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Home , Aditi, Aiyanar, Ananta (infinite), Annapurna (goddess), Aruna (Hinduism), Ashva

Seeing the Divine in

______

Museum of Art and Archaeology

University of Missouri

September 22 – December 16, 2012

INTRODUCTION

Hinduism, one of the great religions of the world, has a long and rich history of depicting the divine in art. Originating in in remote antiquity, it is a polytheistic system with a myriad of and . The challenge for artists was not a shortage of subject matter, but rather how to give form to beings that by their very natures are formless. Relying mainly on sacred religious texts wherein the exploits of the gods and goddesses are told and retold, certain tales and episodes became favorites for illustration, and standard were established for specific . These iconographies include certain attributes, body postures, hand gestures, hair styles, colors, animal associations, and the like. Most of these elements are imbued with deep religious symbolism. A visual vocabulary was thus built up, and once established, became solidified. This visual library has since remained fairly unchanged with the passage of time.

From its beginnings Hindu art was created primarily to aid devotees in focusing their worship. Monumental stone statues or relief were positioned in or on temples, and large bronze cult statues were set up for public worship. Innumerable smaller figurines have been made for installation in household shrines so that devotees may offer personal devotion. Paintings, tapestries, ritual objects, theatrical masks, and other items bearing images of deities have been created in various media, all forming part of a dense pictorial encyclopedia used to illustrate divine subject matter. This rich corpus of imagery provides instruction, support, and inspiration for millions of devout Hindu believers.

The exhibition features some of the most important deities of . and his ten , especially , figure prominently. , another male of prime importance, is featured, as is his son, the much loved -headed . The well-known goddesses , , , , and Sarasvati are represented. Together with these major gods and goddesses, a selection of lesser-known male and female deities is also included. The artworks span the ages, from the eighth or ninth century to the present. Most were made in India, though a few originate in neighboring countries of south or southeast . Artworks created in time-honored classic styles, honed through centuries of standardization, are displayed alongside items that exhibit regional stylizations, charming folk-style characteristics, or even modern artistic license. Taken as a whole, the exhibition offers viewers an introduction to the incredibly fertile and varied visual landscape of Hindu divinity.

VISHNU

Vishnu, “The Preserver,” the keeper of life, is one of the most important gods of . He has been described as the most peaceful, benevolent, and compassionate of deities, yet when confronting enemies he is anything but peaceful. First and foremost Vishnu is a savior, always ready to swoop down from his heavenly abode to restore order on earth and redeem humankind. In fact he upholds the order of the entire cosmos. A supreme being, Vishnu is described in sacred Hindu literature as having a universal form beyond the ordinary limits of perception or imagination. Likewise he is known by many names. He is believed to have appeared on earth numerous times in the past and will do so again. In some of these appearances he came as an , assuming a temporarily-manifested specific form in order to accomplish a certain task: to set right a specific wrong.

Vishnu is frequently depicted in art with four arms, either standing in an upright pose or reclining in slumber on a coiled . When standing his posture is usually stiff, straight, and sturdy––a pose befitting his role as upholder of order. To accomplish his tasks he often holds certain weapons for combating evil: a war club, a discus, and a -shell trumpet for summoning troops. When sleeping on the serpent, Vishnu’s role as creator is referenced, for it is during these periods of deep cosmic sleep that he creates new life. Because the god is described in scriptures as having the color of water-filled clouds, his skin is almost always a dusky blue when he is shown in color.

Vishnu’s main consort is the Lakshmi, and she is frequently shown in the company of her husband. When two female figures accompany him they are twin aspects of Lakshmi: and Bhu Devi. Vishnu’s or mount is , a part -part human creature that helps the god move around the universe with lightning speed.

Vishnu with his consorts Shri Devi and Bhu Devi Bangladesh Pala period, ca. 12th century Basalt Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (79.138)

Vishnu stands in the straight upright position called samabhanga. This sturdy pose symbolizes the god’s role as upholder of cosmic order and preserver of the universe. He bears four attributes: the conch shell for summoning troops to battle (symbol of eternal space); the club for vanquishing enemies (symbol of eternal law); the discus––a throwing weapon (symbol of eternal time); and the lotus (symbol of purity and ever-renewing creation). He wears a tall crown, jeweled ornaments, and a that falls to his knees.

On either side of Vishnu stand his two consorts, Shri Devi (an alternate name for Lakshmi), holding a fly whisk and lotus stem, and Bhu Devi, holding a stringed musical instrument. In religious writings usually only one female, Lakshmi––the goddess of fortune––is mentioned as Vishnu’s wife, but in sculptural depictions from eastern and southern India the god is often flanked by another figure, usually misidentified as Sarasvati but who is actually Bhu Devi––the earth goddess––understood as another aspect of Lakshmi herself.

Below Vishnu is his special animal (vahana), the eagle-like Garuda, seen in a crouching pose. Other divine or human figures populate the extreme bottom edge of the stele, and still other celestial beings are shown on the upper edges. At the very top is an auspicious symbol called a “face of glory” ().

The artist’s skill in the carving of the is clearly evident. The figures’ bodies are carefully proportioned. details and jewelry are rendered with precision. The clinging drapery of the goddesses is subtle and does not obscure their forms. The overall sense of grace and beauty conveyed by the stele is meant to appeal to the viewer, just as the Divine appeals to the human soul.

Vishnu with his consorts Shri Devi and Bhu Devi Bangladesh Pala period, end of 11th century Basalt Anonymous gift (77.292)

This massive stele is comparable to the smaller one also displayed in this exhibition. Vishnu, the preserver of order in the universe, stands in the same upright pose and holds the same attributes of conch shell, club, discus, and lotus. He wears a long garland composed of groups of gems that derive from the five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether. He is flanked by his consorts, Shri Devi and Bhu Devi––two aspects of the goddess Lakshmi. Among the convoluted tendrils decorating the base of the stele are Vishnu’s special animal, Garuda , seen at the center, and figures of two kneeling donors––the persons who commissioned the stele––at the bottom left corner; both donors make the gesture of adoration with their hands. The back slab of the stele forms a great vertical throne and is decorated with mythical aquatic animals (), -like creatures rearing over combating heroes, and crouching . Celestial musicians (kinnaras) and garland bearers (vidyadharas) fly through clouds at the top of the stele, and an auspicious symbol called a “face of glory” once ornamented the very peak.

Such steles were made for display in niches of temple walls and public votive shrines. Worshippers often place offerings before them and sometimes anoint the figures with pigments as an act of devotion. Traces of orange paint, probably applied in more recent times, are preserved on this example.

Enthroned Vishnu with his wives and attendants India, Pahari School, 17th century Gouache on paper Gift of Allan Gerdau (78.257)

Blue-skinned, four-armed Vishnu is seated inside of a pavilion on the serpent (also called ) and is flanked by two forms of his wife Lakshmi (Sri Devi holding lotus flowers and Bhu Devi playing a stringed musical instrument). Eight male devotees standing in a flowered vastness gaze in adoration at Vishnu's human image. The presence of the serpent references Vishnu’s cosmic sleep––an act he periodically undertakes while resting on the serpent’s coils as it floats on the primordial ocean. It is during these periods of sleep that Vishnu performs the act of creation, bringing the next age of the world into existence. Vishnu’s blue skin indicates his all-pervasive nature, since blue is the color of infinite space as well as the color of the infinite ocean on which he resides. The yellow color of the flowered frame and Vishnu's garment symbolize the Third Age of the world.

The Pahari School of miniature painting was developed in certain Himalayan foot-hills regions of northern India in the seventeenth century and flourished until the nineteenth century. Influenced by painters of the earlier Mughal court, its style nevertheless maintained a certain indigenous quality. The exacting draftsmanship is clearly evident, and the vivid colors were applied with meticulous care; both are characteristics of the Pahari School.

Vishnu saving the elephant (Gajendra ) Published by J.B. Khanna and Co., India, Chennai 21st century Chromolithograph Anonymous loan

The most popular story of salvation concerning Vishnu, when he descended to earth in his own form (rather than as an avatar), was his rescue of the king of the elephants, Gajendra, from the jaws of a crocodile. The elephant had been bathing in a beautiful lake when he was seized by the foot by the fearsome aquatic creature. After an exhaustive struggle that lasted a thousand years, the elephant became utterly fatigued and was on the brink of death. Finally, in desperation he called upon Vishnu for help, saying a prayer in one version of the story or by simply lifting up a lotus blossom in another version. Vishnu, the blue-skinned savior, instantly swooped down from on Garuda, his part eagle–part human vahana, threw his discus at the crocodile, and freed the elephant from certain death.

The story is symbolic of Vishnu’s readiness to save mankind, just as he saved the elephant from the jaws of the crocodile. In the moment of our utter surrender, Vishnu rushes to our aid, destroys death, and liberates our souls.

This tale of salvation has been rendered in art since at least the sixth century, and it continues to be a subject of artistic depiction right up to the present day. The reproductive print exhibited here, originally created as a painting in the mid-twentieth century, illustrates the story in vivid, intense colors. The overall effect is one of hyperbole, right down to the depiction of the elephant crying human-like tears. Mass-produced prints like this have broad appeal and demonstrate that popularized art continues to serve the needs of a living religion, which in turn fulfills the deep spiritual needs of millions of devout believers.

Bronze sculptures of the god Vishnu, whether large ones for installation in temples or small ones for use in private devotional shrines, usually follow set standards of . As seen in this selection of figures, three of the god’s typical warrior attributes are a conch shell trumpet, a club, and a discus. The shell and the discus are sometimes edged with flames. In some examples he holds a lotus or makes the gesture of protection. He may be shown standing in a stiff pose or seated with his consort Lakshmi. When two females accompany him they are twin aspects of Lakshmi, Shri Devi and Bhu Devi. As can be observed in these five examples, artistic styles vary over time and by region.

1. Vishnu , Chola period, 11th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (80.240)

The sturdy upright posture, termed samabhanga–– "without bending,” is appropriate to Vishnu’s role as upholder and preserver of the universe. Compare it to his pose in the two stone steles also in this exhibition. The upper set of rings on the side of the base once supported an aureole, a full- body halo, and the lower set facilitated attachment to a platform so that the statue could be carried in processions.

2. Vishnu India, Bengal, ca. 17th century Brass Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.157)

3. Vishnu flanked by Shri Devi and Bhu Devi India, probably , 10th-11th century Copper alloy Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.274)

The surfaces of this figurine are worn smooth by centuries of ritual handling by devout worshippers.

4. with Vishnu seated with his consort Lakshmi India, , ca. 15th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.161)

5. Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi seated under the protection of the serpent Shesha South India, 17th-18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (70.167)

THE AVATARS OF VISHNU

So as to preserve order, to set right some great wrong that is occurring, Vishnu is believed to have descended from heaven to earth in the past and will do so again in the future. Sometimes he comes in his own form and at other times he is said to have assumed a different form, called an avatar. (The word avatar literally means “descent.”) According to sacred texts, Vishnu has come as an avatar nine times so far and will come once more. In each of his avatar appearances, Vishnu assumed a certain form in order to meet a specific task. Sometimes these forms have been part animal, part human; at other times they have been fully human.

In his first four appearances Vishnu took part animal-part human shapes. The very first was a part , named , who saved humankind from a great flood and rescued the oldest sacred , the . Vishnu’s second appearance was as part , named ; in this form he retrieved certain treasures that had been lost in a deluge and also used his body as a support for the world. The part boar-part human , the third avatar, descended in order to raise up the earth, which had again sunk to the bottom of the primordial ocean. As the fourth avatar, in the part lion form named , he destroyed a ferocious demon. Neither man nor animal could kill this demon, and it could not be killed with any weapon, indoors or out, during nighttime or daytime, or while it was in contact with the ground or aloft in the sky. Narasimha, part lion- part human, solved this dilemma by tearing the demon to pieces with his claws, at dusk, in a doorway, while holding him on his lap. All four of these avatar appearances occurred in the First Age of the World.

In the Second Age, in fully human forms, Vishnu made three more appearances. As the fifth avatar named , he came as a dwarf to humiliate an arrogant king named . The sixth avatar, , fought with an axe to end the dominance of the ––the warrior caste––who had upset established order. As the archer, the seventh avatar, Vishnu fought an evil demon named . Rama’s heroic exploits are recounted in the great Indian epic called the .

In the Third Age of the World Vishnu made his eighth appearance as an avatar, this time as a human named Krishna. Krishna is the most important of all of the avatars, and in fact many regard him not as an avatar at all, but as Vishnu himself. Living among a group of cowherders, Krishna had many exploits, subduing evil along the way. He also interacted with the mortals among whom he lived, especially with one particular cowmaid named , whom he came to love above all others.

In the current Age of the World, the fourth and last––and the most wicked––Vishnu descended to earth for the ninth time in the person of the Buddha, the historic Siddhartha Gautama. Buddha is essentially regarded today by Hindus as a person who purposefully taught incorrect ideas as a way to mislead the enemies of the true Hindu religion. The tenth and final avatar of Vishnu––one who is yet to come––will be . He will appear riding on a white horse and wielding a sword. He will subdue all evils in the world and set things right once and for all.

Set of ten avatars of the god Vishnu India, , Kondapalli, 1961 Painted wood Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Vishnu’s ten avatars are presented in this brightly-painted group of carved wooden figurines. The avatars, in their standard order of appearance, are Matsya (part man–part fish), Kurma (part man–part turtle), Varaha (part man–part boar), Narasimha (part man–part lion), Vamana (dwarf holding a parasol), Parashurama (man holding an axe), Rama (man holding a bow), Krishna (man with blue skin), Buddha (man wearing a robe), and Kalki (man riding a white horse, though here shown as part man-part horse). Possibly this last figure is not Kalki at all, but instead , an unrelated horse-headed of Vishnu. Also, this particular set did not contain a figure of Krishna so that piece is here substituted with a photo. Omissions and variations in sets are not uncommon.

Sets of figurines like these are made by local Indian craftsmen from soft woods and are available at low cost. The vivid colors appeal to popular Indian taste. This set was made by a toy maker family in Kondapalli, close to Vijayawada, in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Folk art figurines like this these fill a need for some devout Hindus who wish to have depictions of Vishnu’s avatars in their homes.

Jagannatha with and surrounded by the ten avatars of Vishnu India, Orissa, , mid-20th century Paint on sized cloth with lac coating Gift of Dr. and Mrs. J.M. Poehlman (68.7)

This folk painting shows within the center medallion the god Krishna (the dark-faced figure at the right), in his form known as Jagannatha, accompanied by his sister Subhadra and brother Balarama. On the surrounding ten petals are shown the avatars of Vishnu.

The avatars are usually listed in religious texts according to a set order and so they are presented here, but with some variations from the norm. Beginning with the petal to the left of the one at the bottom showing a horse and then proceeding clockwise they are: 1. Matsya (part fish), 2. Kurma (part tortoise), 3. Varaha (part boar), 4. Narasimha (part lion), 5. Vamana (dwarf), 6. Parashurama (holds an axe), 7. Rama (holds a bow), 8. Krishna, 9. Krishna as Jagannatha, and 10. Kalki (white horse).

It is not unusual for variations to exist among lists of avatars, and such is the case with this painting. Oftentimes Buddha is included at the number nine position, but he is here replaced with the Jagannatha form of Krishna. Because Krishna, according to some Hindus, is regarded as more than an avatar of Vishnu and is believed to be equivalent to Vishnu himself, it is not uncommon for him to be depicted more than once in the assemblage. And just as substitutions can exist among the figures, there can be variations in the way the figures themselves are depicted. Normally Krishna would be shown with blue skin, but his image here at the number eight position shows him with normal-colored skin. And Kalki, the tenth avatar who is yet to come, is normally depicted as a human riding a white horse but here only a riderless horse is depicted, not white but golden.

1. Varaha South India, 18th-19th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.233a)

Boar-headed Varaha is the third avatar of Vishnu. He rescued the earth, personified as the goddess Bhu Devi or Prithi, who had sunk to the bottom of the primordial ocean. Like a boar pushing up mud with his tusks, he raised up the earth and thus saved humankind in the process by restoring dry land for habitation. He is shown here seated, holding a folded manuscript in one hand and making the gesture of exposition with the other.

2. Narasimha with his consort Lakshmi South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.220b)

Narasimha is the part man-part lion avatar of Vishnu. He appeared on earth to liberate the world from the tyranny of , a demon which could not be killed by man or animal. Thus Narasimha assumed this composite form and ripped apart the demon. He is shown seated in repose holding a flame- edged conch and discus; his consort, Lakshmi, sits on his knee. A multi-headed , its hood spread out in protection, arches up over the god.

3. Rama with his consort South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.221 a)

Rama 4. India, Deccan, 15th-16th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (65.168)

5. South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.178)

6. Buddha South India, Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (68.443 a and b)

Buddha, a historical person who lived in the sixth or fifth century BCE, is sometimes regarded as an avatar of Vishnu, though he has no substantial cult among Hindus. Buddha’s teachings, which reject established concepts of ancient Hindu scriptures, are regarded as purposefully wrong so as to mislead and weaken the enemies of the true religion. He is often shown seated in a cross-legged, meditative pose and wearing a simple ’s robe.

7. Vamana India, Bihar or ; or Bangladesh Pala-Sena period, ca. 12th century Basalt Gift of Mrs. Natasha Eilenberg (69.1065)

Vamana is the fifth avatar of Vishnu who descended to earth in the form of a dwarf. He appeared in response to harmful activities of a demon which threatened the gods themselves, and thus the whole of cosmic order. Vamana petitioned the demon for a grant of a land, only the amount he could cover in three steps. Once the demon granted his request, Vamana transformed himself into a giant and took his steps, encompassing the earth, the sky, and the . The humbled demon was thereafter relegated to the Underworld. The depiction of Vamana on this stele does not include his normal attributes of umbrella and water pot, but instead shows much of Vishnu’s standard imagery.

Krishna crawling with a butterball 8. India, 20th century Bronze Gift of William A. Scott (2008.192)

9. Probably central India, 18th-19th century Copper alloy Gift of Barbara Stratton Bolling and Deborah S. Booker in memory of Arthur Mills Stratton (76.291)

10. Bangladesh, 20th century Brass with shell inlays and black paint Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.116)

Dancing Krishna

11. South India, 18th century? Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.222 f)

12. South India, ca. 16th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.185)

13. South India, 17th-18th century Bronze with gilding Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.194)

14. Krishna playing a flute and his consort Radha Bangladesh, late 18th century Brass Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.129.1 and 2)

Krishna playing a flute 15. India, 19th century? Painted and gilt Lent by Bette Weiss

16. South India, , 15th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (72.116)

17. South India, ca. 16th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.155)

Shadow puppet depicting Rama , 19th or early 20th century Leather, bamboo and pigments Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Samuel L. Zeigen (61.91)

This shadow puppet from Thailand is one of the few pieces in the exhibition not from India. It depicts Rama, the seventh avatar of Vishnu, and was used in the Nang yai shadow , which incorporates various episodes from the Indian epic called in Thailand or Ramayana in India. The story recounts Rama’s adventures as he rescues his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Thematically, the epic explores human values, the concept of or righteousness, and the lawful order of the universe. By means of cut-outs and perforations forming the design, Rama is shown in a vigorous striding pose and brandishes a sword above his head. using such puppets are traditionally held in outdoor open spaces. Performers hold up the puppets as they dance behind a translucent white fabric screen that is illuminated by a bonfire. The performances run from dusk to dawn and include musical accompaniment, singing, and dialog improvised by the performers.

Krishna with Radha and attendants India, Orissa, Puri, 1969 Paint on cloth Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Krishna, listed among Vishnu’s ten avatars, has risen in importance, and some Hindus now regard him as a full, not just partial, incarnation of Vishnu himself. He descended to earth to destroy evil and set things in order, like each of the other avatars. He grew up in an adoptive family of cowherders, and as a child defeated one demon after another, using his super-human powers. Maturing into a young man he became enamored with the local cowmaids (), and tales of his romantic exploits with them are the source of much devotional literature. Likewise the performing and visual arts take inspiration from these episodes as well.

One particular , named Radha, was Krishna’s most beloved. When Krishna played his flute she was enraptured by him. They became the model couple, and their love for each other is understood among Hindus as symbolic of the human soul longing to be joined with the divine.

In this contemporary folk painting the blue-skinned god is shown standing on a lotus pad playing his flute with Radha balanced on his hip. Krishna’s eyes look upward while Radha dreamily gazes at her lover. The couple is flanked by two attendants, one holding a flywhisk and the other a fan. Two small cows, referencing the pastoral setting in which the scene takes place, also flank the couple. The brilliant background is filled with blooming trees and many tiny flower blossoms. The highly-decorative scene appears as if it is a moment frozen in time and has the overall effect of a devotional tableau.

Crawling Krishna holding a butterball India, late 19th or early 20th century Verre églomisé (paint and metal foil on glass) Lent by Bette Weiss

Krishna is shown here as a crawling baby holding the butterball that he mischievously stole from his ’s butter jar. (See the small bronze statuettes of the god in this same pose also in this exhibition.) According to legend, Krishna was adopted into a family of cowherders, and his exploits while growing up––such as this theft of butter––are recounted in various Hindu literary sources. The infant is depicted as a plump child with light skin and positioned on a sort of cushioned throne. While he has the chubby body of a toddler, his facial features are decidedly not those of a baby. The older man and woman in the background are probably his adoptive father and mother, and . The girl could be his sister Subhadra; she offers another lump of butter to the youthful god. The story illustrates the irresistible attraction that Lord Krishna has on worshipers, just like the power that infants, perhaps naughty but still adorable, can exert over their doting parents. The butterball could also be understood as a symbol of world, which Krishna completely controls.

The technique of painting on the reverse side of a sheet of glass, verre églomisé, was probably first imported into India from China, though it originated in Europe. Widespread in India during the 19th century, the craft is now confined to a few practitioners in , Rajasthan and , where paintings are particularly intricate and sometimes include bright metal foil in the background. The artist paints on the back of the glass, reversing the usual sequence––jewelry and facial features are applied first, then clothing, flesh, and finally background. The technique gives such paintings a sparkling jewel- like appearance.

Krishna steals the gopis’ clothes India, Orissa, Puri, mid-20th century Paint on sized cloth with lac coating Gift of Dr. and Mrs. J.M. Poehlman (68.8)

This painting depicts one of the favorite artistic themes of Krishna’s frolicking time on earth––his theft of the clothes of the cowmaids (the gopis). While the gopis were swimming Krishna stole their clothes and strewed them about the branches of a tree into which he had climbed up. Thus the young women had to surrender to the god and reveal their nakedness to him in order to regain their garments. However, the gopis were not truly upset over the incident because they all had such an attraction to Krishna––each cowmaid thinking he favored her especially. In a religious sense, the gopis’ yearning for Krishna is understood as the human soul longing for god, and this episode illustrates humanity’s helplessness in the face of divine whimsy.

The style of this painting with its flattened perspective and red background is typical of the twentieth-century folk style from in the area of Orissa in eastern India.

Krishna riding on a group of gopis arranged in the shape of a horse India, late 19th to early 20th century Paint on paper Lent by Bette Weiss

Krishna spent part of his time on earth in a sort of delightful play, called rasalila. The rasalila theme has sexual overtones, especially when Krishna is shown with the one particular gopi (cowmaid) whom he loved most, Radha. In a religious sense, Krishna’s “play” illustrates the perfect bliss to be experienced in a merger of the mortal and the divine.

Here we see Krishna riding on a horse whose body is composed of a group of gopis––the motif is termed nari or “woman-horse.” More maids stand nearby and gaze at the god, enraptured by him, perhaps awaiting their turn to play. The scene takes place alongside a river under a streaked and cloudy sky, but hardly any other landscape elements are shown; instead all attention is focused on the cowmaids and the god. The artist has convincingly arranged the bodies of the gopis into the shape of a horse––one maid’s hair becomes the horse’s tail and the feet of another serve as the horse’s ears. The details of costume and jewelry are meticulously recorded, and, together with the poses of the young women, delight the eye and invite close inspection.

Krishna lifting Mt. Govardhana India, Orissa, Puri, mid-20th century Paint on sized cloth with lac coating Gift of Dr. and Mrs. J.M. Poehlman (68.3)

In this painting, executed in a decorative folk style, Krishna is shown lifting up Mt. Govardhana and using it as an umbrella to shelter the people of from torrential rains unleashed by the jealous god . The ease with which Krishna bears the weight of the mountain, with just his little finger, demonstrates the god’s awesome power. The peaks of the mountain are depicted unrealistically as fan-like arcs across the top of the composition. Krishna is shown with blue skin, a sign of his association with Vishnu, who also is usually depicted in that color.

Women worshipping Shrinathaji (Krishna) Late 19th or early 20th century

Verre églomisé (paint on glass) Lent by Bette Weiss

Krishna is sometimes worshipped in the form known as Shrinathaji. This is particularly so in the city of Nathdwara in the west Indian state of Rajasthan. The temple there houses the god’s statue, which has an icon-like form in a pose with one arm raised up––a pose that references the protective miracle Krishna performed by lifting up Mt. Govardhana. This painting depicts the statue, positioned on a throne and worshipped by four women.

Photographs of the actual cult statue are not permitted, so paintings are made instead. They are sold to devotees to use in household shrines and to serve as souvenirs of their pilgrimage; tourists also now collect them. All sorts of examples are made to supply this market, ranging from small to large, and painted on paper, fabric, or, as in the example exhibited here, on the reverse side of a sheet of glass in the technique called verre églomisé. Jagannatha India, Orissa, Puri, mid-20th century Painted wood Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Jagannatha, literally meaning “Lord of the World” is a form of Krishna. He, along with his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, is worshipped in eastern India. (Jagannatha is the black-faced figure, Balarama the white-faced figure, and Subhadra the smaller yellow-faced figure.) Their compacted shapes imitate the icons that are displayed in the main temple in the city of Puri. According to tradition, after his death Krishna’s bones were placed in a reliquary log that was given eyes by the god Indra; therefore icons of the god and his sacred family have log-like shapes and large eyes.

Image of the Jagannatha temple India, Orissa, Puri, 1935 Gouache on sized cloth Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

This painting depicts a stylized view of the temple of Jagannatha (a form of Krishna whose name means “Lord of the World”) located in the city of Puri. The temple, with its distinctive bell- shaped tower and pyramidal roof of the hall in front of the sanctum, houses the cult statue of the god along with his divine brother Balarama and sister Subhadra. The three figures are shown at the center of the temple as log-like icons with huge eyes–– Jagannatha is the black-faced one; his image appears several times throughout the composition as well. A host of other figures surround the temple, some inside subsidiary shrines, and include other avatars of Vishnu (across the top), the gods Shiva and (flanking the blue column in the center scene atop the stepped temple platform), priests, and numerous devotees. Such paintings are sold as souvenirs to pilgrims and tourists who visit this important site where an annual grand is held.

SHIVA

Shiva’s origin as a storm god is very ancient, and he was first known by the name , “The Howling One.” He was also connected with fire. In earliest times he represented the uncultivated, unconquered, and dangerous part of nature. Over time he rose in importance and significance to become the god now called Shiva. His devotees consider him to be the supreme god who transcends all categories. He is existence itself. He cannot be limited. He is the indefinable absolute.

Because Shiva is all things, both the beginning and the end, he is responsible for both creation and destruction, for it is understood that these two activities go hand in hand, that one cannot exist without the other. Shiva has both male and female components within his being. The divine female part of his essence (his ) provides him with creative energy. His shakti is usually understood to be manifested in the form of a goddess who is regarded as his consort; Parvati is one of her many names. In his dual role as creator and destroyer, Shiva performs a cosmic dance, representing the continual cyclical nature of the universe, and when he does so he is called , “Lord of the Dance.” In the Hindu (the concept of a trinity of gods), Shiva’s role as the god of destruction is emphasized, and he is often thus referred to as “The Destroyer.” This fearsome aspect of his character is named .

Not always actively engaged in the affairs of the world, Shiva spends much of his time as a meditating ascetic, living high in the on Mount Kailasa. In depictions his hair is piled up in matted locks; a crescent moon and a skull may be worked into the arrangement. A garland of skulls is often present around his neck. He wears an ornament in the shape of a (a mythical beast) in his right ear, representing his maleness, and a circular earring in his left ear, signifying his feminine side. Venomous serpents––symbolic of regeneration because of their ability to shed their skins but also signifying death due to their poisonous bite––usually are present somewhere on his body, either in his hair, writhing around his ears, or entwined about his torso. In the middle of his forehead he frequently has a vertical ––the eye of transcendental wisdom; it usually looks inward, but when it looks outward it burns all before it. The god’s main emblem is a , but he also may hold a drum, bow, club, skull-topped staff, or noose. Sometimes he holds a small , seen emerging from his fingertips, for he is also the master of animals. The sacred animal that frequently accompanies him is the white bull named .

Shiva is not always depicted in human form. In fact he is commonly worshipped in the non-figural shape of a linga, a pillar-like object representing a phallus. In this form the god’s generative and procreative power is emphasized. Still, because Shiva’s very nature is limitless, his form cannot be limited or confined. He exists in every form, in every place.

Mask depicting Shiva India, West Bengal, Puruliya district, 1962 Painted paper mâché Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Shiva’s association with is prominently indicated in this mask by the two cobras that emerge from the sides of his head, while a third is coiled at the top. The cobra symbolizes Shiva’s power of death, but also–– just as a snake sheds its skin in renewal––it references the god’s power to bring new life into existence. Shiva’s third eye is shown on his forehead. That eye usually looks inward in perception, but when it looks outward it burns everything to ashes. Also on his head is a crescent moon––its cycling phases symbolize the passage of time. A small female bust of is present on his head too; Ganga (the River deified) brings forth life-sustaining water. All these attributes reveal Shiva’s dual nature as both a creator and a destroyer, continuously at work. Shiva is ultimately worshipped because of his ability to liberate human souls from their endless cycle of existence (samsara) and to bring them transcendent peace.

This mask was made for use in the popular Indian theatrical dance called Chhau. Probably originating as a war dance, Chhau performances now feature re-enactments of episodes from the great Indian epics including the and Ramayana, all reinforcing the underlying moral theme that good will always overcome evil. Chhau is a vibrant, powerful, and ritualistic folk dance form. Brightly-painted masks and elaborate figure prominently, as do the bold movements of the actors and the reverberating music of the .

Shiva India, Rajasthan, 11th or 12th century Sandstone

Gift of Peter Marks (64.123)

This sculpture, carved in extremely high relief, shows the god Shiva standing in an exaggerated posture known as the “three-bends” pose––the posture indicates active movement. The god’s upper left hand holds a three-headed cobra; the upper right, a club or (now partly broken away); the lower right hand holds a string of prayer beads and makes the gesture of bestowing gifts; the lower left hand is now broken away. The club indicates Shiva’s power of destruction, and both the circular string of beads and the snake symbolize the eternal cycle of time and immortality. A long garland hangs down from the god’s arms and swags around his legs. His hair, worn in the matted locks of an ascetic, is piled up and bound into a peaked arrangement that resembles a crown. Often Shiva is depicted with a third eye on his forehead, but none is evident in this carving. Though one of Shiva’s roles is destroyer, he is not always portrayed as fearsome, and here he has a rather benign smile on his face. This stele was probably originally part of a larger composition situated on a temple façade.

Shiva and Parvati with and the bull Nandi Northern India, Kangra School, 18th century Tempera on paper Gift of Alan Gerdau (62.67.2)

Shiva and Parvati with Ganesha, Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi India, late 19th or early 20th century

Verre églomisé (paint on glass) Lent by Bette Weiss

In these two paintings the sacred River Ganges is shown descending to earth from the head of Shiva, who is seated on Mt. Kailasa in the Himalayas, accompanied by his wife Parvati and his bull Nandi. The river, personified as the goddess Ganga, originally flowed only in heaven, but upon a plea from the sage Bhagiratha she allowed her life-giving waters to spill down to earth. However her enormous volume threatened to inundate the world, so Shiva agreed to break the fall of the torrent with his matted hair, and from there the river’s waters flowed gently on down. In some ways, Ganga is considered to be the aquatic form of Shiva himself.

In the painting on glass the river is shown issuing from the mouth of Ganga, situated atop Shiva’s head; Shiva and his consort Parvati sit together on a skin and are accompanied by their child, the elephant-headed Ganesha. In the tempera painting the river springs directly from Shiva’s coiled hair bun, and the divine couple sits on an elephant skin without their son. In both paintings Bhagiratha is shown standing to one side in adoration and supplication. Both depictions are set amidst mountains, though in the glass painting they are not shown as towering peaks. Both paintings lack western-style perspective and are instead rendered as conceptualized flattened spaces. Each artist considered it more important to convey the elements of the story in a straightforward, easy-to-read manner than to represent the landscape in a naturalistic pictorial mode.

The River Ganges is considered a boon sent to mankind from heaven. Her waters give joy, prosperity and liberation in this life and the hope of a happy future life. Hindus believe that bathing in her waters washes away sins. The final wish of many devout believers is for their cremated ashes to be set adrift on the Ganges so as to usher their souls into the next life. Shiva Bhairava North central India, perhaps Rajasthan, ca. 11th– 12th century Sandstone Purchased with funds generated from gifts of Dr. and Mrs. Renato Almansi, Mr. and Mrs. Judson Biehle in memory of Dean Martha Biehle, Mrs. Josefa Carlebach, Dr. Samuel Eilenberg, Dr. and Mrs. Martin J. Gerson, Mr. Robert Landers, Dr. Richard Nalin, and Mr. And Mrs. Irwin A. Vladimir (86.21)

Bhairava is the terrifying aspect of the god Shiva– –the ultimate in divine destruction. This monumental image manifests Shiva’s power over the material world. In this sculpture his eyes bulge with anger, his staff is topped by a grimacing human skull, and snakes curl around his ears; his hair, with the matted locks of an ascetic, is adorned with severed human hands and another skull.

In his many aspects, Shiva is represented in art as a wandering hermit; as a doting family man; as creative power embedded in the phallus; as the cosmic dancer who sets the calendric, climactic and metabolic rhythms of the world; and as a ferocious destroyer. Ultimately, Shiva is the cosmos and its energy. The destructive power of Shiva, represented as Bhairava, illustrates the Hindu belief that creation and destruction go hand in hand. Ultimately, we are to understand that the manifest world is nothing but illusion. Shiva Bhairava is the destructive force that liberates us from entanglement in illusion and in so doing brings transcendent peace.

1. Shiva riding his bull Nandi Northern India, Kulu Valley, ca. 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (63.3.34a and b)

Shiva, riding his bull Nandi, wears a necklace of three skulls and a tall pointed cap. A serpent, symbolizing cosmic evolution–– life, death, and rebirth––is wrapped around his waist and extends up his back and over his right shoulder. The simplified figural style of the piece is characteristic of sculptures from the Kulu Valley. 2. Shiva, Uma, and their son, South India, ca. 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (69.1067a

and b)

Shiva and his wife Uma (also known as Parvati) are seated on lotus- decorated seats. Their son, Skanda, stands between them. In his upper hands Shiva holds an axe and a stylized antelope, a symbol that he is lord of nature, while his lower hands make the gestures of protection and gift-bestowing. Uma holds a lotus and also makes the gift- bestowing gesture. A flaming aureole surrounds them. The happy family serves as a model for all Hindus.

3. Nandi with a linga Central India, ca. 19th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Martin J. Gerson (67.18)

The bull Nandi is Shiva’s faithful animal, and his image instantly calls to mind the god himself. Positioned prominently between Nandi’s front feet is a pillar-like object called a linga, the non-figural form of Shiva as a phallus, symbolic of the god’s generative power. It is encircled by a flange, the , symbolizing the female element. The linga-yoni conveys the concept that Shiva is all encompassing––both male and female in one being.

4. Shiva Bhairava South India, ca. 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.176)

Bhairava is the fearsome aspect of Shiva. Here he stands with his vahana, a dog, which guards the where dead bodies decay. In one hand the god holds a trident, which symbolizes three aspects of his nature: creation, preservation and destruction. Other hands hold a cobra and skull bowl. A long garland of skulls hangs from his shoulder to his ankles. The sacred thread worn about his torso is rendered as a venomous serpent.

5. Shiva Nataraja South India, 16th or 17th century Bronze

Gilbreath-McLorn Museum Fund (2004.4)

Shiva Nataraja, Lord of the Dance, symbolizes the eternal, cyclical nature of the universe that the regular rhythm of his dance sets in motion. On his drum he taps out the sound to which creation occurs. The flame in his upper left hand signifies destruction. His lower right hand offers protection while his raised foot symbolizes liberation. The circle of flames around him is energy in its purest form. Underfoot he crushes ignorance, represented by a dwarf.

6. Shiva, the lord whose half is woman () South India, 18th century Bronze

Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (72.110)

Ardhanarishvara, the hermaphroditic form of Shiva, symbolizes the god’s indivisible, combined male and female form––passive space and active time conjoined, the source from which all life originates. The right half of the figure is male; the left half is female, representing Shiva’s shakti (female energy).

7. Relief depicting Shiva and Parvati India, , ca. 8th or 9th century Basalt Anonymous gift (87.140)

Shiva is here represented en famille, accompanied by his wife Parvati and tiny depictions of their children Skanda and the elephant-headed Ganesha. Several details recall Shiva’s procreative power: the sons, his erect phallus just emerging at the waist of his loincloth, and his attendant bull. Shiva carries a trident and has a third eye on his forehead. All the figures have halos behind their heads, indicating their divine status.

8. Plaque showing South central India, 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (65.22)

Four-armed, sword-wielding Virabhadra is a manifestation of Shiva. In this form he decapitated the who had insulted him, but in so doing interrupted the demigod’s by which all beings are created. Virabhadra later revived Daksha by replacing his head with that of a goat, thus ensuring the demigod’s survival and the continuance of creation. The revived and now-devoted Daksha is seen at the lower left.

GANESHA

Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is one of the best-known and widely- worshipped deities of the Hindu pantheon. He is revered as “The Remover of Obstacles,” both material and spiritual. He is invoked at the beginning of any new undertaking, such as setting off on a journey, opening a new business, or taking a test. He is the patron of education, , wisdom, and wealth. He is also the destroyer of vanity, selfishness, and pride. Hindus, regardless of their sect affiliation, call upon Ganesha at the beginning of worship services, even if the main they are supplicating is a different one.

Ganesha is the son of Parvati and Shiva. He is easily identified by his elephant head and pot belly. Varying tales exist as to how he came to have an elephant head. The most common one is that Ganesha, guarding his mother’s door while she was bathing, attempted to prevent Shiva from entering. Shiva, not recognizing Ganesha as his own son, cut off the boy’s original human head. Learning what had happened, the distraught Parvati appealed to her husband to restore the youth to life. Shiva, therefore, revived the boy with the head of the first animal that came walking by––an elephant. Ganesha is usually depicted with four arms, with each hand holding an attribute. Most common among these attributes are an , a noose, a sweet cake, and his own broken tusk. Various legends explain how he came to have the broken tusk: one says that in an act of self-sacrifice he broke it off in order to use it as a pen to write down the religious epic called the Mahbharata.

Ganesha is often depicted wearing a snake as a belt or sacred thread about his torso. The snake, in the way it sheds its skin, is understood as a symbol of cyclical renewal; its presence on Ganesha images reinforces his connection with his father Shiva. Ganesha’s mount is a mouse. Lowest among all creatures, the animal can squeeze through the smallest opening or gnaw its way through obstructions, an analogy to Ganesha’s ability to do the same for the benefit of humankind.

Panel depicting Ganesha with his consort India, 20th century Wood Lent by Dr. Harry Feirman and Dr. Nancy Langworthy

This impressively-large panel shows Ganesha, the Remover of Obstacles, seated on a raised dais in a posture of ease with his consort on his knee. In three of his hands he holds a club, a noose, and his broken tusk. With his fourth hand he pulls close his wife, who is probably offering him a sweet morsel. A scrolling vine and a tree with two birds perched in it fill the area around the two figures. In the zone at the bottom are four oversize mice––the mouse (or rat) is Ganesha’s special animal (vahana). A border of geometric motifs encloses the entire panel.

The marital status of Ganesha varies widely. Several identifications for his wife exist, and sometimes he is even considered to be a bachelor. Three particular goddesses are all mentioned as his counterpart in sacred writings: Buddhi, the personification of intellect; , the personification of spiritual power; and Riddhi, the personification of prosperity. At other times Ganesha is linked with Sarasvati, the goddess of arts and culture, and Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune––though these deities are most often considered to be the wives of Brahma and Vishnu respectively. In still other situations Shakti (divine feminine energy) is regarded as his consort. The female figure depicted in this panel holds no particular attribute, so there is essentially no way to be certain of her identity.

Such large carved wooden panels from India are a development of modern times and do not have a long history in Hindu art. They are created more for decorative than religious purposes. The openwork design and the partial whitewash help to impart a dazzling and ornamental effect.

Mask of Ganesha India, Delhi, mid-20th century Painted paper mâché Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Stanley Marcus (66.363a)

Masks of paper mâché, such as this one depicting Ganesha, are made for use in theatrical productions in present-day India. This one comes from the Bharatiya Natya Sangh workshop in New Delhi. Like many others it is painted in bright attention-getting colors. In some ancient texts Ganesha’s skin is red, and it is accordingly colored in this example; facial details and jewelry are picked out in various other colors. A third eye on the forehead, along with the linear mark surrounding it, reference the god Shiva, Ganesha’s father.

1. Ganesha South India, , Chola period, late 12th century Bronze

Gift of Michael H. De Havenon (67.173)

In his upper hands the god here carries a goad which symbolizes action and his ability to distinguish spiritual motives and steer them; and a noose that signifies human attachment to worldly matters as well as the god's capacity to capture evil and bind ignorance. His lower right hand holds his broken tusk; his lower left holds a sweet cake. The lugs on each side of the base served to fasten the statue onto poles for processional use.

2. Ganesha India, Punjab or Rajasthan, 15th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (63.3.30)

3. Ganesha with his consort South India, ca. 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.220a)

Here Ganesha has ten arms and is seated in a posture of grace and ease (). His consort or shakti (female energy) rests on his knee.

4. Dancing Ganesha South India, ca. 18th century Copper alloy Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.199)

Ganesha is sometimes shown in a dancing pose, primarily in imitation of his father Shiva, who as Nataraja is Lord of the Dance. The god, with his comic elephant-headed appearance, is also said to dance in order to entertain his parents or the assembly of gods. In a deeper religious context, Ganesha’s rhythmic dance is symbolic of the eternal, continuously-cycling universe, from which at some point hope to attain release (moksha).

5. Ganesha with five heads and ten arms (Herambha Ganapati) South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (72.108)

When in this form, with five heads and ten arms, Ganesha is known as Herambha Ganapati, the Protector of the Weak. Instead of his normal mouse, he here rides a lion as his vahana. Four of his heads face the cardinal directions while the fifth is on the top looking upward. Each of his hands holds a different attribute. The spikes at either side of the base would have supported a full-body halo.

6. Group of Ganesha figurines India, 19th and 20th centuries Copper alloy Lent by Bette Weiss

Tiny though they are, these representations of Ganesha still show the god with his standard gestures and attributes. The power of these objects as religious icons is not diminished by their diminutive size. Figurines of this much-loved god are among the most collected of any Hindu deity.

7. Ganesha India, , 20th century Bronze Lent by Dr. Harry Feirman and Dr. Nancy Langworthy

Present-day artisans in India still create images of , not only for religious use by devotees, but also for sale to tourists and collectors. Though inspired by centuries-old traditional representations, makers sometimes take artistic license and abandon set canons of depiction, inventing new styles and forms. Compare this extremely-elongated figure of the god with the Chola period sculpture (#1) displayed in this same case.

Stele showing surrounded by the other eleven Adityas and flanked by attendants and wives India, Bihar or West Bengal; or Bangladesh, ca. 10th-11th century Basalt Anonymous Gift (77.288)

Surya, the god, was for centuries worshipped in temples especially devoted to him. Eventually his position within the Hindu pantheon was overshadowed by Vishnu, so that now in modern times Surya holds a modest place among other gods who are associated with the and celestial bodies. Surya stands in a frontal pose on his , symbolically rendered as a single wheel at the bottom center of the stele. The chariot is drawn through the heavens by seven horses, one of which is shown frontally inside the wheel, the other six are at its sides. The charioteer is depicted at the front of Surya's lotus pedestal, just above the wheel.

Surya is one of the twelve Adityas, children of , the goddess of the firmament. Ten of his brothers, five on each side, are shown arranged around the upper edges of the stele; only the legs of the eleventh Aditya are preserved at the very peak. Surya holds two lotus stems, the blossoms of the plant arching up over his shoulders; each of his brothers does likewise. He wears a tall crown, ear ornaments, necklaces, an elaborately tasseled girdle, a thin lower-body garment called a dhoti, and boots.

At Surya’s sides stand Pingla the recorder, pot-bellied, bearded and holding a pen and ink pot, and Danda the measurer, who holds a sword. In front of Surya’s legs is the small standing figure of his consort Usha (the dawn). Two of his other consorts, Rajni and Nikshubha, are shown as tiny figures in front of the legs of Pingala and Danda. Crouching archers are to the outside of them. At the upper sloping edges of the stele are two flying garland-bearers.

The orange paint on Surya’s crown was applied in modern times as an act of devotion by a worshipper. The act of anointing figures with pigments, along with leaving various offerings, follows a centuries-old tradition. Plaque depicting Dharmaraj India, Rajasthan, Molela, 1969 Painted Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Modern-day potters from Molela make plaques featuring the major gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon as well as tribal deities such as this one showing Dharmaraj, a local warrior-ruler turned into a god. He is regarded as the preserver and dispenser of justice, and as such he is sometimes equated with Vishnu. Dharmaraj also rules over the domain of departed human souls.

Dharmaraj is depicted riding a horse and holding a spear in one hand and lotus bud in the other. A black cobra, representing the power of nature, rises up above the horse’s head, while another spotted snake slithers between the horse’s legs. The five knobs crowning the arches across the top of the plaque signify the five human senses.

The plaques, made from locally-dug clay, are modeled and formed by hand and dried in the sun. They are then fired in a kiln and later painted with vivid, bright colors. The plaques usually serve a religious purpose in local Hindu homes, but nowadays they are also collected as decorative art objects or wall ornaments. The production of these plaques and other ceramic objects supplement the makers’ incomes when they are not tending their herds, their main occupation.

1. Fragmentary stele depicting Brahma India, Bihar or West Bengal, ca. 10th-11th century Basalt Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Martin J. Gerson (66.338)

2. Brahma Northern India, ca. 17th century Copper alloy Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (63.3.32)

Brahma, the Creator, is regarded as the first god in the Hindu trimurti or trinity; Vishnu, the Preserver, and Shiva, the Destroyer, are the other two. In principle these three gods are equal in status and influence since they are actually all reflections of the three important aspects of divine power. In modern-day Hinduism, however, the worship of Brahma has diminished in importance. Brahma has four faces, as he is shown in the metal statuette here, but in the stone sculpture only three are visible because the fourth cannot be shown in a relief. In the statuette he holds the four sacred writings, called vedas; in the stone carving he might have once held a folded book in his now-damaged left hand. His vehicle or vahana is a goose (symbol of knowledge), and it is shown at the lower front of the stone relief.

3. Karttikeya riding a peacock South India, 17th-18th century? Bronze

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.236)

Four-armed Karttikeya (also called Skanda and other names) is the god of war; he is the son of Shiva and Parvati. Riding on a peacock, he is seated in the position of ease with one leg folded under him and the other leg pendant. With one hand he holds a thunderbolt (); with another he makes the gesture of protection. His other two hands may have once held a trident and made the gesture of gift-bestowing.

4. South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.184)

A rural deity originally from southern India and said to be the son of Shiva and (a female form of Vishnu), Aiyanar was eventually adopted into the Hindu pantheon. He is primarily worshipped as a guardian deity, protecting villages from demons and evil spirits. He is often depicted riding a horse or elephant and holding a sword, but here he is presented in a vigorous widespread stance and holding a herdsman's goad.

GODDESSES

The number and popularity of goddesses in Hinduism is remarkable. No other religious tradition has such an ancient and diverse array. Some theologians have proposed that all Hindu goddesses are different manifestations of an underlying feminine principle, aspects of a single sacred feminine entity. This essence may be termed shakti (cosmic female power), or may be given the name Devi (“The Goddess”) or Mahadevi (“The Great Goddess”). A similar theory could be applied to the numerous male gods of the Hindu pantheon as well. Still, the general trend in Hinduism has been to individualize the divine feminine and to identify specific goddesses, with each deity having her own characteristics, role, and mythology. Many goddesses, such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, and Kali, figure prominently in Hindu sacred literature and are widely known and worshipped. Others, however, like the snake goddess Manasha, or , the goddess of smallpox, have more regionalized backgrounds and are not as widely known or worshipped. Many goddesses are closely identified with a male counterpart and are regarded as the wife of a specific god, for instance: Lakshmi with Vishnu, and Parvati with Shiva. In other instances, though, some goddesses like Durga, who famously fought the buffalo demon, mostly act on their own and are less frequently linked with a male consort.

In India, from earliest times, goddess worship emphasized the role of the female in fertility and procreation. Evolving from that, many goddesses came to have strong maternal, nurturing, and domestic roles. Other goddesses do not follow that model, however, and are quite devoid of maternal characteristics. Instead they are revered as great warriors like Durga, devourers of children like Maheshvari, or bringers of death like Kali.

In artistic depictions each goddess traditionally has her own particular iconography. By examining signifiers and attributes, and by observing other gods and figures with whom she may be shown, a viewer is usually, but not always, able to distinguish one goddess from another.

Lintel showing Lakshmi bathed with lustral water by elephants and flanked by an entourage South India, 18th century Wood Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (65.175)

The central image of the goddess Lakshmi, seated in front of a rainbow arch, is bathed by the watery sprays of elephants. Above her head she is guarded by a bodiless monster, Kirtimukha, which is flanked by two aerial spirits bearing caskets. Behind each elephant is a fly-whisking attendant. On the left side of the relief are Daksha, Virabhadra, and dancing Shiva. On the right is the axe-bearing Parashurama (an avatar of Vishnu) standing beside a warrior enemy; at the end is Trivikrama (a form of Vishnu). The entire relief is framed by a motif representing the waves and foamy swirls of the sea. The relief symbolically makes visible Lakshmi’s offer of abundance. Such images are frequently carved on the door lintels of temples to Vishnu. On entering, visitors not only bow their heads to the goddess, but also receive in return her grace as the bringer of good fortune.

Lakshmi bathed with lustral water by elephants India, Thanjavur, 2nd half of 20th century Verre églomisé (paint on glass with added metallic sequins) Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, is the goddess of good fortune and abundance. Her origin as a fertility goddess is of great antiquity. Hindus consider her one of the most approachable deities, along with Ganesha.

Water is a precious element in India, where in some areas rain does not fall for eight months of the year. During the monsoon season, however, it can fall in abundance. The image of elephants spraying water is closely tied to the monsoons and to Lakshmi.

In this painting the four-armed goddess is lustrated by water sprayed from the trunks of two elephants (gajas). When shown undergoing this action she is called -Lakshmi. In her two upper hands the goddess holds lotus blossoms, flowers from a water-loving plant. With her lower right hand she makes the gesture of protection (abhaya ), and with her lower left she bestows gifts (varada mudra). Just as elephants pay homage to Lakshmi, devotees are invited to make their own offerings to the goddess in return for the gifts she gives to humankind.

Lakshmi South India, Vijayanagar period, 15th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (72.107)

Lakshmi stands in a graceful “three bends” pose (). Her left hand holds a half- open lotus bud. She wears a tall ornamented crown, earrings, and numerous necklaces and armlets. Flowers adorn her shoulders, and a band supports her full breasts. A multi- stranded girdle festooned with tassels supports the dhoti that she wears about her lower body. There is a small halo, indicating divinity, behind her head. The two square lugs on each side of the base were meant to hold an ornamented aureole (full body halo).

The beauty of the goddess and richness of her attire suggest the abundance and wellbeing that she bestows upon her devotees. She is particularly worshipped at the time of the New Year for prosperity in the coming year, and at the festival of in the autumn when lamps are lit in houses to chase away misfortune. Large sculptures like this are placed in public temples, but during certain festivals they are paraded in the streets.

Artisans follow established canons of iconography, pose, and proportion to craft such images. Large statues and small figurines can have a nearly identical appearance. The technical expertise of the artist who made this statue is exquisite.

1. Lakshmi holding a lamp South India, Thanjavar district, 16th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (68.434)

Lakshmi, here holding a lamp, is shown with a voluptuous physique, rich jewelry, and ornately patterned ––all conveying a sense of plenitude and timeless feminine beauty. Two parrots (symbols of love) perch on the lamp while a third sits on Lakshmi’s shoulder. She cradles a donor figure on her left arm. This sculpture may have been held by a handle attached at the back and waved before a cult statue as part of worship.

2. Lakshmi riding an elephant India, West Bengal, 18th-19th century Copper alloy Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.143)

3. Lamp fragment showing Lakshmi bathed with lustral water by elephants India, , Mysore, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (63.3.27)

Lakshmi 4. India, 18th-19th century Copper alloy Gift of Barbara Stratton Bolling and Deborah S. Booker in memory of Arthur Mills Stratton (76.286)

5. India, 19th century Bronze Gift of William A. Scott (2008.186)

6. South India, 17th century Bronze

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.187)

Stele depicting Parvati with her sons Ganesha and Karttikeya India, Bihar or West Bengal; or Bangladesh Pala period, ca. 11th century Basalt Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Earl Morse (66.117)

Parvati is the wife of Shiva; her name means “Daughter of the Mountain.” She is shown here, figuratively and literally, born from the stone itself. She is flanked by her two sons, elephant-headed Ganesha on her right and Karttikeya (also known as Skanda) on her left. In her upper left hand she holds a mirror––a symbol associated with Shiva, and a sign of both wisdom and the emptiness of all worldly matters. In her upper right hand she holds a linga––the phallus-like symbol of Shiva. In her lower right she holds a pomegranate––symbol of fertility; her lower left hand makes a gesture of protection over her son. All three figures have a third eye on their foreheads, connoting their relationship with Shiva. At the peak of the stele is the bodiless head of an auspicious being called a kirtimukha. Further down are other ethereal spirits and peacocks. At the bottom, an alligator vehicle or vahana supports the goddess; at the bottom left corner is the kneeling figure of a donor or devotee with hands held in the gesture of adoration.

The stele is carved from black basalt, a stone that was commonly used for sculptures during the Pala and Sena periods in northeastern India and in what is now Bangladesh. The sculpture undoubtedly was once positioned in a niche within a temple and served as a focus of worship.

Parvati, also known as Uma, is the loving wife of Shiva. Some Hindus regard Kali as her fearsome aspect, and still others consider Durga to be the manifestation the goddess assumes to fight evil. In some ways Parvati can be regarded as the embodiment of the divine feminine, “The Great Goddess.” She is the perfection of beauty. The one large sculpture in this case was likely made for display and veneration in a public temple, whereas all the small ones were created for devotional use in household shrines. The art of casting bronze statues and figurines has a long history in India; artists of the medieval Chola period were masters of it, and skilled artisans of today continue to practice the craft.

Parvati 1. South India, Tamil Nadu, Chola period, ca. 12th century Bronze Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg in memory of Julius Carlebach (78.169)

The gesture of the goddess’ raised right hand invites a worshipper to make an offering as an act of devotion. In both this example and the next one (#2), Parvati stands in the classic hip-shot “three bends” (tribhanga) pose.

2. South India, 16th century Bronze

Gift of Dr. Samuel Eilenberg (72.118)

Parvati 3. South India, 18th-19th century Bronze

Gift of Dr. Martin J. Gerson (65.45)

4. South India, 18th century Bronze

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.228d)

Each of these figures holds a lotus bud, a symbol of purity. Even at such small scale, the artisans have meticulously adhered to prescribed standards of iconography and proportion for the goddess’ depiction.

5. Head of Parvati as Gauri India, 1st half of 20th century? Brass Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert

F. Bussabarger)

Parvati on one occasion decided to rid herself of her dark complexion because her husband Shiva had ridiculed her. She assumed a golden skin tone and became known as Gauri, “The Golden One.” The yellow color of this folk-style brass head is well-suited to the goddess’s depiction as told in the story.

Victorious Durga standing on the head of the buffalo demon India, Tamil Nadu, Chola period, 9th–11th century Granite Gift of Mrs. Carol Brewster (86.81)

The goddess Durga is a considered to be a form of Shakti (cosmic feminine power). Her name means “invincible.” All the other male gods created her in order to subdue the destructive and evil buffalo demon Mahisha, whom the other gods individually could not overcome. Each god endowed Durga with a weapon, and she is usually depicted holding these items in her multiple hands, though in this large sculpture she holds only two. She thus became a super- powerful and invincible goddess. After a fierce and strenuous battle she eventually killed the demon and cut off his head. By her heroic action Durga restored the cosmic equilibrium and demonstrated that good overcomes evil.

In this sculpture, carved from extremely hard granite, Durga stands victorious on the decapitated head of Mahisha. In two of her four hands, she holds a conch-shell trumpet and a war discus. Her raised right hand makes the gesture of protection, offering reassurance for humans; her lower left hand makes the gesture of royal ease, as if to indicate the outcome of the contest with the demon was never really in doubt.

Durga is one of the most impressive and formidable goddesses of the Hindu pantheon––and also one of the most beloved. Her primary mythological function is to fight demons who threaten the stability of the cosmos. In this role she is depicted as a great battle queen with many arms, each wielding a weapon. She rides a lion (or tiger) which assists her in battle. Her most famous opponent was the demon Mahisha who assumed the form of a buffalo. Finally overcoming and killing Mahisha, the embodiment of evil, she restored equilibrium to the cosmos.

In the artworks displayed here, one sees Durga with her standard imagery: in two statuettes she attacks the buffalo demon, her numerous arms signifying her immense powers. She wields a multitude of weapons as she cuts off the demon’s head, but when he emerges unscathed from the buffalo’s severed neck––this time in human form––she stabs him with her trident. On the painted ceramic lid it is her lion that leads the attack. In other examples Durga is depicted in a non-combative pose, riding her lion or tiger, but still bristling with her armaments, proving she is always ready to defend against evil.

1. Stele showing a goddess, probably Durga , , 17th-18th century Stone Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.158)

2. Durga killing the buffalo demon Central India, ca. 12th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.153)

The worn surface of the figurine indicates it has undergone centuries of ritual touching by devout worshippers.

3. Durga killing the buffalo demon Bangladesh, 16th-17th century Brass Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (78.149)

4. Durga astride a lion India, Himachalel Pradesh, Kulu Valley, ca. 17th century Stone

Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (63.3.33)

5. Lid with scene of Durga killing the buffalo demon India, West Bengal, , 1961 Painted ceramic Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert F. Bussabarger)

6. Durga riding a tiger India, mid-19th century Painted and gilt marble Lent by Bette Weiss

Kali is a terrifying manifestation of The Great Goddess. Sometimes she is regarded as the personified anger of Durga, at other times the fearsome aspect of Parvati. She is the female world ruler, the Power of Time which conquers all, the goddess of death. She is also the god Shiva’s shakti––the dynamic feminine component of his being. She is often shown standing atop the body of her husband, who, without her active power, is inert. Her step arouses him from his death-like state of inertia and awakens his creative force. By her actions Kali confirms that death and life are a continuous cycle, that death is not a finality.

Called “The Black One,” Kali is usually shown with black or dark-colored skin. Her imagery often shows her with a grimacing mouth and a lolling tongue dripping with blood. She may hold a trident, sword, or skull- topped club. As seen in the paintings, she often holds a severed human head. Her garland may be strung with human skulls, and her skirt may be composed of severed hands. If not standing on Shiva, she may be seated atop him, as can be seen in the brass statuette. All these features symbolize the awesome powers of this goddess of destruction.

7. Kali dancing on Shiva India, Orissa, Puri, mid-20th century Paint on cloth Gift of Dr. and Mrs. J. M. Poehlman (68.4)

8. Miniature depicting Kali dancing on Shiva India, 19th century Paint on ivory Lent by Bette Weiss

9. Kali enthroned with Shiva lying below Central India, 18th century Brass Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.207)

10. Plaque with bust of Kali India, , Kulu valley, 16th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.258)

Sarasvati India, early 18th century Wood Lent by Bette Weiss

Sarasvati is the goddess of speech, rhetoric, poetry, and intuition. She is also the patron of the arts, especially of music. She is held in high regard throughout India, and on her special day she is worshipped by school children as the goddess of learning. She was originally considered to be the embodiment of the Sarasvati River (which in modern times has mostly dried up), and as such she was the earliest example of a goddess to be associated with a river in the Indian tradition. She is sometimes regarded as the wife, sometimes as the daughter, of the god Brahma– –essentially understood as the feminine component of his own essence.

As depicted here, Sarasvati is most always shown holding a stringed musical instrument. Her special animal (vahana) is sometimes a goose, sometimes a peacock––the latter is shown beneath her right foot in this sculpture. The manner of depiction of this statue does not follow classical norms but instead exhibits a charming folk style.

1. Shitala India, 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.192)

Shitala, the goddess of smallpox, is widely worshipped in northern India. She can be both responsible for the disease but at the same time the protector against it. Here, in her raised hand, she may be carrying either a short broom (to spread or sweep away disease) or a cluster of medicinal leaves. The modest little statuette would have been used in a domestic shrine and beseeched for protection against pestilence.

2. Maheshvari India, Bihar or West Bengal; or Bangladesh Pala period, 9th-10th century Basalt Anonymous gift (77.289)

Maheshvari, an aspect of Devi (The Goddess), is one of the Seven (). Equated with Parvati, she is the wife of Maheshvara (Shiva). In three of her hands she holds a trident, a water vessel, and an unidentified object; with her fourth hand she makes the gesture of bestowing gifts. The Seven Mothers are feared rather than loved; they are regarded as devourers of young children.

3. South India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Samuel Eilenberg (66.162)

Annapurna, “she who is full of food,” is an aspect of Mahadevi (The Great Goddess). She is also regarded as a benevolent form of Parvati. The goddess of food distribution, she is depicted holding a food bowl, ladle, elephant goad, and conch shell. One of the highest mountains in the Himalayan range bears her name. Many streams descend from its slopes, watering cultivated fields, which in turn provide sustenance for humans.

4. Plaque showing the eyes of Devi India, 19th century Silver Gift of Barbara Stratton Bolling and Deborah S. Booker in memory of Arthur Mills Stratton (76.101)

Devi is the female aspect of the divine––the quintessential core form of every Hindu goddess. She is worshipped under many different names, or simply as “The Goddess.” This plaque depicts just her eyes, gazing widely at anyone who beholds her. In Hindu worship the idea of seeing the god (darshan)–– and being seen by the god––is an important and integral concept.

5. Pot in the form of the snake goddess Manasha India, West Bengal, 1968 Pottery Lent by the Museum of Anthropology, MU (Gift of Robert Bussabarger)

The snake goddess Manasha is worshipped mainly in parts of northern India, chiefly for the prevention and cure of snakebite, but also for fertility and prosperity. She is especially worshipped in the rainy season, when snakes are most active. Like many folk deities, she can both cause and ward off maladies. Here she is shown emerging from a handmade pot, flanked by two rearing cobras. White-pigmented details contrast with the black clay of the pot.