Seeing the Divine in Hindu Art ___________ Museum of Art and Archaeology University of Missouri September 22 – December 16, 2012 INTRODUCTION Hinduism, one of the great religions of the world, has a long and rich history of depicting the divine in art. Originating in India in remote antiquity, it is a polytheistic system with a myriad of gods and goddesses. The challenge for artists was not a shortage of subject matter, but rather how to give form to beings that by their very natures are formless. Relying mainly on sacred religious texts wherein the exploits of the gods and goddesses are told and retold, certain tales and episodes became favorites for illustration, and standard iconographies were established for specific deities. These iconographies include certain attributes, body postures, hand gestures, hair styles, colors, animal associations, and the like. Most of these elements are imbued with deep religious symbolism. A visual vocabulary was thus built up, and once established, became solidified. This visual library has since remained fairly unchanged with the passage of time. From its beginnings Hindu art was created primarily to aid devotees in focusing their worship. Monumental stone statues or relief sculptures were positioned in or on temples, and large bronze cult statues were set up for public worship. Innumerable smaller figurines have been made for installation in household shrines so that devotees may offer personal devotion. Paintings, tapestries, ritual objects, theatrical masks, and other items bearing images of deities have been created in various media, all forming part of a dense pictorial encyclopedia used to illustrate divine subject matter. This rich corpus of imagery provides instruction, support, and inspiration for millions of devout Hindu believers. The exhibition features some of the most important deities of the Hindu pantheon. Vishnu and his ten avatars, especially Krishna, figure prominently. Shiva, another male god of prime importance, is featured, as is his son, the much loved elephant-headed Ganesha. The well-known goddesses Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali, and Sarasvati are represented. Together with these major gods and goddesses, a selection of lesser-known male and female deities is also included. The artworks span the ages, from the eighth or ninth century to the present. Most were made in India, though a few originate in neighboring countries of south or southeast Asia. Artworks created in time-honored classic styles, honed through centuries of standardization, are displayed alongside items that exhibit regional stylizations, charming folk-style characteristics, or even modern artistic license. Taken as a whole, the exhibition offers viewers an introduction to the incredibly fertile and varied visual landscape of Hindu divinity. VISHNU Vishnu, “The Preserver,” the keeper of life, is one of the most important gods of Hinduism. He has been described as the most peaceful, benevolent, and compassionate of deities, yet when confronting enemies he is anything but peaceful. First and foremost Vishnu is a savior, always ready to swoop down from his heavenly abode to restore order on earth and redeem humankind. In fact he upholds the order of the entire cosmos. A supreme being, Vishnu is described in sacred Hindu literature as having a universal form beyond the ordinary limits of human perception or imagination. Likewise he is known by many names. He is believed to have appeared on earth numerous times in the past and will do so again. In some of these appearances he came as an avatar, assuming a temporarily-manifested specific form in order to accomplish a certain task: to set right a specific wrong. Vishnu is frequently depicted in art with four arms, either standing in an upright pose or reclining in slumber on a coiled serpent. When standing his posture is usually stiff, straight, and sturdy––a pose befitting his role as upholder of order. To accomplish his tasks he often holds certain weapons for combating evil: a war club, a discus, and a conch-shell trumpet for summoning troops. When sleeping on the serpent, Vishnu’s role as creator is referenced, for it is during these periods of deep cosmic sleep that he creates new life. Because the god is described in scriptures as having the color of water-filled clouds, his skin is almost always a dusky blue when he is shown in color. Vishnu’s main consort is the goddess Lakshmi, and she is frequently shown in the company of her husband. When two female figures accompany him they are twin aspects of Lakshmi: Shri Devi and Bhu Devi. Vishnu’s vahana or mount is Garuda, a part eagle-part human creature that helps the god move around the universe with lightning speed. Vishnu with his consorts Shri Devi and Bhu Devi Bangladesh Pala period, ca. 12th century Basalt Gift of Dr. Richard Nalin (79.138) Vishnu stands in the straight upright position called samabhanga. This sturdy pose symbolizes the god’s role as upholder of cosmic order and preserver of the universe. He bears four attributes: the conch shell for summoning troops to battle (symbol of eternal space); the club for vanquishing enemies (symbol of eternal law); the discus––a throwing weapon (symbol of eternal time); and the lotus (symbol of purity and ever-renewing creation). He wears a tall crown, jeweled ornaments, and a garland that falls to his knees. On either side of Vishnu stand his two consorts, Shri Devi (an alternate name for Lakshmi), holding a fly whisk and lotus stem, and Bhu Devi, holding a stringed musical instrument. In religious writings usually only one female, Lakshmi––the goddess of fortune––is mentioned as Vishnu’s wife, but in sculptural depictions from eastern and southern India the god is often flanked by another figure, usually misidentified as Sarasvati but who is actually Bhu Devi––the earth goddess––understood as another aspect of Lakshmi herself. Below Vishnu is his special animal (vahana), the eagle-like Garuda, seen in a crouching pose. Other divine or human figures populate the extreme bottom edge of the stele, and still other celestial beings are shown on the upper edges. At the very top is an auspicious symbol called a “face of glory” (kirtimukha). The artist’s skill in the carving of the sculpture is clearly evident. The figures’ bodies are carefully proportioned. Costume details and jewelry are rendered with precision. The clinging drapery of the goddesses is subtle and does not obscure their forms. The overall sense of grace and beauty conveyed by the stele is meant to appeal to the viewer, just as the Divine appeals to the human soul. Vishnu with his consorts Shri Devi and Bhu Devi Bangladesh Pala period, end of 11th century Basalt Anonymous gift (77.292) This massive stele is comparable to the smaller one also displayed in this exhibition. Vishnu, the preserver of order in the universe, stands in the same upright pose and holds the same attributes of conch shell, club, discus, and lotus. He wears a long garland composed of groups of gems that derive from the five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether. He is flanked by his consorts, Shri Devi and Bhu Devi––two aspects of the goddess Lakshmi. Among the convoluted tendrils decorating the base of the stele are Vishnu’s special animal, Garuda , seen at the center, and figures of two kneeling donors––the persons who commissioned the stele––at the bottom left corner; both donors make the gesture of adoration with their hands. The back slab of the stele forms a great vertical throne and is decorated with mythical aquatic animals (makaras), lion-like creatures rearing over combating heroes, and crouching elephants. Celestial musicians (kinnaras) and garland bearers (vidyadharas) fly through clouds at the top of the stele, and an auspicious symbol called a “face of glory” once ornamented the very peak. Such steles were made for display in niches of temple walls and public votive shrines. Worshippers often place offerings before them and sometimes anoint the figures with pigments as an act of devotion. Traces of orange paint, probably applied in more recent times, are preserved on this example. Enthroned Vishnu with his wives and attendants India, Pahari School, 17th century Gouache on paper Gift of Allan Gerdau (78.257) Blue-skinned, four-armed Vishnu is seated inside of a pavilion on the serpent Shesha (also called Ananta) and is flanked by two forms of his wife Lakshmi (Sri Devi holding lotus flowers and Bhu Devi playing a stringed musical instrument). Eight male devotees standing in a flowered vastness gaze in adoration at Vishnu's human image. The presence of the serpent references Vishnu’s cosmic sleep––an act he periodically undertakes while resting on the serpent’s coils as it floats on the primordial ocean. It is during these periods of sleep that Vishnu performs the act of creation, bringing the next age of the world into existence. Vishnu’s blue skin indicates his all-pervasive nature, since blue is the color of infinite space as well as the color of the infinite ocean on which he resides. The yellow color of the flowered frame and Vishnu's garment symbolize the Third Age of the world. The Pahari School of miniature painting was developed in certain Himalayan foot-hills regions of northern India in the seventeenth century and flourished until the nineteenth century. Influenced by painters of the earlier Mughal court, its style nevertheless maintained a certain indigenous quality. The exacting draftsmanship is clearly evident, and the vivid colors were applied with meticulous care; both are characteristics of the Pahari School. Vishnu saving the elephant (Gajendra Moksha) Published by J.B. Khanna and Co., India, Chennai 21st century Chromolithograph Anonymous loan The most popular story of salvation concerning Vishnu, when he descended to earth in his own form (rather than as an avatar), was his rescue of the king of the elephants, Gajendra, from the jaws of a crocodile.