Adomas Butrimas Amber Discs with cross decoration in the South Eastern Baltic

A Ö Academy of Arts Press, 2Ū1 8 Lietuvos mokslo taryba

This research was funded by the Lithuanian Research Council, project No. MIP-036/2015

A book review by Prof. Dr. Albinas Kuncevičius Dr. Marius Iršėnas

Designer Martynas Gintalas

Illustrators: Rūta Spelskytė, Martynas Gintalas Photographers: Jogailė Butrimaitė, Stasė Butrimienė, Vaidotas Aukštaitis, Kazimieras Mizgiris, Arūnas Baitėnas Copy editor: S. C. Rowell, Teresė Valiuvienė Assistant Spelskienė

Vilnius Academy of Arts Press Dominikonų str. 1 5, LT-01131, Vilnius

Printed by Standartų spaustuvė Dariaus ir Girėno g. 39, Vilnius

ISBN 978-609-447-310-4 CONTENT

Foreword \ 9 The corpus of amber discs with cross decoration \ 11 Research problems \ 16 Manufacture \ 18 The amber discs without cross decoration in the Eastern Baltic \ 25 The discs with cross decorations, Materials from excavations in , , Ukraine \ 32 Topography of the Daktariškė 5 settlement \ 32 Cultural layers, stratigraphy, spatial research \ 34 Finds and chronology \ 36 Description of the ornamented disc \ 44 Typology, distribution geography and chronology of cruciform-decorated discs \ 57 Distribution Geography \ 60 Find Circumstances (context) \ 62 Investigation of Stone Age amber discs and rings by the Methods of Natural Science \ 64 Use-wear analysis \ 66 FTIR and micro FT-Raman spectral analysis of disc with cross ornamentation \ 70 Interpreting the symbolic the meaning of discs \ 77 Discs as prestige objects \ 77 Discs - between the sun and the moon, the mysteries of Light and Dark \ 83

Conclusions \ 89 Catalogue of discs \ 90 References \ 97 Index \ 112

Fig. I. Cross-section of a resin-producing tree trunk. Illustration by R. Spelskytė

7 Fig. II. Blue earth with natural amber piece in Palanga Amber Museum

8 FOREWORD

The warmth, magnetic qualities and colour of amber seem to require that this substance embody very important meanings. From time immemorial the sun, the universe and the human model of the world came to be imagined in the eastern Baltic region via amber artefacts, especially amber discs. The earliest amber discs, found in settlements and graves and known from the old collections in the Eastern Baltic are dated to the early and middle Neolithic. Quite a large number of such amber discs made during the Neolithic period have been found on the territory of what are now Lithuania, , Poland and other neighbouring countries; most often they just have an evenly polished surface without further decoration. Another group of amber discs contains discs with a cross (cruciform) decoration. These are much later and are connected with cultures of the Late Neolithic. They are also found in graves and settlements and are known from old collections. The closer analysis of this group provided in this book is connected with one special example that was found in the cultural layer of Daktariškė 5 Neolithic wetland settlement in the Biržulis Lake area of Western Lithuania, which boasts a large concentration of Stone-Age monuments. The ornamental system of these discs cannot be regarded as having a purely aesthetic motivation. The complex ornamental system on both sides of the amber discs from Daktariškė 5 and other settlements illustrates a depth of astronomical knowledge, which is deeply encoded; this is connected with mythical interpretations developed by past societies in the region and shows that the creativity of cultures without writing was not inferior to that of more advanced civilizations, just more difficult and interesting for us to decode.

9 Fig. 1. Part of Juodkrantė amber ornament collection in the East coast sand (copies). Photo by K. Mizgiris

IO THE CORPUS OF AMBER DISCS WITH CROSS DECORATION

Earlier contributions. The majority of the earliest former presentations of amber discs with cross decoration deal with a description of individual discs as well as with suggestions of chronological affiliation, and in the best cases with interpretations of how they were produced. In Lithuanian territory the first description and interpretation was published as early as 1882 by Dr. Richard Klebs (Klebs 1882) (Fig. 1). In his book devoted to the Juodkrantė (Schwarzort) collection from the Curonian Peninsula he describes 5 amber discs with cross ornamentation (Klebs 1882, tabl. Ill, fig. 1,21; tabl. II, fig. 22; tabl. XI, figs. 6, 7). He gave detailed drawings of these discs (which he termed Linsen und Scheiben [Lenses and Discs]) along with detailed descriptions of forms, ornamentation and the colour of the amber, and published results of experiments as to how they were produced using flint scrapers and borers. According the use-wear investigation he carried out with Otto Tischler, a conclusion was drawn to the effect that the ornamentation had been made using a bone awl during the Stone Age, without using any metal implement. According to R. Klebs, the collection of the Stantien and Becker Company contained 43 amber discs, while the collection of the Provinzial-Museum der Physikalisch- Ökonomischen Gessellschaft in Königsberg had 17, but only 5 of these were decorated with cross ornamentation (Klebs 1982, p. 17) (Fig. 2 ). 0. Tischler was the first to discover that the small pits on amber discs and other ornaments had once been filled with resin in order to obtain a certain glow (Tischler 1883, p. 102). In the territories of Poland and former Eastern La Baume, L. Kozłowski and Dr. L. Łebiński, published amber discs from investigations in Stauchwitz Augustów (county Ortelsburg), Borucin (county Nieszawa), Świerczyn (county Nieszawa), Naruscewo (county Plonsk), Rzeszynek (voivodeship Inowrocław), mainly from the graves of people belonging to the (Łebiński 1888; Kozłowski 1921, 1923,1924).

11 Fig. 2. The drawings of amber discs and rings with and without cross decoration from R. Klebs' publication, 1882

12 In 1956 Eduard Šturms presented the first overview of Amber artefacts in Eastern Globular Amphora Culture which retains considerable importance to this day (Šturms 1956). All the amber discs and buttons with cross decoration known until that date are included in this carefully illustrated publication from the territories of Lithuania, Poland with parallels from and Denmark. He was the first to map all the amber ornaments of the Eastern Group of the Globular Amphora Culture, including discs and buttons with cross decorations (Šturms 1956, p. 17). As a matter of fact, Šturms was the first to interpret the place of amber discs with cross decoration in the graves of people belonging to the Globular Amphora Culture; he connected them with men's graves and interpreted them as symbols of the sun and a cult of the sun. He also noticed that the natural colour of amber has a special value for this purpose. In this publication he presented 19 amber discs and buttons with cross decoration that were known to him, attributing them to what he termed the Linsen und Scheiben Group. A major contribution was made to research and studies of amber by the Polish archaeologist Ryszard F. Mazurowski in his doctoral dissertation "Amber in the Polish territories in the Stone Age" (Mazurowski 1983). Here we find the first very full overview of the corpus of amber artefacts from the South-Eastern Baltic area (not only from the territory of Poland) and the first very clear typology of amber artefacts, including ornamented discs. Mazurowski connected his interpretation of the manner of wearing amber discs with the place where they were found in graves, namely by the heads of men in Globular Amphora Culture graves at Wierzbowe and Kuczyny. He also used parallels of ornamented bone discs from the graves of Brześć Kujawski 4, where they were found on the front parts of the heads of cows (Wiślański 1966, fig. 42: 10), However, we should note also that E. Šturms was right in saying that discs with cross decoration can be connected with Globular Amphora Culture, because later investigations of wetland settlements in Šventoji, Būtingė, and Daktariškė 5 demonstrated, that discs with cross decoration and other elements of ornamentation are

В

Fig. U. Ornamented amber disc from Palanga. Feliksas Tiškevičius collection. Palanga not only from the Polish group of Globular Amphora Culture (Sturms 1956; Mazurowski 1983, p. 45). The first ornamented amber disc to be published by Lithuanian archaeologists is known from the amber collection of Count Feliksas Tiškevičius at Palanga. The cross consists of curved single lines of small drilled pits and is quite unique among other cross decorated discs (Puzinas 1938, fig. 8: 4) (Fig.4). More amber discs were found in Lithuania after World War II during Rimutė Rimantienės excavations of the Sventoji- Būtingė complex of Stone Age settlements (Rimantienė 2005). One amber disc was found in Būtingė 2 Neolithic sacrificial site together with a battle axe and elk bones, and a fragment of another disc was found at the Šventoji 1A wetland settlement. One of the most impressive amber discs decorated on both sides was found by the present Author at the Daktariškė 5 Neolithic wetland settlement near Lake Biržulis in West Lithuania (Butrimas 2001,2016). The amber disc from Daktariškė has been presented in conference papers, and described together with the whole complex of amber ornaments from the Daktariškė 5 settlement. Data have been derived from multifunctional investigations of the amber disc with cross decoration: use-wear, FTIR and micro FT-Raman spectral analysis were conducted.

15 Research problems

The main problem of investigation is the territory, where the discs were found. The political allegiance of these territories changed many times during the twentieth century and the museums and collections where they were housed changed location too, belonging to different states. The Second World War was very destructive for people, institutions, buildings and collections alike in the Baltic Region. For this reason, most amber collections are known from old publications and do not survive, or survive only in fragments (Ritzkowski, Weisgerber 1999, p. 137-150). Sometimes, information from old excavations is very limited; also the majority of these decorated amber discs are stray finds. This makes it impossible to compare the number of decorated and undecorated discs, and some of the latter could be of a later date. The status of preservation of amber discs is also very different: in many cases those known as a stray finds and those, which were excavated in graves have a degraded surface and part of the information about decoration and ornament filling is lost. Also, from the first publication of amber discs with cross decoration from the Juodkrantė (Schwarzort) Collection we can see that their preservation was fragmented (Klebs 1882, tabl. XI, figs. 6, 7). When we found the disc with cross decoration in the Daktariškė settlement, we realised that the composition of ornamentation can be very complex and the survival of the whole ornamentation system is essential in order to interpret the meaning of those discs (Fig. 5). Only the examples from wetland settlement excavations retained all the information about the number of motif elements; their edges are not flawed or decayed, they do not have a cracked surface and decaying patina. This does not allow us to recreate all of discs' decorative systems with complete accuracy and hence we have considerably less chance of "decoding" them. This is very important when we try to interpret possible calendar meanings for those discs. In this context the items found in the settlements at Daktariškė 5 and Būtingė 2 gain particular significance for interpreting the Fig. 5. Amber symbolism, encoded in those discs. disc (avers) from Daktariškė 5 Finally, we can conclude, that it is very hard to obtain very Neolithic settlement. clear results from comparing ornamented amber discs in a Photo by good state of preservation and from dated cultural layers of J. Butrimaitė wetland settlements in Eastern Baltic with those known from earlier excavated Globular Amphora Culture graves or stray finds from the territory of the South Eastern Baltic (mainly from the territory of modern-day Poland and surrounding areas), especially, if we wish to recreate the whole ornamentation system on both sides of the discs, and calculate the pits and incisions of a decorated artefact.

17 Manufacture

Intensive archaeological excavation of hundreds Neolithic settlements and cemeteries in the South Eastern Baltic confirmed, that the tradition of collecting, making and trading amber jewellery, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures, as well as amber discs and rings in the eastern and southern region of the Baltic Sea began to form in the second half of the fifth millennium BC in the and later in the sites of Comb-Marked Culture (Butrimas 2016, p. 32). People of these cultures were the first to gather amber on the south eastern shore of the Baltic, near lagoons and gulfs, in the delta (Żuławy Region) and Elbing (Elbląg), the Vistula spit, Sambian Peninsula, and as was seen from large-scale archaeological research in the second half of XX century - from Lithuanian and Latvian coastal zone at Šventoji and Sarnate complexes, also from the Lūkstas and Biržulis lakelands in Western Lithuanian, as well as from Lubana lowland and Kretuonas Lake areas in Eastern Latvia and Lithuania. People of these areas were the first to gather amber and to make various artefacts from it. Its mysterious appearance from out of the sea, and its unusual qualities (how it burns, exuding a pleasant aroma, it is always warm to the touch, the variety of colours, its predominant transparency reminiscent of the sun, the chance it provides to make various forms of artefact) clearly made a great impression on local hunters and gatherers. Amber discs and rings appeared independently in Narva Culture and probably the earliest such items were found in Šventoji Settlement 23. They have been found in other settlements too that belong to the Globular Amphora, Comb- Marked Pottery and Bay Coast Cultures. The discs and rings found at Šventoji varied in size and cross-section, and in the form of the small holes drilled through their middle (Rimantienė 2005, p. 112). They are round, sometimes slightly oval, flat amber artefacts with a lens-shaped cross-section and most commonly they become thinner towards their rim. The largest and finest such disc is quite similar to a ring in shape and was

18 found at Šventoji Findsite 23. It has a iens-shaped cross-section with one almost flat side while the other side is concave, the rims are rounded and the hole is drilled from both sides. Close to the rim of one side is a concentrated decoration of small pits or dots. Only half of the second disc found in that settlement has survived and it was not polished. An almost finished well-preserved disc with a regular lens-shaped cross-section was found at Šventoji Settlement 6 (Rimantienė 2005, fig. 278: 12). Undecorated discs, rings or fragments of such were found at other Šventoji settlements (20, 25, 28 and 34). There is a considerable number of discs and rings in the Palanga Collection also. Some of these are thick with a hole drilled in the middle from both sides, and some are quite large and become thinner towards the rim. Some of them are ground, whilst others are simply knapped (Rimantienė 2005, fig. 82, p. 15-18). Some examples came to the Collection from other areas. Comb-Marked Pottery Culture settlements in Lithuania are rare and just a few pieces of undecorated rings were found at Šventoji Findsite 26. There are also undecorated rings and discs from Globular Amphora-, and Bay Coast Culture settlements but these are few in number because discs and rings with cross decoration are prevalent in settlements belonging to these cultures. As the impressive translucent amber discs and rings and the colour of the raw material and amber jewellery made from it found in the deep layers of peat bog sites (at Šventoji, Daktariškė) show, the aesthetic exterior qualities of amber, which were enriched further with decoration and were complemented quite often with additional material (resins, wax and so forth), were very important to people of the Stone Age. The colour of amber depended on many factors. During its long formation process amber was affected by the atmosphere and the chemical composition of various resins differed slightly. Since amber formed from fossilised pine resin of the Eocene period the composition of the resin was affected by the activities of micro­ organisms, oxidation, polymerisation, hydration, dehydration and other processes and this produced a wide variety of colours, of which there are several hundred varieties and shades from light,

19 translucent yellow (the cross decorated disc from Daktariškė 5 Settlement) - to red (the surface of the disc with cross decoration from the Swibno area around Gdańsk), к (Fig. 6) Even among the amber discs and rings we are studying here we sometimes come across light, translucent types of ______amber with a double refraction of light (e.g. the decorated amber ring from Daktariškė Settlement 5). Therefore, as early as the Fig. 6 a-c. Disc with Stone Age jewellers appreciated amber not only for its golden cross ornamentation (sun-like) colour but also for its transparency, and the various and details, showing way in which it refracts light. Since pieces of amber or knapped natural colour of pieces of raw amber are rough in shape, the light is refracted in amber and irregular pits. Swibno, Gdańsk different ways and the additional material within the amber also Archeological helps create various visual effects. Today too amber jewellers museum appreciate these qualities and in their artefacts they not only attempt not to harm these qualities but also seek to enhance their effect further (Mockaitis 2002 p.12-13). Amber gets its light yellow hue from the resinols, resinotannols and oxyabietic acid it contains. All the other colours and shades of amber depend on its resins and admixtures and the optical effects of refracted light. The

2 0 greatest effect on changing the colour of amber is made by its most important structural elements, namely terpenie gas bubbles; bubble density and shape determine how light is refracted. The more smaller bubbles there are, the whiter the amber. Stone-age people also noticed another quality of amber, namely that like all organic minerals that refract light weakly (amber's light refraction is n = 1.53-1.547) amber plays best with light when the surface is concave and polished. Angular surfaces produce almost no playful reflection of light. Perhaps for this reason all the amber discs and rings have carefully polished concave surfaces. External factors have little effect on amber but the material is subject to deterioration. Because of oxygen in the atmosphere a piece of amber or the surface of an amber artefact is always slightly darker than the inside part. For example, the outer shell of the amber disc with cross decoration from near Swibno Gdańsk is almost red, but a fresh cut in the surface shows that the disc was not made from red amber but from a fine piece of yellow amber (Fig. 6 c). The outer shell can be barely visibly and very thin, finely split and scratched depending on how and under what conditions an amber artefact or piece of raw material was preserved to modern times. For example, the outer surface of the Rzucewo settlement find is cracked and even slightly uneven, while the colour of the amber discs and rings found in the peat-bog settlements at Šventoji and Daktariškė is almost unchanged; the amber is transparent and appears to have just left the hand of the jeweller - but that was 5,000 years ago. Amber from the Pleistocene era dug up from "blue earth" has a thick, solid surface which has a dusty whitish colour when it dries out (Fig. II). Amber washed up by the Baltic Sea and Lake Lūkstas has a considerably thinner, cleaner and more translucent deteriorated shell and sometimes this is almost completely invisible. Amber was collected in large amounts, washed ashore by the waves of the sea; it could be found on the banks lagoon lakes (Šventoji, Sarnate) and on the shores of large glacier lakes (such as at Lake Lūkstas in the Žemaitijan upland, Lake

21 Fig. 7. Schematic sketches of the main types of discs and rings from South Eastern Baltic

22 Kretuonas in the Eastern Lithuania, Lake Lubana in Eastern Latvia). People made jewellery from it or trade in barely worked raw material and even on occasion, semi-finished artefacts. Gradually, acquired crafts allowed people to work amber and spread wonderful artefacts in the beginning from the Baltic Sea coast eastwards and northwards into the continental interior has been extensively treated by Liucija Vankina (Vankina 1970), Ilze Lože (Lože 1975, 2000) and (Gimbutas 1985). Scholars have remarked that particular groups may have partially or completely controlled certain stages in amberworking and amber exchange (Beržini 2003). I. Loze writes that the inhabitants of the area who obtained unworked amber through exchange with the people living on the shore of the Litorina Sea, themselves organized the processing of amber, intercepting this exchange process and allowing only a flow of finished products and north-east (Loze 2000, p. 64). Here we see one of the aspects, associated with specialization - control over resources. Making figures and jewellery, craftsmen paid attention first and foremost to forms created by , using pieces of amber that had formed in various parts of amber - bearing sources, such as bark, small amber plates, amber icicles, drops and so forth. By adapting these natural forms slightly, they created pieces of very varied forms. The lens shape pieces of amber for making discs and rings (Fig. I) usually formed between the bark and tree, ore in the middle of tree trunk. By adapting these natural forms slightly, they created pieces of very varied forms (Fig. 7). Natural forms were adapted by grinding the amber slightly, polishing away rough edges, and on rare occasions actually cutting them away. Starting from the earliest examples of the rings and discs, who were made in the Narva Culture sites in Šventoji 23, it was decorated with small dots. So, the decoration started in local East Baltic Narva Culture, but decoration with the cross ornamentation - much later - only in the periods of the Globular Amphora and Bay Coast Cultures.

23 Fig. 8. Skull with plain amber discs on clay in eye-sockets Grave 275. Dated to the 4th millennium BC. Zvejnieki cemetery, Latvia. Researched by F. Zagorskis. Photo by A. Butrimas

2 4 AMBER DISCS WITHOUT CROSS DECORATION IN EASTERN BALTIC

This type of amber ornament is spread mainly in the territories of Latvia, Lithuania, , Finland and West . We find them from the Early Neolithic in graves and in cultural layers of the settlements of the same time. The Latvian and Swedish archaeologists F. Zagorskis, I. Zagorska, I. Lože and L. Larsson who analysed grave inventories from Latvia, and M. Ots in Estonia have noted already, that amber ornaments, and especially amber discs and rings formed an important part of grave inventories and have a special place in amber symbolism in the Baltic Region as early as the Early and Middle Neolithic (Zagorskis 1987; Zagorska 2006; Lože 1998; Ots 2003; Larsson 2007). Those traditions were known until the Late Neolithic. The excavations carried out directed in Zvejnieki Cemetery uncovered more than 300 . In this cemetery 17 graves contained amber ornaments, among which there were 17 amber discs. As far as the study of amber discs is concerned, the most important data come from five collective graves in the Zvejnieki cemetery (Graves 206-209, 220-225, 263-264, 274-278 and 316-317) which contained four deceased individuals with amber discs in their eye sockets, and in one grave two other discs were found opposite to the face - altogether 12 specimen of amber discs (rings) were found. In the female grave two large amber rings were found and according to their placement the finds in Grave 316 probably functioned as a necklace arrangement (Larsson 2007). This discs and rings in the Eastern Baltic cemeteries have special locations in graves (Figs. 8-10). The discs in eye sockets are found in Zvejnieki Grave 206, one disc was found under the right forearm in Zvejnieki Grave 220. 221, identified as male, was the richest - with 53 pendants and four discs and rings. One ring was found under the skull. In Zvejnieki Grave 225 four amber discs were found: 2 discs were in the eye sockets, the other discs were

25 Fig. 9. Zvejnieki burial ground, collective grave, burials 275-278

2 6 opposite the face, and one ring lay on the chest. Two discs in eyes sockets were found in Zvejnieki Grave 263, one disc lay between the shank bones. In the male Grave 275 two discs were found in the eye sockets, and one above the pelvis (Fig. 8). During F. Zagorskis' excavations, a thick layer of clay and red ochre was found on six individuals (Zagorska 2006). On the skulls with red ochre and clay round amber discs (sometimes rings) were found stuck intentionally into eye sockets as "replacements" for the eyes. In all those cases, the amber pieces have a large, centrally placed hole. We may note too, that in the Period the deceased of the Zvejnieki, Olenij Ostrov and Donkalnis cemeteries were adorned with tooth pendants; sometimes the eyes were closed (Butrimas 2012), The latest use of animal pendants for this purpose in Zvejnieki, burial 164 is dated to 4267-3910 cal. BC (Larsson 2006). It must mark important change in the ideology in the Eastern Baltic at the very end of Late Mesolithic and the beginning of the Early Neolithic periods, when graves with amber discs in the eye sockets replaced graves with tooth pendants. The earliest graves with amber have been dated to between 5285±50 BP (Ua 3634) and for Burial 206 and 3801-3507 cal. BC (Ua 19884) for Burial 201 (Zagorska 2001). The tradition of placing amber discs in graves in Latvia survives until the Late Neolithic. A two disc-shaped pendants with a perforated holes was found under the lower jaw of the skull under the lower part of the shank in the Abora Burial 33 (Abora settlement) and was dated to the period of (Lože 1998, p. 404). A perforated disc pendant was part of the grave goods of the man buried in the Grave 11 in the Moskha Khodosovichi cemetery in the Middle basin (Artemenko 1967, fig. 47). In Estonia, Finland and Western Russia we have tradition of putting of amber discs and rings in graves of the Northern Circle of Cultures: Comb and Pit pottery culture and Northern Narva Culture (Äyräpää 1945). On amber disc was placed under the back bone in the female grave in the Tamula settlement Grave 10 and a fragment of an amber disc was found in Burial 12 (Ots 2003, figs. 6, 7).

27 Fig. 1 0. Detail of burial Zvejnieki 21 2 (head region). Amber ornaments

28 From the settlements of Akali and Sope in Estonia we know of another 7 amber discs and rings. One of the graves containing amber from Tamula was dated as early as 5760±45 BP (Hela- 1335) (Kriiska etai. 2007). Amber discs were placed on the eyes of the deceased not only at Zvejnieki, but also in the Finnish Stone-Age cemetery of Pispa and other sites of that period (Edgren 2006, p. 330). Amber discs and rings without ornamentation are known not only from the funerary, but also from the settlement context. We have mentioned this already in an Estonian context, but the same could be said of Latvia and Lithuania. Rings and discs 2,9-3,4 cm in diameter of triangular cross-section are known from Sulkas and Abora II, and Iča II settlements, starting from the Middle Neolithic in Pit Comb Ware culture. In Narva culture also amber discs and rings 1,5-7 cm in diameter are known; starting in the Middle Neolithic Period (Loze 2008, p. 27, 1 78) (Fig. 11) until Late Neolithic amber discs and rings without ornamentation are known from Abora, Asne, Eini, Iča, Malmuta (Loze 2008, p. 119-155). Discs without any ornamentation in Lithuania are known starting from the Middle Neolithic settlement of Narva Culture in Šventoji and also they are known until the Late Neolithic settlements of Rzucewo (Bay Coast) and the Corded Ware cultures settlement at Šventoji, Nida, Daktariškė 5, and Kretuonas Lake area settlements in Western and Eastern Lithuania (Fig. 12) The amber discs and rings spread from the territory in which they were produced in the Eastern Baltic to the territory of West Russia and are known from cemetery of Sachtysh VIII, Sachtysh I la. Ilovets, Tudozero, Korgulina, Konchanskoe and others (Oshibkina 2001). The discs and rings in the funeral contexts usually closed the eyes or were sewn onto caps near the eyes (Zimina 2001, p. 147). The chronology of unornamented discs from both funerary and settlement contexts can be dated from the earliest stages of the Neolithic Period according to data from graves and settlements in an area stretching from Finland to Poland: Estonia: Tamula grave with amber pendants 5760±45 BP (Hela-1335)

2 9 Fig. 11. Fragments of amber discs and rings (links) without ornamentation from Nainiekste, Zvidze and Sarnate Neolithic settlements, Latvia. The National History Museum of Latvia

30 Latvia: Zvejnieki, Grave 206 5285±80 BP (Ua-3643) Zvejnieki, Grave 206 5110±45 BP (Ua-3634) Zvidze settlement 5320±50 BP (TA-1800) 4225-41 55 BC Zvidze settlement 4370±80 BP (TA-675) 3023-2928 BC Abora settlement 4490±80 BP (TA-2144) 3350-3040 BC Abora settlement 3860+100 BP (LE-749) -2470-2200 BC Lithuania: Daktariškė 5 settlement (Vs-809) 3096-2885 BC Šventoji 6 settlement 4530±75 BP (TA-13525a) 3365-3096 BC Šventoji 6 settlement 4070±110 BP (Vs-500) 2866-2468 BC Šventoji 23 settlement 4190±80 BP (Vib-1) 2888-2623 BC

To this day we have no radiocarbon dates for amber discs and rings Fig. 12. Amber discs, from Żuławy region in Poland. According to radiocarbon dates rings from Šventoji from graves and settlements in the Eastern Baltic, the discs and settlements. ring are dated to a period throughout the Neolithic - from the Photo by end of the fifth millennium BC until 2200 BC. S. Butrimienė

31 DISCS WITH CROSS DECORATION. MATERIALS FROM EXCAVATIONS IN LITHUANIA, POLAND, UKRAINE

Amber discs with cross decoration, as we have noted already, are known from older collections as stray finds and some of them were found in the graves of the Globular Amphora Culture during excavations in the 19th and 20"1 centuries. Most of these are fragmented or disappeared during World War II. To analyse them, the materials of new excavations are important, especially if they are in a wetland settlement context with a very good status of preservation. The spread of such amber discs with cross decoration is quite clear. The area across which they spread is bounded in the north by Western Lithuania (Juodkrantė, Daktariškė 5, Palanga, Šventoji, Būtingė) and in the west by the region around Słupsk (Stolp) in Pomorze and the environs of Toruń, slightly to the west of the Vistula. Its southern boundary lies in the area around and Lublin, while to the east these artefacts spread as far as the Iwanie site of Rivne (Ukraine). The greatest concentration occurs in the Masurian Lakeland. Here they are found most commonly in Globular Amphora Culture graves (Sturms 1956, p. 1 7). However, one special example was found in the Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement. It appears to bear special coded, very well preserved information unlike any other artefact of this type found in Lithuania or the rest of Eastern Europe (Fig. 13).

Topography of the Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement

The Daktariškė Neolithic settlement is in West Lithuania, approximately 90 km to the East from the Baltic Sea, approximately 2300 m to the East of the bridge across the River Rešketa on the Telšiai-Varniai road, approximately 1000 m to the

32 East of the Daktariškė 1 Neolithic settlement, on the southern Fig. 1 3. Amber disc slope of hill between Lake Biržulis and Lake Stervas, 50 m from (obverse, reverse and cross-section) the drainage ditch not far from the eastern boundary of the from Daktariškė 5 village in Varniai district of Telšiai county, Žemaitija (Fig. 13). The Neolithic settlement drainage ditch separates the cultivated meadow and Bagdoniškė Drawing by Hill (on whose southern flank our settlement was excavated) R. Spelskytė from the low lying mixed woodland of the marshy Lake Stervas. As the soil bore taken by Rimvydas Kunskas in the environs of the settlement shows, during the sub-boreal period there was still a shallow fish-laden stream flowing between Lakes Biržulis and Stervas.

33 Fig. U . The settlement was discovered late in autumn 1986 and The situation plan excavated in 1987-1990 by the Biržulis expedition of the Vilnius with izohipses Academy of Arts and the Lithuanian History and Ethnography of Daktariškė 5 Museum (now National Museum of Lithuania) (Fig. 14). Neolithic Expedition was lead by archaeologist prof. Dr. Adomas Butrimas. settlement. Present day situation Cultural layers, stratigraphy, spatial research

Amber discs, link and half finished product for producing those artefacts were found in the cultural layer of the Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement. Both discs with lens-shaped cross- section with cross ornamentation and 2 mm smaller without ornamentation but also carefully polished from both sides, were found in the trench III. The whole settlement Daktariškė 5 was excavated in A m - wide trenches with lengths of 10-16 m depending on the cultural layer and the spread of finds.

3 4 Trenches l-VI and VIII—XI were dug north to south, only the trench VII was dug east to west. All the north-south trenches sloped downwards in a southerly direction (the trench III with amber discs as well). Grids facing north-south (according to the length of the trench) were marked by numbers from 1 to 10 depending on the length of the trek, while the wide of the trench was marked with "a" and "b". The trench III was marked by numbers from 1 to 6. The discs were found in the grid 4b in the distance of 50 cm from each other, near the center of the grid. In the cross-section on the all eastern part of the trench III, we can see that that cultural layers in the 4b (2 x 2 m) are as a follows: the layer of arable soil was 30-35 cm thick (Fig. 15 a, b). Under the ploughed soil, a 35-45 cm layer of brown undispersed peat. Beneath this layer starting to 65-80 cm deep, started cultural layer of waste peat, with potsherds, pieces of animal bones and amber ornaments. Beneath cultural layer of soft lake clay. The cultural layer, as the whole investigated area, sloped downwards in southerly direction (about 30 cm during 2 m). Directly in the lower part of this cultural layer, close to untouched layer of soft lake clay, 85-87 cm from the ground surface, two very good preserved amber discs were found.

в

bog and arable soil deposit brown undispersed peat sapropellayer cultural layer of waste peat soft lake clay

potsherds [TjT i pieces of animal bones о ° amber ornaments О sinkers

Fig. 15 a. The investigation and cross-section of cultural layer of Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement where amber disks were found

35 Fig. 1 5 b. The Finds and chronology investigation of cultural layer Most of the finds from the Daktariškė 5 wetland settlement of Daktariškė 5 Neolithic consisted of pottery. Two cultural layers were distinguished at settlement the settlement. About 9440 fragments of Narva Culture pottery sherds were found: with crushed shells (belonging to the early phase of Narva Culture) and with organic admixture (Fig. 16 a). The later pottery with mineral temper, belonging mainly to the Corded Ware and Globular Amphora cultures - 1 590 potsherds were collected (Fig. 16 b) 406 different vessels with organic temper (crushed shell and vegetable temper) were identified (the minimum number of vessels), 303 or 74,63 % of which were decorated. 26-30 cm diameter vessels slightly predominated in the former pottery, 20-26 cm diameter in the latter (Butrimas 2016; Butrimas, Ostrauskienė 2004; Iršėnas, Butrimas 2000). The outer surfaces of the rims and lips of the Narva pottery were decorated, significantly less often was the case with the inner surfaces. A large variety of decorative elements was noted: 14,13 % of the vessels were decorated with coiled decorations, 7 % - with knot impressions, over 23 % - with pits,

36 almost 13 % - with square and rectangular impressions, Fig. 16 a. and 22,6 % - with long impressions. Vessels with pointed Pottery fragments from the cultural layer with bases predominated. The decorative composition principle amber ornaments. consisted of using geometric and band designs (Iršėnas, Daktariškė 5 Neolithic Butrimas 2000) (Fig. 16 a) settlement: 1-4 with plant remains in the clay, belonging to Narva Culture

37 Fig. 16 b. Pottery fragments from the cultural layer with amber ornaments. Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement: 1-3 with crushed mineral temper in the clay belonging to Corded Ware and Globular Amphora Cultures. Photo by J. Butrimaitė 3

4500 4450 4400 4350 4300 4250 4200 4150 4100 4050 4000 3950 3900 3850 3800 3750 3700 3700 3650 3600

ZVEJNIEKI grave 206 ZVEJNIEKI grave 209 ZVEJNIEKI grave 277

Zvidze

KVAPANI

ŠVENTOJI 2B

ŠVENTOJI 4B

ŠVENTOJI 23

DAKTARIŠKĖ 5

ŠVENTOJI 1A

4500 4450 4400 4350 4300 4250 4200 4150 4100 4050 4000 3950 3900 3850 3800 3750 3700 3700 3650 3600

38 In the Daktariškė 5 settlement there was an abundant flint inventory - about 300 flint tools were found. One of the earliest ones - two Kongemose type oblique points. They are common and their analogies can be found in southern Mesolithic settlements (Larsson 1980). Trapezoid items, one massive spearhead, scrapers and knives were also found. Several dozen artefacts made of bone and antler, dated to the Early and Middle Neolithic were found. Among them were a well-preserved T-form antler and other forms of axes, also a chisels made of bone, gouges, harpoon heads, stone and wooden artefacts were obtained. The Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement is a multilayered site, with good preservation conditions for organic material. According to radiocarbon data, the site's chronology is quite Fig. 17. D iagram of wide. Pottery, bone and antler dating showed the earliest phase radiocarbon dates of the settlement - 4468-4246 BC (Vs-808), 4360-4250 BC from Neolithic (RICH-22969). The latest phase of the settlement is dated to the settlements and 2880-2630 BC (RICH-22950). The cultural layer where amber cemeteries from Lithuania and Latvia, discs with cross decoration was found, was dated to 3096-2885 containing amber BC (Vs-318) - the very end of fourth millennium BC - the ornaments, including beginning of the third millennium BC (Fig. 17). discs and rings

3450 3400 3350 3300 3250 3200 3150 3100 3050 3000 2950 2900 2850 2800 , 2600 2550 2500 2450 2400 2350 2300

3450 3400 3350 3300 3250 3200 3150 3100 3050 3000 2950 2900 2850 2800 : 2600 2550 2500 2450 2400 2350 2300

39 Fig. 18. P ieces of cuffed raw amber and half-finished amber pendants from of Daktariškė 5 settlement. Illustration by S. Butrimienė

4 0 According to the concentration scheme of amber finds in Fig. 19. The main the Daktariškė 5 settlement, the majority of amber ornaments, types of amber discs, rings and double raw material and production waste were found in the centre of button beads from the settlement, where amber production most probably took Daktariškė 5 Neolithic place (Figs. 18, 20). In the cultural layer of Daktariškė 5 we settlement collected 132 amber artefacts, trial pieces, pieces of raw amber and production waste: ЗД pendants and fragments, 18 button­ shaped beads and fragments with "V"- shaped perforation, 5 discs, of which one is unique being decorated with a cross and small triangles, 2 cylindrical and 2 simple beads, 1 ring (link), 1 double button shape bead (Fig. 19). The amount of

41 a II b 2 S f l pendant @ © disc / N 3 • e> button-shaped bead O O bead O ring 4 П half-finish artefact a b а 1 1 b A raw material i 5 1 ▼ production waste ® a VI b ® 1 2 6 2 Й О A i T ДД Л ▼ ® 2 3 7 3 ▼ лд д Ц_ к 3 4 8 А ф А 4 Д А ЛР1 Д __U 4 5 9 51 1

5 ® 6 6 ▼ ▼ 6 7 Fig. 20. The distribution of amber artefacts, unworked amber lumps and blanks b © and production waste in VII Daktariškė 5 Neolithic 1 2 3 4 5 settlement. Illustration by a R. Spelskytė

amber finds from the cultural layer, especially the quantity of the raw material and production waste, which consisted of 51 % of amber (Fig. 21), and its relation to finished artefacts do not allow us to suppose that objects produced here were connected with large amber trade (Fig. 2Q). We might only assert that amber artefacts were produced in the site to meet local needs and that the spread of artefact production waste in cultural layers takes up an area of only circa 100 m2, which is less than a sixth of the total settlement area (Figs. 21, 22).

42 Fig. 21. Pie chart of amber finds in Daktariškė 5 settlement: 51 % - raw material and production waste, 26 % - pendants, 14 % - button-shaped beads, 3,5% - beads, 3,5 % - discs, 1 % - rings, 1 % - double button-shaped beads. Illustration by A. Butrimas

43 Fig. 22. The concentration scheme of amber finds in Daktariškė 5 settlement

Description of the ornamented disc

The ornamented Daktariškė disc is 3,6 cm in diameter and has a lens-shaped cross-section with a small hole in the centre; it has a fine polished surface and is made from good-quality yellowish amber (Fig. 23). One side of the artefact is divided into four unequal parts by a triple cross made of slight indentations. Along the edges one, two and four small triangles are formed in each of the four parts in single and double broken lines of indentations. It appears that the remains of dark resin can still be seen in some of these indentations (Figs. 24, 25). Otto Tischlers research showed that these indentations were varied so that they might be filled with resin to add lustre to the object; this was done to a small number of artefacts. One small triangle with two lines of indentations was formed in the smallest section marked out by the cross. In the next section clockwise on from this quarter two triangles were depicted by a 3 double lines of indentations and one single line; in the next quarter are two more such triangles with double lines, while in the last and largest quarter (moving clockwise) there are four small triangles, two of which have a double- and two a single line of indentations. By reason of this composition the triangles in each of the four quarters contain a different number of lines and indentations which increases as one's gaze moves clockwise.

4 4 Fig. 24. Image of center hole with the traces of flint borer. Photo by J. Butrimaitė

Fig. 25. Pits ornament with the residues of coniferous resin and wax. Photo by J. Butrimaitė

45 Fig. 26. The system of ornamentation of discs from Daktariškė 5 and Būtingė 2 Neolithic settlements

The smallest number of indentations in a quarter's triangles is 25, the largest - 50, while the middle quarters contain 37 and 38 indentations respectively. The decorative elements on this side of the disc are set out according to a principle of turning symmetry. The cross contains 125 indentations (Fig. 26). We cannot tell whether this system of calculation was formed for ornamental reasons or for some symbolic, calendar or other reason, but it would be interesting to develop relevant hypotheses. The other side of this disc is also interesting: along its edges eight differently sized small triangles are formed by slight

4 6 DAKTARIŠKĖ 5 BŪTINGĖ 2

-250

thin lines rather than indentations. Alas the triangles’ different number of inscribed lines does not have any obvious symmetry (Fig. 26). To interpret these triangles we might draw upon a contemporary festive cup from Nida where we find on one side what is probably the oldest artistic motif not only in Lithuania but also in the whole of the southern and eastern Baltic region, while on the other side there is another motif: beneath four horizontal celestial lines there are triangles in six or seven striated bands. Such decoration is common in even earlier European agricultural cultures such as Funnel Culture, Linear Band Ware Culture and others. We may surmise that this is a symbol of agricultural fields (Rimantienė 1996, p. 294).

47 Fig. 27. Possible reconstruction of disc and beads ware in the Globular Amphora Culture. Reconstruction according R. F. Mazurowski, illustration by R. Spelskytė

If an amber craftsman were asked to create a system of symbols that would fit into the four quadrants of a cross, this would be no easy task. We note that all four parts of the disc are unequal; the cross which divides it is not completely regular, as is often the case with discs decorated solely with a cross or a cross surrounded by two lines of dots at the edges, which is what we find on the one from Būtinge Findsite 2 (Figs. 28-29). Approximately 250 dots have been counted on this disc (Rimantienė 2005, p. 486-487, ill. 385; 2). Again this is a number divisible by 25 (Fig. 26). The local community may have given the craftsman who created the decorated disc from Daktariškė the task of representing a symbol system with which they were familiar. This is no easy task because the composition comprises a cross made of triple lines and double and single zigzag lines in which the amount of hollows in each of the parts may have signified the number required for the community to construct its

48 Fig. 28. Amber disc with cross surrounded by two lines of dots at the edges. Find site Būtingė 2. The collection of Mikelis Balčius, Kretinga museum. Photo by V. Aukštaitis

Fig. 29. Amber disc and Battle Axe from Būtingė 2 settlement deposit. R. Rimantienė investigations

4 9 Fig. 30 a. own disc symbolism. Clearly first it was necessary to create the Button-shaped required number of zigzag lines with their component hollows beads with and then make the triple-lined cross, which could no longer be V-shaped double regular and so the number of lines and hollows is different in drill holesand and half-finished each of the four quadrants. The whole task was made even more amber disc from difficult for the Neolithic artist because all this complex system Daktariškė 5 of counted hollows had to be fitted into a very small space - the settlement. Photo diameter of the disc is 3,6 cm - and some of the area of the by S. Butrimienė disc was lost by the hole bored into its centre. It remains only to marvel at the craftsman's skill and there can be no doubt

50 that his calculation skills were equally excellent. This extends Fig. 30 b. our appreciation of the intellectual capacity of the craftsman in Amber rings from Juodkrantė particular and the Neolithic communities that dwelled on the collection. The shores of Lake Biržulis in general yet further. It is difficult to tell Museum of what sort of calculating system is marked by this decoration, or Prehistory and Early what symbolic, calendarial, ritual or other significance it may history, hold. Perhaps we should begin our search for its meaning from the epoch in which it was created. First of all this was a time of transition from an epoch of hunting, fishing and gathering in and the continental forest zone to an era of agriculture and animal husbandry (Fig. 28). We found a few more discs in Daktariškė 5 Settlement. One of them has the same size of cross-section (diameter - 3,4 cm). Three almost identical discs have been found at Juodkrantė (Klebs 1882, tabl. I: 18, 19, 21). Their edges are decorated with small notches. A massive probably unfinished disc 6,7 cm wide and 1,9 cm thick was found at Daktariškė 5 (Fig. 30 a.). This stands out for its size and for have one carefully polished side and one untreated one. Its cross-section is lens-shaped too. According Fig. 31. Amber disc with cross decoration and single line of zig-zag ornamentation. A copy from the collection of R. Klebs. Palanga amber museum

Fig. 32. Amber disc decorated with a cross of drilled dots and a hole in the center. Diameter 3,7 cm, thickness 0,7 cm. A copy from the collection of R. Klebs. Illustration by S, Butrimienė

52 ornaments it corresponds with the disc from Juodkrantė (Fig. 31). The disc from F. Tiškevičius Patanga amber jewellery collection is almost identical to this artefact, although its width is slightly smaller (Rimantienė 2005, p. 216, fig. 82: 10). In Palanga museum we have the ornamented disc copy from R. Klebs publication from Juodkrantė (Fig. 32). Only one amber ring was found at Daktariškė 5. This is an example of particularly fine jewellery craft and is made from good-quality yellowish, slightly 'cloudy' amber with a carefully polished surface on all sides (Fig. 33 a, b). The sides of the piece close to the edges are decorated with diagonal, shallow lines which seem to become engraved as the object is turned (Fig. 34).

Fig. 33 a, b. Amber ring from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement. Obverse and reverse. Photo by J. Butrimaitė

Fig. 34. Detail of amber ring from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement. Photo by J. Butrimaitė

53 Fig. 35. Amber link with ornamented edge and smooth surface near the edge. Magnification 20x

Fig. 36. Parallel lines of ornamentation smooth surface. Magnification 20x

Fig. 37. The rough polishing of inner side of the link with the metal file. Magnification 20x

54 The very outer edge of the ring is decorated with much deeper, denser notches (Figs. 35-37). These are known not only from Narva Culture but also from Late-Neolithic Globular Amphora and Bay Coast cultures. They are also a frequent find in the area around Lake Luban in eastern Latvia but there their cross- section is often more quadrangular (Loze 1979, tabl. LIX: 1,2). These rings which date to the late Neolithic period may have been influenced by the forms of schist rings. As we have already said, amber discs are known from Lithuanian and Latvian sites from the early-, and middle- Neolithic settlements and cemeteries but the disc found at Daktariškė 5 belongs to a special group of these artefacts called discs with cruciform decoration. These discs represent a completely different idea and differ from those we have described in chronology, the circumstances under which they were discovered and their territories and they belong to a completely different cultural circle. Now we shall try to analyse these discs as a separate find-group.

55 Fig. 38. Amber discs ornamented only with the cross decoration

56 TYPOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF CRUCIFORM­ DECORATED DISCS

We have managed to catalogue 37 amber discs decorated with a cross with or without a small central drill hole, of lens­ shaped cross-section; they vary very much in size from 2,5 to 10-11 cm wide, and are made of amber of various colours and they vary very much in their survival quality from very poor survivals in Zlotą and Globular Amphora Culture graves to very well-preserved items from peat sites. The quality of their preservation makes it very hard to distinguish typology and interpret their symbolic meaning. We have allotted all known surviving cruciform decorated amber discs into four typological groups: Group 1: discs decorated only with a cross. The cross is usually composed of double or triple lines of dots or hollows, although some have been found with single lines of such ornamentation. Twelve such discs have been found and they are quite a numerous part of the cruciform-decorated discs (Fig. 38). Group 2 comprises whose cruciform decoration is in the centre of the disc and the edges have a perimeter of one, two or three lines of dots or hollows. Thirteen of these have been found and they form the largest group (Fig. 39). Group 3 comprises discs with a double or triple cross and along the whole perimeter of the disc the edges have small single or double triangles (zig-zag lines) formed of dots or hollows. This is also called a zigzag line. Seven such objects have been found (Fig. 40). Group 4 is a mixed collection comprising a cross made of incisions, discs decorated on one side, discs decorated with crosses with irregular, crooked lines, and unfinished items (Fig. 41)

57 Fig. 39. Amber discs with cruciform decorations in the centre and the ring form indentations of the edges. Illustration by R. Spelskytė

58 7

Fig. 40. Discs with cross and edges with triangle zig-zag lines. Illustration by R. Spelskytė

59 Fig. 41. Partly ornamented amber disc from Šventoji 23 Neolithic settlement. Photo by S. Butrimienė

Distribution Geography

Having mapped the cruciform-decorated discs, their geographical spread became clearer. We note two zones where these discs are concentrated. Most, almost half of this type of amber disc are spread along the Baltic coast in what is now Lithuania and Poland, in effect where Bay Coast (Rzucewo) Culture thrived from settlements at Būtingė and Šventoji in the north-east to Stupsk in northern Poland; they cover mostly the shores of the and the , the area where Bay Coast and Globular Amphora cultures thrived (Fig. 42) (Kilian 1955; Rimantienė 2005, p. 123-205). According to Lothar Kilian this was where culture of the formed. The most compact concentration of these discs is in the Masurian Lakeland in north-eastern Poland, where discs of all types are to be found. This is the Pomorze-Prussian or Masurian-Prussian Group of the Globular Amphora Culture (La Baume 1943; Wislanski 1966; Kempisty 1971; Okulicz 1973). There is a very clear northern and north-eastern boundary to the spread of cruciform-decoration discs in Western Lithuania

6 o Fig. 42. The map of spread of amber discs with - cross and the edges with triangles: 0 - with cruciform decoration in the centre and the ring form indentations of the edges, ф - only with the cross decoration. Lithuania, Poland, West Ukraine. The names of find places see into Amber discs catalogue, p. 90-96

61 with its north-most outpost in the Būtingė 2 Find-site and the most north-easterly boundary is marked by the Daktariškė 5 settlement in the area around Lake Biržulis. The idea of making amber discs decorated with a cross did not spread further north and none are found in what is now Latvia. They are not found even in the Sarnate settlement which is territorially close to Būtingė and is rich in amber artefacts; nor are they known from amber artefact collections from the lowlands around Lake Luban. Their distribution boundary stretches as far as places influenced by the ideas of Globular Amphora and Bay Coast cultures. The southern boundary of their distribution is southern Poland and north-western Ukraine where Globular Amphora and Zlotą Cultures thrived (Szmyt 1999; Svieshnykov 1983; Krzak 1976).

Find Circumstances (context)

Most of these discs are found in settlements of the Bay Coast or Globular Amphora cultures on the Lithuanian and Polish coast and along the shores of the Curonian Lagoon and the Vistula Lagoon. They are known as accidental finds found on occasion in hoards or Globular-Amphora and Zlotą culture graves mostly in the Masurian Lakeland or along the shores of rivers in the Vistula Basin. The quality of their state of preservation differs: finds from Daktariškė 5, Būtingė, Šventoji, the Palanga hoard and some from Juodkrantė are preserved particularly well; in one way or another these are all connected with peat sites or lay deep beneath water. Unfortunately all the discs that have been found in graves in what is now Poland are more or less fragmentary with flaked or decayed edges, a cracked surface or decaying patina; sometimes their finders 'polished' their surface. This does not allow us to recreate all of their decorative system with complete accuracy and hence we have a considerably less chance of 'reading' them. In this context the items found in the settlements at Daktariškė 5 and Būtingė 2 gain particular significance for interpreting the symbolism encoded on these discs.

62 Since a great part of the Globular Amphora Culture graves containing discs were excavated in the nineteenth or early- twentieth centuries and were not carbon-dated but dated generally, quite exact dates for Globular Amphora Culture in Poland have been established at the period between 3300 and 2200 BC (dates are calibrated). The date of the disc and unfinished disc found at the Daktariškė 5 settlement is 3096-2885 BC, the dates of the cultural layer with the disc at Šventoji 1A Settlement 2880-2495 and 2882-2582 BC (calibrated), and the date of Šventoji 23 Settlement is between 2880-2623 and 2271-1984 BC. Thus most discs decorated with a cross from Lithuania could be dated to between 3100 and 2500 BC and attributed to Globular Amphora and Bay Coast Culture sites. We have no radiocarbon-dating for the excavated Ztota Culture cemetery with discs but these sites have been dated by Z. Krzak who has studied them to a period between 2800 and 2200 BC. Thus the common period for amber discs with cruciform decoration found in all cultures extends for more than a millennium between 3300 and 2000 BC.

63 INVESTIGATION OF STONE-AGE AMBER DISCS AND RINGS BY THE METHODS OF NATURAL SCIENCE

Hundred of intricately formed Stone-Age amber figurines and pieces of jewellery, decorated amber ornaments, including decorated amber discs, rings and pendants found in former East Prussia, Juodkrantė (Schwarzort), also in the area around Palanga in Lithuania, along the Latvian coast compelled academies already in the nineteenth century to pay attention, to this subject and investigate the origin, colour, and spread of amber deposits; at the end of the century they began to consider the origin of such amber artefacts. In Lithuania this work was begun at Vilnius University by the mineralogist Roman Symonowicz (Symonowicz 1806) who investigated the origin of amber and the spread of amber deposits and artefacts. The geologist Alfons Kumelski was the first in Lithuania to date the formation of amber to the Pleistocene geological period (Kumelski 1826). Professors Juozapas Jundzilas [Józef Jundzill] and Feliksas Dževinskis [Feliks Drzewiński] of Vilnius University, a biologist and botanist, also took an interest in amber (Jundzill 1821-1822). The museum collections in East Prussia, especially in Danzig (Gdańsk) and Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Lit: Karaliaučius), with their material from the Neolithic and , were unique not only for art historians, but also for archaeologists and specialists of the Natural Sciences. Starting in 1858, the Stantien&Becker Company excavated amber on the Curonian Peninsula at Juodkrantė (Schwarzort) and formed a large collection of Neolithic and Bronze Age amber artefacts, including human figurines, rings and decorated and undecorated amber discs, and other ornaments. In 1882, R. Klebs published all this collection, including Stone Age amber artefacts from other sites in Eastern Prussia held in private collections and museums - depicting

6 4 202 artefacts in all, arranged in twelve tables. Thirty one amber discs and rings were published in Klebs' catalogue. Today only 2 discs without any ornamentation survive from the very famous Stone Age amber Collection of the University of Königsberg (Klebs 1882; Ritzkowski, Weisgerber 1999; Ritzkowski 2001). When preparing his catalogue, Klebs also used experimental analysis made by 0. Tischler, connected with the technique used for making the amber ornaments in the Schwarzort Collection. A special part of Klebs' publication was devoted to this ("About the technique used to make the Schwarzort amber ornaments") (Klebs 1882, p. 8-10). According to the results of experiments made by him and 0. Tischler, the amber ornaments were produced using flint scrapers, borers, and also using bone awls and sand. They concluded that the majority of collection was produced without using metal in the Stone Age. When they analysed the production of ancient amber ornaments, they visited the amber-producing workshop in Palanga, one of the main such workshops in nineteenth-century Lithuania and studied the amber producing technique of local masters (Klebs 1882, p. 9). All 43 amber discs and rings in the collection were studied carefully. The studies included how holes were made in the discs, and what materials and instruments were used for that purpose. According to my investigations, 0. Tischler was the first to discover that small pits - ornaments of amber discs and ornaments on other Stone Age jewellery - were filled with resin to give a certain glow to the finished artefact (Tischler 1883, p. 102). Analysis of discs and rings allows investigators to notice that the discs, and especially the rings were polished very carefully and have ornamentation only on one side of the artefact. This was unknown until the disc and ring in the Daktariškė 5 Late Neolithic settlement was found. It was also noticed that traces of working with a flint scraper were visible on some amber discs. According to this investigation, the big cross holes in the middle of the disc are usually cylindrical but perforated on both sides. The small ornamental holes are cylindrical only at the beginning, but the endings usually are flat, and concentric rings can be seen inside the hole. The author

65 drew the conclusion that the holes and ornaments may have been made by using bone awls and sand. The results of this careful investigations were also proved later. Only in 1955 did Mats P. Maimer and Ernest Magnusson prove that the use of resin is also known from decorated antler and bone objects from the Mesolithic Period (Maimer, Magnusson 1955). As we see later, this also was proved by analysis of amber ornaments from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement. In the twentieth century the origin of Baltic amber and its chemical structure were studied by the Lithuanian geologists Vladas Katinas (Katinas 1971, 1983) and Algimantas Grigelis (Grigelis 1971,2001). In Poland amber was studied by Barbara Kosmowska-Ceranowicz and her successors (Kosmowska- Ceranowicz 1996, 1999, 2001,2013). They argued that in the Baltic Sea amber washed up in deposits of "Blue earth" in the period of the Litorina Sea transgression, and from this time amber appears on the Baltic Sea coast in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and in small quantities in Estonia.

Use-wear analysis

As we have noted already, the first use-wear analysis of amber artefacts from the Juodkrantė (Schwarzort) Collection was made in 1882. Microscopic analyses of an amber disc from Daktariškė 5 settlement was conducted at the University of Klaipėda, Institute of Baltic Regional History and Archaeology (BRIAI)’s Experimental Archaeology and Traseology Laboratory. For the analysis Olympus SZX16 stereoscopic microscope with attached Olympus DP72 camera was used. With the help of this device an object's image can be magnified up to 690 times. During microscopic analysis of the amber disc and ring the best results were obtained between 10 and 20 times magnification. Images were processed with Image-Pro Express ver. 6. 3 software. The material from the disc and ring was investigated in the Department of Prehistory in the National Museum of Lithuania, Vilnius. The analysis was carried out by Tomas Rimkus and Gvidas Slah.

6 6 1 mm

Fig. 43 a-c. The pits of disc ornament consists of pits between 0.39— 0,59 mm in length, they 1 mm were filled with some residue - dark brown or black colour

67 Fig. UU a, b. The central hole of disc made with flint borer. Disc from Daktariškė 5 settlement

During the analysis, sonne very important aspects of manufacture and the use of the artefact were revealed. Both sides of amber disc are decorated with ornaments. In the obverse side ornament consists of small pits. By the edge of the artefact these pits forms triangle compositions. Whole disc is divided into four separate parts by cross decoration, which consists of small pits. Backside of the artefact is decorated with

68 lines, which forms eight triangles. Diameter of pits is between Fig. 45 a, b. The approximately 0,39-0,59 mm (Fig. 43 a-c). Some pits are lines ornament of the disc reverse. connected into one long line, which was about 1 mm in length. The black and Center hole was made with a borer. Drilling marks can be seen brown pigment from both sides of amber disc (Fig. 44 a, b). Center hole is about was used as 3,5 mm in diameter. This hole could have been tied with some a colour to kind of string, and whole artefact could have been served as ornaments on the a pendant for ritual purposes. As use-wear analysis showed, both sides of the amber disc decorated pits and center hole possibly could have been made with flint perforator. This was proved by the experimental research, as a copy of a flint borer was manufactured and a successful drilling of amber was accomplished. Backside of the disc is decorated with lines ornament, which forms eight triangles. These triangles are filled with crossed smaller lines. Ornament is only visible by the edge of the amber disc. Microscopic analysis showed, that these tines are "V" shaped and probably were made using flint knife or flake. They are approximately 0,02-0,92 mm in diameter (Fig. 45 a, b).

69 After production, both surfaces of the amber disc were polished with leather or equisetum. No rough polish traces were detected on both surfaces, so it seems that sandstone or other rock types were not used for polishing. It seems that pits and lines were filled with tar, which was made combining pine resin, charcoal and wax. In Europe, making of tar is known since the Middle Palaeolithic period (Koller et ai 2001). Over the millennia Is this substance was used for tools, weapons, and decorations manufacture. This black pigment was used as colour, which painted ornaments on both sides of the amber disc. This way amber disc was more expressive in bearer's hands.

FUR and micro FT-Raman spectral analysis of disc with cross ornamentation

Infrared spectrometry has been specially marked accentuating the significance of applying this method in determining the types of fossil resin. This method was introduced in the USA by Curt W. Beck in Laboratory for Amber Research in Pougkeepsie, New York State. This laboratory has assessed thousands of specimens from Europe and other continents with special attention to Baltic amber-succinite. The first infrared spectra of Neolithic amber from Lithuania and Latvia were made in the former spectroscopy laboratory of the Scientific Institute for Heat Insulation and Acoustic Construction Materials and Ware in Vilnius. This research into Baltic amber was started by the geologist Vladas Katinas (Katinas 1983; Loze 1980). FTIR and micro FT-Raman spectral analyses for this were carried out in the National Museum of Lithuania and State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology in Vilnius. IR spectral analysis had been common technique for the numerous investigations of natural resins, gums, pitches and tars as well as amber artefacts in art and archaeological objects

70 for a long time already (Font et al. 2007; Shillito et al. 2009; Lettieri 2015; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003). In recent years more modern method of Raman spectroscopy appeared to be a powerful tool to investigate materials in molecular level due to its no damaging properties. Though fossilized resin - amber has been investigated quite widely (Edwards, Farwell 1996; Edwards et al. 2007; Brody et al. 2001; Vandenabeele et at. 2003; Vandenabeele et al. 2000), the examination of the residues on the surface was not so extensive. Thus, FTIR and Raman spectral analysis of the brown residues in pits and red remnants in the scratches on the other side of an amber disk was carried out to obtain more information. Author is also very grateful to Dr. leva Matulaitienė for conducting micro FT-Raman spectroscopy analysis.

IR spectroscopy

FTIR analysis was performed using spectrophotometer FTIR - 8400S, SFIIMADZU with attached IR microscope AIM - 8800, SHIMADZU. Samples were pressed in diamond cell Thermo Spectra-Tech P/N 0045-344, scan number - 200, resolution - 4 [1 /cm],

Raman spectroscopy

Raman measurements were performed with 785 nm (diode laser) excitation by using Renishaw in Via Raman microscope, equipped with grating containing 1200 groove/mm. Laser power at the sample was 1.1 mW. Raman spectrum was taken using 20* objective lens. Integration time was 100s. IR and Raman spectra were analysed using the Gams/AI 8.0 software (Thermo Scientific Corp.). Brown substance in the pits (Fig. 47 a, b) was investigated by FTIR spectroscopy. The mixture of coniferous tree resin and probably some gum, bee wax and fats has been identified. The broad band in high frequency region at 3340 cm-1 is assigned to OH group, characteristic for hydrogen bonding

71 Fig. 47a, b. The spectrum of coniferous resin and wax in the ornamental pits and lines of amber disc, performed using spectrophometer FTIR-84ŪDS

in polysaccharides and other organic molecules capable to form them. Bands at 2962, 2925 and 2850 cm 1 are specific for hydrocarbon chain (Font et al. 2007; Shillito et al. 2009; Lettieri 201 5; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003; Socrates 2001). Vibrational bands at 1 711 and 1664 cm-1 belong to carbonyl group, thus 1451 and 1413 cm-1 are scissoring vibration of CH2 in chain (Socrates 2001). Also vibrational band

72 at 1413 can be assigned to carbonate stretching and together with band at 872 cm 1 shows presence of carbonates (Shillito et at. 2009; Lettieri 2015). The broad band at 1052 cnr1 is overlapping vibrational modes of these functional groups C-0, O-Si-O, Al-O-Si (Font et at. 2007; Shillito et at. 2009; Lettieri 2015; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003). More assignments of vibrational bands are represented in Table. Brown substance in the pits was also investigated by Raman spectroscopy, but there was no useful data, spectra showed only high fluorescence. Light red material spectral analysis showed slightly different results. Vibrational bands at 3695, 3670, 3650 and 3620 cm*1 in high frequency region of IR spectrum are characteristic for free OH groups (Socrates 2001). It could be crystal water (few water molecules) or polymers, where OH groups can't interact with each other. The vibrational bands characteristic for hydrocarbon chains at 2955, 2918, 2850 cn r1 in high frequency and 1473, 1463, 1377, 730 cm 1 in "fingerprint" spectral regions (Font et at. 2007; Shillito et at. 2009; Lettieri 2015; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003; Socrates 2001) also were found. Carboxyl groups are observed at 1740 and 1713 cm*' (Font et at. 2007; Shillito et at. 2009; Lettieri 2015; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003; Socrates 2001). The weak band at 1 540 cm ' in IR spectrum is assigned to v (CCH) ring for aromatic resins (Socrates 2001). It also was observed in Raman spectrum at 1529 cm '. IR spectrum of light red material also shows bands characteristic for clays. Unlike brown substance there are two bands at 940, 914 cm*1 assigned to Al-OH deformation or Si-0 bending vibrations (Font et at. 2007; Shillito et at. 2009; Lettieri 201 5; Sathya, Velraj 2011; Venkatachalapathy 2003). Also the new band is observed in light red material IR spectrum at 1116 cm*' which shows presence of esters (v(C-O-C)) (Vandenabeele et at. 2000), this band also belongs to v(Si-O-Si) vibration. Bands at 794 and 754 cm*' are assigned to Si-0 bending vibrations (Table).

73 remnants in amber in remnants spectrum of brown brown of spectrum Fig. 48. Fig.

Raman Raman Raman intensity 74 and Si-0 or O-H-O bendingor O-H-O vibrations, Si-0 respectivelyand (Frost Vandenabeele analysis of such significant archaeological objects. Obtained archaeological significant of such analysis for the technique suitable beparticularly a could spectroscopy likelyand6 belong to (Si-O). Si-O-Si 1995;cm'11997). Frost at most Frost,400 and 540 Shurvell Bands toO-Al-O cm'1 atlow 211andare164 frequency assigned bands Edwards presentedare cm'1 (assignments at1483,1384,1308,1214,1064 lipids.or In waxes as the "fingerprint" such compounds organic resin mixture whereas reddish substance could beclay. could substance reddish mixture whereas resin ofbyapplication highlighted likely were most after engraving i.e.thatbeevidence ornamentation, can lines results andpits vibration modes in high frequency region at 2928 and 2870 cnr1 2870 andin atregion high frequency 2928 vibration modes IRdatafluorescence,but well corresponded in areobserved chain characteristic for hydrocarbon bands region are assigned to CH2,areassigned CH31996;(Edwards,Farwell stretching 11996;Farwellcm'1region(Edwards, in 998 "fingerprint" 529,1136, Edwards Edwards spectroscopy byRaman Table This investigation has proved FTIR and micro FT-Raman FT-Raman micro and FTIR proved has investigation This o etrudrtnig lightbetterred For investigated defectunderstanding was ).andcm'1 at in frequencies high 3080 Vibrationalbands et at. et al. 2007; Socrates 2001) show presence ofpresence aromatic.show 2001) 2007;The Socrates 2007; Brody Brody 2007; etai 2000; Socrates 2001) and arespecificand for 2001) Socrates 2000; (Fig. 48) et al. 2001; Vandenabeele Raman spectra gave highgave spectra Raman (Table). The et at. etai 2003; 1993; Table Assignments of vibration modes in amber

Frequency cm 1 Approximate assignments of vibrational modes FTIRb FTIFT Ramanr 3695

3670 OH, crystal water; polymeric 0-H (there is no interaction between 3650 O-H groups) 3620 3340 - - v(OH) stretching, hydrogen-bonded - - 3080 v(CH), C=CH2aromatic ring

2962 2955 - v„JCH,) aliphatic 2925 2918 2928 ______VJ CHM 2850 2850 2870 u(CH,),y,(CH,)

- - 1765 v(C=0) - 1740 - v(C=0)

1711 1713 - v(C=0) 1664 - 1669 v(C=0)

- - 1619 v(C=C) conjugated unsaturated - 1540 1529 v(CCH) ring for aromatic resins

- 1473 1483 SICH,)

1451 1463 - SICH,)

1413 - - SICH,)

- 1377 1384 SICH,, CH,)

- - 1308 SICH,. CH,)

1262 - 1254 S(CCH), v(C-O)

- - 1214 SICH) Chain deformations, v(CC) aliphatic - 1116 - v(C-O-C) esters or v(Si-O-Si) - - 1136 v(CC) ring breathing - - 1064 v(CC) aliphatic 1052 1047 - v(C-O) - - 998 v(CC) aromatic - 940 - ó(Al-OH), Si-0 bending - 914 - S(AI-OH), Si-0 bending 872 - - - 799 792 - Si-0 bending - 754 - Si-0 bending - - 748 (CC) isolated 730 730 SICH,) - - 680 v(CS)

- - 540 Si-O-Si bending or SiO silicates, or 6(CCO) and 6(COC) in plane

- - 400 S(CCO), S(Si-O)

- - 361 S(CCC)

- - 211 Si-0 bending, O-H-O bending

- - 164 O-Al-O bending bBrown remands; light red material. Abbreviations: v - stretching, 6 - deformation.

75 о 5 cm

Fig. 49. Amber disc with gold handle grip from Hammeldon Down, Devon, Great Britain

76 INTERPRETING THE SYMBOLIC MEANING OF THE DISC

Discs as prestige objects

The fact that these artefacts were placed in graves allows us to suppose that they were ritual objects and the fact that they were found decorated with various quite complex geometrical systems begs the conclusion that they were connected with religion and perhaps they conceal some essential information which would allow us to understand the social organisation of Neolithic societies. In our analysis we shall attempt to explain the regularity of their iconographic system and establish with what calendar or ideological phenomena they may be associated. This author knows at least ten such discs found in Globular- Amphora cemeteries in what are now Poland and Ukraine. The amber discs with cruciform decoration, like the amber rings also found in these graves are usually single finds placed on the vertices of the dead and most often these objects are not a component part of amber strings and only sometimes were these artefacts accompanied in different graves by supplementary amber artefacts. This special way of wearing them is confirmed by the discs found in the Brześć Kujawski Globular Amphora culture grave, which are made of bone and decorated with a cross design and which were placed on ritually buried bull-head vertices and, moreover, like amber discs from Group Three, they had small punctured triangles around their edges (Fig. 27). Thus amber and bone (Fig. AO: 6) discs almost identical in their decoration represented the same cult symbolism. The special place of these amber discs in the grave, the delicate nature of the amber, and the consuming amount of time and skill needed to create them leads us to believe that they may have been worn only during ceremonies and their being placed in the grave reveals the amount of ritual symbolism they embodied. Those who have studied Globular Amphora culture

77 Fig. 50. Cultural context. The Lithuanian commemorative coin, with image of amber disc from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement, 2014

Fig. 51. Cultural context. The Lithuanian 2 euro commemorative coin. Amber disc with cross, 2016

graves have also noted that only central burials contained amber jewellery while they were not found at all in all other graves or such items were found only singly. Z. Krzak does not indicate in which place in the grave the amber discs were found in Złota culture (Krzak 1976, p. 144, 145). E. Sturms drew attention to the special circumstances in which another disc with cruciform decoration was found at Groß Morino (now Murzynowo): it was found with a boat-axe and early corded ware pottery. This would indicate that certain forms of disc were common to both Globular Amphora culture and the early stages of Boat-Axe Culture (Sturms 1956, p. 14; Kośko 1989, p. 46-58). At the same time this marks another interesting circumstance - both artefacts, the amber disc with cruciform decoration and the boat axe, are interpreted often as prestige objects. Here it is worth noting that the amber disc with cruciform decoration from the Būtingė 2 settlement was also found along with a carefully polished and completely

78 Fig. 52. Cultural context. Lithuanian post stamp with image of the amber LIETUVA disc from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic 2000 A Afc»y* settlement, 2000

unused boat-axe made of piagiodase porphyryt (Rimantienė 2005, p. 202). Amber discs are found in male graves; most often they are found separately even if more amber artefacts are found in the graves, as we have said, by the head (Sturms 1956, p. 15). Many researchers think that the amber cross-decorated discs represent the sun (Sturms 1956, p. 15) and are connected with a cult of the sun and that gold-shining amber found in the south-east Baltic coastlands was a suitable material to express this symbol. When we recall that back in the nineteenth century Otto Tischler established that this symbolic artefact was embellished further by pouring resin into the hollows of these artefacts to add livelier colour, this thought becomes all the stronger. Archaeologists most understand past societies from what they made. Rare, unique things and monumental constructions make for the most impressive artefacts which convey essential information for understanding the organisation of past societies. I think that in our region the first, earliest barrows (e.g. at Viskiautai (Wiskiauten-Kaup)) where the dead are buried from the late Neolithic to the very end of the Bronze Age could be the makers of the transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age and from hunting-fishing-and-gathering to animal husbandry (Gimbutienė 1958, p. 25-26). Because of the rarity, specific construction, and technological quality of boat axes and amber

79 discs with cruciform decoration, certain objects became effective and novel and took on a special value. When we talk about amber discs, they were buried first and foremost with individuals who may have been regarded by their community as guardians of such prestigious attributes, and whom data from ethnographic material frequently refer to as having knowledge, special powers, courage or prodignity and supernatural powers. Prestigious objects find their way into graves or hoards variously, depending on epoch, region, culture or beliefs. These grave goods or hoards differ in content both quantitatively and qualitatively: they might be single objects - only one item (such as one cruciform­ decorated disc) or several (comprising a few or more than a dozen items such as discs with boat axes from Būtingė 2 and Groß Morino, discs with another piece of amber jewellery from Wąbrzeźno and so on). Prestige items have specific qualities: they can be exchanged easily; they can be a quasi-monetary unit such as amber during the Neolithic period: they had to have value as a piece of wealth and be a measure of wealth and standards. In order for this commercial' value to be guaranteed they had to have an agreed value within a large region so that they might be exchanged easily. It is especially clear when discussing the subject of our study that such prestige items might be symbolic objects which would be placed in the graves of the most important (powerful) members of the community as sacrifices to supernatural forces or symbols encoding a certain cultural memory. These symbols, accompanied undoubtedly by oral transmission of traditions, permitted past societies to convey complex ideas over quite a long period of time, as we can deduce from the broad chronology (of at least a millennium) of the functioning of amber discs with cruciform decoration. Such artefacts as discs could be a material expression of these rituals able to awaken the expression of the past that was 'suppressed' within them (Metzner-Nebelsick 2010, p. 177-197). Their particularly long development crossing over cultural periods and cultural boundaries undoubtedly represent important cultural aspects of the Neolithic period and they are important symbols of cultural memory (Figs. 50-53).

8o

Fig. 5A. Amber semilunar pendant from Šventoji 23 settlement. Photo by A. Baltėnas, 1989

Fig. 55. Amber semilunar pendant from R. Klebs collection. Copy from Palanga amber museum

82 Fig. 56 a. b. The miniature standard from Denmark with a sun-disc made of amber. A cross appears when the transparent disc is held up to the light. 1 2th - 6lh century BC (after R. Maraszek 2009) and the simitar artefact on rock engraving from Васка, Bohuslän region in Sweden

Discs - between the sun and the moon, the mysteries of Light and Dark

The Neolithic period is one of transition to new forms of economy and new forms of counting time. Throughout Europe at least from the third millennium BC the marking of the summer and winter solstices becomes important; communities living at that time in western Europe developed particularly active formations of earth and stone constructions and the Fig. 57. The Sun synchronisation of the solar and lunar calendars becomes in the ship. Rock an important albeit not easy task for these people. I would engraving. Sweden detect the significance of these searches in our region in the (after R. Rimantienė) iconography of the amber discs with cruciform decoration. Without a doubt we cannot regard these ornamental systems as having a purely aesthetic functional motivation, as objects with only an aesthetic impulse; they were media for depicting various signs or visualising the explanation of various rational and not completely rational meanings

83 Fig. 58. Amber semilunar pendant from R. Klebs collection. Copy from Palanga amber museum

Fig. 59. Bone semilunar pendants from Kretuonas 1C Neolithic settlement. A. Girininkas investigations

84 and creating associations (David 2010, p. 439). We should note Fig. 60. The Sky that in the Globular Amphora culture and its zone of influence Disk from Nebra, Germany. 1600 BC or rather the zone of influence of its field of ideas we come across an area of common ornamental motifs. These are mostly symbols connected with the sun and some of them have symbols typical of the sign of the moon (Figs. 56-60). The turning symmetry of these discs, the number of broken lines and hollows which increases in one direction evokes ideas of the cyclical path of the sun, sunrise and sunset. Students of European religion at the end of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age connect the period with the cult of the sun, and the sun becomes the main central cult dominant (Figs. 61-62). At the same time we see that the Daktariškė disc and the disc from Ivane have iconographic motifs on both sides. Perhaps other discs had a similar composition but unfortunately their state of preservation does not allow us to see this and what they

85 Fig. 61. The limestone discs ornamented by triangles from South Germany Neolithic settlements, reminiscent of the ornament from the reverse side of the disc from Daktariškė 5 Neolithic settlement

Fig. 62. Cultural context. The warrior with shield of the Sun, Scandinavian rock engraving (after R. Rimantienė)

86 Fig. 63. The bronze fibula with zig-zag lines from Maudžiorai cemetery VIII AD

might mean, what different ideas they might represent, In many cases analysis of such discs or solar discs leads researchers to hypothesise that both sides are associated with the sun and the moon (Sommerfeld 2010, p. 537-540). Undoubtedly the mystery of the change from Light to Dark and back was important to people at that time. It is interesting that when analysing the Daktariškė disc on one side we see repeatedly the number 25 and on the other, 8. We find the same numbers on the Trundholm solar disc (Sommerfeld 2010, p. 538, figs. 1, 2). The repetition of particular numbers in ritual contexts or objects intended for them indicates that the people who made and used the discs decorated with a cross and triangles followed a calendar, counted and were able to compute variously and this permitted them to organise and check on the world around them, to establish the cyclic nature of the movement of the sun and moon. These discs were both symbols of high social status and a way of establishing the time of calendar holy days - harbingers of the great midsummer and midwinter festivals (Fig. 64). The same ideas we can recognised on the metal ornaments even in the of Lithuania (Fig. 63).

87 Fig. 64. Amber disc and winter-summer solstice

88 CONCLUSIONS

Nearly 40 amber discs decorated with a cross were collected in the graves and settlements of the Globular Amphora, Zlotą and Bay Coast (Rzucewo) Culture. Having mapped the cruciform-decorated discs we recognised the northern boundary of their distribution from the settlements of Būtingė and Šventoji in the northwest to Słupsk in northern Poland. The southern boundary of their distribution is southern Poland and north-western Ukraine, the Eastern boundary - Daktariške in Western Lithuania. The common period of amber discs with cruciform decoration found in all cultures extends for more than a millennium between 3300 and 2000 BC. The use-wear analysis reveal that both surfaces of amber disc were polished with leather or equisetum. The pits and lines were filled with tar, whitch was made combining pine resin, charcoal and wax. The results obtained from analysing disc from Daktariške 5 settlement with FTIR and micro FT-Raman spectroscopy detected resin wax mixture in pits ornamentation and red clay in scratches. The place of those artefacts in graves, the fact that they were found decorated with various quite complex geometrical systems, begs the conclusion that they were connected with religion and conceal some essential information about social organization, calendarial or ideological phenomena they may be associated in Neolithic societies.

89 CATALOGUE OF DISCS

Disc ornamentation

Cultural Disc Find place Chronology context Current No Current ring on the edges the on ring Cross and centre the in Cross disc, Ornamentated items unfinished and Cross and edges with with edges and Cross triangle zig-zag lines zig-zag triangle LITHUANIA Late Cultural layer Neolithic. Daktariškė 5 of wetland Calibrated 1 settlement, + settlement date Telšiai district [Butrimas 3096-2885 2001] BC LW (Vs-809)

Deposite (?) Būtingė, Offering place Late 2 Palanga + (?) Neolithic 0 Ф municipality [Rimantienė 2005]

Late Neolithic. Cultural layer Šventoji 1A, Calibrated of settlement 3 Palanga + date [Rimantienė municipality 2976-2501 2005] BC (TA-246); 2876-2490 BC (Vs-22)

Palanga Feliksas Tiškevičius Late 4 Palanga + collection Neolithic [Puzinas C i > ) 1938]

Late Neolithic. Calibrated Šventoji Cultural layer 23 settlement, of settlement date 5 + 2888-2623 Palanga [Rimantienė BC (Vib-1 ); municipality 2005] 2271-1984 BC (Ki- 3459)

Juodkrantė Juodkrantė, (Schwarzort) Late 6 Neringa + collection Neolithic ( 4 0 # municipality [Klebs 1882]

90 10 7 11 8 9 12 Current No ! Щ 4 p i Į © ф § U / ^ V 0 гК ш & Л ф Disc Гн i • i №■ / ' J Juodkrantė, municipality Neringa Juodkrantė, municipality Neringa Juodkrantė, municipality Neringa Juodkrantė, municipality Neringa Juodkrantė, municipality Neringa Curonian peninsula(?) (?) East Prussia Findplace Discornamentation Cr°ss______Cross in the centre and + + ring on the edges Cross and edges with + triangle zig-zag lines +

+ Ornamentated disc, + and unfinished items Juodkrantė collection (Schwarzort) [Rimantienė collection Juodkrantė 1999] (Schwarzort) Juodkrantė [Klebs1882] collection (Schwarzort) [Klebs1882] Juodkrantė collection (Schwarzort) Juodkrantė [Klebs1882] collection (Schwarzort) [Sturms 1956][Sturms Stray findStray [Klebs1882] Cultural context 91 Chronology BronzeAge Neolithic Late Late Neolithic Late Neolithic Neolithic Late Neolithic Late

17 20 21 Current No Vutrynen (Wuttrienen;by Balden, R.Klebs); county (by voivodeship(by Neidenburg E.Šturms); Baldy, ) R.Mazurowski) Tarnobrzeg Zlotą, voivodeship voivodeship Tarnobrzeg Zlotą, voivodeship Ciechanów Naruszewo, voivodeship Inowroctaw Rzeszynek, Findplace Discornamentation + O N -O Т ТОСТ CT CU m о C СО CT)СО "О ~о— и си Л 1 Еи шyz с с та ui ш со Amphora grave. Culture Globular Neolithic Šturms 1956; Šturms Mazurowski [Klebs1882; 1983] Stray findStray [Šturms 1956] [Šturms Wawrem", Cemetery Grave75 „nad [Krzak1976] Amphora Globular Grave of Culture [Šturms 1956] [Šturms Amphora Globular Graveof Culture [Lebiński 1888] Cultural context 93 Chronology date Calibrated Late 3300-2200 Neolithic. BC Neolithic Late calibrated Late date Non Neolithic. Crist before. 2300-1800 Neolithic Late Calibrated 3300-2200 date Neolithic. Late BC 26 25 24 23 22 Current No Ф © § : 4 9 Disc voivodeship voivodeship Gutanów,Lublin voivodeship Swibno, Gdańsk county, Sztutowo county Elbląg KątyRybackie, Schraplau, county Świerczyn Mansfelder Nieszawa Findplace + + Disc ornamentation + Cross

+ Cross in the centre and ring on the edges

+ Cross and edges with triangle zig-zag lines Ornamentated disc, and unfinished items [Mazurowski findStray 1983] findStray byD. Król] information 2014; Castle find Stray Amphora 1983] [Mazurowski [Mazurowski museum inMalbork 1956] [Sturms Culture Globular Graveof [Sturms 1956][Sturms Cultural context Neolithic Late Neolithic Late Neolithic Late Late Neolithic(?) Neolithic Late Chronology 27 28 29 30 31 32 Current No ф o ф • ę Disc # i О § voivodeship Bydgoszcz Murzynno, voivodeship Olsztyn Szczepankowo, Toruń voivodeship Szwarcenewo, surroundings, Gdańsk EastPrussia? locality unknown voivodeship Ransk,Olsztyn Findplace Disc ornamentation и + + 8 о + + то х: C_)'i_ c — -*- cn CDoi cn 5 J 1 сл cn .15° Л c + M ТО"О— ъ ra О s j= s СП E U CD § l CD с с цс CD СП - c l- то с cn Grave of Amphora Globular Culture [Mazurowski Stray find Stray 1983] Grave of IMazurowski Culture Amphora Globular 1983] [Mazurowski 1983] Stray findStray [Mazurowski 1983] Stray find Stray [Mazurowski Culture Amphora Globular Grave of 1983] [Mazurowski 1983] Cultural context 95 Neolithic Late date Calibrated Chronology 3300-2200 BC Late Neolithic Neolithic Late Neolithic Late Neolithic Late date Calibrated Late 3225-2285 Neolithic. BC 33 35 34 36 37 Current No d © ee / / V \ f © / / 8 #/ # 8 \

6 9 Disc l J fl Г 1 : 1 voivodeship Wroclaw voivodeship (KoloniaDębice), Dembice colony Rzucewo,Puck Surroundings of Rivne district Iwanie (Ivan'), UKRAINE district Skanderborg Horsensegnen, Bognaesgarden, DENMARK Kopenhagen Findplace Disc ornamentation + + Cross

+ + Cross in the centre and ring on the edges

+ Cross and edges with triangle zig-zag lines Ornamentated disc, and unfinished items Cultural layer settlement Amphora Globular Grave of findStray [Mazurowski Neolithic [Sturms 1956] [Sturms 1983] Grave Culture Grave 1956] [Sturms 2003] Bochdan [Choińska- [Šturms 1956][Šturms Cultural context Neolithic Late 3225-2285 date Calibrated Late Neolithic Midlle BC Neolithic. Chronology Neolithic Midlle REFERENCES

Adomonis J. Nuo taško iki sintezės. Vilnius, 1994.

Almgren 0. Nordiska stėnaldersskulpturer. In: Fornvännen, p. 111-125.

Artemenko I. Plemena Verkhnego i Srednego Podneprovia v epokhu bronzy. , 1967.

Äyräpää A. Die Verbreitung des Bernsteins in kammkeramischem Gebiet. In: Suomen Mainaismuistoyhdistyksen Aikakauskdrja - Fińska Fornminnes föreningens Tidskrift, XLV, 1945, Op. 11-25.

Baltakis V. Paleogene und neogene Sedimen-formationen und lithologishe Komplexe im Südbalticum. Vilnius, 1966, p. 277-323.

Baltrūnas V, Karmaza B., Kulbickas D., Pukelytė V. Mineralinės žaliavos, jų paplitimas Virvytės, Minijos ir Varduvos aukštupiuose. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 33-44.

Basalykas A. Virvytės baseinas. In: Mokslas ir gyvenimas. Vilnius, 1981, Nr. 5, p. 16-18.

Becionis M. Razvitije dolino-rečnoj sėti i sovremennie geomorfologičeskie procesy. In: Stroenije i reljef Žemaitskoj vozvišenosti. Vilnius, 1979, p. 123-130.

Berendt G. Die insekten in Bernstein. Danzig, 1830.

Beresnevičius G. Palemono mazgas. Palemono legendos periferinis turinys. Vilnius, 2003.

Bėrzinš V. Amberworking as a Specialist Occupation at the Särnate Neolithic Site, Latvia. In: Amber in Archaeology 4. , 2003, p. 34-46.

Bliujienė A. Lietuvos priešistorės gintaras. Vilnius, 2007.

Bradmöller M., Sarmiento M„ Perales U., Zuluago M. C. Investigation of Upper Palaeolithic adhesive, residues from Cueva, Morin, Northern Spain. In: Journal of archaeological science: reports. Vol. 7, 206, p. 1-13.

Brody R. H., Edwards H. G. M., Pollard A. M. A Study of amber and сора samples using FT-Raman spectroscopy. In: Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 57. 2001, p. 1325-1338.

97 Brun R, Aubryl L., Galinand C., Pennors R, Ruby P. Elite and prestige goods during the Early and Middle Bronze Age in France. In: Der Griff nach den Sternen. Halle, 2010, p. 199-206.

Butrimas A. Akmens amžius Žemaičių aukštumoje. Daktariškės neolito gyvenvietė: Katalogas. Vilnius, 1982.

Butrimas A. Šarnelės neolito gyvenvietė. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1980-1981 metais. Vilnius, 1982, p. 6-7.

Butrimas A. Daktariškės 5-osios neolito gyvenvietės tyrinėjimai 1987 m. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1986 ir 1987 metais. Vilnius, 1988, p. 5-7.

Butrimas A. Daktariškės 5-os neolito gyvenvietės tyrinėjimai. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1987 ir 1988 metais. Vilnius, 1988, p. 10.

Butrimas A. Daktariškės 5-osios neolito gyvenvietės tyrinėjimai. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1988 ir 1989 metais. Vilnius, 1990, p. 7-9.

Butrimas A. Daktariškės 5-osios neolito gyvenvietės tyrinėjimai. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1990 ir 1991 metais. Vilnius, 1992, p. 8-11.

Butrimas A. Šarnelės neolito gyvenvietė. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 14. Vilnius, 1996, p. 174-191.

Butrimas A. The amber ornament collection from Daktariškė 5 neolithic settlement. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 9.

Butrimas A. Biržulis. Medžiotojai, žvejai ir senieji žemdirbiai X-II tūkstantmetyje pr. Kr., t. 2: Gintaras / Biržulis. Hunters, Fishermen and Ancient Farmers 10 000-1000 ВС, t. 2: Amber. Vilnius, 2016.

Butrimas A. Donkalnio ir Spigino mezolito-neolito kapinynai. Vilnius, 2012.

Butrimas A. The Stone Age in West Lithuania. In: A Hundred Years of Arcaeological Discoveries in Lithuania (eds. G. Zabiela, Z. Baubonis, E. Marcinkevičiūtė). Vilnius, 2016.

98 Butrimas A., Iršėnas M., Rimkus T., Slah G. From Rzucewo to Šventoji: heritage of Bay Coast (Rzucewo) culture. In: Rytm życia, nowe perpektywy. Gmina Риск 25 lat / pod red. Jana R Dettlaff. Bygoszcz: BisMedium, 2016, p. 107-116.

Butrimas A., Ostrauskienė D. Biržulio apyežerio neolito gyvenviečių virvelinė keramika. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 121-144.

Choińska-Bochdan E. Bursztyn w kulturze. In: Z bursztynem przez tysiąclecia. Gdańsk, 2003, p. 29-148.

Daugnora L, Girininkas A. Osteoarcheologiįa Lietuvoje. Vidurinysis ir vėlyvasis holocenas. Vilnius, 1996.

Daugnora L, Girininkas A. Rytų Pabaltijo bendruomenių gyvensena XI-II tūkst. pr. Kr. , 2004.

David W. Die Zeichen auf der Scheibe von Nebra und das altbronzezeitliche Symbolgut des Mitteldonau- Karpatenraumes. In: Der Griff nach den Sternen Wie Europas Eliten zu Macht und Reichtum kamen. Internationales Symposium in Halle (Saale) 16.-21. Februar 2005. Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale), eds. Meller H., Bertemes F., 5. Halle, 201 0, p. 439-486.

Drzewinski F. Pocztki mineralogii podług Werenera ułożone dla stuchaczłów akademickich. Wilno, 1816, p. 345.

Edgren T. Komhaara reconsidered. Some new observations concerning Neolithic burial practice in Finland. In: Back to the Origin. New research in the Mesolithic-Neolithic Zvejnieki cemetery and environment, northern Latvia. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, Series in 8, Nr. 52, Lund, 2007, p.327-336.

Edwards H. G. H., Farwell D. W. Fourrier transform-Raman spectroscopy of amber. In: Spectrochimica Acta Part A. 52, 1996, p. 1119-1125.

Edwards H. G. H., Farwell D. W., Villa r S. E. J. Raman microspectroscopic studies of amber resins with insect

99 inclusions. In: Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 68, 2007, p. 1089-1095.

Ehrlich B. Succase, eine Siedlung der jungsteinzeitlichen schnurkeramik im Kreise Elbing. In: Elbinger Jahrbuch. 1936, t. 12/13, p. 41-49.

Font J., Salvado N„ Biti S., Eneich J. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as a suitable technique in the study of the materials used in waterproofing of archaeological amphorae. In: Analytica Chimica Acta, 598, 2007, p. 119-1 27.

Frost R. L. Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy of kaolinite, diekite and halloysite. In: Clays and Clay Minerals, 43,1995, p. 191-195.

Frost R. L„ Shurvell H. F. Raman microprobe spectroscopy of halloysite. In: Clays and Clay Minerals, 45,1997, p. 68-72.

Gerloff S. Troja an die Saale, von Wessex nach Mykene - Chronologie, Fernverbindungen una Zinnrouten der Fruhbronzezeit Mittel-und Westeuropas. In: Der Griff nach den Sternen. Haale, 2010, p. 603-639.

Gimbutas M. The Baltic amber in the fourt and third millenium ВС. In: Journal of Baltic Studies. Vol. 16, No. 3. 1985, p. 231-256.

Gimbutienė M. Rytprūsių ir Vakarų Lietuvos priešistorinės kultūros apžvalga. In: Mažoji Lietuva. New York, 1958,1.1, p. 9-121, 291-294, 313-316.

Girininkas A. Šarnelės vėlyvojo neolito (III tūkstantm. pr. m. e. pab.) gyvenvietė. In: Lietuvos TSR Mokslų akademijos darbai, serija A, 1977, t. 1, p. 57-65.

Girininkas A. Kretuonas: Vidurinis ir vėlyvasis neolitas. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 7. Vilnius, 1990.

Girininkas A. Tyrinėjimai prie Kretuono ežero. In: Archeologiniai tyrinėjimai Lietuvoje 1988 ir 1989 metais. Vilnius, 1990, p. 9-15.

Girininkas A. Akmens amžius. In: Lietuvos archeologija, 1.1, Vilnius, 2009.

100 Grigelis A. Outline on Geology of amber-bearing deposits in the Sambian peninsula. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 35-40.

Grigelis A., Baltakis V., Katinas V. Stratigraphy of the Paleogene deposits of the Baltic area. In: Proceedings of Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Geological Series, 1971, Nr. 3, p. 107-116.

Groß H. Die Renntierjager-Kulturen Ostpreubens. In: Prehistorishe Zeitsehrifft. Berlin, 1939-40, t. XXX-XXXI, p. 39-67.

Guobytė R. Žemaičių aukštumos šiaurinės dalies paviršiaus geologija ir geomorfologija. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 9-22.

Guobytė R., Stančikaitė M. Žmogaus veiklos pėdsakai Biržulio ežero žiedadulkių diagramose. Geomorfologinė ežero apylinkių sandara. In: Lietuvos archeologija. Vilnius, 1996, 1.14: Vakarų Lietuvos akmens amžiaus paminklai, p. 213-218.

Harrison R. J. Stonehenge in the Early Bronze Age. In: De Griff nachden Sternen. Halle, 201 0, p. 41 7-437.

Indreko R. Die mittlere Steinzeit Estlands. In: Kgl. Vitterhets Historie och Antiquitets Akademiens Handlingar. Stockholm, 1948, t. 66.

Iršėnas M., Butrimas A. Daktariškės 5-osios gyvenvietės keramikos su organinės kilmės priemaišomis ornamentika. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 19. Vilnius, 2000, p. 125-138.

Iršėnas M., Ostrauskienė D. Vidurio Žemaičių aukštumos apgyvendinimo raida iki XVI a. pagal archeologijos paminklų ir pavienių radinių pasiskirstymą. \n: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 87-119.

Jankauskas R. Violence in the Stone Age from an Eastern Baltic perspective. In: Sticks, Stones and Broken Bones: Neolithic

101 Violence in a European Perspective, eds. Rick J. Schulting and Linda Fibiger. Oxford, 201 2, p. 36-49.

Jehlička J., Edwards H. M. Raman spectroscopy as a tool for the non-destructive identification of organic minerals in the geological record. In: Organic geochemistry, vol. 39(4). 2008, p. 371-386.

Jundzill J. Trzy późniejsze raportą Pana Józefa Jundzilla do fakultetu fizyczno-matematycznego w Uniwersitiecie Imperatorski Wileńskim przysłane z podroży botaniczniej po gubernii wileńskiej. In: Pamiętnik Farmaceutyczny Wileński. 1821/1822, Nr. 3, p. 583.

Katinas V. Jantar i jantarnije otloženija južnoj Pribaltiki. Vilnius, 1971.

Katinas V. Baltijos gintaras. Vilnius, 1983.

Kavoliutė F. Kultūrinio kraštovaizdžio formavimasis Žemaičių aukštumoje. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 23-31.

Kempisty E. Kultura amfor kulistych na Mazowszu i Podlasiu. In: Materiały Starożytne i wczesnośredniowieczne. Warszawa, 1971,1.1, p. 7-34.

Kilian L. Haffküstenkultur und Ursprung der Balten. Bonn, 1955.

Klebs R. Der Bernsteinschmuck der Steinzeit von der Baggerei bei Schwarzort und anderen Lokalitäten Preussens. In: Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens 5. Königsberg, 1882.

Koller J., Baumer U. Mania D. High-tech in the Middle Palaeolithic: neandertal-manufactured pitch identified. In: European journal of archaeology, vol. 4(3), 2001, p. 385-397.

Kopisto A. Die Scieferringe der kammkeramischen Kultur Finnlands. In: Suomen Museo. Helsinki, 1959, p. 5-1 7.

Kośko A. Razwój kulturowy społeczeństw Kujaw w okresach schyłkowego neolitu i wczesnej epoki brązu. Poznan, 1979.

102 Kosmowska-Ceranowich В. Flora bursztynu. In: Budowa Geologiczna Polski. Atlas Skamieniałości przewodnik i charakterystycznych, t. 3, Kenozoik. Trzeciorzęd. Paleogen. 1996, p. 428-483.

Kosmowska-Ceranowich B. The old Gdańsk amber collection. In: Prace Museum Ziemi. Warszawa, 2001, Nr. 41, p. 81-1 00.

Kosmowska-Ceranowicz B„ Kwiatkowska K., Pielińska A. The amber collection of the Museum of the Earth, Polish Academy of sciences, as a source of multidisciplinary research. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 53-63.

Kozłowski L. Groby megalityczne na wshód od Odry. In: Materiały Antropologiczno-Archeologiczne i Etnograficzne, t. 2. Kraków, 1921.

Kozłowski L. Epoka kamienna na wydmach wshodniej części Wyżyny Małopolskiej. Lwów-Warszawa, 1923.

Kozłowski L. Młodsza epoka kamienia w Polsce (Neolit). Lwów, 1924.

Krasauskas L. Žemaičių aukštumos morfometrija. In: Lietuvos TSR aukštųjų mokyklų mokslo darbai. Geografija ir geologija. Vilnius, 1973, t. 10.

Kriiska A., Löugas L., Lomus M., Manermaa K., Johanson K. New AMS dates from Estonian Stone Age burial sites. In: Estonian Journal of Archaeology, 2007,1 1,2, p. 83-121.

Kryvaltsevich M. The Territory of Belorus in the system of communication routs of 3000-early 2000 BC. In: Baltic-Pontic Studies, 2009,1.14, p. 439-461.

Król D, The elements of Settlements in Rzucevo Culture. In: Praehistorica. Praha, 1992, t. 19, p. 291-299.

Krzak Z. The Zlotą Culture. Wroclaw, Warszawa, Krakow, Gdańsk, 1976.

Kumelski N. A. Krótki wykład minerologii podług zasad Wernera. Wilno, 1826, t. 2, p. 152.

103 Kunskas R. O gidrofičeskich regresijach ozer srednevo i pozdnevo golocena. In: Istorija ozer. Vilnius, 1970, t. 2, p. 378-390.

Kunskas R. Etapy razvitija oz. Biržulis - limnogliacial'nogo ostatka Žemaitskoj vozvyšennosti. In: Geographia Lituanika. Vilnius, 1984.

Kunskas R. Donkalnis: vėlyvojo neolito gyvenvietė, alkas ir kapinynas (Janapolės apyl., Telšių raj.). Paleogeografinės pastabos apie Biržulio ežervietę. In: Lietuvos archeologija. t. 4. Vilnius, 1985, p. 25-30.

Kunskas R., Butrimas A. Biržulio ežero krantų ir akmens amžiaus gyvenviečių kaita. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 4. Vilnius, 1985, p. 66-79.

Kurp z nad Narwi [Antoni Zagrzejewski]. Bursztyn. In: Encyklopedia rolnictwa i wiadomości związek z nim mających. Warszawa, 1873,1.1, p. 312-315.

La Baume W. Die jungsteinzeitliche Kungelamphoren-Kultur in Ost- und West- preussen. Prusia. 1943, t. 35, p. 13-80.

Larsson L. Some aspects of the Kongemose culture in southern Sweden. In: Meddelanden frän Lunds universitets historiska museum 7979-1980, vol. 3. Lund, 1980, p. 5-22.

Larsson L. A tooth for tooth. Tooth ornaments from the graves at the cemeteries of Zvejnieki. Lars Larsson and liga Zagorska (eds.) Back to the Origin. New research in The Mesolithic - Neolithic Zvejnieki cemetery and environment, northern Latvia. In: Acta Archeologica Lundensia. Series in 8°, No 52. Lund, 2007, p. 253-287.

Larsson L. Research at Zvejnieki, Northern Latvia. A preliminary report. In: Mesolithic Miscellany, 2007,18.1.15-16.

Latalova M. Postglacial vegetation chantes in the eastern Baltic coastal zone of Poland. In: Acta Palaeobotanica. Warszawa, 1982. t. 22(2). p. 179-249.

Lebiński L. Grabfunde aus der Steinzeit in Rzeszynek. In: Posener Archaeologische Mittheitungen. Posen, 1888, p. 36-37.

104 Lettieri M. Infrared spectroscopic characterization of residues on archeological pottery through different spectra acquisition modes. Vibrational Spectroscopy. 2015, 76, p. 48-54.

Lombard M„ Wadley L. The morphological identification of micro-residues on stone tools using light microscopy: progress and difficulties based on blind tests. In: Journal of archaeological science. 2007, vol. 34(1), p. 155-165.

Lože I. Neolithic Amber ornaments in the Eastern part of Latvia. In: Przegląd Archeologiczny, vol. 23. Poznan, Wroclaw, 1975, p. 49-82.

Lože I. Pozdnij neolit i ranniaja bronza Lubanskoj ravnini. Riga, 1979.

Lože I. Voprosy kartografirovanyja nachodok jantarya epoki neolitą na territorii Evropejskoj tsasti SSSR. In: Latvijas PSR Zinätnu Akademijas Vestis, 1980, Nr. 9, p. 73-86.

Lože I. Funerary amber among the Stone Age inhabitans of the Eastern Baltic Region. In: Proc. of the XII Congress of the Int. Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences. Vol. 6, Workshop 7: Amber in Archaeology. Forli, 1998, p. 199-408.

Lože I. Late Neolithic amber from the Lubina wetlands. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, Vilnius, 2000, t. 20: Prehistoric art in the Baltic region, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 63-78.

Lože I. Middle Neolithic Amber Workshopos in the Lake Lubäns Depression. In: Amber in Archaeology 4 . Riga, 2003, p. 72-89.

Lože I. Lubana ežerą mitraja neolitą dzintars. Riga, 2008.

Luho V. Kokemäen Pispan kivikautinen asauinpaikka. Suomen Museo. Helsinki, 1961, p. 5-31.

Maimer M. R, Magnusson E. Mesolithische Harzornamentik. Ein Fundaus dem Lyby-Moor, Schonen. In: Meddelanden främ Lunds Univeritets Historiska Museum, 1955, p. 81-104.

Marcinowski M. (ed.) Skarby Elbląskiego muzeum. Elbląg, 2014.

Mazurowski R. F. Bursztyn w epoche kamenia na ziemiach polskich. In: Materiały starożytne i wczesnosedniowieczne, t. 5. Warszawa, 1983, p. 7-134.

105 Mazurowski R. F. Amber treatment workshops of the in Żuławy. In: Przegląd Archeologiczny 32,1984, p. 5-60.

Mazurowski R. F. Prahistoryczne bursztyniarstwo na Žulavach Wiślanych. Malbork, 2014.

Metzner-Nebelsick C. Die Ringe der Macht-Uberlegungen zur Kontinuität frühbronzezeitlicher Flerrsc-haftssymbole in Europa. In: Der Griff nach der Sterner. Halle, Band 05/1,2010, p. 177-197.

Mockaitis V. Gintaras taikomojoje dailėje. Projektavimas, morfologija, technologija. Vilnius, 2002

Narbutt T. Dzieje starożytne narodu litewskiego. Wilno, 1837, t. 2, p. 207-209.

Neustupny E. Kugelamphorenkultur. In: J. Filipe (ed.). Encyklopadisces Handbuch zur Ur-und-Frugeschichte Europas. Bd. 1, 1966, p. 651-655.

Okulicz J. Pradzieje ziem pruskich od późnego paleolitu do VII w. n. e. Wroclaw, Warszawa, Kraków-Gdańsk. 1973.

Oshibkina S. Amber in the Neolithic and Aeneolithic of . In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 135-139.

Ots M. Stone Age Amber finds in Estonia. In: Amber in Archaeology. Proceedings of the Fourt Internationale conference on amber in Archaeology. Talsi, 2001. Riga, 2003, p. 96-107.

Piezonka H., Meadows J., Hartz S., Kostylewa E., Nedomolkina N., Ivanisheva M., Kosorukova N., Terberger Th. Stone Age pottery chronology in the northeast European forest zone: new AMS and EA-IRMS results on foodcrusts. In: Radiocarbon, vol. 58 (2), 2016, p. 267-289.

Pionka T. The Portable art of Mesolithic Europe. Wroclaw, 2003.

Prinsloo L. C., Wadby L, Lombard M. Infrared reflectance spectroscopy as an analytical technique for the study of residues on stone tools: potential and challenges. In: Journal of archaeological science. Vol. 41,2014, p. 732-739.

106 Pusch G. G. Geognostische Beschreibung von Polen, so wie der übrigen Nordkarpaten-Lander. Stuttgart, Tübingen, 1836, t. 2, p. 427-428,433-434.

Puzinas J. Naujausių proistorinig tyrinėjimų duomenys (191 8— 1938 metų Lietuvos proistorinių tyrinėjimų apžvalga). In: Senovė, 4. Kaunas, 1938.

Rimantienė R. Nida. Senųjų baltų gyvenvietė. Vilnius, 1989.

Rimantienė R. Akmens amžius Lietuvoje. 2-as papildytas leidimas. Vilnius, 1996.

Rimantienė R. Šventosios 6-oji gyvenvietė. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 14. Vilnius, 1996, p. 83-1 73.

Rimantienė R. Die Kurische Nehrung aus dem Blickwinkel der Arhäologen. Vilnius, 1999.

Rimantienė R. Kuršių nerija archeologo žvilgsniu. Vilnius, 1999.

Rimantienė R. Akmens amžiaus žvejai prie Pajūrio lagūnos. Vilnius, 2005.

Rimantienė R. Nida. A Bay Coast Culture Settlement on the Curonian Lagoon. Vilnius, 2016.

Rimkus T. Six years of experimental traseology at the University of Klaipėda: accomplishments and future prospects. In: 22nd annual meeting of the EAA. Book of abstracts. Vilnius, 2016, p. 688.

Rimkus I, Slah G. Funkcinės paskirties nustatymo metodas. In: Metodai Lietuvos archeologijoje, t. 2, ed. A. Merkevičius, Vilnius, 2018 (in print).

Ritzkowski S., Weisgerber G. Die Neolitischen bernsteinartefakte der bernstein-sammlug der ehemaligen Albertus- Universität zu Königsberg I. Pr. In: Investigations into Amber. Gdańsk, 1999, p. 1 37-1 50.

Ritzkowski S. The amber collection of the Albertus university of Konigberg/Prussia. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 233-238.

107 Sathya R, Verlaj G. FTIR spectroscopic and X-ray diffraction analysis of archaeological grey potteries excavated in Alagankulam, Tamil Nadu, India. In: Journal of Experimental Sciences, 2, 2D11, p. 2-4.

Shillito L. M„ Almond M. J„ Wicks K. The use of FT-IR as a screening technique for organic residue analysis of archeological samples. In: Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 72, 2009, p. 120-125.

Symonowicz R. O stanie dzisiejszym minerologii. Wilno, 1806, p. 132.

Shari S. Patterns of innovation transfer and the spread of cooper metallurgy to Central Europe. In: European journal of archaeology, vol. 19(21), 2016, p. 215-244.

Skuodienė. I., Katinas V. Nuo paleolito iki rankraštinių kultūros paminklų atsiradimo. In: Lietuvos TSR geologijos istorija. Vilnius, 1981, p. 4-18.

Snarskis P. Telšių kraštotyros muziejaus moksliniai pasai. In: Muziejai ir paminklai. Vilnius, 1968, p. 36-37.

Socrates G. Infrared and Raman characteristic group frequencies. John Wiley and Sons: Chichester. 2001.

Sommerfeld C. Die Kehrseite-Anmerkungen zur Rolle des mondes in der ikonographie der Bronzezeit. In: Fl. Meller, F. Bertemes, eds. Der Griff nach den Sternen Wie Europas Eliten zu Macht und Reichtum kamen. Internationales Symposium in Halle (Saale) 16.-21. Februar 2005. Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale), 5. Halle, p. 537-550.

Stančikaitė M., Baltrūnas V, Kisielienė D., Guobytė R., Ostrauskas T. Gamtinė aplinka ir gyventojų ūkinė veikla Biržulio ežero apylinkėse holoceno laikotarpiu. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis. Vilnius, 2004, t. 34: Kultūrinio landšafto raida Žemaičių aukštumoje, p. 45-66.

Sveshnikov I. K. Kul'tura sharovidnykh amfor. Arkheologiia SSSR.

io 8 Svod arkhelogicheskikh istochnikov. Vyp. B1-27, Moskva: Nauka, 1983.

Szmyt M. Between West and East. People of the Globular Amphora culture in Eastern Europe 2950-2350 BC. In: Baltic-Pontic Studies. Poznan, 1999.

Šliaupa S., Čyžienė J., Lazauskienė J. Prequaternary geological map of Lithuania. Scale 1:200 000//Geological Survey of Lithuania. 1999 (http://www.lgt.1t/index.p.h.p)

Šturms E. Der Bernsteinschmuck in der östlichen Amphorenkultur. In: Rheinische Forshungen zur Vorgeschite, 5. Documenta Archeologica. Bonn, 1956, p. 13-20.

Tautavičius A. A partial survey of research on pre-ninetenth- century Lithuanian amber artefacts (archaeological finds). In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 281-284.

Tischler 0. Die neuesten Entdeckungen aus Steinzeit im Ostaltischen Gebiet und die Anflänge der plastishen Kunst in Nord Europa. In: Schriften der Physikalisch-Ökonomishen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, t. XXIV, p. 89-102. Königsberg, 1883.

Vandenabeele R, Grimaldi D. M„ Edwards H. G. H„ Moens L. Raman spectroscopy of different types of Mexican copal resins. In: Spectrochimica Acta Part A. 59, 2003, p. 2221-2229.

Vandenabeele R, Wehling B., Moens L., De Reu M., Van Hooydonk G. Analysis with micro-Raman spectroscopy of natural organic binding media and varnishes used in art. In: Analytica Chimica Acta, 400, 2000, p. 261-274.

Vankina L. Nozimigakas akmens laikmeta kolekcijas Latvijas PSR Vestures muzeja. In: Muzeji un kultūras pieminekli. Riga, 1970, p. 55-60.

Vankina L. Torfianikovaja stojanka Sarnate. Riga, 1970.

Vankina L. The collection of Stone Age bone and antler artefacts from lake Lubana. Riga, 1999.

109 Venkatachalapathy R., Gournis D., Manoharan C., Dhanapandian S., Deenanadayalan K. Application of FTIR and Mossbauer spectroscopy in analysis of some South Indian archaeological potteries. In: Indian Journal of Pure & Applied Physics, 41,2003, p. 833-838.

Wirth S. Sonnenbarke und zyklisches Weltbild-Überlegungen zum Verständnis der spätbronzezeitlischen Ikonographie in Mitteleuropa. In: Der Griff nach den Sternen. Halle, 2005, p. 501-51 5.

Wiślański T. Kultura amfor kulistych w Polsze północno zahodniej. Wroclaw, Warszawa, Krakow, 1966.

Wiślański T. Podstawy gospodarcza plemion neolitycznych w Polsce polnocno zachodniej. Wroclaw, Warszawa, Krakow, 1969.

Zagorska I. A. Rannij mezolit na teritorii Latvii. In: IAN Latvijskoj SSR (rus.). Riga, 1981, Nr. 2/403, p. 53-65.

Zagorska I. Amber graves of Zvejnieki burial ground. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 109-124.

Zagorska I. The history of research on the Zvejnieki site. Lars Larsson and liga Zagorska (eds.). Back to the Origin. New research in the Mesolithic-Neolithic Zveinieki cemetery and environment, northern Latvia. In: Acta Archaeologica Lundensis, Series in 8, 2003, Nr. 52, p. 5-24.

Zagorska I. Radiocarbon chronology of the Zvejnieki burials. In: Back to the Origin. Riga, 2006, p. 91-113.

Zagorska I. Senie ziemelbriežu mednieki Latvija. Riga, 2012.

Zagorskis F. Zvejnieku akmens laikmena kapulauks. Riga, 1987.

Zhilin M. Chronology of the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic in the forest zone of Eastern Europe. In: Lietuvos archeologija, t. 19. Vilnius, 2000, p. 287-297.

110 Zimina M. Amber decorations from the Vaidai lake region burial Grounds. In: Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis, Vilnius, 2001, t. 22: Baltic Amber, ed. A. Butrimas, p. 145-148.

Żurek I. Osada z młodszej epoki kamiennej w Rzucewie, pow. Wejherowski, i kultura rzucewska. In: Fontes archeologici Posnanienses, t. 4. Poznan, 1954, p. 1 -42.

111 INDEX

Artemenko Ivan 27 Król Danuta 94 Äyräpää 27 Krzak Zygmunt 62, 63, 78, 93 Aukštaitis Vaidotas 49 Kumelski Norbert Alfons 64 Kunskas Rimvydas 33 Balčius Mikelis 49 Baltėnas Arūnas 82 La Baume Wolfgang 11,60 Beck Curt W. 70 Larsson Lars 25, 27, 39 Berzins Andris 23 Łebiński L 11, 14 93 Brody R. H. 71,74 Lettieri M. 71-73 Butrimaitė Jogailė 17, 38, 45, 53 Lože Ilze 23, 25, 27, 29, 55, 70 Butrimas Adomas 15,18, 24, 27, 34, 36, 37, 43, 90.92 Magnusson Ernest 66 Butrimienė Stasė 31,40, 50, 52, 60 Maimer Mats P. 66 Maraszek R. 83 Choińska-Bochdan Elżbieta 96 Matulaitienė leva 71 Mazurowski Ryszard F. 13,1 5, 5, 48, 93-96 David Wolfgang 85 Metzner-Nebelsick Carola 80 Dževinskis Feliksas (Feliks Drzewiński) 64 Mizgiris Kazimieras 10 Mockaitis Vytautas 20 Edgren T. 29 Edwards H. G. H. 71,74 Okulicz-Kozarin Jerzy 60 Oshibkina Svetlana V. 29 Farwell 71, 74 Ostrauskienė Dalia 36 Font J. 71-73 Ots Mirja 25. 27 Frost R. L. 74 Puzinas Jonas 15, 90 Gimbutienė (Gimbutas) Marija 23, 79 Girininkas Algirdas 84 Rimantienė Rimutė 15,18, 19, 47-49, 53, 60, 79, Grigelis Algimantas 66 83,86, 90,91 Rimkus Tomas 66 Iršėnas Marius 36. 37 Ritzkowski Siegfried 16, 65 Rzeszynek 14 Junzilas Juozapas (Jundzill Józef) 64 Sathya P. 71-73 Katinas Vladas 66, 70 Shillito L. M. 71-73 Kempisty Elzbieta 60 Shurvell H. F. 74 Kilian Lothar 60 Symonowicz Roman 64 Klebs Richard 1 1,12,16, 51-53, 64, 65, 82, 84, 90, Slah Gvidas 66 91.93 Socrates George 72-74 Koller Johann 70 Sommerfeld Christoph 87 Kośko Aleksandr 78 Spelskytė Rūta 7, 33, 42, 45, 48, 58, 59 Kosmowska-Ceranowicz Barbara 66 Sveshnikov Igor 62 Kozłowski L. 11 Szmyt Marzena 62 Kriiska Aivars 29 Šturms Eduard 13,15, 32, 78, 79, 91-94, 96

112 Tischler Otto 11,44, 65, 79 Tiškevičius Feliksas 15, 53, 90

Vandenabeele Peter 71,73, 74 Vankina Liucija 23 Velraj 71-73 Venkatachalapathy R. 71-73

Weisgerber Gerd 16, 65 Wiślański Tadeusz 13, 60

Zagorska Ilga 25, 27 Zagorskis Francis 24, 25, 27 Zimina Maja 29

113 Abora (L a t v .: Abuora), settlement, Latvia 27, 29, 31 Groß Morino (now Murzynowo), cemetery, Poland Akali, settlement. Estonia 29 78,80,92 Asne. settlement. Latvia 29 Gutanów, cemetery, Poland 94

Васка, Sweden 83 Hammeldon Down, Great Britain 76 Bagdoniškė, hill, Telšiai district. Lithuania 33 Horsensegnen, cemetery. Denmark 96 Balden, cemetery. Poland 93 Baldy, cemetery, Poland 93 Iča (Latv.: Iča), settlement, Latvia 29 Baltic, sea, region 9, 10 13,16-18, 21-23, 25, 27, llovets, cemetery, Russia 29 29,31,32,47,60, 66. 70, 79 Inovroclav (Inowrocław), voivodeship, Poland 11, Berlin 51 92,93 Biržulis, lake, cemetery, Telšiai district, Lithuania 9, Iwanie (U kr.: Ivan'; Lit.: Ivane), cemetery, Ukraine 15,18, 33,34,51.62 32,85,96 Bydgoszcz, voivodeship, Poland 95 Bognaesgarden. Denmark 96 Juodkrantė — > Schwarzort Bohuslän, region, Sweden 83 Borucin, Poland 11 Karaliaučius —* Königsberg Brześć Kujawski, voivodeship, Poland 13,77 Kąty Rybackie, cemetery, Poland 94 Būtingė, settlement (now the part of Palanga Klaipėda, city, Lithuania 66 town), Lithuania 13,15.17 32, 46, 48. 49. 60, Konchanskoe, cemetery, Russia 29 62.78. 80,89, 90 Kopenhagen, city, Denmark 96 Korea 81 Ciechanów, voivodeship, Poland 93 Korgulina, cemetery, Russia 29 Curonian Lagoon, Lithuania 60, 62 Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Lit.: Karaliaučius). Curonian Peninsula, Lithuania 11,64, 91 city, Russia 11,64. 65 Curonian Spit, Lithuania 18 Kretinga, city, Lithuania 49 Kretuonas, lake, settlement, Švenčionys district, Daktariškė, settlement, Telšiai district, Lithuania 9, Lithuania 18, 23, 29, 84 13, 15-17, 19-21,29, 31-46, 48, 50, 51, 53, 55, Kuczyny, graves, Poland 13 62, 63, 65, 66, 68. 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 92

Dancig {Pol.: Gdańsk), city, Poland 64 Latvia 9, 18, 23-25, 27. 29-31,39, 55. 62, 66, 70 Dembice colony (Kolonia Dębice), cemetery, Poland Litorina, sea (stage of Baltic Sea) 23, 66 96 Lithuania 9,13, 15.18,19, 23, 25, 29, 31,32, 34, 39, Denmark 13, 83, 96 47, 60,61,63-66,70,87,89,90 Devon, Great Britain 76 Luban, lake, Latvia 23, 55, 62 Dnieper, river 27 Lubana lowland 18, 23 Donkalnis, cemetery, Lithuania 27 Lublin, city, voivodeship, Poland 32, 94 Lūkstas, lake, Lithuania 18, 21 Eini, settlement, Latvia 29 Elbing (Elbląg), voivodeship, Poland 18. 94 Malbork, castle. Poland 94 Estonia 25. 27, 29. 66 Malmuta. settlement. Latvia 29 Europe 32,51,70, 83 Mansfelder, county, Poland 94 Masurian Lakeland, Poland 32, 60, 62 Finland 25. 27. 29 Maudžiorai. cemetery 87 Moskha Khodosovichi, cemetery, Dnieper basin, Gdańsk, city, voivodeship, Poland 20. 21.94, 95 Belorussia 27 Germany 13, 85, 86 Murzynowo (Mužynov) —► Groß Morino Great Britain 76 Murzynno, cemetery, Poland 95

114 „nad Wawrem", cemetery, Poland 93 Štauchvic-Augusthof (Stauchwitz-Augusthof), Nainiekte, settlement, Latvia 30 cemetery, Poland 11,92 Naruszewo, cemetery, Poland 11,93 Stervas, lake, Telšiai district, Lithuania 33 Nebra, town, Germany 85 Stolp —> Słupsk Neidenburg, county, Poland 93 Sulkas, settlement, Latvia 29 Neringa, municipality, Lithuania 90, 91 Sweden 83 New York, state, USA 70 Świerczyn, cemetery, Poland 11,94 Nida. settlement (now the part of Neringa city), Swibno, Poland 20, 94 Lithuania 29, 47 Szczepankowo, cemetery, Poland 95 Nieszawa, county. Poland 11,94 Sztutowo, county, Poland 94 Northern Circle 27 Szwarcenewo, cemetery, Poland 95

Olenij Ostrov, cemetery, Russia 27 Šventoji, settlements (now the part of Palanga Olsztyn, voivodeship, Poland 93, 95 city), Lithuania 13,15,18, 19, 21,23, 29, 31, Ortelsburg, county, Poland 11,92 32,60, 62. 63,82,89,90

Palanga, city, municipality. Lithuania 8, 15,19, 32, Tamula, settlement, Estonia 27, 29 52,53,62,64.65.82.84. 90 Tarnobrzeg, voivodeship, Poland 93 Pispa Kokemeki (Pispa Kokemäki), cemetery, Telšiai, town, region, district, county, Lithuania 32, Finland 29 33, 90,92 Plonsk, county, Poland 11 Toruń, city, voivodeship, Poland 32, 95 Poland 9.11.13,14.17. 29. 31.32. 60, 61-63, 66. Trundholm, settlement, Denmark 87 77. 89, 92 Tudozero, cemetery, Russia 29 Pomorze, village. Poland 32, 60 Pougkeepsie, city, USA 70 Ukraine 32.61.62. 77, 89, 96 Prussia 11,60, 64, 91,95 USA 70 Puck, voivodeship, Poland 96 Varniai, city, district, Lithuania 32, 33 Ransk, cemetery, Poland 95 Vilnius, town, Lithuania 34, 64, 66, 70 Reinsvein (Rheinswein), Poland 92 Vistula, river, basin, lagoon, spit, Poland 18, 32, Rešketa, river, cemetery, Telšiai district, Lithuania 60,62 32 Viskiautai (Wiskiauten-Kaup), cemetery, Rivne, district, Ukraine 32, 96 Kaliningrad district, Russia 79 Russia 25.27,29 Vutrynen (Wuttrienen), cemetery, Poland 93 Rzeszynek, cemetery, Poland 11.14, 93 Rzucewo, cemetery, Poland 21,96 Warsaw, town, Poland 32 Wąbrzeźno (earlier Wiesenfeld), cemetery, Poland Sachtysh, cemetery, Russia 29 80 Sambian Peninsula 18 Wierzbowe, cemetery, Poland 13

Sarnate (L a t v Särnate), settlement, Latvia 18. 21, Wiesenfeld —> Wąbrzeźno 30, 62 Wrocław, voivodeship, Poland 96 Scandinavia 39, 86 Schraplau, cemetery, Poland 94 Zlotą, cemetery, Poland 93 Schwarzort, city, collection (now the part of Zvejnieki, setlement, cemetery, Latvia 24-29, 31 Neringa city), Lithuania 10, 11 16. 32, 51,53. Zvidze, settlement, Latvia 30, 31 62,64,65.66, 90,91 Skanderborg, district, Denmark 96 Žemaitijan upland. Lithuania 21

Słupsk (G e r m a n : Stolp). city, Poland 32, 60, 89 Žemaitija, region, Lithuania 33 Sope, settlement. Estonia 29 Żuławy, region, Poland 18, 31

115