianamente5 haveva5molti5affari5per5le5mani,5e5quando5questi5mancavano,5me5 n’andava5per5la5Città5con5un5canestrino5pieno5di5varie5sorti5di5pretiosi5 vini,5che5nascono5nel5contorno5di5Toledo,5per5mostra5di5quello,5che5 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 198!See!Francisco!de!Ayala.!“El!Lazarillo:5Nuevo!examen!de!algunos!aspectos,”!in! Cuadernos5Americanos!XXVI!(January,!1967).!231.!In!this!light,!tratados5IV!and!VI!are! viewed!more!as!outlines!of!sections,!rather!than!fully!developed!chapters.!Sicroff! went!as!far!as!arguing!that!the!text’s!anonymity!is!an!authorial!decision!not!to!sign! his!unfinished!manuscript,!and!Ayala!theorized!that!the!author!only!published!the! partial!Lazarillo5at!the!insistence!of!his!friends.!! ! 199!See!Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Ed.!Francisco!Rico.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2006.! 165! ! s’havea5da5incantare,5e5vendere,5che5per5ciò5acquistai5tanti5amici,5e5 Signori,5così5Cittadini,5come5Forastieri,5e5ispecialmente5Tedeschi.!che5 ovunque5io5andava,5per5me5non5v’era5porta5serrata;5io5haveva5il5vento5in5 poppa;5e5la5nave5c’ha5buon5vento,5arriva5presto5in5porto,5e5tanto5mi5viddi5 favorito,5che5mi5pareva,5se5all’hora5havesse5ucciso5un5huomo,5o5mi5fusse5 occorso5qualunque5altro5grande5accidente,5haverei5havuto5tutto5’l5 Mondo5dalla5mia,5e5trovato5da5tutti5quei5miei5Signori5ogni5aiuto,5e5 soccorso,5e5ciò5perché5mai5li5lasciava5a5bocca5asciuta,5conducendoli5 meco5al5meglior5luogo,5dove5vi5si5trovava5ottimo,5e5saporosissimo5vino,ne5 quali5alberghi5facevamo5una5buona,5e5splendida5vita,5e5ivi5molte5volte5mi5 occorse5entrare5con5li5nostri5piedi,5e5uscirne5con5gli5altrui:5e5il5meglio5 d’ogni5cosa5era,5che5in5tutto5questo5tempo,5benedetto5il5quattrino,5che5 Lazariglio5de5Tormes5spendesse,5né5mai5mi5lasciavano5spendere,5anzi5se5 qualche5volta,5con5artificio,5io5metteva5mano5alla5borsa,5fingendo5voler5 pagare,5l’havevano5per5affronto,5e5mi5guardavano,5come5adirati5dicendo;5 Nit,5Nit,5asticoz5lanz;5come5che5dir5volessero,5Che5dove5essi5erano,5non5si5 doveva5pagar5niente.5

En!este!tiempo!estaba!en!mi!prosperidad!y!en!la!cumbre!de!toda! buena!fortuna,!y!como!yo!siempre!anduviesse!acompañado!de!una! buena!galleta!de!unos!buenos!frutos!que!en!esta!tierra!se!crían,!para! muestra!de!lo!que!pregonaba,!cobré!tantos!amigos!y!señores,!assí! naturales!como!estranjeros,!que!do!quiera!que!llegaba!no!había!para! mí!puerta!cerrada;!y!en!tanta!manera!me!vi!favorescido,!que!me! parece,!si!entonces!matara!un!hombre,!o!me!acaeciera!algún!caso! recio,!hallara!a!todo!el!mundo!de!mi!bando!y!tuviera!en!aquellos!mis! señores!todo!favor!y!socorro.!Mas!yo!nunca!los!dexaba!boquisecos,! queriéndolos!llevar!comigo!a!lo!mejor!que!yo!había!echado!en!la! ciudad,!a!do!hacíamos!la!buena!y!espléndida!vida!y!xira;!allí!nos! aconteció!muchas!veces!entrar!en!nuestros!pies!y!salir!en!ajenos.!Y!lo! mejor!desto!es!que!todo!este!tiempo,!maldita!la!blanca!Lázaro!de! Tormes!gastó,!ni!se!la!consentían!gastar;!antes,!si!alguna!vez!yo!de! industria!echaba!mano!a!la!bolsa!fingiendo!quererlo!pagar,!tomábanlo! por!afrenta!y!mirábanme!con!alguna!ira!y!decían:!Nite,5nite,5Asticot,5 lanz,!reprehendiéndome!diciendo!que!do!ellos!estaban!nadie!había!de! pagar!blanca.!(La5Segunda5Parte5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5Sus5 Fortunas5y5Adversidades,5Chapt.!1)!

While!the!original!Segunda5Parte!solely!uses!language!to!refer!to!his!German!friends,!

“Nite,!Nite,!Asticot,!Lanz,”!the!Picariglio5also!names!them!within!the!text:!“Tedeschi.”!

With!Barezzi’s!addition!of!the!first!chapter!of!the!Segunda5Parte!as!the!concluding!

166! ! tratado!of!his5Picariglio,!Lazarillo’s!prosperity!is!tied,!not!only!to!securing!a!future! through!an!advanatageous,!albeit!immoral!marriage,!but!gaining!powerful!foreign! friends!associated!with!the!Emperor!and!the!Spanish!court.!In!this!new!barter! system,!Lázaro!provides!wine!and!knowledge!of!Toledo’s!nightlife,!while!his!foreign! friends!fund!the!evening’s!festivities.!!

In!the!years!leading!up!to!the!Picariglio,!it!is!the!Lazarillo,!edited!by!the! severe!hands!of!the!Inquisition!that!circulates!within!the!Iberian!Peninsula.!In!1599! the!expurgated!Lázarillo,!now!known!as!“castigado,”!is!published!in!Madrid!by!Luis!

Sánchez!and!in!Zaragoza!by!Juan!Pérez!de!Valdivielso:!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5castigado.5

Agora5Nuevamente5Impreso5e5enmendado!(Figure!4.5).5Barcelona’s!1599!edition! flaunts!its!acceptance!by!the!Inquisition:5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5nuevamente5corregido.5

Con5licencia5de5la5Santa5Inquisición5y5del5ordinario.5In!a!triple!volume,!the!turn!of!the! century!also!saw!Lázaro5accompanied!by!two!Italian!texts!adapted!by!Lucas!Gracián!

Dantisco,!the!Galateo5español5and!Destierro5de5ignorancia.!It!is!reissued!in!1603!in!

Valladolid.!The!Lazarillo5is!published!on!its!own!in!Medina!del!Camp!(1603),!Alcalá!

(1607),!Lérida!(1612),!and!Barcelona!(1620!and!1621).200!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 200!The!chronology!of!these!editions!is!cited!in!Reyes!Coll!–Tellechea.5Lazarillo5 Castigado:5Historia5de5un5olvido5(1559c1573c1584).5Madrid:!Ediciones!Orto,!2010.! ! 167! ! !

Figure!4.5.!Velasco,!Lazarillo5Castigado,!1573,!Madrid!

! !

While!in!Spain!Lazarillo’s5growth!was!stunted!by!the!Inquisition,!it!had!a!very! different!fate!abroad.!Beyond!the!Pyrenees,!the!original!Vida5continued!to!be!printed! intact,!in!Spanish,!often!followed!by!the!Segunda5Parte.5In!1555,!there!was!a!second!

Antwerp!edition,!which!included!the!first!and!second!parts.!In!1587!and!1597,!the!

Lazarillo5“set”!was!published!in!Spanish!by!Antonio!deglo!Antoni!in!Milan,!while!the! remaining!unsold!lot!was!reissued!in!Bérgamo.201!Jean!Saugrain!published!the!first! translation!of!the!Lazarillo!into!French!in!1561.!David!Rowland!offered!the!first!

English!translation!in!1576!(reissued!in!1586,!1596,!1624!and!1653).!William!

Phiston!translated!he!“Segunda!Parte”!in!1596.!By!1615,!when!the!Milanese!Juan!de!

Bidelo!(fig.!6)!rereleased!the!pair!in!Spanish,!he!underlined!the!many!years!the!text! lay!dormant!and!was!nearly!forgotten:!“casi5olvidada”!y!“carcomida.”!While!both! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 201!See!A.!Rumeau!“Notes!au!Lazarillo.5Des!editions!d’Anvers!1554>1555,!a!celles!de! Milan!1587>1615.”!Bulletin5Hispanique!LXVI!(1964)!n.s.!3>4.!272>293.!! 168! ! parts!of!the!Lazarillo!were!being!widely!read!in!the!original!on!Italian!soil,!Barezzo!

Barezzi!published!its!first!Italian!translation!of!the!text.!

Figure!4.6.!Antonio!degli!Antoni,!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5y5de5sus5fortunas5y5 adversidades,51578,!Milan!

! !

Juan!de!Luna’s!Segunda5parte5(1620)!(Figure!4.7)!was!published!in!Paris!two! years!before!Barezzi’s!Picariglio5Castigliano.!202!Juan!de!Luna!was!an!exiled!

Spaniard,!who!immigrated!first!to!Paris!in!1612,!and!then!in!1621,!to!London.!As! declared!by!Luna!in!his!Arte5Breve,5he!left!Spain!in!1612!for!a!“justa!y!legítima!causa”! and!then!left!London!for!Paris!in!order!to!“confesar!la!verdadera!religión”!(Piñero!

72).!In!England,!he!begings!to!work!as!a!protestant!priest.!The!text,!which!opens! with!Lázaro!leaving!for!war!in!Algiers,!was!written!in!Spanish!and!sold!along!with! the!original!1554!edition.!The!exiled!author!is!described!as!“intérprete!de!la!lengua!

Española”!on!the!title!page.!Although!Luna!was!teaching!Spanish!in!Paris,!and!had! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 202!See!Juan!de!Luna.!Segunda5parte5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.5Ed.!P.M.!Piñeiro.!Madrid:! Cátdera,!1988.! 169! ! recently!published!his!“Arte5breve5y5compendiosa5para5aprender5a5leer,5pronunciar,5 escribir5y5hablar5la5lengua5española,”!his!role!as!“interpreter”!seems!to!move!beyond! the!realm!of!the!classroom.!Luna!lists!himself!as!as!“J.!de!Luna.!Castellano”!on!the! text’s!cover.!In!this!way,!he!gives!himelf!agency!to!speak!for!and!as!his!fellow!

Castilians.!Luna!is!an!important!precursor!to!Barezzi’s!translation!of!Spaniards!as! pícaros.5

Figure!4.7.!Juan!de!Luna,!Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes,!1620,!Paris!

! Laying!the!groundwork!for!Barezzi,!instead!of!turning!the!protagonist!into!a! fish,!Luna’s!pícaro5becomes!a!Spaniard,!and!his!text,!a!biography.!The!title! announces!that!the!book!at!hand!is!based!on!a!historical!chronicle!found!in!Toledo:!

“Segunda5Parte5de5la5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Sacada5de5las5Coronicas5Antiguas5de5

170! ! Toledo.”52035In!the!letter!to!his!readers,!Luna!explains!that!he!has!been!moved!to! correct!the!fallacies!printed!in!the!first!Segunda5parte5of!1555:!!

Este!libro,!digo,!ha!sido!el5primer!motivo!que!me!ha!movido!a!sacar!a! luz!esta!Segunda5parte5al!pie!de!letra,!sin!quitar!ni!añadir,!como!la!vi! escrita!en!unos!cartapacios,!en!el!archivo!de!la!jacarandina!de!Toledo,! que!se!conformaba!con!lo!que!había!oído!contar!cien!veces!a!mi!abuela! y!tías!al!fuego!las!noches!de!invierno,!y!con!lo!que!me!destetó!mi!ama.! (267)!!

Here,!Luna!parodies!the!trope!of!a!family’s!history!taken!from!a!mother’s!milk.!!

While!it!is!not!clear!if!his!readers!would!understand!there!is!no!such!archive!in!

Toledo,!that!“jacarandina”!is!argot!for!thief,204!and!that!the!subtext!may!be!

Cervantes’!allusion!to!Don5Quixote5being!written!in!the!annals!of!la!Mancha,!Luna’s! affirmation!seems!to!both!establish!and!negate!his!role!as!a!“true”!historian.205!He! situates!himself!as!a!Spaniard!with!access!to!first>hand!oral!history.!He!not!only!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 203!According!to!Chandler,!“After!1620,!Juan!de!Luna's!sequel!was!usually!included! in!all!translations”!(210).! ! 204!See!María%Inés%Chamorro'Fernández.!Tesoro&de&villanos.&Diccionario&de&germanía.! (Barcelona:!Herder,!2002):«De!jácara.!Los!rufos,5jaques,!jácaros,)germanes,)rufianes,) pícaros,)coimas,"de"su"braveza"hacían"una"profesión"y"vivían"al"margen"de"la"ley" ejerciendo)el)crimen,)el)fraude)y)la)prostitución.)Formaron)un)gremio)que)se) denominó(jacarandina,5rufianesca,5jacaranda,5o5germanía,!y!se!asentaron$ básicamente+en+la+ciudad+de+Sevilla»+(s.v.5jacarandina).!(From!jácara.!Los!rufos,' jaques,(jácaros,(germanes,(rufianes,(pícaros,(coimas,!they!made!a!living!from!their! braveza5and!lived!outside!the!law!as!criminals,!practicing!fraud!fand!prostitution.! They!formed!a!union!that!was!called!jacarandina,5rufianesca5,5jacaranda,5or5 germanía,!and!basically!rum!settlements!in!the!city!of!Seville).! ! 205!For!a!study!of!“jacarandina”!and!general!early!modern!“argot,”!see!José!Luis! Hernández!Alonso.!El5lexico5del5marginalismo5en5el5Siglo5de5Oro.!Salamanca:! Universidad!de!Salamanca,!1977.!! ! ! 171! ! heard!these!tales,!but,!like!his!mother!tongue,!was!raised!with!them.!Before!he!signs!

“vale,”!Luna!underlines!his!preferred!role!as!historian:!“Y!así!mesmo!le!advierto!me! tenga!por!coronista,!y!no!por!autor!desta!obra”!(269).!The!author!of!the!second!

Segunda5parte5would!like!his!text!to!be!read!as!historical!fact!and!not!fictional! entertainment.!As!Francisco!Rico!has!noted!in!his!edition!of!the!Lazarillo,5“no!se! contenta!con!mostrar!un!paisaje!verosímil,!sino!que!todo!él!se!finge!verdadero”!(64).!

Here,!there!is!a!thin!line!between!fiction!and!history.!Like!Barezzi’s!Pícariglio,!Luna’s!

Lazarillo!is!attempting!to!pass!as!biography.!5

Although!Luna!takes!characters!from!the!1554!original,!as!well!as!prompts! from!the!1555!Segunda5parte,!he!is!closer!in!his!approach!to!Quevedo’s!satirical! picaresque!than!to!Alemán’s!didactic!pícaro.!Instead!of!specifying!character!types! within!the!Peninsula,!written!from!Paris,!the!expatriated!Spaniard’s!invective!is! focused!on!the!Spanish!nation!as!a!whole.!This!caustic!review!of!the!population!in! which!he!was!born!and!raised!is!already!present!in!the!dedication!to!the!Illustrious!

Princess!Doña!Henriette!de!Rohan:!“Habiendo!yo!terminado!de!sacar!a!luz!la!

Segunda5parte5de5la5vida5del5gran5Lázaro5de5Tormes,!espejo!e!dechado!de!la! sobriedad!española”!(264).!The!Princess’!brother,!Duke!Henri!de!Rohan,!lead!the!

French!Protestants!against!the!Catholics!(Pierre!Goubert,!en!el!prefacio!de!Henri5de5

Rohan,5huguenot!de5plume5et5d’épée).206!When!Luna!proclaims!that!the!great!Lázaro! is!the!mirror!and!worthy!model!of!Spanish!gravitas,!he!is!doing!so!with!tongue!in! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 206!See!Solange!and!Pierre!Deyon.!Henri5de5Rohan,5huguenot5de5plume5et5d’épée.!Paris:! Perrin,!2000.!! ! 172! ! check.!In!France,!pícaro5had!been!translated!as!gueux,!or!beggar.!Through!Luna,!and! then!Barezzi,!the!restrained!elegance!that!Castiglione’s!Cortegiano5afforded!Spanish! gentlemen!is!replaced!by!shifty!pícaros.!!

!The!Segunda5Parte5de5la5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Sacada5de5las5Coronicas5

Antiguas5de5Toledo5depicts!Spaniards!as!indolent!and!haughty!braggarts!with! invented!genealogies.207!From!Paris,!Luna!describes!the!many!shortcomings!of!his! former!countrymen:!

Cuando!los!españoles!alcanzamos!un!real,!somos!príncipes,!y!aunque! nos!falte,!no!lo!hace!la!presunción.!Si!preguntáis!a!un!mal!trapillo! quién!es,!responderos!ha,!por!lo!menos,!que!deciende!de!los!godos,!y! que!su!corta!suerte!lo!tiene!arrinconado,!siendo!propio!del!mundo! loco!levantar!a!los!bajos!y!abajar!a!los!altas;!pero!que!aunque!así!sea,! no!dará!a!torcer!su!brazo,!ni!se!estima!en!menos!que!el!más!preciado,! y!morirá!antes!de!hambre!que!ponerse!a!un!oficio;!y!si!se!ponen!o! aprenden!alguno,!(es)!con!tal!desgaire,!que!o!no!trabajan,!o!si!lo!hacen,! es!tan!mal,!que!apenas!se!hallará!un!buen!oficial!en!toda!España.!(310> 311)!

Here,!the!core!of!Spanish!values!are!dismantled.!If!his!countrymen!are!obsessed! with!purity!of!blood,!Luna!accuses!them!of!inventing!geneologies!and!claiming!to! descend!from!the!Goths!(“que!desciend!de!los!godos”).!The!hierarchy!of!the!nobility! is!likewise!attacked.!Through!the!dual!use!of!“real”!as!both!royal!(real)!and!the!name! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 207!Viaje5de5Turquía5(1557)!addresses!the!terrible!reputation!of!Spaniards,!caused!by! their!arrogance:!“y!entre!todas!las!naciones!del!mundo!somos!los!españoles!los!mal! malquistos!de!todos,!y!con!grandísima!razón,!por!la!soberbia,!que!en!los!días!que! sirvimos!queremos!luego!ser!amos...”!The!text!goes!on!to!further!discredit!Spanish! gentlemen!of!illustrious!surnames,!who!steal!and!lie,!and!if!invited!to!dinner,!will! take!the!entirety!of!the!house!with!them.!It!details!the!case!of!a!very!noble!Spanish! gentleman,!who!having!lived!and!died!in!Italy,!leaves!behind!a!letter!written!by!his! father,!which!exposes!him!as!a!grand!liar,!having!fabricated!a!life!in!France!that!was! filled!with!luxury!and!adventure.! 173! ! of!a!coin!(real),!Luna!suggests!that!money!purchases!titles.!When!a!Spaniard!owns!a!

“real”!(coin),!he!calls!himself!a!prince.!Far!from!the!composure!of!the!Cortegiano5and! the!miles5gloriosus,!this!fabricated!Spaniard!is!also!indolent.!Attacking!the!nobility’s! otium5cum5dignitate,!Luna!observes!that!a!Spaniard!would!rather!die!of!hunger!than! work.!!

Given!this!attack!on!Spanish!gentlemen!in!Luna’s!text!the!escudero!takes!on! the!qualities!of!a5pícaro!and!dresses!as!such.!The!Squire!reappears!as!a!physically! and!morally!depleted!character,!described!as!a!“semihombre!que!más!parecía! cabrón,”!and!a!“ladrón!fanfarrón”!(275,!279).!The!escudero,5who!formerly!walked! with!“paso!sosegado”!and!wore!Spanish!honor!as!if!it!were!a!cape,!covers!his!head! with!a!“sombrero!a!lo!picaresco”!(276).!As!a!member!of!the!lowest!class!of!nobility,! the!escudero5is!forced!to!live!from!his!dwindling!rents.!As!Carroll!Johnson!has! explained,!Lazarillo!and!Don!Quixote!are!the!best!developed!literary!representations! of!“an!entire!social!class!whose!reason!for!being!has!disappeared,!that!finds!itself!in! a!kind!of!limbo!waiting!for!new!institutions!and!new!social!structures!to!develop! where!there!will!be!a!place!and!a!role!for!them”!(2>3).208!Here,!the!escudero’s! contradictory!cues!of!walking!as!a!gentleman,!while!sporting!a!rogue’s!hat,!prohibits! him!from!hiding!his!fall!from!grace.!Luna’s!escudero5even!exchanges!his!tattered! clothes!for!Lázaro’s!outerwear!while!he!sleeps.!Lázaro!denounces!the!Squire’s! actions:!“daba!al!diablo!al!ladrón!fanfarrón!que!me!había!tenido!la!mitad!de!la!noche! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 208!See!Carroll!Johnson.!Cervantes5and5the5Material5World.!Champaign:!University!of! Illinois!Press,!2000.!! ! 174! ! contando!grandezas!de!su!persona!y!linaje”!(279>280).!In!this!way,!the!escudero5is!a! mélange!of!the!fictional!pícaros5and!the!Spaniards!described!by!Luna.!His!tattered! and!torn!dress!is!replaced!by!Lázaro’s!outerwear—that!of!a!social!inferior—!and!his! speech!is!hyperbolic!and!filled!with!suspicious!truths.!Two!years!before!the!

Picariglio5Castigliano,!Luna’s!Segunda5Parte5unmasks!the!literary!hidalgo5and!his! historical!countrymen!as!half!men!who!resemble!goats!(cuckolded!men!or!bastards)! and!boasting!thieves.!

In!1561,!the!French!Jean!Saugrain!had!already!tied!Lázaro,!the!pícaro,55to!the!

Spanish!nation.!The!title!of!his!Histoire5plaisante5et5facetieuse5de5Lazare5de5Tormes5

Espagñol,!makes!Lázaro!from!Tormes,!but!also!Spanish!(Espagñol).!David!Rowland! of!Anglesey’s,!The5Pleasant5History5of5Lazarillo5de5Tormes!of!1586,!also!makes!

Lazarillo!a!historical!character:!“besides!much!mirth,”!explains!Rowland!in!the! introduction:!!!

here!is!also!a!true!description!of!the!nature!and!disposition!of!sundrie! Spaniards.!So!that!by!reading!hereof,!such!as!have!not!traveled!Spaine,! may!as!well!discerne!much!of!the!manners!and!customs!of!that! country,!as!those!that!there!have!long!time!continued.!(Prologue)!!

The!English!translation!insists!that!the!reader!will!have!a!first>hand!account!(a!true! description)!of!Spaniards!and!Spain!through!the!Lazarillo.!As!true!armchair! travellers,!the!readers!of!the!text!will!simulate!actual!movement!within!the!Iberian!

Peninsula.!Lazarillo’s!anonymous!characters!are!made!to!reflect!“the!nature!and! disposition!of!sundrie!Spaniards,”!as!well!as!the!“manners!and!customs”!of!Spain.!!

175! ! Barezzo!Barezzi’s!1622!version!of!the!Lazarillo5(1554),!known!as!the!

Picariglio5Castigliano,5carries!the!mark!of!his!predecessors.!It!is!not!a!mere! translation,!but!also!a!continuation!and!a!literary!palimpsest.!What!is!excluded,! inserted,!and!transformed!in!the!Picariglio5contains!an!ideological!charge.!Barezzi,!a! self!declared!translator,!composer,!and!publisher,!has!written!and!rewritten!over! the!original!Lazarillo5and!all!of!its!iterations.!The!Venetian!book!merchant!of!the!

Spanish!picaresque!renegotiates!the!Spanish!raw!material!from!the!Iberian!

Peninsula,!while!infusing!questions!concerning!national!identity!and!the!inchoate! grouping!of!the!libros5de5pícaros.5Barezzi’s!Picariglio5Castigliano!exemplifies!the!role! of!picaresque!translations!in!the!formation!of!Spanish!identities!outside!the! peninsula.!In!Barezzi’s!version,!Lázaro!is!no!longer!a!fictional!character,!but!a!

Castilian!(Castigliano)!who!wrote,!and!now!continues!(e!hora!accresciuta!dallo! stesso!Lazariglio)!the!autobiography!that!Barezzi!will!carry!across!to!the!Tuscan! language!(trasportare).!!

176! ! Figure!4.8.!Barezzo!Barezzi,!Picariglio5Castigliano,!1622,!Venice!

! !

!!!

!Figure!4.!9.!Picariglio5Castigliano.!Cover!page!text!

IL!PICARIGLIO!CASTIGLIANO,!cioè!

LA!VITA!DI!LAZARIGLIO!DI!TORMES.!

Nell’Academia5Picaresca5lo5Ingegnoso5Sfortuna,5

Composta,!e!hora!accresciuta!dallo!stesso!LAZARIGLIO,!

e!trasportata!dalla!Spagnuola!nell’Italiana!favela!da!BAREZZO!BAREZZI.!

Nella5quale5con5vivaci5Discorsi,5e5gratiosi5Trattenimenti!

177! ! Figure!4.9!(continued).!

si5celebrano5le5Virtù,5e5si5manifestano5le5di5lui,5e5le5altrui5miserie,5e5infelicitadi:5

e!leggiadramente!si!spiegano!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Ammaestramenti!saggi.!Sentenze!gravi,!Avenimenti!mirabili,!Proverbi!sententiosi!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Fatti!egregi,!Capricci!curiosi,!Detti!piacevolie,!Facetie!singolari,!!!!!!

555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555Ornata5di5due5copiosissime5Tavole!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Dedicate!Al!Molto!Mag.!Signor!PIETRO!ZERBINA!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!IN!VENETIA.!Presso!il!Barezzi!MDCXXII!

The!multifaceted!Barezzi!dramatically!rewrote!the!1554!original—!its!

continuations!and!translations—!and!incorporated!the!existing!libros5de5pícaros!in!

his!Picariglio5Castigliano!(Figures!4.8,!4.9).!The!text!goes!from!seven!to!thirty>four!

chapters.!The!Gitanilla,!translated!as!the!Cinganetta5takes!up!nine!chapters!—XVIII!

through!XXVI!—and!more!than!one!hundred!pages,!or!over!one>third!of!the!1622!

text.!The!insertion!of!the!Exemplary5Novel,!together!with!“la!tavola!delle!cose!piu!

memorabili,”!an!encyclopedic,!list!in!alphabetical!order,!of!over!three!hundred!fifty!

subjects!that!will!appear!in!the!text—digressions!of!various!types!that!makes!the!

Picariglio!resemble!a!miscellany—increases!the!slim!original!volume!of!the!Lazarillo5

to5two!hundred!seventy>three!pages!in!the!1622!and!1626!editions.!Eight!more!

chapters!were!added!in!the!definitive!1635!edition,!increasing!the!page!count!to!

three!hundred!seventy>seven.!The!augmented!Picariglio’s5physical!appearance!

serves!to!place!the!Lazarillo!within!the!grouping!of!libros5de5pícaros.!

178! ! !Barezzi!also!uses!the!best>selling!Guzmán5de5Alfarache!as!a!blueprint!for!his!

Pícariglio5Castigliano.!Colomer!has!already!suggested!that!Barezzi!wrote!his!

Picariglio!“sobre!la!falsilla!del!Guzmán”!(399).209!Barezzi!first!incursion!into!the! picaresque!was!his!translation!and!publication!of!the!Pícaro5Gusmano5in!1605.!

Through!the!insertion!of!the!Cinganetta,!Barezzi!establishes!a!connection!to!

Guzmán’s!interpolated!tales!and!makes!the!original!Lazarillo!much!more!physically! similar!to!Alemán’s!text!in!size.!The!thin!one>!hundred!page!original!Lazarillo!would! perhaps!not!have!been!naturally!grouped!with!the!Guzmán5of!four!hundred.!!

Mateo!Alemán’s!text!had!laid!the!groundwork!for!a!new!market!of!readers.!5

In!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5en5la5picaresca!(1972),!Lázaro!Carreter!describes!the! significance!of!the!Guzmán!(1599,!1604)5for!the!reprinting!of!the!Lazarillo.2105

According!to!Carreter,!the!text!had!gone!out!of!favor,!and!was!revived!with!the! printing!of!the!Guzmán.!Alemán’s!phenomenal!editorial!success!has!been!well! documented.!We!know!that!only!Fernando!de!Rojas’!Celestina5outsold!Guzmán,!and! that!there!were!thirty>nine!editions!of!the!Guzmán5de5Alfarache5in!the!seventeenth! century!alone,!while!Don5Quijote!was!edited!twenty>nine!times!(Whinnom).211!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 209!See!José!Luis!Colomer.!“Traducción!y!recepción:!La!lectura!europea!de!la! picaresca!en!“!Il!picariglio!castigliano”!de!Barezzo!Barezzi!(1622).”!In!Revista5de5 Literatura,!53.105/106!(1991):!391>443.! ! 210!See!Fernando!Lázaro!Carreter.!“Para!una!revisión!del!concepto!novela!picaresca,”! in!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5en5la5picaresca.!Barcelona:!Ariel,!1970.!195>229.!! ! 211!See!Keith!Whinnom.“The!Problem!of!the!‘best>seller’!in!Spanish!Golden>Age! literature.”!Bulletin5of5Hispanic5Studies563,!3!(1980):!189>98.! 5 179! ! Furthermore,!in!Books5of5the5Brave!(1949)!Irving!Leonard!documents!that!it!was!

Guzmán,!and!not!Quijote,!which!was!the!most!read!work!of!fiction!in!the!Americas.212!!

Published!in!Madrid!in!1599,!the!text!was!immediately!translated!into!French! by!Gabriel!Chappuys!(1600).!In!Venice,!Barezzi!translates!and!prints!the!first!part!of! the!Guzmán!in!1606.!The!German!translation!was!completed!by!Albertinus!in!1615.!!

The!French!reading!public!could!not!be!satiated,!and!yet!another!French!translation! of!the!first!part!was!issued!in!1619,!followed!by!the!second!part!in!1620.!James!

Mabbe!produced!an!English!edition,!titled!The5Rogue!in!1623!(Colomer,!395>396).!

Mabbe!used!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!Italian!translation!and!the!Spanish!original!to! complete!his!task!as!translator.213!Europe!was!developing!a!taste!for!the!Spanish! picaresque!and!Barezzi!Barezzi,!the!savy!book!merchant!from!Venice,!was!in!the! process!of!becoming!an!authority!on!the!subject.!!

Using!the!Lazarillo5as!a!base!narrative,!while!infusing!the!Picariglio!with! resonances!of!Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán,!the!Picariglio5chronicles!Lázaro’s!trajectory! among!his!many!masters.!Barezzi!both!mimics!and!multiples!Alemán’s!virtuoso! amalgamation!of!literary!codes,!alternating!between!ecclesiastical!sermons!infused! with!moralistic!commentaries!and!tales!of!pícaro5antics!supported!by!popular! sayings.!As!a!speaking!subject,!the!Picariglio!reflects!on!and!admonishes!his!own! actions!with!a!plethora!of!moralistic!commentary.5The!Picariglio’s5cover!page! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 212!See!Irving!Leonard.!Books5of5the5Brave.!Berkeley:!UC!Press,!1992.! ! 213!See!Peter!France.!The5Oxford5Guide5to5Literature5in5English5translation.!Oxford:! Oxford!UP,!2000.!422.! 180! ! (Figure!4.9,!4.10)!already!uderlines!this!marked!difference!with!the!Lazarillo:5“si5 celebrano5le5Virtù,5e5si5manifestano5le5di5lui,5e5le5altrui5miserie,5e5infelicitadi”5(“Virtues! are!celebrated!and!manifested!by!him,!as!well!as!other!misery!and!unhappiness”).!

Like!the!Guzmán,!this!Picariglio’s!protagonist!and!narrator!alternates!between! moralistic!commentaries!and!his!adventures!as!a!pícaro.5!The!cover!page!announces! this!dicotomy:!“Nella5quale5con5vivaci5Discorsi,5e5gratiosi5Trattenimenti”!(of!which! with!animated!speeches!and!amusing!entertainment).!214!Barezzi!dedicates!long! sections!to!the!eradication!of!vice;!including!one!on!the!evils!of!lying:!“Trattasi!delle!

Bugie,!del!Mentire,!delle!Menzogne,!e!cagione!di!cio!é!lo!allontanarsi!dale!Virtu,!e! abbraciare!i!vitji:!e!chi!fugge!L’Oro!s’introduce!all’!aquisto!della!vera!Gloria”!(XL).!(It! is!about!Lies,!Untruths,!Dishonesty,!caused!by!abandoning!virtue!and!embracing! vice:!he!who!flees!from!Gold!comes!closer!to!the!conquest!of!true!Glory”).!Aphorisms! serve!as!chapter!titles.!The!title!of!the!opening!chapter,!for!example,!explains!that! vice!leads!men!to!great!dishonor!(terrible5infamia).!Chapter!IX’s!begins!with,!

“L’avaritia!apporta!danno!grandissimo!all’Huomo.”!Lazarillo!is!constantly!looking!to! get!ahead!in!life,!through!any!means!possible.!He!believes!he!is!at!the!summit!of!his! wheel!of!fortune!(“cumbre!de!la!rueda!de!la!fortuna”)!when!his!home!and!meals!are! attached!to!sharing!his!wife!with!the!local!priest.!In!the!original,!the!reader!infers! the!irony.!Here,!from!the!start,!Barezzi!prepares!us!to!read!Lazarillo’s!story!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 214!There!is!no!modern!print!edition!of!the!Picariglio.5All!refernces!are!from!the! online!version!provided!by!María!Consolata!Pangallo.!It!is!divided!into!chapters,!but! does!not!contain!page!numbers.!Il5Picariglio5Castigliano,5cioe5la5vita5di5Lazariglio5di5 Tormes5In5Venetia.5Presso5il5Barezzi5MDCXXII.5(Artifara,!n.!3,!(July>December!2003),! Editiones,!http://www.artifara.com/rivista3/testi/picariglio.asp.!! ! 181! ! success!as!a!failure.!The!Picariglio!appears!to!have!two!literary!fathers:!Guzmán!and!

Lazarillo.!

While!the!original!Lazarillo5does!not!employ!the!term!“pícaro,”!Barezzi’s! version!infuses!the!text!with!ten!instances,!apart!from!the!title.!The!Picariglio5 defines!pícaro!as!guidonacci:5“che!in!buona!favella!vuol!dir!guidonacci”!(79;!IX)!(that! in!common!language!means!beggar).!Although!neither!pícaro5nor!guidonacci5appear! in!the!Italian!early!modern!dictionary!of!1611,!the!Crusca,215!it!is!associated!with! those!who!give!themselves!to!a!vagrant!mendicant!life.!Pícaro!is!used!to!describe! almost!all!of!the!characters,!including!the!blind!beggar!and!the!vendor!of!Papal!bulls.!

The!Ciego5is!the!head!of!all!picaros:5“Cieco,!generale!di!tutti!i!picari,”!and!the!

Dispensatore5di5Bolle5is!described!as!“il!quale!con!picharesce!inventione!ingannava!le! gente!in!varii!modi”!and!“picarescamente!gratioso”!(IX;!XXIX).!Lázaro!describes!the! action!of!giving!the!Squire!some!bread!as!gentilezza5picaresca:!“Essendosi!posto! silentio,!mi!posi!a!capo!della!scala,!che!altro!luogo!non!v’era!da!sedere,!e!con! gentilezza!picaresca!trassi!del!seno!certi!pezzi!di!pane,!che!m’erano!avanzati!degli! accattati!per!amor!di!Dio”!(XV).!!Here,!nobility!(gentilezza)!and!roguery!(picaresca)! are!married.!!The!“gentilezza!picaresca”!is!an!oxymoron!full!of!irony.!The!Picariglio’s! protagonist!directly!references!the!noble!art!of!roguery:!“e!ritornai!alla!nobil!arte! mia!Picaresca,!fingendomi!ammalato,!con!voce!inferma,!istorte,!e!piegate!le!mani!al! petto,!e!postomi!Iddio!innanti!agli!occhi,!e!la!lingua!nel!suo!nome!sciogliendo,! incominciai!a!chiedere!del!pane!alle!porte,!e!case!più!grandi”!(XVI).!The!“noble!art”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 215!Accademia5della5Crusca! 182! ! of!the!picaresque!entails!a!capacity!to!shapeshift!and!adjust!to!circumstances.!While! the!content!is!faithful!to!the!Spanish!original,!the!constant!references!to!the!term,! pícaro,!remind!us!that!something!has!been!found!in!translation.!!

This!liberal!use!of!“pícaro”!throughout!the!text!ties!the!Picariglio5to!Alemán,! while!also!showing!the!influence!of!the!Pícara5Justina.!The!Pícara,5widely!read!as!a! base!parody!of!Alemán’s!novel,!has!been!studied!for!its!carnavalesque!rhetoric!in!a! female!voice.!While!Marcel!Bataillon!argues!that!it!is!a!contemporary!book!of!the! court,!instead!of!a!provincial!novel,!noting!greater!virtuosity!in!Justina’s!rogue!antics! than!in!those!of!Guzmán!(1969,!29,!190>191),!most!critics!point!to!what!they!deem! as!vast!differences!in!the!intrinsic!literary!values!of!the!two.!Maurice!Molho!has! referred!to!the!Pícara!as!an!empty!shell!(“un5armazón5hueco”)!(1972,!122>123).216!

Harry!Sieber!describes!the5Pícara!as!a!type!of!buffoon!when!compared!to!Guzmán! supreme!roguery!(1977,!28),!and!Francisco!Rico!reads!Justina!as!a!fraud!(“un5fraude5 absurdo”)!(1984,73).217!For!many!readers!the!baroque!language!of!the!text!has!made! it!difficult!to!penetrate!the!world!of!the!Pícara.!Yet,!the!Pícara!is!especially! important!as!part!of!the!nexus!of!novels!that!surrounds!it.!!

The!Pícara5Justina!(1605),!which!Barezzi!had!also!published,!benefited! greatly!from!the!best>selling5Guzmán!and!waged!an!unprecedented!marketing! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 216!See!Maurice!Molho.!Introducción5al5pensamiento5picaresco.!Trans.!A.!Gálvez> Cañero.!Salamanca:!Anaya,!1972.!! ! 217!See!Francisco!Rico.!“Puntos!de!vista.!Posdata!a!unos!ensayos!sobre!la!novela! picaresca”!in!Edad5de5Oro3,!(1984):!227>40.!5 ! 183! ! campaign!to!ensure!a!profitable!outcome!as!a!libro5de5pícaro.The!Pícara5employs!the! semantically!charged!word!“pícaro”!in!the!title,!while!over!sixty!iterations!of!it!fill! the!novel!itself.!Justina!announces!that!Guzmán!will!be!her!third!husband,!even! calling!herself!“Guzmana!de!Alfarache.”!The!novel’s!frontispiece,!said!to!be!the!work! of!Juan!Baptista!Morales,!contains!the!curious!image!of!the!Nave5de5la5vida5picaresca5

(Figure!4.10).!The!Nave5can!be!read!as!a!genealogy!of!Justina5and!the!other!libros5de5 pícaros5and!books!with!picaresque!themes.!Along!with!“Madre!Celestina,”!the!

“Pícara!Justina,”!“Guzmán!de!Alfarache,”!and!“Lazarillo!de!Tormes,”!the!image!is! surrounded!by!twenty>four!boxes!containing!objects!and!letters!which!in!unison! read!“el!ajuar!de!la!vida!picaresca.”!The!Pícara’s!author!would!like!to!ensure!Justina’s! place!within!these!successful!texts.!This!literary!relationship!is!complemented!by! the!“Romance!de!las!Bodas!de!Guzmán!de!Alfarache!y!la!Pícara!Justina.”!The5

Romance!celebrating!Guzmán!and!Justina’s!nuptials!is!actually!published!in!

Barcelona!by!Roman!de!Palau!to!coincide!with!the!Pícara’s!editorial!debut.!

184! ! Figure!4.10.!Nave!de!la!la!vida!picaresca.!La5picara5Justina,5frontispiece.5!

! !

While!Barezzi!aligns!his!Picariglio5with!the!libros!de!pícaros,!he!also!makes! innovative!additions.!Going!beyond!the!double!voice!of!the!two!prologues!and!the! dual!narrator!of!Alemán’s!text,!Barezzi!adds!yet!another!frame!and!an!extra! narrator.!Much!attention!has!been!given!to!the!theme!of!point!of!view!in!the5 185! ! Lazarillo.5Francisco!Rico’s!1969!The5Spanish5Picaresque5Novel5and5Point5of5View,5 analyzes!the!narrative!styles!of!the!three!great!picaresque!novels!(the!anonymous!

Lazarillo,!Alemán’s!Guzmán,!and!Quevedo’s!Buscón,)5showing!that!the!innovation!of! the!anonymous!Lazarillo5and!Guzman's!fictional!autobiographies!come!from!a!voice! that!speaks!from!the!underbelly!of!society.218!In!this!way,!the!point!of!view!of!the! narrator!becomes!novel’s!central!and!unifying!element!and!structural!scaffolding.!

Deyermond!has!suggested!that!readers!must!depend!on!the!protagonist’s!voice!until! the!end,!when!another!narrator!takes!his!place.219!Reed!and!Rico!agreed!that!

Lazarillo!stops!narrating!and!is!more!of!an!observer!as!of!the!Buldero5chapter!(79,!

35,!48).220!Avalle!Arce!posits!that!Lázaro’s!voice!changes!from!passive!in!the!first! tratados5to!become!an!active!subject,221!while!Castro!and!Smith!assert!that!Lazarillo! is!the!object!of!his!master’s!point!of!view!(223,!94,!146>147).222!Ife!understands!that! readers!both!hear!Lazarillo’s!voice!and!take!the!position!of!“Vuestra!Merced”!(95,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 218!!See!Francisco!Rico.!La5novela5picaresca5y5el5punto5de5vista.!Barcelona:!Seix!Barral,! 2000.!! ! 219!See!Alan!Deyermond.!Lazarillo5de5Tormes:5A5critical5guide.!London:!Grant!and! Cutler/Tamesis,!1993.! ! 220!See!Helen!H.!Reed.!The5Reader5in5the5Picaresque5Novel.5London:!Tamesis,!1984.! ! 221!See!Juan!Bautista!de!Avalle>Arce.!Las5novelas5y5sus5narradores.5Madrid:!Centro!de! Estudios!Cervantinos,!2006.! ! 222!See!Americo!Castro.!“Perspectiva!de!la!novela!picresca,”!in!Hacia5Cervantes.5 London:!Taurus,!1960.112>134;!Paul!Julian!Smith.!“The!Rhetoric!of!Representation! in!Writers!and!Critics!of!Picaresque!Narrative:!Lazarillo5de5Tormes,5Guzmán5de5 Alfarache,5El5Buscón,5in!The5Modern5Language5Review!82.1!(1987):!88>108.!! 186! ! 105).223!With!the!addition!of!another!frame!and!narrator,!Barezzi!is!further! complicating!Lazarillo’s!oblique!point!of!view.!!

Within!the!prologue,!“Barezzo!Barezzo!A!Chi!Legge,”!Barezzi’s!Picariglio5 shifts!the!original!Lazarillo’s!role!of!“Vuestra!Merced,”!to!the!reader,!and!gives! himself!the!role!of!narrator.!!As!narrator!of!the!prologue,!Barezzi!eliminates!the! original!text’s!infamous!legal!case.!While!the!first!three!quarters!of!the!prologue!are! a!close!translation!of!the!1554!original,!the!Picariglio!omits!the!last!paragraph,! where!the!theme!of!the!“caso”!would!be!developed.!The!original!Lazarillo5uses!the! legal!case!(caso)!as!a!justification!for!the!telling!of!Lázaro’s!life.!The!prologue!sets!up! the!epistolary!or!testimonial!framework!of!the!text:!“Y!pues!Vuestra!Merced!escribe! se!le!escriba!y!relate!el!caso,!muy!por!extenso,!parescióme!no!tomalle!por!el!medio,! sino!del!principio,!porque!se!tenga!entera!noticia!de!mi!persona”!(11).!The!last! tratado!of5the!1554!Lazarillo!reinforces!the!structure:!“Hasta!el!día!de!hoy!nunca! nadie!nos!oyó!sobre!el!caso”!(134).!!!

The!role!of!Barezzi,!as!narrator,!influences!the!reader’s!perception!of!the! main!character!and!of!Barezzi’s!role!or!record!as!a!book!merchant:!!

ma!sono!anche!sicuro,!che!in!questo!picciolo!Libro!alcun!gusto!vi! troveranno;!e!vedranno!in!quante!maniere!visse!un!Picariglio! Castigliano!combattuto!da!continue!fortune,!pericoli,!et!aversitadi.!Et! vino!sicurissimo,!che!si!come!tutte!le!opere!da!me!tradotte,!composte,! e!stampate,!vi!sono!state,!grate,!di!profitto,!e!di!diletto;!così!vi!riuscirà! non!meno!il!presente!Picariglio,!che!la!terza!Parte!della!Vita!del!Picaro! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 223!See!B.!W.!Ife,!Reading5and5Fiction5in5Golden5Age5Spain:5A5Platonist5critique5and5 some5picaresque5replies.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!UP,!1985.!! 187! ! la!quale!insieme!con!le!altre!due!parti,!et!con!la!Picara!Giustina!hora!si! stampano….!Le!quali!opere!pregovi!ad!accoglierle!con!lieta!faccia,! com’è!il!solito!vostro.!Amatemi,!e!vivete!felici,!e!lieto.!(Prologue)!

but!I'm!also!sure!that!in!this!small!book!you!will!find!something!of! your!liking!and!see!the!various!ways!in!which!the!Castilian!Pícaro! lives;!combatted!!by!continuous!fortunes,!dangers,!and!adversities.! And!I!am!quite!sure,!that!in!the!same!way!that!all!the!works! translated,!composed,!and!printed!by!me!were!of!your!liking!and! pleasure!this!Picariglio!will!be!as!successful!as!the!third!part!of!the! Life!of!the!Picaro,!which!along!with!the!other!two!parts,!and!with!the! Picara!Giustina!is!now!being!printed!and!will!soon!appear!in!your! hands…!!I!beg!you!to!receive!these!books!with!a!happy!face,!as!your! usual!face.!Love!me,!and!live!happy!and!content.!(Prologue)!

By!inserting!himself!into!the!narration!and!stressing!the!Picariglio’s!“continuous! fortunes,!dangers,!and!adversity,”!Barezzi!is!conditioning!his!reading!public’s! attitude!towards!Lazarillo.!Here,!Barezzi’s!point!orients!the!reader’s!perception!even! before!hearing!the!Picariglio’s!voice.!This!captatio5benevolentiae!also!extends!to!his! business!as!a!merchant!of!books.!!

The!Picariglio!replaces!the!infamous!“caso”!for!the!sales!pitch!of!a!book! merchant.!Barezzi!establishes!the!Picariglio5Castigliano5among!the!other!works!he! has!translated,!composed,!and!published!(‘tradotte,!composte,!e!stampate”)!and! those!that!are!in!press!or!will!be!published!in!the!future:!the!present!Lazarillo,5the! third!part!of!the!Guzmán,!along!with!the!first!two!parts,!and!the!Picara5Justina.!This! first!group!would!constitute!the!libros5de5pícaros.!Especially!suggestive!in!this! grouping!is!Barezzi’s!mention!of!Mateo!Alemán’s!promised!third!part.!At!the!release! of!Part!II!in!1604,!Alemán!had!anticipated!the!continuation:!“Más!teniendo!hecha!mi! tercera!parte!y!caminando!en!ella!con!el!consejo!de!Horacio!para!poderla!ofrecer,!

188! ! que!será!muy!en!breve”!(prologue).!The!third!Guzmán!never!made!it!to!the!press!in! original!form,!let!alone!in!translation.!As!the!narrator!of!the!prologue,!Barezzi!uses! his!authority!to!sell!books—!even!those!that!will!never!materialize.!!

The!Pícariglio5adds!a!scond!narrator!within!the!body!of!the!text.!This!“extra! voice”!does!not!have!a!name!or!an!identity,!but!it!speaks!with!moral!authority,! presenting!or!reinforcing!the!lessons!at!hand.!Lázaro,!himself,!introduces!this! alternative!vox5at!the!beginning!of!the!second!chapter,!before!he!leaves!Salamanca! and!takes!up!with!the!blind!beggar:!“Parmi!udire!una!voce,!che!meco!ragioni,!e!che! da!me!ricerchi!attentione.!Io!voglio!udirla;!uditela!ancor!voi,!altri,!che!voglio!credere,! sia!per!essere!qualche!cosa!di!gusto,!e!di!profitto.!Poiché!mi!inviti!col!tuo!silentio!a! ragionare,!eccomi!pronto!a!sodisfarti”!(II)!(I!think!I!hear!a!voice!that!reasons!with! me!and!warrants!my!attention.!I!would!like!to!listen!to!it;!you,!others,!should!pay! attention!to!it!as!well.!I!would!like!to!think!it!is!for!a!good!and!beneficial!cause).!The! readers!are!mandated!to!heed!the!advice!of!this!“voce”!that!Lázaro!wants!(voglio)!to! listen!to.!Lázaro!partially!explains!this!mysterious!voice!as!a!necessity!born!out!of! non>responsive!readers.!For!example,!when!he!asks!the!readers!a!direct!question,! and!he!doesn’t!receive!an!answer:!“Because!your!silence!(readers)!invites!me!to! interact!(with!the!voice),!I!am!here!to!satisfy!you”!(II).!!Without!further!textual! indication,!the!unidentified!voice!begins!to!speak:!“Non!ti!dolere!(o!Lazariglio,!e! ciascun!altro,!chem’ode)!se!tuo!padre,!e!madre!sono!stati!poco!honorevoli;!perché!se! tu!sei!buono,!non!devi!prenderti!cura!di!qualche!diffetto,!c’habbiano!i!tuoi!genitori;! ma!dirizzarti!nel!sentiero,!che!ti!conduce!a!gli!honori!sempiterni”!(II)!(Do!not!hurt!(o! 189! ! Lazariglio,!and!whomever!is!listening)!if!your!father!and!mother!were!not!very! honorable;!because!if!you!are!good,!you!shouldn’t!worry!about!your!parents’!small! defect;!but!about!taking!the!road!that!leads!you!to!eternal!!honor).!The!voice!speaks! directly!to!Lázaro!and!to!all!others!who!may!be!listening.!Although!the!voice5begins! with!biblical!references!concerning!the!sins!of!the!father,!the!message!quickly!turns! to!more!current!and!political!themes.!Nobility,!the!alternative!narrator!urges,!is!not! achieved!by!birth,!but!through!virtuous!acts.!Barezzi’s!!mysterious!narrator! amplifies!the!message!by!demanding!the!reader’s!attention!on!this!delicate!subject.!!

The!Pícariglio5boasts!a!third!narrator!in!the!Squire.!The!escudero,!which!was! immortalized!by!Cervantes’!Don5Quijote,5is!made!the!voice!of!a!third!of!Barezzi’s!text! when!he!recounts!the!story!of!the!Gitanilla.!The!role!of!the!escudero5of!the!third! tratado5in!the!Lazarillo!(1554)5is!both!magnified!and!deformed.!Although!he!is!given! such!protagonism,!the!Squire!continues!to!be!characterized!by!his!hunger!and! overall!deplorable!state.!He!is!introduced!as!a!“Scudiero,!che!si!faceva!principal!

Hidalgo!di!tutta!Castiglia,!e!pur!era!persona!miserabile,!che!non!solo!poteva!egli! mantenere!me;!ma!bisognava,!ch’io!mantenessi!lui”!(XXVI)!(Squire,!who!thought!of! himself!as!the!best!Hidalgo!of!all!of!Castile,!and!yet!was!a!miserable!person,!who!not! only!couln’t!provide!for!me,!but!needed!me!to!provide!for!him).!While!the!original! text!does!not!use!the!term!“hidalgo,”!Barezzi!uses!the!title!to!emphasize!the! contradiction!of!the!Squire’s!assumed!nobility!and!the!impotence!of!a!whole!group! of!noblemen!who!cannot!meet!basic!human!necessities.!Seventeenth>century!Italian! readers!would!have!most!likely!associated!this!“hidalgo”!with!Cervantes’! 190! ! protagonist,!but!most!importantly!with!an!entire!Spanish!social!class!suffering! under!the!weight!of!otium5cum5dignitate.!!

The!impoverished!escudero5from!Old!Castile!who!relocates!to!Toledo!is!the! only!master!with!whom!Lazarillo!empathizes!with!whom!he!assists.!With!the! introduction!of!the!Gitanilla,!Barezzi!underlines!the!unconventional!relationship! that!the!original!text!only!intimates:“!Poiché,!così!smisuratamente!ti!veggio,!

Lazariglio!mio,!tutto!turbato,!e!mesto,!voglio!consolare!l’afflitto!animo!tuo!col! narrarti!un!maraviglioso!successo,!che!vivo!sicuro!ne!resterai!lieto,!e!contento:! stammi!ad!udire,!ti!prego,!attentamente!”!(XXVIII)!(Because!I!see!you!are!terribly! upset,!my!Lazariglio,!all!upset!and!sad,!I!want!to!console!your!afflicted!soul!with!a! marvelous!happening,!which!I!am!sure!will!make!you!happy!and!content.!Listen!to! me,!I!beg!of!you,!attentively).!Here,!the!Squire!refers!to!Lázaro!with!a!term!of! extreme!endearment—Lazariglio5mio—and!is!concerned!for!his!emotional!well> being.!The!Squire!attempts!to!console!Lazarillo!with!a!story!after!suffering!a! malicious!hoax.!The!Cinganetta!is!introduced!in!Barezzi’s!Picariglio5Castigliano!in! the!following!way:5“Lo!Scudiero!terzo!Padrone!di!Lazariglio!da!principio!a!narrare! un!avenimento!maraviglioso!d’una!bella!Cinganetta,!con!alcune!gratiose!canzoni! nella!favella!Castigliana”!(XXVIII)!(!The!Squire,!Lazarillo’s!third!master!begins!to! recount!a!marvelous!happening!about!a!beautiful!gypsy,!with!some!funny!verses!in! the!Spanish!language).!!!

His!situation!as!a!victim!of!the!“negra!que!llaman!honra”!translated!by!

191! ! Barezzi!as!“dell’infelice!honore”!is!emphasized!through!the!reworked!Gitanilla!(XV).!

The!issue!of!honor!that!so!weighs!on!the!escuder’s!character!is!thematized!within! the!story!he!narrates.!As!a!member!of!the!lowest!class!of!nobility,!the!escudero5is! forced!to!live!from!his!dwindling!rents.!Fed!up!with!the!behavioral!custom!of!social! address!—doffing!one’s!hat!first!to!persons!of!higher!social!status!—he!abandons!

Old!Castile!in!defiance!of!imposed!decorum.!This!apparently!simple!gesture! unleashes!a!meditation!on!Spanish!honra5(onore),5which!according!to!the!Squire! constitutes!the!entire!social!capital!of!contemporary!gentlemen!of!his!class.!In!

Toledo,!his!honor!is!safeguarded!by!his!ever>present!cape!(“quella!bella!cappa”),!a! rented!home!with!a!grand!façade!and!nothing!inside,!as!well!as!through!elaborate! performances!involving!public!tooth>pickings!in!lieu!of!actual!meals!(“nettandosi! quei!denti”)(XV).!

!The!words!of!Cervantes’!old!gypsy,!translated!word!for!word,!resonate!with! the!plight!of!the!escudero:!“No!nos!fatiga!el!temor!de!perder!la!honra,!ni!nos!desvela! la!ambición!de!acrecentarla,”!y!“!en!conclusión,!somos!gente!que!vivimos!por! nuestra!industria!y!pico,!y!sin!entremeternos!con!el!antiguo!refrán:!‘Iglesia,!o!mar,!o! casa!real’;!tenemos!lo!que!queremos,!pues!nos!contentamos!con!lo!que!tenemos”!

(Barezzi,!Non!ci!affatica!il!timore!di!perder!l’honore,!né!ci!sollecita!l’ambitione!di! accrescerlo…!In!conclusione!siamo!gente,!che!viviamo!con!la!nostra!industria!per! vivere!lietamente,!e!senza!traporsi!in!quello,!che!dice!l’antico!proverbio:!Chiesa,!o!

Mare,!o!Casa!Reale.!Habbiamo!quello,!che!vogliamo,!poiché!ci!contentiamo!di!quello,!

192! ! che!habbiamo)!(XXII,!102).224!Cervantes’!“Industria”!and!“pico,”!are!terms!that! should!not!be!reduced!to!thievery.!The!original!text!already!alludes!to!the! picaresque!lifestyle!(vida!picaresca)!of!living!through!your!pico!(beak)—!an!ability! to!enchant!through!language!that!is!semantically!suggestively!close!to!pícaro.!

Barezzi’s!editorial!decision!filters!the!new!modes!of!economic!existence,! represented!by!the!Gypsy!and!the!pícaro,!through!the!voice!of!the!most!affected! class!within!the!traditional!aristocratic!structure.!!Attempting!to!distinguish!himself! from!them!and!subsequently!crystalizing!all!the!more!the!relationship!between!the!

Gypsy!and!the!pícaro,!the!Squire!must!feign!the!precepts!of!“otium!cum!dignitate”!in! order!to!ensure!the!honra!that!both!the!pícaro!and!the!Gypsy!have!done!away!with.!!

! With!the!exception!of!Maria!Consolata!Pangallo,!who!has!transcribed!the! original!1622!translation!and!studied!variations!in!editions,!La5Gitanilla!inserted!in! the5Picariglio5Castigliano5has!not!been!given!the!attention!it!merits.!The!bilingual!

Spanish>Italian!edition!of!the!Novelas5ejemplares!completed!by!the!Univeristy!of!

Padova!leaves!out!Barezzi’s!version,!focusing!instead!on!the!original!1613!text,! published!in!Madrid!by!Juan!de!la!Cuesta,!and!the!first!two!complete!Italian! translations;!that!of!the!French!born!Guglielmo!Alessandro!de!Novilieri!Clavelli,! published!in!Venice!by!Barezzo!Barezzi!in!1626,!and!that!of!Donato!Fontana,! published!in!Milan!in!1627!by!Bartolomeo!Vallo!and!Alberto!Besozzo.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 224!See!Miguel!de!Cervantes.“La!Gitanilla,”!in!Novelas5ejemplares.5Ed.$Harry$Sieber.$ Vol.%1.%Madrid:%Cátedra,%1987.!

! 193! ! José!Luis!Colomer’s!brief!study!of!the!Gitanilla,!within!his!1991!article!on!the! translation!and!reception!of!the!Barezzi’s!Pícariglio,!places!the!Cinganetta!within!

Riley’s!previous!study!of!novelas5intercaladas!in!the!Quijote,!adding!that!the!relato5 dentro5de5un5relato5is!common!to!picaresque!literature.!He!interprets!Barezzi’s! decision!to!translate!the!prose!and!leave!the!verse!in!original!Spanish!as!proof!that!

Barezzi!was!not!outwardly!plagiarizing!Cervantes.!Colomer!stresses!the! entertainment!value!of!the!addition:!“el!entretenimiento!que!se!deriva!del!contraste! y!del!alivio…!l’admiratio…!y!la!ejemplaridad!de!la!lucha!del!bien!y!del!mal”!(413).!225!

In!his!2004!study!of!Barezzi’s!Picariglio,!Maurizio!Masala!limits!himself!to!pointing! to!the!partial!translation!of!the!Gitanilla.5He!describes!the!inserted!novel!as!purely! ornamental:!“puramente!ornamental”!(58).226!Following!Francisco!Rico’s!reading!of!

Guzmán’s5!interpolated!texts,!he!describes!the!Gitanilla’s5function!within!the!

Picariglio!as!strictly!recreational:!“una!vicenda!d’aventure!in!uno!scenario!esotico! destinata!alla!‘ricrazione’!del!lettore!oltre!che!del!protagonista”!(58).!Masala!has! forgotten!about!the!importance!of!the!interpolated!tale!of!Ozmin5y5Daraja!in!the!

Guzmán.!This!oversight!is!significant.!As!mentioned!in!chapter!three,!borrowing! from5La5historia5dell5Abencerraje55y5la5hermosa5Jarifa5(1561),!Alemán!documents!the! tale!of!the!Muslim!Ozmín,!who!is!able!to!personify!Christians!without!being!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 225!See!José!Luis!Colomer.!“Traducción!y!recepción:!La!lectura!europea!de!la! picaresca!en!Il5picariglio5castigliano!de!Barezzo!Barezzi!(1622),”!in!Revista5de5 Literatura,!53.105/106!(1991):!391>443.!! ! 226!See!Maurizo!Masala.!Il5Picariglio5Castigliano5di5Barezzo5Barezzi:5Una5versione5 seicentesca5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.5Roma:!Bulzoni!Editore,!2004.!

194! ! detected,!and!Daraja!who!is!dressed!as!a!Castilian!woman.!A!tale!involving!cingani,! as!they!were!known!in!Venice,!where!gypsies!were!marginalized!and!highly! persecuted!as!thieves,!would!certainly!not!be!read!as!“exotic”!by!a!seventeenth> century!reading!public.!The!suggestive!placement!of!this!precise!exemplary!novel! does!much!more!than!entertain.!

!The!Gitanilla5afforded!Barezzi!a!way!to!link!the!emerging!figure!of!the! literary!Spanish!pícaro5with!the!established!Gypsy!subculture!of!Venice.!In5

Covarrubias’!Tesoro5de5la5lengua!of!1611,!a!pícaro!is!defined!as!“vil!y!de!baja!suerte,! que!anda!mal!vestido!y!en!semblante!de!poco!honor.”!While!searching!for! employment!in!Madrid,!Guzmán’s!prospective!masters!describe!him!as!“algún!pícaro! ladroncillo!que!los!había!de!robar”!(Alemán,!2.2.2).227!!In!the!fifteenth!and!sixteenth! centuries!Gypsies!surfaced!as!a!problematic!new!minority,!persecuted!for!their! refusal!to!assimilate!and!singled!out!for!their!thievery.!Benedetto!Fassanelli! describes!the!laws!that!forced!Italian!and!specifically!Venetia!to!live!on!the!margins! of!society.228!While!the!first!report!of!gypsies!in!Western!Europe!dates!from!1422,! according!to!Fassanelli!and!Asseo,!the!figure!of!the!Gypsy!as!a!criminal,!was!formed! by!three!different!Venetian!senate!deliberations!that!took!place!in!the!forty>year!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 227!See!Mateo!Alemán.!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.!I,II.!!Ed.!José!María!Micó.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!1987.!! ! 228!See!Benedetto!Fassanelli.!“Considerata!la!mala!qualitá!delli!cingani!erranti.!I!Rom! nella!Repubblica!di!Venezia:!Retoriche!e!Stereotipi.”!Acta!Histriae!15!(2007):!139> 154.!! 195! ! span!between!1549!and!1588.229!In!the!case!of!Spain,!Elisa!Novi!Chavarria! documents!the!first!pragmatic!against!the!gypsies!in!1499,!six!years!after!the!Jewish! expulsion,!with!Charles!V’s!renewal!in!1523,!1525,!1534,!and!1539.230!They!were!to! see!the!same!fate!in!England!in!1530,!in!Milan!in!1534!and!in!Paris!in!1539.!Huarte! de!San!Juan’s,!Examen5de5Ingenios231!highlights!the!Roma’s!singular!ingenuity!in! matters!of!thievery:!!

Y,!así,!los!historiadores!nunca!acaban!de!contar!cuán!hechiceros!son! los!gitanos!y!cuán!prestos!en!atinar!a!las!cosas!y!hallar!los!remedios! para!sus!necesidades!(…)!porque!con!haber!más!de!doscientos!años! que!vinieron!de!Egipto!a!España!los!primeros!gitanos,!no!han!podido! perder!sus!descendientes!la!delicadeza!del!Ingenio!y!solercia!que! sacaron!sus!padres!de!Egipto,!ni!el!color!tostado.!(VIII)!! !

The!Spanish!physician!and!proto>psychologist!stresses!the!many!ways!in!which! historians!have!articulated!the!gypsies’!singular!capacity!to!fulfill!their!needs!(“los! remedios!para!sus!necesidades’),!even!resorting!to!witchcraft!(“hechiceros”).!

Although!they!had!been!in!Spain!for!over!two!hundred!years,!says!Huarte,!their!lack! of!assimilation!has!them!heirs!to!their!ancestor’s!ingenuity!and!dark!color.!As!we! have!seen!in!chapter!three,!Gigio!Artemio!Giancarli!made!the!Italian!Gypsy!a!figure! of!the!theatrical!underworld,!with!his!1545,!Zingana,!which!was!then!translated!and! adapted!as!Medora,!by!the!early!Spanish!playwright,!Lope!de!Rueda.!Let!us! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 229!See!Henriette!Asseo.!“Pour!une!histoire!des!peuples>resistance,”!in:!Tsiganes:5 identité,5evolution.!Ed.!P.!Williams.!Paris:!Syros,!1989.!121–127.! ! 230!See!Elisa!Novi!Chavarria.“Gli!Zingani!in!Eta!Moderna,”!in!Integrazione5ed5 Emarginazione.5Ed.!Laura!Barletta.!Napoli:!Cuen,!2002.! ! 231!See!Juan!Huarte!de!San!Juan.!Examen5de5Ingenios.!Ed.!Guillermo!Serés.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!1989.! 196! ! remember!that!the!Zingana5chronicles!the!theft!of!a!noble!child!by!an!old!gypsy! woman.The!result!of!this!medical,!legal,!and!literary!campaign!is!the!figure!of!the! vagabond!cingano,!like!that!of!the!pícaro,5type>cast!as!a!free!agent!and!skillful!thief.!! !!

Working!with!the!recognizable!figure!of!the!real!and!fictional!cingano,!

Barezzo!Barezzi’s!1622!version!of!La5Gitanilla!highlights!and!amplifies!

Cervantes’representations!of!gypsies!from!1613.!For!example,!Barezzi’s!marginal! notes!read:!“Cingani!sono!ladri”!“Ingeniosi!sono!tutti!i!cingani,”!“Cingani!sono! pessami!uomini,”!!“Cingani!e!laddri!che!sono!soggetti.”!Cervantes!opens!his!Gitanilla5 with!!

Parece!que!los!gitanos!y!gitanas!solamente!nacieron!en!el!mundo!para! ser!ladrones:!nacen!de!padres!ladrones,!críanse!con!ladrones,!estudian! para!ladrones!y,!finalmente,!salen!con!ser!ladrones!corrientes!y! molientes!a!todo!ruedo;!y!la!gana!del!hurtar!y!el!hurtar!son!en!ellos! como!acidentes!inseparables,!que!no!se!quitan!sino!con!la!muerte.!Una! pues,!de!esta!nación,!gitana!vieja,!que!podía!ser!jubilada!en!la!ciencia! de!Caco,!crió!una!muchacha,!en!nombre!de!nieta!suya,!Gitana!a!quien! puso!nombre!Preciosa,!a!quien!enseñó!todas!sus!gitanerías!y!modos! de!embelecos!y!trazas!de!hurtar.!(73>74)! !

!Barezzi!turns!this!already!suggestive!one!hundred>word!introduction!to!the!Gypsy! culture,!formulated!around!their!thieving!nature,!into!a!more!than!400!word! meditation.!In!this!amplification,!Barezzi!not!only!links!Gypsy!thievery!to!Vulcan!and!

Caco,!as!Cervantes!does,!but!traces!the!Gypsy’s!way!of!life!within!the!practice!of! almsgiving,!beginning!in!ancient!Rome!and!ending!with!the!present!day!cingani.!The! narrator!of!the5Cinganetta!details!Ovid’s!rendition!of!the!Roman!custom!of! almsgiving!that!gave!way!to!begging,!as!well!as!Virgil’s!explanation!of!the! contemporary!Cingani’s5evolution!from!the!priests!that!lived!from!the!practice!of! 197! ! almsgiving.!Furthermore,!he!connects!the!Jews!who!begged!and!acted!as!fortune> tellers!in!Rome!to!modern!gypsies:!“Giuvenale!attesta,!che!gli!Hebrei!andavano!con! una!casseletta!per!Roma!chiedendo!elemosina,!dicendo,!a!chi!gliela!faceva;!Diavi!il!

Cielo!la!buona!ventura:!come!per!appunto!fanno!hoggidì!le!Cingane;!sì!che!da!gli!uni,! e!da!gli!altri!discese!così!sventurata!gente”!(XVIII)!(Juvenal!certifies!that!Jews!went! around!Rome!begging,!telling!everyone,!Heaven!Give!you!good!fortune,!as!indeed! the!gypsies!do!today;!seen!by!everyone!as!unfortunate!people).!I!suggest!that! although!Barezzi!is!quoting!Juvenal,!the!decision!to!provide!early!modern!gypsies! with!a!Jewish!heritage!cannot!be!overlooked.!!As!chronicled!in!the!Lozana5Andaluza,!

Sephardic!Jews!made!their!way!to!Italy!after!their!1492!Spanish!expulsion!and! established!themselves!in!Rome,!as!well!as!in!the!growing!Venetian!ghetto.!In!this! way,!as!Barezzi!translates!the!text!of!the!pícaro!Lazarillo!and!the!gypsy!Gitanilla,!he! is!also!transliterating!the!marginalized!Jews.!Barezzi’s!Gypsies!are!thus!implicitly! linked!to!imperial!Rome!and!to!imperial!Spain.232!!

While!Karl!Ludwig!Selig!has!already!suggested!that!the!“parece!que”!of!

Cervantes’!introduction!serves!to!distance!the!reader!from!the!“intense!pile>up!of! repeated!commonplaces!about!gypsies,”!it!is!worth!further!examining!this!curious! opening.!“Parescere”!is!defined!by!Covarrubias’!Tesoro5de5la5lengua5of!1611,!as!

“derivado!incoactivo!de!parere,”!to!see!and!appear!or!to!appear!and!allow!to!be!seen!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 232!In!the!Gitanilla,!Cervantes!also!refers!to!another!significant!other,!the!Native! Americans,!and!specifically,!Aztec!custom!of!using!cocoa!beans!as!common!currency:! “El!toque!está!en!no!acabar!acoceando!el!aire!en!la!flor!de!nuestra!juventud!y!a!los! primeros!delitos;!que!el!mosqueo!de!las!espaldas,!ni!el!apalear!el!agua!en!las!galeras,! no!lo!estimamos!en!un!cacao”!(105).! 198! ! or!come!to!light,!as!well!as!to!give!signs!of!what!something!is.!As!a!noun,!it!is!linked! both!to!outward!appearance!(apariencia)!and!to!opinion!or!judgement.!Parere5is! also!the!infinitive!of!“pario,”!to!bring!forth,!produce,!or!give!birth.!The!surge!of!court! manuals,!such!as!Castiglione’s!Il5Cortegiano!(1528),!exemplified!an!adherence!to! appearance.!Following!Castiglione’s!(in)famous!sprezzatura,5Gracián!Dantisco’s! translation!of!Giovanni!della!Casa’s!Galateo,5the!Galateo5español5(1582)!marks!the! difference!between!seeing!and!appearing:!“Puedese!mentir!también!callando;!es!a! saber!con!sus!hechos!y!obras!de!cada!uno,!como!algunos,!que!siendo!de!mediano! estado!en!sus!personas!y!oficios,!pretenden!parecer!mucho!más,!y!usan!tanta! solemnidad!y!señorío,!como!si!fuesen!Duques!y!Condes!en!su!manera!y!trato”!(46>

47)!.!Here,!the!performance!above!status!is!underscored!as!a!silent!lie.!

Barezzi’s!pregnant!editorial!decision!to!eliminate!the!“parece!que”!and!start! instead!with!“Quindi!é!che!i!cingani”!magnifies!Cervantes’!indicative!opening.!While!

Cervantes’!“it!seems!that”!introduces!subjectivity,!Barezzi’s!“therefore!it!is!that”!sets! up!a!seemingly!more!objective!narration.!The!Italian!begins!by!dismantling!the!very! mechanism!of!the!marvel.!The!theft!of!the!Cinganetta!by!the!adoptive!gypsy! grandmother!is!revealed!within!the!first!paragraph:!“allevò!costei!una!fanciulla!da! lei!rubata!(come!a!suo!luogo!diremo)!con!nome!di!sua!nipote,!la!quale!ella!chiamò!

Gratiosa.”!Although!the!text!will!later!reveal!the!details!of!the!abduction,!Barezzi’s! readers!are!precociously!made!privy!to!the!very!information!that!Cervantes!uses!to! deliver!his!marvelous!denouement.!The!old!gypsy!has!raised!the!young!girl!she!has! stolen!under!the!guise!of!a!granddaughter.!In!the!original!text,!this!is!only!intimated:!

199! ! “crió!una!muchacha!en!nombre!de!nieta!suya”!(61).!Cervantes’!ambiguous!“as!her! granddaughter”!has!become!a!telling!statement!with!no!room!for!interpretation.!If! the!Cinganetta’s5readers!are!left!with!questions,!the!narrator!quells!their!anxiety! with!the!promise!of!further!rhetorical!proof.!What!“will!later!be!said”!is!indeed!the! denouement!of!the!novel.!Barezzi!has!replaced!the!marvel!with!a!few!words! enclosed!within!parenthesis!

Cervantes’!Gitanilla5immortalized!the!celebratory!denouement!of!a! kidnapping!by!gypsies.5The!first!of!the!Novelas5ejemplares5chronicles!the!restoration! of!the!noble!Costanza!by!the!same!gypsy!woman!who!took!her!from!her!paternal! home!and!raised!her!as!Preciosa.!The!old!gypsy!is!forgiven!for!her!theft!and!praised! for!the!child’s!safe!return.!Without!modern!DNA,!the!blond!and!green>eyed!Costanza! is!recognized!through!birthmarks!and!jewelry!as!the!daughter!of!Don!Fernando!de!

Azevedo,!Knight!of!the!Order!of!Calatrava.!It!is!generally!accepted!that!the!novel! ends!when!the!noble!Juan!de!Cárcamo,!passing!as!the!gypsy!Andrés!Caballero,!can! marry!Costanza!de!Azevedo,!a!former!Roma!by!the!name!of!Preciosa,!and!known!to! posterity!as!the!Gitanilla.!But!the!text!does!not!end!there.!The!narrator!adds!a! suggestive!postscript:!“Olvidábaseme!de!decir!cómo!la!enamorada!mesonera5 descubrió5a!la!justicia!no!ser!verdad!lo!del!hurto!de!Andrés!el!Gitano,!y!confesó!su! amor!y!su!culpa,!a!quien!no!respondió!pena!alguna,!porque!en!la!alegría!del!hallazgo! de!los!desposados!se!enterró!la!venganza!y!resucitó!la!clemencia”!(134).!Like!the! first!narrator!of!the!Quixote!(“En!un!lugar!de!la!Mancha!de!cuyo!nombre!no!quiero! acórdarme”),5the!willful!raconteur!reveals!his!capricious!tendencies.!We!are!left!to!

200! ! wonder!what!this!absentminded!reporter!could!have!omitted.!What!other!truths! were!to!be!confessed!and!subsequently!brushed!aside!with!the!hasty!wedding! celebration?!

The!book!merchant!from!Cremona’s!treatment!of!the!finale!eliminates!this!

Cervantine!post>script,!opting!instead!for!a!morally!charged!closing!filled!with!a! string!of!popular!sayings,!in!the!manner!of!the!Guzmán,!that!contradicts!Cervantes’! joyous!nuptials:!!

!In!somma!tu!che!leggi!sappi!che!rade!volte!fa!buona!riuscita!chi! s’appiglia!a!cattiva!vita:!é!mala!cosa!il!pigliar!la!biscia!per!la!coda;!e!chi! lascia!la!via!vecchia!por!la!nuova,!spese!volta!inciampato!si!ritrova;! pero!egli!e!meglio!esser!solo!che!mal!accompagnato;!perché!né!Amore! né!Signoria,!non!vogliono!compagnia;!e!ben!spesso!le!cattive! compagnie!conducono!gli!uomini!a!mal!fare,!e!poscia!alla!forca;!vivi! solo,!e!vivi!bene,!che!non!gusterai!mai!pene;!e!chi!ben!vive,!ben!muore;! e!tanto!più!vivendo!virtuosamente,!e!in!gratia!di!Dio.!Qui!pose!fin!il! mio!Signore!Padrone,!e!io!seguiterò!a!narrarvi!la!vita!mia.!!(XXVI)! ! In!summary,!you!who!read!know!that!he!who!clings!to!a!bad!life!is!!! seldom!successful:!it!is!a!bad!thing!to!take!the!snake!by!the!tail;!and! those!who!leave!the!old!road!for!the!new!will!stumble!and!fall;! because!of!that!it!is!better!to!be!alone!than!in!bad!company;!neither! love!nor!lordship!want!company;!for!very!often!bad!company!leads! men!to!do!evil,!and!afterwards!to!the!gallows;!live!alone,!and!live!well,! and!you!will!never!have!hardship;!and!those!who!live!well,!die!well;! and!much!more!by!living!virtuously,!and!in!the!grace!of!God.!Here! ends!my!Lord!Master,!and!I!continue!to!narrate!my!life! !

Barezzi!directly!addresses!his!reading!public!with!the!familiar!“tu,”!(You!who!read! know)!in!order!to!challenge!the!Gitanilla’s5denouement.!The!vast!majority!of! scholars,!even!those!who!highlight!Cervantes’!criticism!of!court!culture,!underscore! that!the!marriage!of!the!once!gypsy!and!now!noble!Juan!and!Costanza,!makes!for!a! happy!ending.!As!Alison!Weber!reminds!us,!“Much!of!the!critical!literature!on!la! 201! ! Gitanilla5reflects!a!tendency!to!minimize!the!significance!of!the!disjuncture! produced!by!the!denouement,!or!to!defend!the!aesthetic!and!intellectual!unity!of!

Cervantes'!vision”!(64).233!Breaking!from!this!accepted!reading,!Weber!sees!the! novel’s!joyous!finale!as!Cervantes’!pentimento,!that!is!to!say,!that!when!Preciosa!is! returned!to!her!rightful!place!she!is!again!bound!up!by!the!prescriptive!virtues!of! her!class.!In!this!way,!the!conclusion!unravels!the!carefully!woven!preceding!text.!

Edwin!Williamson’s!study!of!poetry!in!the!first!Novela5ejemplar5suggests!that!the!

Gitanilla’s5ending,5like!that!of!the!Ilustre5Fregona,!is!an!experiment!in!the!marriage!of! two!dissonant!genres.!Williamson!explains!that!Cervantes!brings!the!two!novels!to! an!end!“by!accentuating!the!jarring!transition!from!romance!to!picaresque!through!a! sudden!recourse!to!amazing!coincidences,!providential!revelations,!and!other! hackneyed!devices”!(37).234!In!Barezzi’s!Picariglio,!those!who!change!roads,!as!

Preciosa!(Gratiosa)!and!Juan!are!doing,!will!not!have!a!happy!ending.!Barezzi’s! digression!seems!to!attack!the!institution!of!marriage!itself.!!Live!alone,!not!in! wedlock,!we!may!assume,!and!live!well,!and!you!will!never!have!hardship.!In!this! way,!his!audience!is!reminded!that!that!although!the!pairing!of!a!gypsy!girl!passing! as!a!noblewoman,!with!a!nobleman!passing!as!gypsy,!may!have!its!place!in!fiction,! popular!wisdom!advises!against!it!being!feasible!in!real!life.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 233!See!Alison!Weber.!“Pentimento,!the!Parodic!text!of!the!Gitanilla,”!in!Hispanic5 Review!62!(1994).! ! 234!See!Edwin!Williamson.!“La!‘bonita!confiancita”:!Deception,!trust,!and!the!figure!of! Poetry!in!La!gitanilla,”5in!Bulletin5of5Spanish5Studies!LXXXVIII!7>8!(2011).! 202! ! The!inserted!Gitanilla!raises!important!questions!regarding!early! seventeenth>century!perceptions!of!Cervantes’!relationship!to!the!picaresque.!

Barezzi!strengthens!the!Picariglio5Castigliano’s!ties!with!the!picaresque!by!using!the!

Gitanilla5to!establish!a!connection!with!the5two!libros5de5pícaros!previously! translated!and!published!by!Barezzi:!Pícaro5Gusmano!and!Pícara5Giustina.5Barezzi’s! insertion!of!the!exemplary5novel!has!not!been!factored!into!the!debate!concerning!

Cervantes’!treatment!of!the!picaresque.!Yet,!this!connection!was!noted!at!the!time!of! publication!of!Barezzi’s5Picariglio.!Fontana’s!translation!of!the!Exemplary5Novels,! published!five!years!later!(1627)!references!Barezzi’s!loaded!editorial!choices:!!

Un!tale!soverchiamente!pietoso,!fattosi!padre!d’una!di!loro!sposandola! con!un!picariglio5o5guidoncello!che!dir!vogliamo,!maritaggio!invero! troppo!disuguali…!!Questo!eccesso!adunque…!ha!fatto!meco!quello!che! prima!non!avevano!potuto!gli!amici!o!l’ambizione.!Le!ho!dunque!fatte! stampare.! ! An!excessively!pious!one,!ostentatious!father!of!one!of!them,!marrying! her!to!a!rogue!(picariglio)!or!beggar!(guidoncello),!and!we!want!to! say,!an!indeed!unequal!marriage…!This!excess,!then…!has!made!me!do! what!neither!friends!nor!ambition!had!done.!I!therefore!had!it!printed.! !

Fontana!refers!with!disdain!to!the!“tale”!of!Barezzi!and!describes!the!insertion!of!La5

Gitanilla!within!the!Picariglio!as!a!literary!marriage!of!unequal!parts.!López!de!

Úbeda,!or!whoever!was!the!author!of!La5Pícara5Justina,!had!already!used!the! marriage!of!pícaros!in!order!to!associate!itself!with!the!best>selling!Guzmán5de5

Alfarache.!As!we!will!recall,!the!Pícara5states!that!she!has!taken!Guzmán!as!her!third! husband!and!calls!herself!Guzmana5de5Alfarache.!While!Barezzi!marries!Graziosa!

(Gitanilla)!to!a!“picariglio!o!guidoncello”!without!worrying!about!her!honor,!Fontana!

203! ! establishes!himself!as!a!caballero!who!aims!to!clean!the!stains!—even!if!they!are!ink! stains—with!his!new!translation.!Fontana!has!understood!that!Barezzi!is!not! inserting!the!exemplary5novel!for!mere!entertainment,!but!rather,!that!the!marriage! of!La5Gitanilla!with!Lazarillo!also!brings!Cervantes’!text!into!the!grouping!of!libros5de5 pícaros.!!!

While!it!is!accepted!that!the!picaresque!is!a!Spanish!invention,!and!the!vast! majority!of!scholars!assign!picaresque!status!to!either!the!Lazarillo!or!the!Guzmán.5

Reformulating!Claudio!Guillén’s!Literature5as5System,!Lázaro!Carreter!and!Francisco!

Rico!suggested!that!the!genre!emerged!in!1599,!with!the!publication!of!Mateo!

Alemán’s!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.2355Carreter!and!Rico!argued,!quite!convincingly!as! their!far>reaching!influence!can!attest,!that!a!genre!requires!a!minimum!of!two! examples!in!order!to!acquire!its!status!as!such.!Nevertheless,!the!parameters!of!what! we!have!come!to!call!the!picaresque!genre,!and!what!the!early!moderns!referred!to! as!libros5de5pícaros!continue!to!evade!the!restrictive!definitions!of!literary!critics.!!

Scholars!have!made!significant!efforts!to!clarify!and!categorize!the!genre,!but! have!been!unable!to!provide!a!comprehensive!definition!that!satisfies!even!the!two!

“founding”!texts.!There!is!such!an!abundance!of!bibliography!concerning!the! picaresque,!that!in!1966!Joseph!V.!Ricapito!devoted!his!entire!dissertation!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 235!See!Claudio!Guillén!“Toward!a!Definition!of!the!Picaresque,”!in!Literature5as5 System.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1971.!71>106;!Fernando!Lazaro!Carreter.!“Para!una! revisión!del!concepto!novela5picaresca,”!in!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5en5la5picaresca.! Barcelona:!Ariel,!1970.!195>229;!Francisco!Rico.!“Estructuras!y!reflejos!de! estructuras!en!el!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.”!Modern5Language5Notes582!(1967):!171>84.!

204! ! cataloguing!it.236!The!result!is!a!fascinating!corpus!of!original!critical!works.!The! scholarship!of!Frank!Chandler,!which!began!circulation!at!the!turn!of!the!century,! has!been!particularly!significant!in!the!shaping!of!modern!understanding!of!the! genre.237!Chandler!aimed!to!find!the!essence!of!the!genus,!concluding!that!the!pícaro5 was!an!inherently!simple!character,!created!in!order!to!move!within!the!various! echelons!of!society,!and!thus!reflect!them.!His!definition!was!so!malleable!that!it! could!be!applied!to!an!infinite!number!of!texts,!inside!and!outside!of!Spain,!which! both!preceded!and!followed!the!“original”!novels.!!In!1903!the!Dutchman!Fonger!de!

Hann!described!the!picaresque!as!“the!prose!autobiography!of!a!person,!real!or! imaginary,!who!strives,!by!fair!means!and!by!foul,!to!make!a!living!and!in!relating!his! experiences!in!various!classes!of!society,!points!out!the!evils!which!come!under!his! observance”!(8,!cited!in!Dunn,!6).238!In!Toward5a5Definition5of5the5Picaresque!Claudio!

Guillen!delineated!a!Spanish!pattern:!1)!the!pícaro!is!an!orphan;!2)!the! autobiographical!mode!allows!for!a!dual!view!of!the!inner!and!outer!pícaro;53)!the! pícaro!discovers!a!new!value!system;!4)!he!is!a!partial!outsider,!never!fully!part!of! society;!5)!there!is!an!emphasis!on!materiality;!6)!the!plot!is!episodic.!In!short,!says! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 236!See!Joseph!V!Ricapito.!Bibliografía5razonada5y5anotada5de5las5obras5maestras5de5la5 picaresca5española.!Madrid:!Castalia,!1980.!5 ! 237!See!Frank!Wadleigh!Chandler:!Romances5of5Roquery,5An5Episode5in5the5History5of5 the5Novel.5Part5I,5The5Picaresque5Novel5in5Spain.5NewYork:!Columbia!University!Press,! 1899;!Reed:!New!York:!Burt!Franklin,!1958;!The5Literature5of5Roquery,52!vols.! Boston:!Houghton!Mifflin,!1907.!5 ! 238!See!Fonger!de!Haan.!An5Outline5of5the5History5of5the5Novela5Picaresca5in5Spain.5The! Hague!and!!New!York:!Martinus!Nijhoff,!1903.(doctoral!thesis,!Johns!Hopkins! University,!1895);!Peter!Dunn.!Spanish5Picaresque5Fiction:5A5New5Literary5History.! New!York:!Cornell!University!Press,!1993.! 205! ! Guillén,!it!is!the!“autobiography!of!a!liar”!(92,!quoted!in!Dunn,!8).!Francisco!Rico! argued!that!the!picaresque,!as!a!genre,!was!born!when!Mateo!Alemán!incorporated! aspects!of!Lazarillo!into!his!Guzmán.!

The!protean!parameters!of!the!picaresque!are!reflected!in!the!varied! anthologies!that!have!surfaced!in!Spain.!While!there!are!twenty>three!texts!in!

Valbuena!y!Prat’s!collection!(1943),!Rodriguez!Rodriguez’s!(2005)!Antología5de5la5 novela5picaresca5española!includes!nineteen!titles.239!In!Towards5a5Definition5of5the5

Picaresque,!Guillén!documents!a!turn!of!the!century!anthology!that!included!both!

Spanish!and!Italian!texts:!Delicado’s!Lozana5Andaluza,!Aretino’s!Coloquio5de5las5

Damas!and!Cortesana,!Rojas’!El!Viaje5entretenido,!and!Valladares!de!Valdelomar’s!

Caballero5Venturoso.!Florencio!Sevilla’s!Antología5de5la5picaresca!española!(2001)! claims!to!have!put!together!for!the!first!time!“toda!la!novela!picaresca!española!en! un!volumen”!(prologue).240!It!is!composed!of!four!versions!of!Lazarillo,!three! incarnations!of!Guzmán,!the!Picara5Justina,5the!Buscón,!and!La5Ingeniosa5Elena.!

Sevilla!also!confronts!the!great!debate!concerning!Cervantes’!relationship!to!the! genre!and!includes!the!Coloquio5de5los5Perros.!Nevertheless,!he!leaves!out!Rinconete5 and5Cortadillo,!citing!that!it!breaks!from!the!“normas!del!género!y!no!se!ajusta!a!la! picaresca,!sino!que!es!una!obra!de!ambiente!picaresco”!(prologue).!The!Picaresque’s! unfixed!limits!allow!for!infinite!permutations.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 239!See!Ángel!Valbuena!Prat.!La5novela5Picaresca5española,52!vols.!Madrid:!Aguilar,! 1974;!Begoña!Rodriguez!Rodriguez.!Antología5de5la5novela5picaresca5española.5 Madrid:!Centro!de!Estudios!Cervantinos,!2006.! ! 240!See!Florencio!Sevilla.!La#novela#picaresca#española.!Castalia,!Madrid,!2001.!! 206! ! If!defining!the!picaresque!seems!to!be!steeped!in!the!rhetoric!of!Borges’! labyrinths,!Cervantes’!association!with!the!genre!falls!within!the!realm!of! speculating!whether!Pierre!Ménard’s!Quixote5might!be!more!subtle!than!the!original.!

Américo!Castro!argued!for!partial!examples!of!the!picaresque!in!his!oeuvre,!citing! that!the!many!rogues!in!Cervantes’!literary!production5are!the!objects!of!artistic! manipulation.241!José!Luís!Varela!points!towards!Cervantes’!rejection!of!Mateo!

Alemán!(59)!and!Amezúa!refers!to!the!manco5de5Lepanto’s!antagonistic!approach!to! the!picaresque,!while!Márquez!Villanueva!cautions!against!focusing!on!Cervantes’! rejection!of!the!genre.!!

In!response!to!this!absence!of!clear!demarcations,!the!latter!half!of!the! twentieth!century!has!introduced!a!new!breed!of!academics!who!question!the!very! essence!of!the!picaresque.!Daniel!Eisenberg’s!article,!“Does!the!Picaresque!Novel!

Exist?”5(1979),5exemplifies!this!school!of!thought.!Eisenberg!renounced!the!genre!as! a!nineteenth>century!concept!and!suggested!that!we!study!each!novel!for!what!it!is,! while!refraining!from!applying!the!mutable!picaresque!label.!In!his!study!of!the!

Buscón,!Peter!N.!Dunn!argues!that!“the!way!we!read!the!Buscón5is!likely!to!be! prejudiced!rather!than!helped!by!the!accepetance!of!generic!models!for!the! picaresque!genre!because!models!become!normative,!carry!explicit!explicit!notions! of!value,!and!constrain!us!to!consider!what!the!work!means,!before!we!have!gone!far!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 241!See!Américo!Castro.“Perspectiva!de!la!novela!picaresca,”!in!Hacia5Cervantes.5 Madrid:!Taurus,!1960.!112>134.!

207! ! enough!in!asking!what!it!says”!(102).242!!Dunn’s!Spanish5Picaresque5Fiction:5A5New5 literary5History!(1993)!suggests!that!discussions!concerning!the!genre!have!become! trapped!in!archaic!categories,!and!urges!scholars!to!think!of!the!picaresque,!not!as!a!

“self!contained!organism,”!but!as!a!“virus!that!surfaces!in!a!myriad!of!genres”!(5).!!

Novilieri’s!1626!translation!of!the!Exemplary5Novels,!published!by!Barezzo!

Barezzi,!also!offers!much!to!think!about!in!terms!of!Cervantes’!association!with!the! picaresque.!As!Consolata!Pangallo,!Aldo!Ruffinatto!and!George!Hainsworth!have! suggested,!Novilieri!follows!Rosset’s!1615!French!translation!of!the!Novelas5

Ejemplares.2435Unlike!Barezzi,!Novilieri!translates!all!of!the!Gitanilla—prose!and! verse—and!changes!the!protagonist’s!name!back!to!Preziosa/Preciosa,!from!

Barezzi’s!Graziosa.!While!his!translation!is!more!faithful!to!the!original,!the!trilingual!

Novilieri!places!the!Gitanilla!eighth,!instead!of!first,!wihin!the!order!of!the!twelve! novelle.!We!could!think!that!Barezzi!and!Novilieri!are!attempting!to!draw!attention! away!from!Barezzi’s!“borrowed”!novel,!but!I!suggest!that!the!placement!of!La5

Gitanilla,!next!to!the!La5Ilustre5Fregona!may!have!been!intended!to!highlight!the! picaresque!nature!of!both!novels.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 242!Peter!N.!Dunn.!“Problem!of!a!model!for!the!picaresque!and!the!case!of!Quevedo’s! Buscón,”!in!Bulletin5of5Hispanic5Studies,!LIX,!(1982).!! ! 243!See!George!Hainsworth.!Les5“Novelas5ejemplares”5de5Cervantes5en5France5au5XVII5 siècle.!Paris:!Champion,!1933;!New!York:!B.!Franklin,!1971;!Maria!Consolata! Pangallo.!“Dal!Lazarillo!al!Picariglio.!Un!itinerario!picaresco!tra!orrizonti!d’attesa!e! filologia!testuale.”!Diss.!Università!di!Pisa,!a.a.1998>99,!IX!ciclo;!Aldo!Ruffinato.! “Cervantes!en!Italia,!Italia!en!Cervantes,”!in!Cervantes5en5Italia.5Décimo5Coloquio5de5la5 Asociación5de5Cervantistas!(Rome,!2001).!Ed.!A.!Villar!Lecumberri.!Palma!de! Mallorca:!Asociación!de!Cervantistas,!2001.!3>18.!

208! ! The!anonymous!Lazarillo,!a!slight!book!of!less!than!one!hundred!pages,!first! printed!in!1554,!continues!to!enthrall!literary!critics!and!academics.!Nearly!500! years!after!it!first!made!its!appearance,!a!new!edition!caused!Francisco!Rico!and!

Aldo!Ruffinatto!to!wage!a!linguistic!duel!documented!in!the!popular!newspaper,!El5

País,5and!the!discovery!of!a!reference!to!a!Lazarillo5manuscript!in!Diego!Hurtado!de!

Mendoza’s!will!temporarily!revolutionized!the!academic!world.!In!1995,!the!so> called!picaresque!novel!made!headlines:!“Descubren!la!que!podría!ser!segunda5 edición5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes”!(El5País,!December!28,!1995).!The!accidental! discovery!of!a!group!of!sixteenth>century!books!in!the!wall!of!a!house!in!Bacarrota! revealed!a!unique!copy!of!the!Medina!del!Campo!edition!of!the!1554!Lazarillo,5along! with!11!other!texts!in!various!European!languages.244!A!type!of!literary!time!capsule,! the!forgotten!twelve!texts!offered!novel!opportunities!to!approach!issues!of!genre! and!readership.!Scholars!quickly!went!to!work:!Rico!attributed!the!lot!to!a!book! merchant!wary!of!the!Inquisition.245!Serrano!Mangas!argued!that!it!was!the!property! of!a!converso—even!identifying!the!wares!of!a!criptojudío.246!Recently,!Benjamín!

Torrico!has!studied!homosexual!texts!in!the!Barcarrota!library.!Athough!nearly!five!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 244!For!a!succinct!overview!of!the!studies!resulting!from!the!Barcarrota!find,!see! Benjamin!Torrico’s!“Hiding!in!the!Wall:!Lazarillo’s!Bedfellow’s:!The!Secret!Library!of! Barcarrota,”!in!The5Lazarillo5Phenomenon:5Essays5on5the5Adventures5of5a5Classic5Text5.5 Eds!Reyes>!Coll>Tellechea!and!Sean!McDaniel.!Lewisburg:!Bucknell!University!Press,! 2010.! ! 245!See!Francisco!Rico.!“Preliminar,”!in!Antonio5Vignali,5La5Cazzaria.!Ed!G.M.!Capelli.! Mérida,!Spain:!Editora!Regional!de!Extremadura,!1999.! ! 246!See!F.!Serrano!Mangas.!El5secreto5de5los5Peñaranda:5el5universo5judiocconverso5de5 la5biblioteca5de5Barcarrota,5siglos5XVI5y5XVII.!Huelva:!Universidad!de!Huelva,!2004.! 209! ! hundred!years!old,!the!anonymous!Lazarillo5continues!to!reveal!itself.!!

The!pícaro,5a!fictional!character!conceived!as!socially!and!politically!aberrant! in!the!anonymous!1554!Vida5de5Lazarillo,!morphs!into!a!new!paradigm!for!the!

Spaniard,!culminating!in!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!1622!Picariglio5Castigliano.!Barezzi’s! version!of!the5Lazarillo5extends!the!definition!of!pícaro5and!transforms!the!literary! type!into!a!Spanish!rogue.!The!embedded!Gitanilla,!translated!as!Cinganetta!by!

Barezzi,!bridges!the!emerging!figure!of!the!Spanish!pícaro5with!that!of!the!Gypsy.!

Although!Barezzi!does!not!answer!Daniel!Eisenberg’s!question:!(“Does!the! picaresque!genre!exist?”),!nor!does!his!translation!cement!Cervantes’!place!within! the!shifty!genre,!the!Venetian!book!merchant’s!poignant!decisions!make!us! reconsider!early!modern!notions!of!Cervantes’!association!with!a!grouping!known! as!libros5de5pícaros.!

! ! !

210! ! ! ! ! ! ! Conclusion! ! ! ! Beyond!Translating!Spanishness:!Cervantes!and!the!Untranslatable! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

211! ! “el!traducir!de!una!lengua!en!otra,!como!no!sea! de!las!reinas!de!las!lenguas,!griega!y!latina,!es! como!quien!mira!los!tapices!flamencos!por"el" revés,'que'aunque'se'veen'las'figuras,'son'llenas' de!hilos!que!las!escurecen,!y!no!se!veen!con!la! lisura!y!tez!de!la!haz”!! >>Don5Quijote!II,!62!! ! !

The!dialogue!cited!above!is!part!of!a!conversation!between!Don!Quixote!and! a!Barcelonese!printer.!The!soujourn!into!Barcelona,!the!book’s!only!urban!setting!is! marked!by!the!admiratio!shown!by!the!Knight!when!he!is!confronted!with!the! inventions!and!technological!advancements!of!the!modern!world.!Cervantes’! protagonist,!who!has!never!before!seen!ships!or!a!printing!press,!is!curious!about!a! translator!of!Tuscan!to!Castilian.!This!exchange!invites!us!to!think!about!translation,! translatio5imperii5and5translatio5studii,!as!well!as!the!flourishing!European!book! market!and!the!active!exchange!between!Spain!and!Italy.!We!will!recall!that!during! the!great!escrutinio,!the!barber!and!the!priest!criticize!Jerónimo)de)Urrea’s! translation!of!Ariosto’s!Orlando5furioso,5because'“le'quitó'mucho'de'su'natural'valor”'

(I,!VI)!(It!took!away!much!of!its!natural!worth).!This!complaint*is*extended*to*all* verse%translations:%“y%lo%mesmo%harán%aquellos%que%los%libros%de%verso%quisieren% volver&en&otra&lengua,&que,&por&mucho&cuidado&que&pongan&y&habilidad&que& muestren,)jamás)llegarán)al)punto)que)ellos)tienen)en)su)primer)nacimiento”!(I,!VI).!

The!translated!version!of!Orlando5furioso5is!severely!criticized,!along!with!all!those! who!engage!in!translating!verse.!!

212! ! In!the!course!of!this!dialogue!with!the!Barcelonese!editor/printer/! translator,!a!figure!not!unlike!Barezzo!Barezzi,!Don!Quixote!pronounces!the!famous! comment!which!equates!translation!to!looking!upon!the!wrong!side!of!a!Flemish! textile:(“el#traducir#de#una#lengua#en#otra…#es#como#quien#mira#los#tapices#flamencos# por$el$revés$que$aunque$se$veen$las$figuras,$son$llenas$de$hilos$que$las$escurecen,$y$ no!se!veen!con!la!lisura!y!tez!de!la!haz”!(II,!62)!(translating!from!one!language!to! another….!is!like!looking!at!Flemish!textiles!from!behind,!that!even!if!the!figures!can! be!seen,!they!are!full!of!thread!ends!that!darken!them,!and!are!not!seen!with!the! smoothness,!as!on!the!other!side)247(I!propose!that!given!the!Quixote’s!penchant!for! translation,!we!read!this!meditation!on!the!subject!as!a!larger!metaphor!for!the! translation!of!Spanishness.!!

Notwithstanding!the!narrator’s!noted!criticism!of!moving!between!two! languages,!of!which!one!is!not!Greek!or!Latin,!Don5Quixote5is!a!book!that!foregrounds! acts!of!translation.(After!the!episode!with!the!windmills,!Don!Quixote!comes!to! blows!with!a!Basque!gentleman.!In!the!middle!of!their!fight,!the!narrative!stops.!The! reader!is!informed!that!they!have!been!reading!the!transcription!of!a!text!written!by! a!“first!author,”!who!has!compiled!information!regarding!Don!Quixote,!including! archival!research,!previously!written!texts,!and!interviews.!The!text!of!the!“first! author”!stops!here.!The!“second!author”!explains!his!finding!of!a!new!manuscript,! which!continues!the!narration.!At!the!end!of!II,!9,!the!“second!author”!informs!us! that!the!text!we!are!reading!was!originally!an!Arabic!text,!written!by!a!historian!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 247!Translation!is!mine! 213! ! named!Cide!Hamete!Benengeli,!which!has!then!been!translated!by!a!bilingual5 morisco!into!Castilian.!Cervantes!is!preserving!the!layered!identity!(identities)!of!a! people!attempting!to!deny!their!hybrid!lineage.!!

Cervantes’!Quixote5is!not!only!a!book!about!translation,!it!also!performs! translations!of!Spanishness.!As!the!emerging!Spanish!empire!attempts!to!disguise! itself!under!the!cloak!of!purity!of!blood!(limpieza5de5sangre!or!the!absence!of!Jewish! or!Muslim!blood),!Cervantes!translates!Spanishness!into(a!linguistic/cultural! palimpsest.!Although!we!are!reading!a!text!in!Castilian,!Spain’s!exiled!others!lie! beneath!the!surface.!Only!the!bilingual!morisco5chronicler!—at!the!border!of!Spain’s! past!and!present—can!bridge!the!two!and!continue!a!national!narration.!Cervantes’!

Quixote!is!a!translation!that!exposes!the!side!of!the!tapestry!(in!this!case!Spanish! identities)!normally!kept!hidden.!He!is!exposing!the!threads!that!“darken”(Spain—

Jews!and!Muslims—!and!blemish!its!smoothness.!Cervantes!is!translating!the! untranslatable.!!

It!is!through!the!untranslatable,!Homi!Bhahba(suggests,!that!the!most! significant!production!of!culture—class,!race,!gender,!nation—is!located.!Borrowing!

Benjamin’s!metaphor!of!translation!as!a!royal!robe!with!ample!folds,!the!academic! posits!that!the!interstitial!is!“at!once!the!time!of!cultural!displacement,!and!the!space! of!the!untranslatable”!(322,!325).248!In!Shame,!Salman!Rushdie!posits!that!“to!unlock!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 248!See!Homi!Bhahba.!The5Location5of5Culture5Routledge.!Classics:!London!and!New! York,!1994.!! ! 214! ! a!society,!one!must!study!its!untranslatable!words”!(105).249!Cultural!historian!Peter!

Burke!has!suggested!that!it!is!often!the!most!important!terms,!ideas,!and!customs! that!are!less!translatable.250!Svetlana!Boym,!for!instance,!has!fleshed!out!global! terms!for!homesickness!in!order!to!glean!that!“untranslatable!words!of!national! uniqueness!proved!to!be!synonyms!of!the!same!historical!emotion”!(12>13).251!Here,! it!is!through!the!lens!of!the!untranslatable!that!the!global!significance!of!nostalgia!is! understood.!!

By!untranslatable,!I!am!not!referring!to!that!which!cannot!be!translated,!but! rather,!borrowing!from!Barbara!Cassin’s!definition,!“what!one!never!stops!(not)! translating”.!Cassin’s!translation!of!Parmenides’s!poem!On5Nature,!introduced!the! interminability!of!translating!through!the!“untranslatable”.!In!the!French!academic’s! usage,!translation!is!inscribed!within!the!temporal!“principles!of!infinite!regress!and! the!vertiginous!apprehension!of!infinitude.”!Cassin’s!Vocabulaire5européen5des5 philosophies5reviews!the!history!of!philosophy!through!what!is!un>translated!(what! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 249!See!Salman!Rushdie!Shame.!New!York:!Picador!Press,!2000.!! ! 250!See!Peter!Burke.!“Lost!(and!Found)!in!Translation:!A!Cultural!History!of! Translators!and!Translating!in!Early!Modern!Europe,”!in!NIAS.!Wassenaar:!NIAS! 2005.!1>!22.!4>5.!!! ! 251(See!Svetlana!Boym.!“Nostalgia!and!its!Discontents,”!in!The5Hedgehog5Review,5 Institute5for5Advanced5Studies5in5Culture.5Charlottesville:!University!of!Virginia!Press,! 2007,!1>18.!12>13:!“Curiously,!intellectuals!and!poets!from!different!national! traditions!began!to!claim!that!they!had!a!special!word!for!home>sickness!that!was! radically!untranslatable:!the!Portuguese!had!their!saudade,!Russians!toska,!Czechs! litost’,!Romanians!dor—to!say!nothing!of!the!German!heimweh!and!the!Spanish!mal5 de5corazón.!All!those!untranslatable!words!of!national!uniqueness!proved!to!be! synonyms!of!the!same!historical!emotion.!While!the!details!and!flavors!differ,!the! grammar!of!romantic!nostalgias!all!over!the!world!is!quite!similar.!“I!long,!therefore! I!am”!was!the!Romantic!motto”!(12>13).!( 215! ! cannot!be!translated!and!is!left!in!the!original),!mistranslated,!and!retranslated.252!

Alessandra!Russo!uses!Cassin’s!definition!“in!order!to!stress!the!transformation,! even!the!dynamics,!of!creation!in!New!Spain!in!order!to!illuminate!the!ongoing! process!of!making!images!rather!than!the!final!result!of!the!visual!translation”!

(7).253!!It!is!in!the!untranslatable!that!productive!(mis)understandings!begin!to!take! shape.!!

In!"Translating!Spanishness:!Courtiers,!Pícaros,!and!Gypsies!at!the!

Crossroads!of!Spain!and!Italy!ca!1528>1622”!I!have!examined!the!role!of!printing! and!translation!in!the!formation!and!transformation!of!early!modern!Spanish! national!identities!and!two!of(its!principal!literary!forms:!the!early!Comedia!and!the! inchoate!Picaresque.!The!Comedia!and!the!Picaresque!transcend!the!boundaries!of! genre!and!nationality,!while!slippery!Spanish!identities!abound.!Within!this!

Spanishness,!the!texts!I!examine!suggest!a!steady!progress!from!the!vision!of!the!

Spanish!cortegiano!to!the!pícaro!and!the!Gypsy.!Each!in!its!own!way!is!a!kind!of!

“limit!case,”!a!test!case!for!the!project!of!fashioning!coherent!national!identities.!As! we!have!seen,!the!Spanish!cortegiano’s!uniformed!costuming!is!crucial!to!the! construction!of!national!identities,!the!shape!shifting!pícaro!undermines!projected! national!and!class!hierarchies,!and!the!Gypsy,!by!definition,!is!always!transforming! and!translating.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 252!See!Dictionary5of5Untranslatables:5a5Philosophical5Lexicon.5Ed.!Barabara!Cassin.! Trans.!Emily!Apter,!Jacques!Lezra,!Michael!Wood.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!2014.!! ! 253!See!Alessandra!Russo.!The5Untranslatable5Image:5A5Mestizo5History5of5the5Arts5in5 New5Spain51500c1600.!Austin:!University!of!Texas!Press,!2014.!! 216! ! Gypsies!continue!to!be!untranslatable,!forced!to!perpetually!cross>dress!as! themselves!on!the!world’s!stage.!The!threat!of!the!child>stealing!Gypsy!returned!to! the!public’s!attention!in!2013!when!a!Romany!couple!in!Greece!was!accused!of! abducting!a!girl!referred!to!as!“the!blond!angel.”!A!few!days!later,!the!parents!of!two! light>haired!and!blue>eyed!Romany!children!in!Ireland!suffered!a!similar! fate.!!Ireland!returned!the!two!children!to!their!biological!Romany!parents!only!after!

DNA!testing!confirmed!their!consanguinity.!Despite!being!wrongfully!accused,! modern!science!cannot!quell!such!deeply!rooted!cultural!stereotypes.!Within!the! following!week,!a!group!of!Serbian!skinheads!attempted!to!kidnap!a!fair>skinned!

Romany!child!and!Italy’s!conservative!Lega5Nord!demanded!an!immediate!search! for!missing!children!in!all!Romany!camps.!Earlier!that!month,!the!French!president! allowed!the!return!of!a!Gypsy!girl!who!had!been!pulled!from!a!school!bus!and! expelled!to!Kosovo!with!the!rest!of!her!family.!François!Hollande’s!invitation,! however,!did!not!extend!to!her!kin.!Here,!France!attempted!to!keep!a!child!from!her!

Gypsy(parents.!Almost!500!years!after!Castiglione,!Lope!de!Rueda,!Mateo!Alemán,! and!Barezzo!Barezzi!wielded!their!pens,!the!category!of!untranslatable!de>exoticizes! the!Gypsy!by!showing!that!the!representation!of!gypsies!is!just!as!tension!filled!and! disorienting!today.!The!Spanish!cortegiano,!the5pícaro,!and!the!Gypsy!never!stop!

(not)!being!translated.!!

Much!work!remains!to!be!done!on!these!texts!and!on!many!others!in! picaresque,!novela,!and!comedia.(I!have!projected!two!major!book!projects!for!the! coming!years.!The!first!will!build!on!Barezzo!Barezzi’s!role!as!a!promoter!of!Spanish! 217! ! literature!in!translation!and!on!pan>European!translations!of!the!Lazarillo.5More! specifically,!I!will!study!French!and!English!translations!of!the!Lazarillo!and!explore!

Venice’s!role!in!translating!Spanish!texts.!This!project!will!include!a!Digital!

Humanities!component!through!the!development!of!a!database!of!translations!and! continuations!of!the5Lazarillo.!My!second!major!project!will!study!Spanish,!Italian,! and!“New!World”!polyglot!texts!to!examine!the!role!of!multilingualism!in! intercultural!and!transnational!contact.!!!!

As!a!bilingual,!bicultural,!Mexican>American!woman!who!grew!up!in!

California!and!currently!lives!between!Boston!and!Madrid,!translation!and! transformation!have!shaped!my!own!identity.!In!my!life,!I!never!stop!(not)! translating.!!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

(

218! ! Bibliography(!

Abel,!Lionel,!Tragedy5and5Metatheatre,5ed.!Martin!Pichner.!Boulder:!Holmes!and! Meir,!2003.! ! Aguirre!Felipe,!Javier,!Historia5de5las5itinerancias5gitanas:5de5la5India5a5Andalucia.55 Zaragoza:!Institución!Fernando!el!Católico,!2006.!! ! Alarcón,!Juan!Ruiz!de.!La5verdad5sospechosa.!Ed!José!Montero!Reguera.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!1999! ! Alemán,!Mateo.!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.!I,!II.!!Ed.!José!María!Micó.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!! 1987.!! ! Alter,!Robert.!Roque's5Progress:5Studies5in5the5Picaresque5Novel.!Cambridge:!! Harvard!University!Press,!1964.!! ! Aragone,!Elisa.!"Barezzo!Barezzi!stampatore!e!ispanista!del!Seicento,"!in!Rivista5di5 Letterature5moderne5e5comparate!XIV!(1961):!284>312.!5 ! Ariosto,!Ludovico.!Orlando5Furioso.!Ed.!E.!Sanguinetie.!M.!Turchi,!2!vols.!Milano:!! Garzanti,!1964.!! ! Arnoldsson,!Sverker.!La5Leyenda5Negra.5Estudios5sobre5sus5orígenes.!Göteborg:!! Göteborgs!!Universitets!Årsskrift,!1960.!! ! Arróniz,!Othon.5La5influencia5Italiana5en5el5nacimiento5de5la5comedia5española.55 Madrid:!Editorial!Gredos,!1969.!! !

Asseo,!Henriette.!“Pour!une!histoire!des!peuples>resistance,”!in!Tsiganes:5identité,5 evolution.5Ed.!P.!Williams.!Paris:!Syros,!(1989):!121–127.!

Avalle>Arce,!Juan!Bautista!de.!Las5novelas5y5sus5narradores.5Madrid:!Centro!de! Estudios!Cervantinos,!2006.!

Ayala,!Francisco.!Fuente5árabe5de5un5cuento5popular5en5el5Lazarillo.5BRAE:!1965.55 493>49555

>>>!“El!Lazarillo:5Nuevo!examen!de!algunos!aspectos,”!in!Cuadernos!Americanos!XXVI! (January,!1967),!231.!

Bakhtin,!Mikhail.!The5Dialogic5Imagination:5Four5Essay5by5M.M.5Bakhtin.!Ed.!Michael! Holquist.!!Trans.!Caryl!Emerson!and!Michael!Holquist.!Austin:!University!of!Texas!

219! ! Press,!1981.!!

Barthes,!Roland.!The5Fashion5System.!Trans.!Matthew!Ward!and!Richard!Howard.! London:!Cape,!1985.!

Basile,!Bruno.!"Lazarillo5de5Tormes!in!Italia:!la!versione!ingegnosa!di!Barezzo! Barezzi,"!in!Spicilegio5moderno!15.16!(1964),!80>99.!!

Bass.!Laura.!The5Drama5of5the5Portrait:5Theatre5and5Visual5Culture5in5Early5Modern5 Spain.!Penn!State!Universty:!Pennsylvania,!2008.!

>>>!!“Self>Fashioning,”!in!Lexikon5of5the5Hispanic5Baroque:5Transatlantic5Exchanges5 and5Transformation.5University!of!Texas!Press:!Austin!2014.5

Bassnett,!Susan!and!Peter!Bush.!The5Translator5as5Writer.5London!and!New!York:!! Continuum,!2006.!! ! >>>!!Translation5Studies.!London!and!New!York:!Methuen,!2002.!! ! Bataillon,!Marcel.!“Pícaros!y!picaresca,”!in5La5pícara5Justina.!Trans.!F.!Rodríguez!! Vadillo.!Madrid:!Taurus,!1969.!! ! >>>.!Novedad5y5fecundidad5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Salamanca:!Anaya,!1968.! ! Battistini,!Andrea.!Galileo5e5i5Gesuiti:5Miti5letterari5e5retorica5della5scienza.5Milano:!! Vita!e!Pensiero,!2000.!! ! Benjamin,!Walter.“The!Task!of!the!Translator,”!in!Selected!Writings!Volume!I!! 1913>1926.!Ed.!Marcus!Bullock!and!Michael!W.!Jennings.!Cambridge:!Harvard!UP,! 1996.! ! Bergman,!Ted.!‘Transversality,!criminality,!and!the!Gypsy,!in!Spanish!baroque!! teatro!breve,”!in!Journal5of5Spanish5Cultural5Studies,!2012,!13:3,!(276>291).!! ! Bernis,!Carmen.!Indumentaria5española5en5tiempos5de5Carlos5V.!Madrid:!Instituto! Diego!Velázquez,!1962.! ! >>>!!El5traje5y5los5tipos5sociales5en5El5Quijote.!Madrid:!Ediciones!El!Viso,!2001.!! ! Bhabha,!Homi!K.!The5Location5of5Culture.!London!and!New!York:!Routledge.!2012.!! ! Bjornson,!Richard.!The5Picaresque5Hero5in5European5Fiction.!Madison:!University!of! Wisconsin!Press,!1977.!! !

220! ! >>>>!“The!Picaresque!Hero!in!France,!England,!and!Germany,”!in!Comparative55 Literature5XXIX:!!1977,!124>127.!! ! Blackburn,!Alexander:!The5Myth5of5the5Picaro:5Continuity5and5Transformation5of5the5 Picaresque5Novel,51554c1954.5Chapel!Hill:!University!of!North!Carolina!Press,!! 1979.! ! Blanco!Aguinaga,!Carlos.!“Cervantes!y!la!picaresca!notas!sobre!dos!tipos!de!! realismo,”!in!Nueva5Revista5de5Filología5Hispánica!11.3,4!(1957):!313>342.! ! Blecua,!José!Manuel.!“Bodas!de!Guzmán!de!Alfarache!con!la!Pícara!Justina,”!! in!Homenaje5a5a5don5J.M.5Lacarra5de5Miguel5en5su5jubilación5del5profesorado.5! Estudios!Medievales!collection,!vol!V.!Zaragoza:!Anubar,!1977,!299>305.!! ! Blockman,!Wim.!Emperor5Charles5V.!London:!Arnold,!2002.! ! Bluher,!Karl!Alfred.!Séneca5en5España:5investigaciones5sobre5la5recepción5de5Séneca5en5 España5desde5el5siglo5XII5hasta5el5XVII.!Trans.!Juan!Conde.!Madrid:!Gredos,!1983.! ! Bourdieu,!Pierre.!Distinction:5A5Social5Critique5of5the5Judgement5of5Taste.!London:!! Routledge,!1984.!! ! Borges,!José!Luis.!“Pierre!Menard,!autor!del!Quijote,”!in!Ficciones.!Madrid:!Alianza! Editorial,!1997.!!! ! Boym,!Svetlana.!“Nostalgia!and!its!Discontents,”!in!The5Hedgehog5Review,5Institute5 for5Advanced5Studies5in5Culture.5Charlottesville:!University!of!Virginia!Press,!2007.!! ! Brancaforte,!Benito.!“Mateo!Alemán!y!Miguel!de!Cervantes!frente!a!los!apócrifos,”!! in!Atalayas5del5“Guzmán5de5Alfarache.5Seminario5internacional5sobre5Mateo5Alemán.5 IV5Centenario5de5la5publicación5de5“Guzmán5de5Alfarache”5(1599c1999).!Ed.!Pedro!M.! Piñero!Ramírez.!Sevilla:!Universidad!de!Sevilla>Diputación!de!Sevilla,!2002.!219>40.!! ! >>>>!La5primera5traducción5italiana5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5por5Giulio5Strozzi.!! Ravenna:!Longo!Editore,!1977.!!! ! Brown,!Horatio!F.!The5Venetian5Printing5Press.!London:!J.C.!Nimmo,!1891.!!! ! Brownlee,!Marina.!“Discursive!Parameters!of!the!Picaresque,”!in!The5Picaresque:5A5 Symposium5on5the5Rogue’s5Tale.!Eds.!Carmen!Benito>!Vessels!and!Michael!! Zappala.!Newark:!University!of!Delaware!Press:!1994.!25>35.!! ! >>>>!“Generic!Expansion!and!Generic!Subversion:!the!Two!Continuations!of!Lazarillo! de!Tormes,”!in!Philological5Quarterly!61:!1982:!317>327.!! 221! ! !

Bujanda,(Jesús(Martínez(de.(“Índices(de(libros(prohibidos(del(siglo(XVI,”in(Historia5de5 la5Inquisición5en5España5y5América."Eds."Joaquín"Pérez"Villanueva"and"Bartolomé" Escandell!Bonet.!3!Vols.!Madrid:!BAE,!2000.!773>828.5

Burke,!Peter,!“Early!Modern!Venice!as!a!Center!of!Information!and!Communication,”! in!Venice5Reconsidered.!Eds.!John!Jeffries!Martin!and!Dennis!Romano.!Baltimore:! Johns!Hopkins!UP,!402–3.!

>>>!5The5Fortunes5of5the5Courtier:5The5European!Reception5of5Castiglione's5Cortegiano.! Cambridge:!Polity!Press,!1995.!

>>>!“Lost!(and!Found)!in!Translation:!A!Cultural!History!of!Translators!and! Translating!in!Early!Modern!Europe,”!in!NIAS.!Wassenaar:!NIAS!2005,!1>!22.!

Butazzi,!Grazietta.!“Intorno!al!Cavaliere!in!nero:!note!sulla!moda!maschile!tra!! Cinquecento!e!Seicento,”5in!Giovanni5Battista5Moroni:5il5Cavaliere5in5nero:55 l'immagine5del5gentiluomo5nel5Cinquecento.!Ed.!Annalisa!Zanni!and!Andrea!Di! Lorenzo.!Catalogo!della!mostra,!Milano,!Museo!Poldi!Pezzoli,!2!ottobre!2005>15.! Milano:!Skira,!2005,!47>55.5 !

Cabo!Aseguinolaza.!Fernando.!“El5Guitón5Honofre5y!el!modelo!picaresco,”!in!Revista5 de5Literatura548!(1986):!367>86.!5

>>>!El5concepto5de5género5y5la5literatura5picaresca.!Santiago!de!Compostela:! Universidad,!1992.!!

Calzón!García,!José!Antonio.!“Los!Planos!Narrativos!en!el!Prólogo!y!en!la! Introducción!de!La5Pícara5Justina,”!in!Hisperia,!Anuario!de!Filología!Hispánica!V! (2002):!33>49.!!

Cancionero5de5Baena.!Ed.!Brian!Dutton.!Madrid:!Visor!Libros,!1993.!

Canónica,!Elevzio.!Translingue:!Versos5Italianos5de5Poetas5Españoles5desde5la5Edad5 Media5Hasta5el5Siglo5de5Oro.!Zaragoza:!Libros!Pórtico,!1996.!

>>>!“Le!modèle!et!la!reine!des!modèles:!La!figure!d’Isabelle!la!Catholique!dans!le! Cortegiano!de!Castiglione!et!dans!la!traduction!de!Boscán,!»!in!Exemples5et5 exemplarité5en5péninsule5ibérique.!Ed.!Ghislaine!Fournés.!Bordeaux:!Presses! Universitaires!de!Bordeaux,!2011.!

Caro!Baroja,5Julio.!Los5Moriscos5del5Reino5de5Granada.!Madrid:!Ediciones!Itsmo,!1991.!!

222! ! Cartagena!Calderón,!José!R.!Masculinidades5en5obras:5El5drama5de5la5hombría5en5la5 España5imperial.!Newark:!Juan!de!la!Cuesta,!2008.!

Castiglione,!Baldassare.!Il5libro5del5Cortegiano.5Ed.!Amedeo!Quondam.!Milano:!! Garzanti,!2015.!! ! >>>!El5Cortesano.!Trans.!Juan!de!Boscán.!Madrid:!S.!Aguirre,!1942.!! ! >>>!Los5cuatro5libros5del5cortesano.!Trans.!Juan!Boscán!Almogaver.!Ed.!Mario!Pozzi.! Madrid:!Cátedra,!2011.!!! ! >>>!El5Cortesano.5Trans.!Juan!Boscán!Almogaver.!Ed.!Marcelino!Menéndez!y!Pelayo.! Madrid:!S.!Aguirre!Impresor,!1942.! 5 cccc5Lettere.5Ed.!Guido!La!Rocca.!Milan:!Mondadori,!1978.! ! Carreter,!Fernando!Lázaro.!“Para!una!revisión!del!concepto!“novela!picaresca,”!in! Lazarillo5de5Tormes5en5la5picaresca.5Barcelona:!Ariel,!1972.!195>229.!5!

Castro,!Americo.!Cervantes5y5los5Castícimos5Españoles.!Madrid,!Editorial!Trotta,!2002.!

>>>!!“Perspectiva!de!la!novela!picaresca,”!in!Hacia5Cervantes.5London:!Taurus,!1960,! 112>134.!

>>>!!De5la5edad5conflictiva.!Madrid:!Taurus,!1976.!!

Cavillac,!Michel.!“Gueux!et!marchands!dans!le!“Guzmán!de!Alfarache”!(1599> 1604),”in5Roman5picaresque5et5mentalité5bourgeoise5dans5l’Espagne5du5Siècle5d’Or.! Bordeaux:!Institut!d’Études!Ibériques!et!Ibéroamericaines!de!l’Université!de! Bordeaux,!1983.!!

>>>!Atalayisme5et5picaresque:5la5vérité5proscrite:5Lazarillo,5Guzmán,5Buscón.!Pessac:! Presses!Universitaires!de!Bordeaux,!2007.! ! >>>!“El!Guzmán5de5Alfarache:!¿una!‘novela!picaresca’,?!in!Bulletin5Hispanique.!106.1! (2004):!161>84.!

>>>!“Mateo'Alemán'y'la'‘literatura,”'in'Bulletin5Hispanique5102.2!(2000):!381>401.!!

>>>.!"Libros,!lecturas!e!ideario!de!Alonso!de!Barros,!prologuista!del!Guzmán5de5 Alfarache,"!in!Bulletin5Hispanique5100.1!(1998):!69>94.!

>>>>!“Alemán!y!Guzmán!ante!la!Reformación!de!los!vagabundos!ociosos,”!in!Atalayas5 del5Guzmán5de5Alfarache:5Seminario5Internacional5sobre5Mateo5Alemán.!Ed.!Pedro!M.! Piñero>Ramírez,!141–66.!Seville:!Universidad!de!Sevilla,!2002.! 223! ! Cayuela,!Anne.!Alonso5Pérez5de5Montalbán:5un5librero5en5el5Madrid5de5los5Austrias.! Madrid:!Calambur,!2005.!

>>>!“De$escritores$y$reescrituras:$teoría$y$práctica$de$la$escritura$en$los$paratextos$ del!Siglo!de!Oro,”!in!Criticón579!(2000):!37>46.!

>>>!Le5paratexte5au5Siècle5d’Or.5Prose5romanesque,5livres5et5lecteurs5en5Espagne5aue5 XVII5siècle.5Geneva:!Labrairie!Droz,!1996.!

Cervantes,!Miguel!de.!Don5Qujiote5de5la5Mancha.5Ed.$Martín$de$Riquer.$Barcelona:$ Editorial!Planeta,!2005.!

>>>.!Don5Quijote5de5la5Mancha.5Ed.!Francisco!Rico.!Sao!Paolo:!Real!Academia!Española,! 2004.!!

>>>!“La!Gitanilla,”!in!Novelas5ejemplares.5Ed.!Harry%Sieber.%Vol.%1.%Madrid:%Cátedra,% 1987.!

>>>!Entremeses.!Ed.!Nicholas!Spadaccini.!México:!Editorial!Rei,!1987.!

Chamorro!Fernández,!M.!I.!Lazarillo5de5Manzanares.!Ed.!J.!Cortés!de!Tolosa.!Madrid:! Taurus,!1970.!!

Chandler,!Frank!Wadleigh.!“Romances!of!Roquery,!An!Episode!in!the!History!of!the! Novel.!Part!I,5The5Picaresque5Novel5in5Spain.5NewYork:!Columbia!University!Press,! 1899.!Reed:!New!York:!Burt!Franklin,!1958..!! ! The5Literature5of5Roquery,52!vols.!Boston:!Houghton!Mifflin,!1907.!! ! Chavarria,!Elisa!Novi.!“Gli!zingari!in!età!moderna,”5in!Integrazione5ed5emigrazione.5 Circuiti5e5modelli:5Italia5e5Spagna5nei5secoli5XVcXVIII.5Ed.!Laura!Barletta.!Naples:!Cuen! Libri,!2002.!286>308.!! ! Chamorro'Fernández,'María'Inés.'Tesoro&de&villanos.&Diccionario&de&germanía.!! Barcelona:!Herder,!2002.!! ! Chevalier,!Maxime.!Lectura5y5lectores5en5la5España5de5los5siglos5XVI5y5XVII.!Madrid:! Ediciones!Turner,!1976.!

Checa!Cremades,!Fernando.!Carlos5V:5La5Imagen5del5Poder5en5el5Renacimiento.5 Madrid:!El!Viso,!1999.!

Cian,!Vittorio.!Un5ilustre5nunzio5pontificio5del5renascimento.!Rome:!Biblioteca! Apostolica!Vaticana,!1951.!! ! 224! ! Cioni,!Alfredo,!Claudio.!Mutini.!Barezzo!Barezzi.!Dizionario!Biografico!degli!Italiani.! Treccani.!V!6.!1964.!http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/barezzo> barezzi_(Dizionario>Biografico)/.!!

Civil,!Pierre.!“Corps,!vêtement!et!société:!le!costume!aristocratique!espagnol!dans!la! deuxième!moitié!du!XVIe!siècle,”!in!Le5corps5dans5la5société5espagnole5des5XVIe5et5 XVIIe5siècles.!Ed.!Agustín!Redondo,!307–19.!Paris:!Sorbonne,!1990.!

Close,!Anthony.!Cervantes5and5the5Comic5Mind5of5his5Age.!Oxford:!Oxford!UP,!2000.!!

>>>!“Psychology!and!Function!in!the!Comic!Characters!of!Spanish!Golden>Age! Literature,”!in!Bulletin5of5Spanish5Studies581.4/5!(2004):!427>440.!

Coll>Tellechea,!María!de!los.!Lazarillo5Castigado:5Historia5de5un5olvidado.!Madrid:! Ediciones!del!Orto,!2011.!!

>>>“The!Spanish!Inquisition!and!the!Battle!for!Lazarillo:!1554—!1555—1573,”!in!The5 Lazarillo!Phenomenon.5Essays5on5the5Adventures5of5a5Classic5Text.5Eds.!Reyes!Coll> Tellechea!and!Sean!McDaniel.!Lewisburg:!Bucknell!University!Press,!2010.!75>97.!

Collier!Frick,!Carole.!Dressing5Renaissance5Florence.5Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins! University!Press,!2002.!

Colomer,!José!Luis.!“Traducción!y!recepción:!La!lectura!europea!de!la!picaresca!en!!Il5 picariglio5castigliano!de!Barezzo!Barezzi!(1622),”!in!Revista5de5Literatura.! 53.105/106!!(1991):!391>443.!!

>>>!“La!traduzione!del!romanzo!picaresco!in!Italia.!Il!‘Picariglio!Castigliano’!di!! ! Barezzo!Barezzi.”!M.A.!Thesis.!Università!di!Bologna,!a.a.1986/87.! ! >>>!“El!negro!y!la!imagen!real,”!in!Vestir5a5la5española5en5las5cortes5europeas55 5 (siglos5XVI5y5XVII).!Ed.!José!Luis!Colomer!y!Amalia!Descalzo.!Madrid:!CEEH,!! ! 2014.! ! Cotarelo,!Emilio.!“Lope!de!Rueda!y!el!teatro!español!de!su!tiempo,”!in!Revista5de55 Archivos,5Bibliotecas,5y5Museos,51898,!II,!150>175,!466>502.! ! Covarrubias!Horozco,!Sebastián!de:5Tesoro5de5la5lengua5castellana,5o5española.! Madrid:!Luis!Sanchez:!1611.! ! >>>!Tesoro5de5la5lengua5castellana.5URL:!http://www!.cervantesvirtual.com/! servlet/SirveObras/80250529545703831976613/index.htm! ! Cox>Davis,!Nina.!“Breaking!the!barriers:!The!Birth!of!López!de!Úbeda’s!Pícara55 Justina,”!in!The5Picaresque5Tradition5and5Displacement.!Ed.!Gianfranco!Maiorino.!! 225! ! Minneapolis:!University!of!Minnesota!Press,!1996,!137>158.!5 ! Croce,!Benedetto.!La5Spagna5nella5vita5italiana5durante5la5Rinascenza.5Bari:!G.!! Laterza,!1917.!! ! Cros,!Edmond.!!Protée5et5le5Gueux.5Recherches5sur5les5origines5et5la5nature5du5récit55 picaresque5dans5‘Guzmán5de5Alfarache.’5Paris:!Didier,!1967.! ! ccc5Mateo5Alemán:5introducción5a5su5vida5y5a5su5obra.!Salamanca:!Anaya,!1971.!

Curtius,!Ernst5Robert.5European5Literature5and5the5Latin5Middle5Ages.!Trans.!Willard.! R.!Trask.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1991.!!

Dadson,(Trevor(J.(“Las(bibliotecas(de(la(nobleza:(dos(inventarios(y(un(librero,(año( 1625,”!in!Mecenazgo5y5Humanidades5en5tiempos5de5Lastanosa.5Homenaje5a5Domingo5 Ynduráin.5Eds.%Aurora%Egido%y%José%Enrique%Laplana.%Zaragoza:%Institución%Fernando% el#Católico!e!Instituto!de!Estudios!Altoaragoneses,!2008.!253>302.!

>>>!Libros,5lectores5y5lecturas:5estudios5sobre5bibliotecas5particulares5españolas5del5 Siglo5de5Oro.!Madrid:!Arco/Libros,!1998.!

Damiani,!Bruno!Mario.!“Introducción!biográfica!y!crítica,”!in!La5Pícara5Justina.!! Francisco!López!de!Ubeda.!Madrid:!José!Porrúa!Turanzas,!1982.!

>>>>!“Las!Fuentes!literarias!de!La5Pícara5Justina,”!in!Thesauraus,5XXXVI,!1981,!44>70.!!

Danzi,!Massimo.!“Girolamo!Cittadini!poeta!milanese!del!primo!Cinquecento,”!in! Veronica5Gambara5e5la5poesia5del5suo5tempo5nell'Italia5settentrionale.!Atti!del! convegno!internazionale!di!studi,!Brescia!>!Correggio.!Ed.!C.!Bozzetti,!P.!Gibellini.!E.! Sandal.!Florence:!Olschki,!1989,!p.!293>322.!

Davis,!Barbara.!“The!Style!of!Mateo!Alemán’s!Guzmán!de!Alfarache,”!in!Romance5 Review566:199–213,!1975.!!!

Del!Monte,!Alberto.!Itinerario5de5la5novela5picaresca5española.!Trans.!Enrique!Sordo.! ! Barcelona:!Lumen,!1971.!

Deyermond,!Alain.!Lazarillo5de5Tormes:5A5critical5guide.!London:!Grant!and! Cutler/Tamesis,!1993.!!!

Deyon,!Solange!and!Pierre.!Henri5de5Rohan,5huguenot5de5plume5et5d’épée.!Paris:! Perrin,!2000.!

Díez%Borque,%José%María.%“Bibliotecas%y%novela%en%el%Siglo%de%Oro,”%in%Hispanic5Review5 75:!(2007):!181>203.! 226! ! Domínguez!Ortiz.!Antonio!and!Vincent!Bernard,!Historia5de5los5moriscos,5vida5y5 tragedia5de5una5minoría.!Madrid:!Revista!de!Occidente,!1978.!!

Donnell,!Sidney.5Feminizing5the5enemy:5Imperial5Spain,5transvestite5drama,5and5the5 crisis5of5masculinity.5Lewisburg:!Bucknell!University!Press,!2003.!!

Dunn,!Peter!N.!Castillo5Solórzano5and5the5decline5of5the5Spanish5novel.!Oxford:! Blackwell,!1952.!!

>>>!The5Spanish5picaresque5novel.!Twayne:!Boston,!1979.!! ! !>>>!“Cervantes!De/Re>Constructs!the!Picaresque.”!Cervantes52.2!(1982a):!109>131.!! !! >>>“Problems!of!a!model!for!the!picaresque!and!the!case!of!Quevedo’s!Buscón,”!in! Bulletin5of5Hispanic5Studies559!(1982b):!95>105.5 ! !>>>!Spanish5Picaresque5Fiction:5A5New5Literary5History.!New!York:!Cornell!University! Press,1!993.!! ! Eco,!Umberto.!Dire5quasi5la5stessa5cosa:5Espereonze5di5traduzione.!Milan:!Bompiani,! 2003.!! ! Eisenberg,!Daniel.!“Does!the!Picaresque!Novel!Exist?,”!in!Kentucky5Romance5 Quarterly526!(1979):!203>19.!! 5 Elliott,!J.H.5Imperial5Spain51469–1716.5London:!Penguin,!2002.!5 ! Fassanelli,!Benedetto.!“Considerata!la!mala!qualitá!delli!cingani!erranti.!I!Rom!! nella!Repubblica!di!Venezia:!Retoriche!e!Stereotipi,”!in!Acta!Histriae!15!! (2007):!139>154.!! ! Fernández>Alvárez!Manuel.!La5España5del5Emperador5Carlos5V.5Madrid:!Espasa>! Calpe,!1996,!217.! ! Fernández!de!Oviedo,!Gonzalo.!Historia5General5y5Natural5de5las5Indias.! Madrid:!Atlas,!1959.!! ! Finkelstein,!David!and!Alistair!McCleery.!Eds.!“Introduction”!to!The5Book5History5 Reader.!London:!Routledge,!2002.!1>7.5

Foulché>Delbosc,)R.)"Bibliographie)de)Mateo)Alemán,)1598>1615,"!in!Revue5 Hispanique542!(1918):!481>556.5

France,!Peter.!The!Oxford5Guide5to5Literature5in5English5translation.!Oxford:!Oxford!

227! ! UP,!2000.!!

Francis,!Alan.!Picaresca,5decadencia,5historia:5Aproximación5a5una5realidad5históricoc5 literaria.!Madrid:!Gredos,!1978.!

Fraser,!Sir!Angus,!The!present!and!future!of!the!Gypsy!past,”!in!Cambridge5Review5of5 International5Affairs,!13:2!(2000),!17>31,!p.20.5

Friedman,!Edward!H.!“Insincere!Flattery:!Imitation!and!the!Growth!of!the!Novel,”!in! Cervantes520.1!(2000):!99>114.!! ! >>>>!Cervantes5in5the5Middle:5Realism5and5Reality5in5the5Spanish5Novel5from5Lazarillo5 de5Tormes5to5Niebla.!Newark:!Juan!de!la!Cuesta,!2006.!! ! !Freedman,!Luba.!Titian’s5Portrait5through5Aretino’s5Lens.!Penn!State!University! Press:!University!Park,!1995.! ! Frow,!John.!Genre.!London/New!York:!Routledge,!2006.!

Fuchs,!Barbara.!“Pirating!Spain:!Jonson’s!commendatory!poetry!and!the!translation! of!empire,”!in!Modern5Philology!99!(2002):!341>356.!!

>>>!Passing5for5Spain.!Urbana:!University!of!Illinois!Press,!2003.!

>>>!Exotic5Nation:5Maurophilia5and5the5Construction5of5Early5Modern5Spain.! Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2009.!!

Garber,!Marjorie.!Vested5Interests:5Crosscdressing5and5Cultural5Anxiety.5New!York:! Routledge,!1992.!!

García>!López,!Jorge.!“Rinconete!y!Cortadillo!y!la!novela!picaresca.”!Cervantes!19.2! (1999):!113>24.!!

Garrido!Ardila,!Juan!Antonio.!El5género5picaresco5en5la5crítica5literaria.!Madrid:! Biblioteca!Nueva,!2008.!

>>>5La5novela5picaresca5en5Europa51554c1753.!Madrid:!Visor!Libros,!2009.!!

>>>The5Picaresque5Novel5in5Western5Literature.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!University! Press,!2015.!! ! Gaylord,!Mary!Malcolm.!”Pulling!Strings!with!Master!Peter's!Puppets:!Fiction!and! History!in!Don!Quixote,”!in!Frames5for5Reading:5Cervantes5Studies5in5Honor5of5Peter5N.5 Dunn.5Cervantes,5Special5Issue5(1998).!Ed.!Mary!M.!Gaylord.!

228! ! >>>!“The5Telling5Lies5of5La5Verdad5Sospechosa,”5in!MLN.!Vol!103,!No.!2!Hispanic!Issue,! Mar.!1988,!pp.!223>238.!

>>>!“Jerónimo!de!Aguilar!y!la!alteración!de!la!lengua,”5in!Agencias5Criollas:5La5 ambiguedad5“colonial5en5las5letras5hispanoamericanas.!Ed.!José!Antonio!Mazzotti.! Pittsburgh:!Biblioteca!de!America,!2000.!!!

Genette,&Gérard.&Paratexts:5Thresholds5of5Interpretation.5Trans.!Jane!E.!Lewin.! Cambridge/New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1997.!

Giancarli,!Gigio!Artemio.!Commedie5La5CaprariacLa5Zingana5con5un5appendice5sulla5 Medora5di5Lope5de5Rueda.!Ed.!Lucia!Lazzerini.!Padova:!Editrice!Antenore,!1991.!

Gilbert>Santamaría,!Donald.!Writers5on5the5Market:5Consuming5Literature5in5Early5 SeventeenthcCentury5Spain.!Lewisburg:!Bucknell!UP,!2005.!

Gleason,!Elisabeth!G.!“Con>!fronting!New!Realities:!Venice!and!the!Peace!of!Bologna,! 1530,”!in!Venice5Reconsidered:5The5History5and5Civilization5of5an5Italian5CitycState,5 1297–1707.!Ed.!John!Martin!and!Dennis!Romano.!Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins! University!Press,!2000,!168–84.!

González!Amezúa!y!Mayo,!Agustín.!“Cervantes,!creador!de!la!novela%corta%española: ( introducción*a*la*edición*crítica*y*comentada*de*las*Novelas*ejemplares .”#Madrid:# Consejo'Superior'de'Investigaciones'Científicas,'Instituto'Miguel'de'Cervantes,' 1982." !

González!Echevarría!Roberto.!“Don!Quixote:!Crossed!Eyes!and!Vision,”!in!Cervantes’5 Don5Quixote:5A5casebook.!Ed.!Roberto!González!Echevarría.5Oxford:!Oxford!UP,!2005.!!!

González(Sánchez,(Carlos(Alberto.(Los5mundos5del5libro:5medios5de5difusión5de5la5 cultura5occidental5en5las5Indias5de5los5siglos5XVI5y55 XVII."Sevilla:"Diputación"de"Sevilla," Universidad*de*Sevilla,*Secretariado*de*Publicaciones,*2001.!

Gonzalo!Sánchez>Mollero,!José!Luis.!Felipe5II5Princeps5Hispaniarum:5La5 Castellanización5de5un5príncipe5Habsburgo5(1524c1547).!Madrid:!Manuscritos!16,! 1998,!65>85,!71.!

Gracián,)Baltasar.)Agudeza5y5arte5de5ingenio."Eds."Ceferino"Peralta,"Jorge"M."Ayala" and$José$M.a$Andreu.$2$Vols.$Zaragoza:$Universidad$de$Zaragoza/Instituto$de$ Estudios!Altoaragoneses,!2004.!

>>>.!Oráculo5manual5y5arte5de5prudencia."Ed."Emilio"Blanco."Madrid:"Cátedra,"1995.!

Gracíán!Dantisco,!Lucas.!Galateo5Español.5Introduction!by!Margarita!Morreale.! 229! ! Valencia:!Soler,!1968.!

Greenblatt,!Stephen.!Renaissance5SelfcFashioning.!Chicago:!University!of!Chicago! Press,!1980.!!

Greer,!Margaret,!Walter!Mignolo!and!Maureen!Quilligan.!Rereading5the5Black5 Legend:5the5Discourses5of5Religious5and5Racial5Difference5in5the5Renaissance5Empires.5 Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!2008.!!

Groebner,!Valentin.!Who5are5you?5Identification,5deception,5and5surveillance5in5early5 modern5Europe.!New!York:!Zone!Books,!2007.!5

>>>>!“The!Development!of!National!Theatre,”!in!The5Cambridge5History5of5Spanish5 Literature.5Ed.!David!Gies.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!UP,!238>250.!

Grossman,!Edith.!Why5translation5matters.5New!Haven:!Yale!UP,!2010!

Guidi,!José,.!«!L’Espagne!dans!la!vie!et!dans!l’oeuvre!de!B.!Castiglione:!De!l’équilibre! franco>hispanique!aux!choix!impérial,!»!in!Presence5et5influence5de5l’Espagne5dans5la5 culture5italienne5de5la5Renaissance,!113>202.!Paris:!Université!de!la!Sorbonne! Nouvelle,!1978.!!!!

Guillén,!Claudio.!“Toward!a!Definition!of!the!Picaresque,”!in!Literature5as5System.! Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1971.!71>106.!!

>>>>The5Anatomies5of5Roquery:5a5Comparative5Study5in5the5Origins5and5the5Nature5of5 Picaresque5Literature.5New!York:!Garland,!1987.!(doctoral!thesis,!Harvard! University,!1953).! ! >>>>“Toward!a!Definition!of!the!Picaresque,”!in!Literature5as5System:5Essays5toward5 the5Theory5of55 Literary5History.5Princeton:!Princeton!University!Press,!1971.! (originally!in!Proceedings5of5the5Illrd5Congress5of5the5International5Comparative5 Literature5Association.5Ed.!W.A.P.!Smith.!The!Hague:!Mouton,!1962,!252>66).!! ! >>>>>!“Luis!Sánchez,!Ginés!de!Pasamonte!y!los!inventores!del!género!picaresco,”! in!Homenaje5a5Antonio5Rodríguez5Moñino.!Madrid:!Castalia,!1966.!I,!221>31.! Reprinted!in“Luis!Sánchez,!Ginés!de!Pasamonte!y!el!descubrimiento!del!género! picaresco,!”!in!El5primer!Siglo5de5Oro5(Estudios5sobre5géneros5y5modelos).!Barcelona:! Crítica,!1988.!97>211! ! >>>.!"Genre!and!Countergenre:!The!Discovery!of!the!Picaresque,"!in!Literature5as5 System:5Essays5toward5the5Theory5of5Literary5History.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1971.! 135>58.! 230! ! >>>.!“On!the!Uses!of!Literary!Genre,”!in!Literature5as5System:5Essay5toward5the5Theory5 of5Literary5History.!Princeton:!Princeton!UP,!1971.!107>34.5

Haan,!Fonger!de.!An5Outline5of5the5History5of5the5Novela5Picaresca5in5Spain.5The!Hague! and!!New!York:!Martinus!Nijhoff,!1903.!(doctoral!thesis,!Johns!Hopkins!University,! 1895).!

Hankins,!James.!“Machiavaelli,!Civic!Humanism,!and!the!Humanist!Politics!of!Virtue,”5 in!Italian5culture,!Vol.xxxii!No.!2,!September!2014,!98–109.!!

Harvey,!John.!Men5in5Black,!Chicago:!U!of!Chicago!Press,!1995.!!

Hainsworth,!George.!Les5“Novelas5ejemplares”5de5Cervantes5en5France5au5XVII5siècle.! Paris:!Champion,!1933;!New!York:!B.!Franklin,!1971.!

Hazlitt,!Carew!.The5Venetian5Republic,5Its5Rise,5its5Growth,5and5its5fall.5London:!!Adam! and!Charles!Black,!1915.!!

Henke,!Robert.!Performance5and5Literature5in5the5Commedia5dell’Arte.!Cambridge:! Cambridge!UP,!2002.!

Hermenegildo,!Alfredo,“Los!signos!de!la!representación:!La!comedia!Medora!de!Lope! de!Rueda,”!in!El5Mundo5del5teatro5español5en5su5siglo5de5oro.5Ed.!J.M.!Ruano!de!la! Haza.!Ottowa:!Dovehouse!Editions,!1988.!!

Hernández!Alonso,!José!Luis.!El5lexico5del5marginalismo5en5el5Siglo5de5Oro.! Salamanca:!Universidad!de!Salamanca,!1977.!

Herrera,!Fernando!de.!Anotaciones5a5la5poesía5de5Garcilaso.5Madrid:!Cátedra,!2001.!!

Herrero!García,!Miguel.!“Nueva!interpretación!de!la!novela!picaresca,”!in!RFE524! (1937):!343>62.!

Horodowich,!Liz.!“Armchair!Travelers!and!the!Venetian!Discovery!of!the!New!! ! World,”!in!Sixteenth5Century5Journal5XXXVI.4:!(2005),!1039>62.!! ! Huarte!de!San!Juan,!Juan.!Examen5de5Ingenios.!Ed.Guillermo!Serés.!Madrid:!! ! Cátedra,!1989.! ! Hurtado!Torres,!Antonio.!La5prosa5de5ficción5en5los5siglos5de5oro.!Madrid:!Playor,!! ! 1983.!! ! Jardine,!Lisa.!“Book!Venture,!Cultural!Capital,!and!Enduring!Reputation!in!the!! Italian!Renaissance,”!in!Across5Boundaries:5The5Book5in5Culture5and5Commerce.!Eds.! Bill!Bell,!Philip!Benet,!and!Jonquil!Bevan.!Newcastle:!Oak!Knoll!Press,!2000.!47>56.!! 231! ! ! Jenkins,!Richard.!Social5identity.!London!and!New!York:!Routledge,!2004.!! ! Johnson,!Carroll!B.!"Defining!the!Picaresque:!Authority!and!the!Subject!in!Guzmán!! de!Alfarache,"!in!The5Picaresque:5Tradition5and5Displacement.!Ed.!Giancarlo!Maiorino.! Minneapolis,!MN:!U!of!Minnesota!P,!1996.!159>182!

>>>Cervantes5and5the5Material5World.!Champaign:!University!of!Illinois!Press,!2000.!!

>>>>Inside5Guzmán5de5Alfarache.!Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1978.!!

Joly,!Monique.!La5bourle5et5son5interpretation:5Recherches5sur5le5passage5de5la5facétie5 au5roman5(Espagne5XVIcXVII5siècles).5Lille:!Atelier!National,!1982.!

Jones,!Ann!Rosalind,!and!Peter!Stallybrass.!Renaissance5Clothing5and5the!Materials5of5 Memory.!Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2000.!!

Juárez!Almendros,!Encarnación.!El5cuerpo5vestido5y5la5construcción5de5la!identidad5en5 las5narrativas5autobiográficas5del5siglo5de5oro.!New!York:!Tamesis,!2006.!!

Henry!Kamen.!Crisis5and5Change5in5Early5Modern5Spain.!Aldershot:!Ashgate,!1993.!5

Keightley,!R.G,!“Alfonso!de!Madrigal!and!the!Chronici!Canones!of!Eusebius,”!in!The5 Journal5of5Medieval5and5Renaissance5Studies,57.2!(1977),!225>48.!

Kolsky,!Stephen.5Mario5Equicola:5The5Real5Courtier.!Geneva:!Librarie!Droz,!1991.!!!

Larsen,!Kewin!S.!“Intertextualidad,!intersexualidad:!Los!Guzmanes!de!Alfarache!y!La5 Pícara5Justina,”!in!Revista5de5Estudios5Hispánicos,!XIV>XV.!Puerto!Rico,!1987>1988,! 79>100.!!

Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Ed.!Francisco!Rico.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2003.!!

Lázaro!Carreter,!Fernando.!“Originalidad!del!Buscón.”!Estilo5barroco5y55 personalidad5creadora.!2nd!ed.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!1974.!77>98.! ! >>>“Para!una!revisión!del!concepto!novela5picaresca,”!in!Lazarillo5de5Tormes!en5la5 picaresca.!Barcelona:!Ariel,!1970.!195>229.!! ! Laurenti,!Joseph!L.!Ensayo5de5una5bibliografía5de5la5novela5picaresca5española.! Madrid:!CSIC,!1968.!

!>>>>.!Bibliografía5de5la5literatura5picaresca:5Desde5sus5orígenes5hasta5el5presente.! Kassel:!Reichemberger,!1988.!

232! ! Lazzerini,!Lucia,!“Observaciones!textuales!sobre!la!Medora!de!Lope!de!Rueda!y!su! fuente!(la!Zingana!de!Gigio!artemio!Giancarli),”!in!Filologia5dei5testi5a5stampa5(area5 iberica).5Ed.!Patricia!Botta.!Modena:!Mucchi!Editore,!2005.!!

Leblon,!Bernard.!Les5Gitans5d’Espagne.5Paris:!Press!Universitaires!de!France:!1985.!!

Leonard,!Irving.!Books5of5the5Brave.!Berkeley:!UC!Press,!1992.!

Levi>Pisetzky,!Rosita.!Storia5del5Costume5in5Italia!Vols.!II!&!III.!Milan:!Istituto! Editoriale!!Italiano,!1964.!!

López&Pinciano,&Alonso.&Philosophia5antigua5poética.!Ed.!Alfredo!Carballo!Picazo.!3! Vols.!Madrid:!CSIC,!1953.!

López&de&Úbeda,&Francisco.&La5pícara5Justina.!Ed.!Luc!Torres.!Madrid:!Editorial! Castalia,!2010.!

Luján!de!Sayavedra,!Mateo.!Segunda5parte5de5la5vida5del5pícaro5Guzmán5de5Alfarache.! Ed.!David!Mañero!Lozano.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2007.!!

Luna,!Juan!de.!Segunda5parte5del5Lazarillo.!Ed.!Pedro!M.!Piñero!Ramírez.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!1988.!! ! Mabbe,!Jame,!!trans.!The5rogue:5or5The5life5of5Guzman5de5Alfarache.5Written5in5Spanish5 by5Matheo5Aleman,5seruant5to5his5Catholike5Maiestie,5and5borne5in5Seuill.!London:! Edward!Blount,!1623.!Early!English!Books!Online.!21!Oct.!2009!5

Mañero!Lozano,!David.!“Diálogo!y!picaresca!en!el!Coloquio5de5los5perros,”!in!Bulletin5 Hispanique52!(2004):!497>520.!5

>>>>.!“Hacia!una!edición!crítica!de!la!Segunda5parte5de5la5vida5del5pícaro5Guzmán5de55 Alfarache,”in!Revista5de5Literatura567!(2005):!525>46.!! ! >>>>“Trayectoria!editorial!de!La5pícara5Justina:!Estudio!bibliográfico!y!textual,”!! in!Criticón5109!(2010)!:!73>93.!! ! >>>>“Towards!a!picaresque!novel!review.!Creation,!parody,!and!evolution!of!a!! narrative!genre,”!in!The5South5Carolina5Modern5Language5Review58.1:!(17>35).!! ! Maravall,!José!Antonio.!La5literatura5picaresca5desde5la5historia5social.!Madrid:!! Taurus,!1986.!!! ! >>>>Las5comunidades5de5Castilla:5una5primera5revolución5moderna.5Madrid:!Alianza! Editorial,51994,!63.! 233! ! ! ccc5La5Cultura5del5Barroco.5Barcelona:5Editorial5Ariel,51986.! ! Márquez,)Antonio.)Literatura5e5inquisición5en5España5(1478c1834).!Madrid:!Taurus,! 1980.!

Márquez>!Villanueva,!Francisco.!“Sobre!el!lanzamiento!y!recepción!del!Guzmán5de5 Alfarache,”5in!Bulletin5Hispanique,592,!1,1990,!549>577.!!

>>>>!“La!interacción!Alemán>!Cervantes,”!in!Actas5del5115Coloquio5Internacional5de5la5 Asociación55de5Cervantistas.5Barcelona:!Anthropos,!1991,!149>181.!! ! Martínez!Dhier,!Alejandro.!La5condición5social5y5jurídica5de5los5gitanos5en5la5 Legislación5histórica5española.!Granada:!Editorial!de!la!Universidad!de!Granada,! 2007.!! ! Martino,!Alberto.!Lazarillo!de!Tormes!e5la5sua5ricezione5in5Europa5(1554c1753).!2! Vols.!Pisa/Roma:!Istituti!Editoriali!e!Poligrafici!Internazionali,!1999.!

Masala,!Maurizio.!Il5Picariglio5Castigliano5di5Barezzo5Barezzi:5Una5versione5 seicentesca5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.5Roma:!Bulzoni!Editore,!2004.!!

McKim>Smith,!Gridley.“Why!Spaniards!Wore!Black,”!2011!(unpublished!paper).!

McKim>Smith,!Gridley,!and!Marcia!L.!Welles.!“Material!Girls>and!Boys:!Dressing!Up! in!Cervantes,”!in!Cervantes524!(1)!2004:65–104.!

Meyer>Minnemann,!Klaus.!"El!género!de!la!novela!picaresca."!La5novela5picaresca:5 concepto5genérico5y5evolución5del5género!(siglos5XVI55XVII).!Ed.!Sabine!Schlickers.! Madrid:!Spain.!Frankfurt:Germany.!Iberoamericana;!Vervuert,!2008.!13>40!!

Meyer>Ninnemann,!Klaus!and!Sabine!Schlickers.!“Es!el!Lazarillo5de5Tormes5una$ novela'picaresca?'Genericidad'y'evolución'del'género'en'las'versiones,' continuaciones!y!transformaciones!de!La5Vida5de5Lazarillo5de5Tormes5desde$las$ ediciones(de(1554(hasta(la(refundición(de(1620(por(Juan(de(Luna”(in(La5novela5 picaresca.5Concepto5genérico5y5evolución5del5género5(Siglos5XVI5y5XVII).!Eds.!Klaus! Meyer>!Minnemann!! and!Sabine!Schlickers.!!Madrid/Frankfurt:! Iberoamericana/Vervuert,!2008.!41>75.!

McKendrick!Melveena.!Theatre5in5Spain,51490c1700.5Cambridge:!Cambridge!UP,! 1989.!

Micó,&José&María,%Ed.%Guzmán5de5Alfarache."Mateo"Alemán."2"Vols."Madrid:"Cátedra," 2000!

234! ! >>>!“Prosas!y!prisas!en!1604:!El!Quijote,!el!Guzmán5y!la!Pícara5Justina,”!in!Hommage5À5 Robert5Jammes.!Ed.!Francis!Cerdan.!Vol.!3.!Toulouse:!Presses!universitaires!du! Mirail,!1994.!427>48!

Ménendez!Pidal,!Ramón.!“Los!reyes!Católicos!según!!Maquiavelo!y!Castiglione,”!in! Los5Reyes5Católicos5y5otros5estudios.!Madrid:!Austral,!1960.!!

Miller,!Stuart.!The5Picaresque5Novel.5Cleveland:!Case!Western!Reserve!University! Press,!!1967.!

Molho,!Maurice.!Introducción5al5pensamiento5picaresco.!Trans.!A.!Gálvez>Cañero.! Salamanca:!Anaya,!1972.!! !

Moll,!Jaime.!“La!narrativa!castellana!a!comienzos!del!siglo!XVII:!aspectos!editoriales,”! in!Anales5Cervantinos540!(2008):!31>46.!

>>>!“El$éxito$inicial$del$Quijote,”!in!De5la5imprenta5al5lector:5estudios5sobre5el5libro5 español5de5los55siglos5XVI5a5XVIII.!Ed.!Jaime!Moll.!Madrid:!Arco!Libros,!1994.!21>7.!

!―."“Problemas"bibliográficos"del"libro"del"Siglo"de"Oro,”"in"Boletín5de5la5Real5 Academia!Española559.216!(1979):!29>107.!

Montauban,!Jannine.!El5ajuar5de5la5vida5picaresca:5Reproducción,5genealogía5y5 sexualidad5en55la5novela5picaresca5española.!Madrid:!Visor!Libros,!2003.!

!Montalto,!L.!La5corte5di5Alfonso5I5di5Aragona.5Vesti5e5gale.!Naples:!1922.!!

Morales!Borrero,!Consolación.$La5Imprenta5Real5de5Madrid5desde5su5fundación5hasta5 fines5del5siglo5XVII."Madrid:"Artes"gráficas,"1976.!

Moroni,!Giovanni!Battista.!“Intorno!al!Cavaliere5in5nero:!note!sulla!moda!maschile!tra! Cinquecento!e!Seicento.”!in,5Il5Cavaliere5in5nero.5Milan:!Skira,!2005,!47–55.!!

Morreale,!Margherita.!Ed.!Galateo5español."Lucas"Gracián"Dantisco."Madrid:"CSIC," 1968.!

>>>!"Para!una!lectura!de!la!diatriba!entre!Castiglione!y!Alfonso!de!Valdés!sobre!el! Saco5de5Roma,"!en!Actas5de5la5III5Academia5Literaria5Renacentista.!Ed.!Víctor!García! de!la!Concha.!Salamanca:!Universidad,!1983,!65>103.!

>>>!Castglione5y5Boscán:5el5ideal5cortesano5en5el5Renacimiento5español,52!Vols.!Madrid:! Real!Academia!Española,!1959.!

Múñoz!Machado,5Santiago.5Sépulveda,5cronista5del5emperador.5Barcelona:!Edhasa,! 2012.!! 235! ! Navarrete,!Ignacio.!Orphans5of5Petrarch:5Poetry5and5Theory5in5the5Spanish5 Renaissance.5Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1994.!

Newton,!Stella!Mary.!The5Dress5of5the5Venetians5(1495c1525).!Aldershot:!Ashgate,! 1988.!!

Niemeyer,!Katharina.!"'El!Ser!de!un!pícaro!el!sujeto!deste!libro:!La!primera!parte!de! Guzmán!de!Alfarache!(Madrid,!1599),”!in!La5novela5picaresca:5concepto5genérico5y5 evolución5del5género5(siglos5XVI5y5XVII).!Ed.!Sabine!Schlickers.!Madrid,!Spain;! Frankfurt,!Germany:!Iberoamericana;!Vervuert,!2008.!77>116.!

Novi!Chavarria,!Elisa.!“Gli!Zingani!in!Etá!Moderna,”!in!Integrazione5ed5 Emarginazione.5Ed.!Laura!Barletta.!Napoli:!Cuen,!2002.5

Osborne,!June.!Urbino:5the5Story5of5a5Renaissance5City.!London:!Frances!Lincoln,! 2003.!!

Pangallo,!María!Consolata.!Il5Picariglio5Castigliano,5cioe5la5vita5di5Lazariglio5di5Tormes5 In5Venetia.5Presso5il5Barezzi5MDCXXII.5Artifara.!Artifara,!n.!3,!(July!>!December!2003),! section!Editiones,!http://www.artifara.com/rivista3/testi/picariglio.asp! ! !

>>>!Dal5Lazarillo5al5Picariglio.5Un5itinerario5picaresco5tra5orrizonti5d’attesa5e5filologia5 testuale.!Diss.!Università!di!Pisa,!a.a.1998>99,!IX!ciclo.!!

Parker,!Alexander!A.!Literature5and5the5Delinquent:5The5Picaresque5Novel5in5Spain5 and5Europe,51599c1753.5Edinburgh:!University!Press,!1967.!!

>>>>>!Los5pícaros5en5la5literatura.5La5novela5picaresca5en5España5y5Europa5(1599c1753).! ! Madrid:!Gredos,!1975.!

Pastorello,!Ester.!Tipografi,5editori,5librai5a5Venezia5nel5secolo5XVI.!Florence:!Olschki,! 1924.!!

Pedrosa,)José!Manuel.!Los5cuentos5populares5en5los5Siglos5de5Oro.!Madrid:!Ediciones! del!Laberinto,!2004.!

Pérez&Pastor,&Cristóbal.&Bibliografía5Madrileña;5o5Descripción5de5las5obras5impresas5 en5Madrid5(Siglo5XVI)."3"Vols."Madrid:"Tip."de"los"Huérfanos,"1891>1907.!

Peruzzi,!Marcela,!“The!Library!of!Glorious!Memory:!History!of!the!Montefeltro! Collection,”!in!Federico5da5Montefeltro5and5his5Library.!Ed.!Marcello!Simonetta,! Rome:!Y.!Press,!2015,!28>39.!

Piñero'Ramírez,'Pedro'M.'“La'publicación'del'Guzmán5de5Alfarache5(Madrid,&1599)&y& la#invención#de#la#novela#moderna,”#in#Atayalas5del5Guzmán'de'Alfarache.'Seminario5

236! ! internacional5sobre5Mateo5Alemán.5IV5Centenario5de5la5publicación5de5Guzmán'de' Alfarcahe!(1599c1999)."Ed."Pedro"M."Piñero"Ramírez."Sevilla:"Universidad"de!Sevilla,! 2002.!13>26!

Pini,!Donatella,!Carmen!Castillo!Peña.!“La!prosa!di!Cervantes!in!mano!al!traduttore:! il!caso!delle!“Novelas!Ejemplares,”!in!Il5viaggio5della5traduzione.5Atti5del5convegno,5 Firenze,513c165giugno52006.!Ed.5Maria!Grazia!Profetti.!Florence:!Firenze!University! Press,!2006.!!

Pym,!Richard,!The!Errant!Fortunes!of!‘La!gitanilla’!and!Cervantes's!Performing! Gypsies,”!in!Journal5of5Iberian5and5Latin5American5Studies,!12:1,!(2006),!15>37.!!

Quevedo!y!Villegas.!Francisco.!La5Hora5de5todos5y5La5Fortuna5con5seso.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!1987.!!

>>>!!La5vida5de5Buscón.!Ed.!Fernando!Cabo!Aseguinolaza.!Barcelona:!Editorial!Crítica,! 2001.!!

>>>!Los5Sueños:5Ed.!Ignacio!Arellano.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2007.!!

!Quondam,!Amadeo.!Questo5Povero5Cortegiano.!Roma:!Bulzoni,!2000.!

>>>!.Tutti5i5colori5Del5Nero:5Moda5e5cultura5del5gentiluomo5del5Rinascimento.!Vicenza:! A.!Colla,!2007.!!

Rebecchini!Guido.!“The!Book!Collection!and!Other!Possessions!of!Baldassare! Castiglione,!in!Journal5of5the5Warburg5and5Courtauld5Institutes,!Vol.!61!(1998),!pp.! 17>52.!

Rebhorn!Wayne.!"Baldesar!Castiglione,!Thomas!Wilson,!and!the!Courtly!Body!of! Renaissance!Rhetoric,"!in!Rhetorica!11!(3):!(1992).!241–274.!

Redondo,'Agustín.'"Censura,'literatura'y'transgresión'en'la'época'de'Felipe'II:'El' Lazarillo5castigado5de!1573,”in!!Edad5de5Oro518!(1999):!135>47.!

>>>>!“Historia!y!literatura:!El!personaje!del!escudero!de!el!Lazarillo,”!in!La5picaresca:5 origenes,5textos,5y5estructuras.5Actas5del5primer5congreso5internacional5sobre5la5 picaresca.!organizado5por5el5Patronato5"Arcipreste5de5Hita."5Ed.!Manuel!Criado!de!Val.! Madrid:!Fundación!Universitaria!Española,!1979.5421>435.!!

>>>!Otra5manera5de5leer5el5Quijote.!Madrid:!Castalia,!1997!

>>>!“Nuevas!consideraciones!sobre!el!travestismo!en!el!Quijote,”!in!Traditions5and5 Innovations5in5Early5modern5Studies.!Ed.!Sherry!Velasco,!273–92.!Delaware:!Juan!de! La!Cuesta,!2008.!!

237! ! Reed,!Helen!H.!“Theatricality!in!the!Picaresque!of!Cervantes,”in!Cervantes!7.2! (1987):!71>84.!!

>>>>!The5Reader5in5the5Picaresque5Novel.5London:!Tamesis,!1984.!

Reed,!Walter!L.!An5Exemplary5History5of5the5Novel:5The5Quixotic5versus5the5Picaresque.! Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1981.!!

Reeser,!Todd!W!and!Steven!D.!Spalding.!“Reading!Literature/Culture:!A!Translation! of!‘Reading!as!a!Cultural!Practice,”!in!Style536.4!(2002):!659>676.!

Rey,!Alfonso.!“El!género!picaresco!y!la!novela,”!in!Bulletin5Hispanique589!(1987):!85> 118.!!

Rey!Hazas,!Antonio.!“Género!y!estructura!de!El5coloquio5de5los5perros,!o!‘cómo!se! hace!una!novela,”!in!Lenguaje,5ideología5y5organización5textual5en5las5‘Novelas5 ejemplares.’5Ed.!J.!J.de!Bustos!Tovar.!Madrid:!Univ.!Complutense,!1983.!119!>43.!

>>>>!“Novela!picaresca!y!novela!cortesana:!La5hija5de5Celestina5de!Salas!Barbadillo,”!in! Edad5de5Oro52!(1983b):!137>56.!5 ! >>>>!“El!Quijote5y!la!picaresca:!la!figura!del!hidalgo!en!el!nacimiento!de!la!novela! moderna,”in!!Edad5de5Oro515!(1996):!141>60.!! ! Ricapito,!Joseph!V.!Bibliografía5razonada5y5anotada5de5las5obras5maestras5de5la55 picaresca5española.!Madrid:!Castalia,!1980.!! ! >>>>!“Cervantes!y!Mateo!Alemán,!de!Nuevo,”!in!Anales5cervantinos523!(1985):!89>95.!! ! !>>>>“Cervantes!and!the!Picaresque:!Redivivo,”!in!Hispanic5Studies5in5Honor5of5Joseph5 H.5Silverman.!Eds.!Joseph!V.!Ricapito!and!Joseph!H.!Silverman.!Newark:!Juan!de!la! Cuesta,!1988.!319>443.!! ! >>>!Cervantes's5Novelas5ejemplares:5Between5History5and5Creativity.!West!Lafayette,!! IN:!Purdue!UP,!1996.!5 ! Rico,!Francisco.!“Estructuras!y!reflejos!de!estructuras!en!el!Guzmán5de5Alfarache.”!! Modern5Language5Notes582!(1967):!171>84.!! ! >>>>La5novela5picaresca5y5el5punto5de5vista.!New,!corr.,!and!exp.!ed.!Barcelona:!Seix!! Barral,!2000.!5 ! >>>>!“Puntos!de!vista.!Posdata!a!unos!ensayos!sobre!la!novela!picaresca.”!Edad5de55 Oro3,!(1984):!227>40.!5

238! ! ! >>>>El5texto5del5“Quijote.”5Ed.!Laura!Fernández.!Barcelona:!Destino,!2005.!! ! >>>>!“Preliminar,”!in!Antonio5Vignali,5La5Cazzaria.!Ed!G.M.!Capelli.!Mérida,!Spain:!! Editora!Regional!de!Extremadura,!1999.! ! Robinson,!Douglas.!Western5Translation5Theory:5From5Herodotus5to5Nietzsche.5St.!! Jerome!Publishing:!Manchester,!2002.!! ! Rodriguez>!Luis,!Julio.!“El!enfoque!comparativo!de!la!literatura!picaresca.”!AISO.55 Actas5II!(1990):!853>858.!! ! Rodriguez!Rodriguez,!Begoña.!Antología5de5la5novela5picaresca5española.5Madrid:!! Centro!de!Estudios!Cervantinos,!2006.! ! Rojas,!Fernando!de.!La5Celestina.5Ed.!Dorothy!Severin.!Madrid:!Catédra,!2005.! ! Roquero,!A.!“Materias!tintóreas!en!la!época!de!Felipe!II:!introducción!en!Europa!! de!los!colorantes!indianos,”!in!Los5ingenios5y5las5máquinas5en5la5época5de55 Felipe5II,!exh.!cat.,!Madrid,!1998,!pp.!262–75.! ! Rosenthal,!Margaret!F.,!and!Ann!Rosalind!Jones.!The5Clothing5of5the! Renaissance5World:5Europe,5Asia,5Africa,5The5Americas.!New!York:!Thames! &!Hudson,!2008.!! ! Rovati,!Loreta.!“Sul!picaresmo!della!Picara!Justina,”!in!Il5Picaro5nella5cultura5europea.5 Eds.!Michele!Battafarno!and!Pietro!Taravacci.!Gardolo!di!Trento:!Luigi!Reverdito! Editore,!1989.!5 ! Ruan,!Felipe!E.!Pícaro5and5Cortesano:5Identity5and5the5Forms5of5Capital5in5Early55 Modern5Spanish5Picaresque5Narrative5and5Courtesy5Literature.!Lewisberg:!Bucknell! University,!2011.!! ! >>>>!Rueda,!Lope!de.!Las5Cuatro5Comedias,5Ed.!Alfredo!Hermenegildo.!Madrid:! Cátedra,!2001.! ! >>>>!Los5Engañados!y!Medora,5Ed.!Fernando!González!Ollé.!Madrid:!Espasa>!Calpe,!! 1973.! ! >>>!Manuscript!in!Biblioteca!Nacional!Madrid,!12055,!Las5quarto5comedias5y5dos55 Coloquios5Pastoriles,!Valencia:!Joan!de!Timoneda,!1567.! ! Ruiz,!Teófilo.!Spanish5Society,51400–1600.!Essex:!Longman,!2001.!! ! 239! ! Ruffinato,!Aldo.5La5vita5di5Lazarillo5di5Torme.5Traduzione5secentesca5di5Giulio55 Strozzi.5Napoli:!Ligura!Editore,!1990.!! ! >>>!!“Cervantes!en!Italia,!Italia!en!Cervantes,”!in!Cervantes5en5Italia.5Décimo55 Coloquio5de5la5Asociación5de5Cervantistas!(Rome,!2001).!Ed.!A.!Villar!! Lecumberri.!Palma!de!Mallorca:!Asociación!de!Cervantistas,!2001,!3>18.!! ! Rushdie,!Salman.!Shame.5New!York:!Picador!Press,!2000.!

Russo,!Alessandra.!The5Untranslatable5Image:5A5mestizo5History5of5the5Arts5in5New5 Spain51500c1600.5Austin:!University!of!Texas!Press,!2014.!

Rutherford,!John.!Breve5historia5del5pícaro5preliterario.!Vigo:!Universidad!de!Vigo,! 2001.!

Rumeau,!A.!“Notes!au!Lazarillo.5Des!editions!d’Anvers!1554>1555,!a!celles!de!Milan! 1587>1615,”!in!Bulletin5Hispanique!LXVI!(1964)!n.s.!3>4!(272>293).!

Sánchez!Ortega,!María!Helena.!Documentación5selecta5sobre5la5situación5de5los5 gitanos5españoles5en5el5siglo5XVIII.!Madrid:!Editorial!Nacional,!1977.!

Sanz!Ayán,!Carmen!.!Hacer&escena.&Capítulos&de&historia&de&la&empresa&teatral&en&el& Siglo5de5Oro5(Madrid:!RAH,!2013).!

Sanz!Ayan,!Carmen!and!Bernardo!J.!Garcia!Garcia.!Teatros5y5Comediantes5en5el5 Madrid5de5Felipe5II.!Madrid:!Editorial!Complutense,!2000.5

Schlickers!S.!Gregorio!González.!El!guitón!Honofre!(1604).!La5novela5picaresca:5 Concepto5genérico5y5evolución5del5género5(siglos5XVI5y5XVII)5[e>book].!Madrid,!Spain;! Frankfurt,!Germany:!Iberoamericana;!Vervuert;!2008:177>192.!

Schneider,!J.!“Peacocks!and!Penguins:!The!Political!Economy!of!European!Cloth!and! Colours,”!in!American5Ethnologist,!5,!no.!13!(1978),!pp.!413–47.!

Schwartz!Lerner.!Lía.!“Mulier...5milvinum5genus:!La!construcción!de!personajes! femeninos!en!!la!sátira!y!la!ficción!áureas.”!in!Homenaje5al5Profesor5Antonio5Vilanova.! Eds.!A.!Sotelo!and!M.!Cristina.!Barcelona:!Universidad!de!Barcelona!/!PPU,!1989.! 629>47.!!

!Sieber,!Harry.!The5Picaresque.!London:!Methuen,!1977.!

Sevilla!Arroyo,!Florencio!and!Antonio!Rey!Hazas.!Introducción.!El5casamiento5 engañoso.5El!coloquio5de5los5perros.!Miguel!de!Cervantes.!Madrid:!Alianza,!1997.!!

Sevilla,!Florencio.!La#novela#picaresca#española.!Castalia,!Madrid,!2001.!!

240! ! ! Sherman,!John.!“Giuilio!Romano!and!Baldassare!Castigliano,”!in!Atti5del5convegno5 internazionale5di5Studdi5su5Giulio5Romano5e5l’espansione5europea5del5Rinascimento!.! Mantova,!academia!Virgiliana!1>5!october,!1989,!Mantova!1991!293>301.!5

Sicroff,!A.!Les5controversies5des5statuts5de5pureté5de5sang5en5Espagne5de5XVe5siècle.! Paris:!Didier,!1960.!5

Sieber,!Harry.!The5picaresque.!London:!Methuen,!1977.!! ! >>>!“Literary!Continuity,!Social!Order,!and!the!Invention!of!the!Picaresque,"!in! Cultural5Authority5in5Golden5Age5Spain.!Eds.!Marina!Brownlee!and!Hans!Ulrich! Gumbrecht.!Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins!UP,!1995.!143>64.5 ! >>>!“Lazarillo!and!the!Squire:!A!Sociolinguistic!Approach,”!in!Busquemos5otros5montes5 y5otros5ríos:5Estudios5de5literature5española5del5Siglo5de5oro5dedicados5a5Elias5L.5Rivers.! Eds.!Brian!Dutton!and!Victoriano!Roncero!López.!Madrid:!Editorial!Castalia,!1992.! 235>242.!5 ! >>>>!Language5and5Society5in5La5vida5del5Lazarillo5de5Tormes.!Baltimore:!Johns!! Hopkins!UP,!1978.!! ! Sobejano,!Gonzalo.!“El5coloquio5de5los5perros5en!la!picaresca!y!otros!apuntes,!”!! in!Hispanic5Review543!(1975a):!25>41.!! ! !>>>>!“Un!perfil!de!la!picaresca:!el!pícaro!hablador,”!in!Studia5hispánica5in5honorem55 Rafael5Lapesa.!Ed.!José!Garrigós!Muños.!Madrid:!Gredos,!1975,!467>85.!! Toda!y!Guell,!Eduart.5Bibliografía5Espanyola5d’Italia.!Castell!de!Sant!Miquel! d’Escornalbou,!1929.!! ! Stiefel,!A.L.!“Lope!de!Rueda!and!das!Italienische!Lustspiel,”!in!Zeitschrift5für55 romaische5Philologie,5XV!(1891),!183>216,!318>343,!(p.!337).! ! Smith,!Paul!Julian.!“The!Rhetoric!of!Representation!in!Writers!and!Critics!of!! Picaresque!Narrative:!Lazarillo5de5Tormes,5Guzmán5de5Alfarache,5El5Buscón,55 in!The5Modern5Language5Review!82.1!(1987):!88>108.!! ! Sousa!Congosto,!Francisco!de.!!Introducción5a5la5historia5de5la5indumentaria5en5 España.!Madrid:!Istmo,!2007.! ! Stoll,!Anita!K.!“Achilles:!Gender!Ambiguity!and!Destiny!in!Golden!Age! Drama,”!in!A5StarcCrossed5Golden5Age,!edited!by!Frederick!de!Armas,!112–25.! Lewisburg:!Bucknel!University!Press,!1998.!! ! 241! ! Strong,!Roy.!Splendour5at5Court:5Renaissance5Spectacle5and5Theatre5of5Power.!! Boston:!Weidenfeld!and!Nicholson,!1973.!! ! Tommasino,!Pier!Mattia,!“Approfondimenti!sull’arabo!della!Zingana!di!Gigio!! Artemio!Giancarli,”in!Lingua5e5Stile.!XI,!December!2006,!(203>230).! ! Torres,!Luc.!“Intertexto,!metatexto,!y!contexto,!en!aquí!comienzan!las!bodas!del!! Pícaro!Guzmán!de!Alfarache!con!la!Pícara!Justina.”!AISO5ACTAS5VII!(2006):!603>! 609.!! !! >>>>!“La!Pícara!Justina:!Entre!l’Espagne,!la!France,!et!l’Italie.”!Bulletin5Hispanique!! 109.1!(2007):!137>155.!! ! Torrico,!Benjamín.!“Hiding!in!the!Wall:!Lazarillo’s!Bedfellows;!The!Secret!Library!! of!Barcarrota,”I!n!The5Lazarillo5Phenomenon:5Essays5on5the5Adventures5of5a55 Classic5Text.!Eds.!Reyes!Coll>Tellechea!and!Sean!McDaniel.!Lewisburg:!! Bucknell!UP.!5 ! Turner>Gutiérrez,!Ellen.!The5Reception5of5the5Picaresque5in5the5French,5German,5and5 English5Traditions.5New!York:!Peter!Lang,!1995.!5 ! Vaderjagt,!Arjo.!“Practicing!Nobility!in!Fifteenth!Century!Burgundian!Courtly!! Culture:!Ideology!and!Politics,”!in!Rhetoric5and5Discourses5of5Power5in5Court55 Culture:5China,5Europe,5and5Japan.5Ed.!David!Knechtges!and!Eugene.!! University!of!Washington!Press:!Seattle,!2005.! ! Valbuena!Prat,!Ángel:!La5novela5Picaresca5española,52!vols.!Madrid:!Aguilar,!1974.!!! ! Valdés,!Alfonso!de.!Diálogo5de5las5cosas5acaecidas5en5Roma.5Ed.!Rosa!Navarro!! Durán.!Madrid:!Cátedra,!2007.!! ! Van!Gorp,!Hendrik.!“Translation!and!Literary!Genre:!The!European!Picaresque! Novel!in!the!17th!and!18th!Centuries,”!in!The5Manipulation5of5literature:5Studies5in5 Literary5Translation.!Ed.!Theo!Hermans.!London:!Croom!Helm,!1985.!! ! Vecellio,!Cesare.!The5Clothing5of5the5Renaissance5World.5Ed.!Margaret!F.!Rosenthal!! and!Ann!Rosalind!Jones.!London:!Thames!&!Hudson,!2008.! ! Velasco,!Sherry.!The5Lieutenant5Nun:5Lesbianism,5Desire,5and5Catalina5de! Erauso.!Austin:!University!of!Texas!Press,!2001.!! ! Vidal!Claramonte.!María!del!Carmen.!La5traducción5y5los5espacios:5viajes,5mapas,55 Fronteras.!Granada:!Editorial!Comares,!2012.!! ! 242! ! Vincent,!Bernard!Vincent.!Minorías5y5marginados5en5la5España5del5XVI.5Granada:!! Diputación!provincial!de!Granada,!1987.!! ! Velasco,!Magdalena.!La5novela5cortesana5y5picaresca5de5Castillo5Solórzano.!! Valladolid:!Institución!Cultural!Simancas,!1983.!! ! Varos,!Sharon!D.!“Lope!de!Rueda,”!in!Spanish5Dramatists5of5the5Golden5Age.!Ed.!Mary! Parker.!Westport:!Greenwood!Press,!1998.!! ! Vicente,!Gil.!Obras5completas."Ed."Marques"Braga,"Vol."5."Lisbon:"Sa"́"da"Costa,"! 1958.! ! Vives,!Juan!Luis.!De5institutione5Feminae5Christianae5(Español).5Valencia!! Ajuntament!de!Valencia,!1994.!! ! Weber,!Alison.!“Pentimento,!the!Parodic!text!of!the!Gitanilla,”!in!Hispanic5Review!62! (1994).! ! Weiner!Jack.!“Las!interpretaciones!en!el!Lazarillo5de5Tormes,”!in!AIH5Alcalá!de!! Henares5Actas5IV!(1971).! ! Weinstein,!Ulrich.!Introducción5a5la5Literatura5Comparada.!Trans.!María!Teresa!! Piñel.!Barcelona:!Planeta,!1975.!! ! Wechsler,!Robert.!Performing5Without5a5Stage:5The5Art5of5Literary5Translation.!! Catbird!Press,!1998.!! ! Welles,!Marcia!L.!“The!pícara:!Towards!Female!Autonomy,!or!the!Vanity!of!Virtue,”! in!Romance5Quarterly533!1986:!63>70.!! ! Whinnom,!K.!“The!Problem!of!the!‘best>seller’!in!Spanish!Golden>Age!literature,”!! in!Bulletin5of5Hispanic5Studies563,!3!(1980):!189>98.! ! Williamson.!Edwin.!“La!‘bonita!confiancita”:!Deception,!trust,!and!the!figure!of! Poetry!in!La5gitanilla,”!in!Bulletin!of!Spanish!Studies!LXXXVIII!7>8!(2011).! ! Wicks,!Ulrich:!Picaresque5Narrative,5Picaresque5Fictions.5A5Theory5and5Research55 Guide.5New!York,!Westport,!Connecticut,!London:!Greenwood!Press,!1989.! ! >>>>"De!pícaro!a!ermitaño.!“La!tercera!parte!de!Guzmán!de!Alfarache,!de!Felix! Machado!Da!Silva!e!Castro,"!in!La5novela5picaresca:5concepto5genérico5y5evolución5del5 género5(siglos5XVI5y5XVII).!Ed.!Sabine!Schlickers.!Madrid,!Spain;!Frankfurt,!Germany:! Iberoamericana;!Vervuert,!2008.!501>52.5

243! !