ARA 101 Midterm II

Literature

Adab

 Original meaning: good manners and behaviour  Specialized meaning: literature/various styles of writing prose or verse creatively

Arabic literature is generally divided into 7 periods:

1. Pre-Islamic 2. Early Islamic 3. Ummayad 4. Abbasid 5. Muslim Spain 6. Mamluk 7. Modern

Arabic

 The Arabic language is most notable for its regularity – the same/nearly the same pattern of variations is applied to large groups of triconsonantal roots. [uniform families of words] [analogical derivation]  Triconsonantal roots : KTB – kataba, kitab, kutubi, etc  Rich usage of rhyme and rhythm.  Three most important characteristics: Clarity, Eloquence, and Concision  Great emphasis on formal perfection makes it among the least translatable languages in the world

The birthplace of is in central and north-eastern Arabia.

Inhabitants were nomads, who moved about in search of water and sustenance.

The religion in pre-Islamic times was polytheistic.

Arabian poet

 The Arabian poet was the chief spokesman of his tribe.  He acted as the propagandist, journalist, preacher, entertainer, and political leader of his people.  He would defend the rights and honour of his tribe by immortalizing its deeds and defaming its enemies.  He performed locally and at famous poetic tournaments [Suq U’kkaz].

The earliest forms of Pre-Islamic may have consisted of fountain songs, war chants, and hymns to idols.

Around 5oo A.D., a large number of accomplished poets emerged, reciting qitáhs [short pieces] and qasidahs [long odes – 70-80 half lines].

Each half line [hemistich] in Arabian poetry is equivalent to one line in European poetry. [1/2 A = 1 E]

Qasidahs can include incidents from the poets life and tribe, as well as eulogy, satire, and elegy.

Rawis: professional reciters/transmitters who would follow the poets and memorize their poems. [singular = rawi]

At the root of each meter [wazn] / feet [tafíla] are three strokes/beats that were traditionally used to form eight basic rhythmic units. [3 beats = 8 rhythmic units]

By repeating a definite number of identical units or by altering different ones, lines of verses equally divided into half lines are produced within a given meter.

There are 16 different metrical schemes.

A monorhyme [qafiya] is one rhyming sound in poetry which occurs at the last syllable of each pair of half lines throughout the poem.

Saj’ is rhyming in prose.

Most of ancient poems were sung.

Arabic literature has accumulated over a period of 1400 years after the adoption of the language of the as the fixed standard.

Main themes of Arabic literature (6)

1) Eulogy – Madh [praise] 2) Sattire – Hija’[abusive poems] 3) Elegy – Ritha’ [praising the dead] 4) Love poetry – 5) Descriptive poetry – Wasf [ex: animals, weather, etc] 6) Self praise/boasting - Fakhr

1) Pre-Islamic Period/Jahiliyya [500 – 622]

 also known as the Jahiliyya or Age of Darkness/Ignorance [due to the non-Islamic spirit]  covers a period of at least two centuries

 famous for its courageous heroes and deeds [Heroic Age]  Four main sources of information during this period 1) Poetry 2) Sermons and epistles [public speeches and letters] 3) Proverbs [amthal] 4) Legends and traditions [folktales, stories, etc]  Most of the literature was handed down orally [until the end of the 7th century – beginning of the 8th century]  Muaállaqat: hanging poem – winning poem written in golden ink and hung on the walls of the Kaábah for the coming years.  All Muállaqat are , but not all qasidas are Muállaqat.  Muállaqat: authors of the famous Golden Odes (7) 1) Imru’al Qays : the wandering king 2) Tarafah : the playboy, loved wine, self-sacrifice, love 3) Zuhayr : the moralist 4) Ántarah : the black knight and Arab hero 5) Labid: the centenarian 6) Ámr bin Kulthum : the regicide 7) al-Harith bin Hillizah : the leper  Other poets include an-Nabighah, al-Hutayáh, ash-Shanfara [rebel], and the poetess al-Khansa’ [could not be a mullaqa poet due to social reasons, not enough experience].  The important thing was not what was said, but how it was said.  has three main parts 1) Nasib : love prelude. Can be a true experience or fiction – to attract attention Imru’al Qays was known for his amorous adventures in this section Oh yes, many a fine day I’ve dallied with the white ladies, and especially I call to mind a day at Dara Juljul A’bid bin al-Abras also said my eyes seep sorrow, waterskins with holes 2) Rihla : journey. includes details of the horse/camel and the hard search and travelling, always connected to the nasib – searching for girl etc. Imru’ al Qays mentions my horse short haired, outstripping the wild game, huge-bodied It is in this section that the poem shows its concision through precise words 3) Main theme : poet can devote this to highlighting his own virtues [honour, loyalty, courage, justice, etc], glorifying his tribe, or defaming his enemies. Mostly madh.  In the journey section, a female camel or a male horse would be used.  Ash-Shanfara was a poet who left his tribe and became a rebel. He mentioned And somewhere the noble find a refuge afar from scathe, the outlaw a lonely spot where no kin with hatred burn

 Tarafah tried to pursue his own happiness through wine, love, and self-sacrifice  Ántarah was a warrior poet and Arab folk hero. He had a black slave mother and was rejected by his father in his youth. He loved his cousin passionately but was forbidden by his uncle to marry her. However, after he displayed his skills on the field of battle fighting for Ábs against Dhubyan, he achieved the status of a pure blooded Arab and was celebrated in the popular Sirat Ántar.

2) Early Islamic Period [622 – 661]

 Period in which the Prophet Mohammed and the four rightly guided caliphs lived [period lasted over the last 10 years of Prophet’s life] Umr Ibn-Al Khattab : introduced the Islamic Hijra calendar and the Shurah system [consulting electoral system – 5 leaders appointed to elect a leader if he died] Uthman Ibn Áffan : got 3 votes compared to 2 of ’s [although they voted for each other]. Ruled for 12 years and did not employ a Shurah system. Killed while praying before he could decide his successor. ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib : Mua’wiyah Ibn Abi Sufyan [Uthman’s nephew] disapproved of Ali’s rule as Ali did not avenge Uthman’s murder – reason the Shiites evolved.  Prophet discouraged poetry as most of the poets were liars and wrote pieces against Islamic beliefs  Hijra happened in 622 from Makkah to Madinah  Caliph is an anglicized word - successor  Literature then was centred in Madinah, , Taif, and Najd.  : includes the texts that serve to propagate, teach, and promote an understanding of the message of . (6) 1) Quran 2) 3) Poetry of the Early Islamic period – praised, supported, and encouraged Muslim beliefs and practices 4) : explanation of the Quran 5) Sirah : biography of Prophet Muhammed 6) : Islamic jurisprudence  The Quran was revealed and then writers started to produce the beginnings of Islamic literature.  The Quran was inimitable in its style and content, but its ideas, language, and rhythms had an influence on the development of Arabic literature.  had conquered the Sassanian empire, , Egypt, North Africa, and most of southern Spain.  During this age, political poetry and love lyrics were most evident.

 Quranic disciplines include: Lexicography, biography, theology, philology, and law.  Famous Islamic poets for the theme of Madh [praise] for the Prophet and the Quran Hasan bin Thabit : spokesman of the Prophet Ka’b bin Zuhayr : was an enemy of the Prophet then converted and asked for forgiveness through reading a poem [Suad has departed] to the Prophet. Muhammed then gave him his Burda as a gift. [his father – Zuhayr was a mullaqat poet, but not one himself]  Mukhadramun were the poets who witnessed two periods [Jahiliyya and Early Islamic] – were pagan poets who later converted to Islam. Hasan bin Thabit, Ka’b bin Zuhayr, Al Khansa [famous poetess of Pre-Islamic period]

3) Ummayad Period [661 – 750]

 Umayyad dynasty was started by Muáwiya Ibn Abi Sufyan he was the governor of Syria during the rule of Caliph Úmar Ibn al-Khattab became the 5th Caliph of Islam [after Ali’s death in 661] but he was not rightly guided shifted Islamic power from Madinah to Damascus [Syria]  Mua’waiya appointed his son Yazid as his successor [therefore, turned into a hereditary system] Life began to change in the early Islamic and Umayyad period from the nomadic lifestyle to a more sophisticated urban lifestyle.  Literature flourished in Syria, Arabia, Iraq, and wherever Islam spread to in the first half of the 8th century [from India to Morocco]  One of the greatest supporters of literature in this era was by Caliph Abdul Malik Ibn Marwan  Wealth increased, and so music and dancing became associated with poetry.  Women would sing poetry in the Greek and Persian ways of that time.  Difference between Pre-Islamic and Ummayad poetry: In the Umayyad period, poetry became simplified, with shorter and freer meters being used in order to adapt to music. More conversational language was used with the Umayyads.  Kitab al Aghani was created as music and poetry became inseparable.  Naqaíd: poetical slanders - situation whereby rival poets exchange verbal attacks in their poetry.  Three most famous political Iraqi poets who used naqai’d : 1) Al Akhtal : Christian Arab from the Taghlib tribe, supporter of the Ummayads [especially Caliph Ábd al-Malik bin Marwan – dedicated a famous poem to him] 2) Jarir : belonged to a branch of al-Farazdaq’s tribe [Bani Kulayb] therefore they were rivals, court poet of al-Hajjaj [Ummayad governor of Iraq]. He also became the official poet of Caliph Ábd al-Malik through these words:

Are you not the best of those who on the noblest of mounts ride More open-handed than all in the world beside? 3) al-Farazdaq : from the Tamim tribe, unprincipled man, wrote the best eulogy of Shiite Áli bin al-Husayn. Supporter of the Shiites, against the Umayyads.  Love poetry thrived in this era.  Two schools of ghazal poetry existed in this era *both schools have their origins in Pre-Islamic ghazal tradition [ex: Imru’ al Qays Muállaqah] – But ghazal poetry became a completely independent genre in the Umayyad period, not just a love prelude in a qasidah. 1) Hijazi school : realistic love. Suggests the lyrics of Herrick. Poets came from Western Arabia [civilized cities like Makkah and Madinah], urban poets. U’mar bin Abi Rabiáh, al-Ahnas, al-Árji. Umar was all about sensual love and had an eye for detail. Known as the romantic hero of the Hijazi, he mostly used the dialog form [She said/ I said], therefore made poems more personal and playful than ever before. 2) Údhri school : idealized love. Suggests the lyrics of Petrarch. Ultimately left a deep mark and influenced Western writers like the French poet Louis Aragon. Poets came from Eastern Arabia [Iraq] – desert, nomadic people. Jamil, Qays bin Dharih, Qays bin al-Mulawwah [majnoon Layla]. Jamil was desperately in love with Buthaynah, all he did was suffer and idealize their love I loved you before you were born And when we die, I shall hear your echoes. Qays loved Layla so much that he ended his days wandering the desert, hoping that the sun would burn away the memory of Layla. He wrote My love-sickness is beyond all cure when I pray, I turn my face towards her though the direction be opposite  Three most famous known for their preoccupation with ghazal Umar Ibn Abi Rabi‘ah - dialogue Qays Ibn al-Mulawwah [a.k.a. Majnun Layla] Jamil [a.k.a. Jamil Buthayna]  Poet is no longer the official spokesperson of the tribe  Most famous Umayyad prose writer : Abdul Hamid al-Katib  Notable Umayyad orator : al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi [governor of Kufah]

4) Abbasid Period [750 – 1258]

 Literature reached a higher standard  Era divided into two, Golden [750 – 1055] and Silver [1055 – 1258, nothing new produced] ages.

 Ruled from Syria from 750 - 762  then became the ruling city [built in 762 by Caliph Abu Ja’far Ábdallah al- Mansur] until it became the cultural and commercial center of medieval Islam - Arab, Hellenistic, Indian, and Iranian thoughts were combined [through support of Persians].  They moved to Baghdad: to be closer to the Persians who converted to Islam to expand their cultures and people.  Persians : taught their administrative skills and prose literature Indians : taught their food dishes  The fall of Baghdad due to loss of full control over their empire and the Mongols invading in 1258.  Harun-al Rashid and his son al-Mámun reigned Harun: agriculture, administration, military, education, etc al-Ma’mun : GOLDEN AGE. knowledge. Translations of books [especially Greek science and philosophy], Bait al Hikmah.  Abbasid scholars were the ones who produced classical works in fields such as Quranic studies, jurisprudence, grammar, lexicography, literature, philosophy, science, medicine, geography, music, etc.  continued to prevail until the 13th century Bukhari was the first compiler of the Hadith  Arabic literature changed a lot during this period in terms of its inspiration, themes, modes of expression, audience [tastes, expectations].  Left an impact on the European Renaissance  Previously prose was centred around the Quran, but it then moved towards a more functional form  Abbasid Prose Literature (3) 1) Ibn al-Muqaffa’ was Persian - most famous for his translations from Pahlavi [originally sanscrit language] wrote Kalila and Dimna [simple and direct style – derived from Fables of Bidpai – fictional to educate and entertain about animals] 2) Abu Úthman Ámr bin Bahr al Jahiz he was the grandson of a black slave and extremely witty and intellectual. Wrote essays about slave girls, blacks/whites. Educated and entertained at the same time. Kitab al-Hayawan - real animals, non-fictional Kitab al-Bayan wa at-Tabyin [Book of Elucidation and Exposition] – clarity and clarification – Arabic language, good writer/speaker Kitab al-Bukhala [Book of Misers] – fictional and non-fictional, human psychology, lie detector.

3) Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani Kitab al-Aghani [Book of Songs] - collection of 24 volumes of songs and poems popular in Baghdad at the time of the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. From pre-Islamic up till Abbasid period  Badi’ az-Zaman al-Hamadhani invented maqamat. [wrote about 400 – 52 survived] al-Hariri practiced maqamat [obsessed with his ability to play with Arabic – therefore gave rise to extreme formality in poems]  Maqamat are dramatic anecdotes narrated in a witty way in the form of rhymed prose. 3 features 1) narrator and hero 2) saj’ [rhyming] 3) difficult and rare language  Two main Abbasid poetry schools: 1) Modernist (4): made up of non-Arab/half Arab poets – largely of Persian origin - composing poems in Arabic. They decided to modernize , did not compose qasidas, instead they composed qita’s. They did not value the Bedouin lifestyle, so did not talk about the desert, talked about what they personally experienced. Made new themes famous, such as khamriyyat – wine poetry. Praise wine and drinking, mixed with another theme – homosexuality. Another theme: Zuhdiyyat – asceticism [abstinence from worldy pleasures in order to pursue spiritual goals]– the temporality of this world, unworthy, life after death. Bashshar Ibn Burd: sensuous love lyrics Abu al-Atahiya : started with love – then resolved to writing about zuhdiyyat and religion Ibn ar-Rumi: analytical (chief representative): not a hypocrite [never will I drink in shade and not in shine], cynical. Feels happy whenever he gets drunk. People believe he was homosexual. Also composed poems on religions and piety. Wrote under Harun al- Rashid’s rule – favoured by Harun’s son al-Amin. 2) Neoclassical (5): Arab poets. Brought back the old style, therefore wrote qasidas. Valued the desert lifestyle. Their naseeb was no longer for girls alone, was mixed with things such as personal state of mind. Abu Firas al- : fellow Syrian to , produced less difficult verses than him Abu Tammam : historian to Caliph al-Mu’tasim Abu al-Alá al- Maárri : biggest pessimist - born a poet and a prose writer, different from the other members – nothing lasts forever. Became blind at the age of 3 due to small pox, therefore biggest pessimist, from Syria. He still got an education and became a professor despite his disability, amazing memory. A philosopher, great scholar and thinker. Believed the worst thing is to have children, don’t let them live a pointless life

This wrong was by my father done To me, but neér by me to one. 3 major collections of poetry that showed his acceptance of Zuhdiyyat: Luzumiyyat [most important], al-Diríyyat, and Saqt al-Zand. Most famous prose piece: Risat al- Ghufran [Epistle of forgiveness] – precursor to Dante’s Divine Comedy Ahmed al-Mutannabi (Chief representative) : appeared in the early 10th century. Known as the greatest of all Arab poets – proud and arrogant. Reached the height of his excellence at the Court of Sayf ad-Dawlah [ruler of ] as he dedicated his finest work to him. Live honourably or die heroically  Late Abbasid and post-Abbasid periods al-Hallaj Ibn al-Farid in the east Ibn al-‘Arabi in Muslim Spain – account of the Prophet’s ascent to Heaven.

5) Hispano-Arabic Period [750 – 1492]

 Muslim ruled in Spain from 711 until 1492, replacing a barbarian rule.  Andalusian poetry flourished in the 11th century.  It was in Andalusia that Arabic and European literatures merged. [al-Andalus – central + southern Spain, Portugal, Sicily]  Arabic Islamic East = Syria, Iraq, Arabia, Persia, Egypt Arabic Islamic West = Spain, North Africa West imitated East in terms of Arab literature.  Zajal and Muwashshah were precursors of the love songs of medieval Europe Zajal : colloquial, was composed mostly by Muwashshah : standard, new and lively creations from the fusion of Arabic and Provencal cultures. Love poem consisting of rhymed Arabic strophes – kharjah [recurring two lines]  Both zajal and muwashshah: 1) meant to be sung and danced to 2) mixture of Arab and European Cultures 3) always talk about love  Poets imitated the neoclassical school  of Cordoba – one of the most original minds in Muslim Spain famous for his Dove’s Necklace – essay on the psychology/anatomy/manifestations of love in joy and sorrow. Contains parallels with Andreas Capellanus’ The Art of Courtly Love.  Arabic was translated into Latin during this period

 Scholars from France, England, Italy, and Germany came to Spain to learn and became fluent in Arabic culture through these translation centers.

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populated Spain for 700 years  The European renaissance was brought about by the Muslim’s civilization [from the south – through Morocco]  Spaniards called the Muslims  Europe was filthy, excrements everywhere, illiterate, superstition, etc.  Abd al-Rahman I was the first caliph of al-Andalus [land of the vandals] – set up the 300 year old Umayyad dynasty there  Arabs introduced irrigation systems and foods, therefore changed the agriculture there [also changed knowledge and infrastructure]  Cordova was the intellectual center of Spain [capital of al-Andalus]  The golden age of Muslim Spain was under Abd al-Rahman III  Al-Andalus then broke up into small pieces and lost central power  Granada fell in 1492, marking the end of Muslim Spain

6) Mamluk Period/Post Abbasid [1258 – 1798]

 Literature extends from 1258 [the fall of the in Baghdad] until 1800 [the beginning of the Modern Arabic Period]

7) Modern Arabic Period [1798 – Present Day]

 Places greater emphasis on content rather than on form [easier to translate]  Classical to

The Arabian Nights [Alf Laylah wa Laylah – The Thousand and One Nights]

 Best known and most read in the West  15th century composition of Persian stories with Indian elements adapted into Arabic stories composed in Baghdad stories composed in Egypt  Most famous story is the tale of Shahrazad [origin in India] saved herself and other women from execution by King Shahriyar by entertaining him with endless stories, women have the power to control men through words  First composed in Arabic in the Abbasid period  First translated in the 18th century by French scholar Antoine Galland. Added famous stories from other sources – Ali Baba, Sindbad, and Aladdin.  Blend of Arabic, Greek, Chinese, Indian, Turkish, and Persian sources.

 Odd that this is the most famous Arabic literary piece in the West, as the original creators were only semiliterate and Arabs did not consider it very important