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Documento Na Íntegra IVAN ILLICH A EXPROPRIAÇÃO DA SAÚDE NEMESIS DA MEDICINA Tradução de JOSÉ KOSINSKI DE CAVALCANTI 3ª edição • • EDITORA NOVA FRONTEIRA Título original em francês: NEMESIS MÉDICALE L'expropriation de la santé (c) Ivan Illich, 1975 Capa: Rolf Gunther Braun Revisão: Clara Recht Diament Direitos adquiridos somente para o Brasil pela EDITORA NOVA FRONTEIRA S.A. Rua Barão de Itambi, 28 — Botafogo ZC-01 — Tel.: 266-7474 Endereço Telegráfico: NEOFRONT Rio de Janeiro — RJ ÍNDICE PREAMBULO...............................................................................5 INTRODUÇÃO.............................................................................6 PRIMEIRA PARTE IATROGÊNESE CLÍNICA ......................................8 CAPÍTULO I EFICÁCIA TÉCNICA DO ATO MÉDICO ........................8 Uma história duvidosa ......................................................... 12 Lamentável realidade .......................................................... 18 Nova epidemia resistente à medicina..................................... 23 SEGUNDA PARTE IATROGÊNESE SOCIAL ..................................... 31 CAPÍTULO II MÁSCARA SANITÁRIA DE UMA SOCIEDADE MÓRBIDA ................ 31 Medicalização do orçamento ................................................. 31 Invasão farmacêutica .......................................................... 38 Controle social pelo diagnóstico ............................................ 43 Manutenção pelo mago preventivo ........................................ 47 Incorporação numa liturgia macabra ..................................... 51 Investimento terapêutico do meio ......................................... 56 CAPÍTULO III AS DUAS DIMENSOES DA CONTRAPRODUTIVIDADE INSTITUCIONAL .................................................................... 62 CAPÍTULO IV CINCO REMÉDIOS POLITICOS ADMINISTRADOS INUTILMENTE........................................................................ 77 Drogados agrupam-se em associações de consumidores .......... 80 O legislador se esforça para controlar os fornecedores............. 85 Automedicação ilusória da burocracia médica ......................... 90 Separação da medicina ortodoxa e do Estado ......................... 93 Capitulação do médico diante do politécnico ........................... 96 TERCEIRA PARTE IATROGENESE ESTRUTURAL ........................... 100 CAPÍTULO V COLONIZAÇÃO MÉDICA ...................................... 100 CAPÍTULO VI ALIENAÇÃO DA DOR ......................................... 104 CAPITULO VII A DOENÇA HETERONOMICA.............................. 119 CAPITULO VIII A MORTE ESCAMOTEADA ................................ 132 A dança dos mortos .......................................................... 133 A dança macabra .............................................................. 135 A morte burguesa ............................................................. 143 A morte clínica ................................................................. 147 A morte sob terapêutica intensiva ....................................... 152 CAPÍTULO IX NEMESIS: MATERIALIZAÇÃO DO PESADELO ........ 158 PREAMBULO Neste ensaio eu encaro a empresa médica como paradigma para ilustrar a instituição industrial. A medicalização perniciosa da saúde é apenas um dos aspectos de um fenômeno generalizado: a paralisia da produção dos valores referentes ao uso por parte do homem e resultante do congestionamento de mercadorias produzidas para ele. A avaliação da empresa médica é uma tarefa política. Exige do não- médico um esforço de pesquisa pessoal fora de qualquer tutela profissional: e do médico a redescoberta de uma "medicina geral". O conjunto de material bibliográfico que reuni, e menciono nus notas de pé de página, reflete meu desejo de associar o leitor a esta aventura. A participação na busca de uma alternativa concreta para o sistema que nos oprime pressupõe uma abertura à imensa riqueza das opções. O debate prematuro desta ou daquela organização nova do sistema médico não seria mais que pura digressão. Eu teria, de boa vontade, deixado o manuscrito amadurecer por mais algum tempo, para permitir ao texto decantar, se o estado de descontentamento em relação à medicina na França não me tivesse incitado a contribuir para o debate sem demora, fornecendo dados e indicações bibliográficas. A versão francesa, da qual é feita esta tradução em português, foi elaborada em janeiro de 1975, em Cuernavaca. Este estudo é o resultado de 18 meses de pesquisa em conjunto com os participantes do meu seminário do CIDOC. Citarei alguns deles, ao passo que outros serão freqüentemente os únicos a reconhecer seu pensamento original e mesmo seus próprios termos nas páginas que se seguem. Mais do que a qualquer outra pessoa, este livro deve sua publicação a Valentina Borremans. As reuniões de que surgiu foram por elas organizadas. Foi ela quem se encarregou da documentaçào: foi ela ainda quem pacientemente me incentivou a apurar meu julgamento. No Capítulo VIII, eu não fiz senão resumir suas notas a respeito de um trabalho sobre a expressão da morte. Ivan Illich INTRODUÇÃO A empresa médica ameaça a saúde, a colonização médica da vida aliena os meios de tratamento, e o seu monopólio profissional impede que o conhecimento científico seja partilhado1. Uma estrutura social e política destruidora apresenta como álibi o poder de encher suas vítimas com terapias que elas foram ensinadas a desejar. O consumidor de cuidados da medicina torna-se impotente para curar-se ou curar seus semelhantes. Partidos de direita e de esquerda rivalizam em zelo nessa medicalização da vida, e, com eles, os movimentos de libertação. A invasão da medicina não reconhece limites. Uma sexocracia de médicos, com a cooperação de clínicos, de professores e de laboratórios, laiciza e escolariza a sexualidade. E, ao ortopedizar a consciência corporal, reproduz o homem assistido até nessa área íntima2. A dinâmica mórbida da empresa médica está em tempo de ser reconhecida pelo grande público. O fechamento das faculdades de medicina durante a Revolução Cultural chinesa representou a primeira etapa de uma tomada de consciência, cheia de sentido para os países em vias de desenvolvimento industrial; a seguinte será nos países desenvolvidos, onde a empresa médica já contribui para o bloqueio geral das instituições. Ela vai se tornar, inevitavelmente, nos próximos anos, plataforma privilegiada da ação política. Pretendo contribuir, com este ensaio, para que essa ação não acabe resultando na transformação do médico em tratador de pacientes para a vida inteira, assim como o professor se transformou em educador, numa empresa de formação interminável, para alunos perpétuos. A medicalização da vida é malsã por três motivos: primeiro, a intervenção técnica no organismo, acima de determinado nível, retira do paciente características comumente designadas pela palavra saúde; segundo, a organização necessária para sustentar essa intervenção transforma-se em máscara sanitária de uma sociedade destrutiva, e terceiro, o aparelho biomédico do sistema industrial, ao tomar a seu cargo o individuo, tira-lhe todo o poder de cidadão para controlar politicamente tal sistema. A medicina passa a ser uma oficina de 1 Philipe Roqueplo, Le Partage äu savoir: science. culture, vulgarisation. Paris. Seuil, 1974. 2 Dominique Wolton. Le Nouvel Ordre sexuel, Paris. Seuil, 1974. — Ver também a critica dei. M. Domenach. Esprit, janeiro de 1975. reparos e manutenção, destinada a conservar em funcionamento o homem usado como produto não humano. Ele próprio deve solicitar o consumo da medicina para poder continuar se fazendo explorado. Em três pontos deste ensaio (com dimensões desiguais), trato desses três níveis de medicina maligna. O primeiro capítulo é uma introdução à literatura que tem por tema a eficácia técnica da empresa médica: sua história, seu presente, suas perspectivas. A ineficácia e o perigo da medicina cara são assuntos batidos, porém devo deter-me brevemente neles para introduzir minha argumentação, embora não sejam nem de longe o ponto central do meu objetivo. A segunda parte do livro consiste em três capítulos consagrados, o primeiro, à apresentação de seis sintomas do impacto malsão da medicina sobre o meio (cap. II); o segundo, a uma teoria que permite perceber o mecanismo da contraprodutividade que se manifesta em várias de nossas grandes instituições (cap. III), e o terceiro, à inutilidade das ações de uma sociedade votada ao crescimento de cinco tipos de tentativas políticas que pretendem corrigir essa contraprodutividade (cap. IV). A terceira parte do livro trata do impacto psicológico, sobre os indivíduos, dos sinais e símbolos criados pelo ritual da medicina: a frieza realista enfraquece; a vontade de viver esmorece, e a angústia da morte torna-se insuportável. A dor, a doença e a morte transformam-se em estímulos à produção de mercadorias e de novos tipos de tabus que paralisam a experiência vivida. O último capítulo trata das fontes oníricas dessa autodesregulagem da instituição médica. PRIMEIRA PARTE IATROGÊNESE CLÍNICA CAPÍTULO I EFICÁCIA TÉCNICA DO ATO MÉDICO As grandes doenças de que se sofre e de que se morre no mundo ocidental passaram por profundas mudanças3. A peste e a poliomielite desapareceram. Uma única dose de medicamento conjura a pneumonia. O DDT suprime os vetores da malária. Cada um está convicto de conhecer alguém que parece ter sobrevivido a uma doença ou a um acidente graças à intervenção da medicina. A indústria de cuidados médicos é um dos grandes setores econômicos, de mais rápida expansão4. O aumento da
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