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The Victorian Cult of the Dead Child by Mary Gryctko BA in English

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The Victorian Cult of the Dead Child by Mary Gryctko BA in English Title Page Eternal Innocence: The Victorian Cult of the Dead Child by Mary Gryctko B.A. in English Literature and Government, The College of William and Mary, 2009 M.A. in English Literature, New York University, 2012 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2020 Committee Page UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Mary Gryctko It was defended on May 29, 2020 and approved by Troy Boone, Associate Professor, Department of English Jules Gill-Peterson, Associate Professor, Department of English James Kincaid, Professor Emeritus, University of Southern California, Department of English Patricia Crain, Professor, New York University, Department of English Dissertation Director: Tyler Bickford, Associate Professor, Department of English ii Copyright © by Mary Gryctko 2020 iii Abstract Eternal Innocence: The Victorian Cult of the Dead Child Mary Gryctko, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2020 This dissertation argues that Victorian subjects’ increased idealization of childhood as a distinct phase of life marked by freedom, helplessness, innocence, and unproductiveness relied upon the figure of the dead child. Working through literary texts, in conjunction with cultural and social histories of childhood and of death, I argue that excessive mourning for dead children in the Victorian era functioned not only as an expression of sorrow for the loss of a particular child but also as a celebration and confirmation of the figure of “the child” as a distinct category of humanity, and bearer of human value. Child death worked alongside eugenicist politics to establish and preserve an image of the ideal child as white, “innocent,” and in need of protection. My chapters examine the figure of the ideal Victorian dead child in both fiction and memoir, while also drawing attention to the many dead children whose childhoods and deaths are erased because they do not fit this ideal. This focus on the dead child helped to cement the image of the child as defined by innocence and unproductiveness that began in the Victorian era, and this image of the child excluded most Victorian children. These nineteenth-century depictions of child death still shape who is recognizable as a dead child for contemporary audiences. iv Table of Contents Introduction: Child Death, Eugenics, and the Fiction of the Unproductive Child ................. 1 1.0 “The sweetest little thing that ever died”: Nineteenth-Century “Comfort Books” and the Pleasures of Mourning Children.................................................................................. 14 1.1 “the most chaste and exquisite tomb:” Class and Proper Mourning ...................... 18 1.2 Death, Immortal Children, and the Physical Reunion of the Family in Heaven .... 23 1.3 Possession of the Dead Child—and of its Beautiful Corpse ..................................... 28 1.4 “God’s early blossoms” Children who “like to die” .................................................. 33 1.5 Comfort Books and the Exclusive Club of Mourners ............................................... 35 1.6 Tearful Pleasures, Dear Treasures: Objects of/as Dead Children ........................... 38 2.0 “Young, Beautiful, and Good:” Dead “Girls” in Victorian Literature and Popular Media ............................................................................................................................................ 42 2.1 “An age of beautiful deaths:” Death and the Ideal Victorian Woman .................... 48 2.2 Charles Dickens, Mary Hogarth, and Possession Through Death (and Writing) .. 52 2.3 “The story of good miss Nell who died” ..................................................................... 59 2.4 Young, Beautiful, and Bad: Henry Mayhew’s Women who “Will Not Work” ...... 64 2.5 Childhood and Ignorance: W. T. Stead and “The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon” .............................................................................................................................. 70 2.6 “Girls for Sale:” Stead and Modern-Day Narratives of “Sex-Trafficking” ........... 83 2.7 “It is supposed that he violated her person:” “Sweet Fanny Adams” and Literal and Symbolic Violations of Personhood .................................................................................. 89 v 3.0 “The Romance of the Nursery”: Lost Boys, Deadly Femininity, and Queer Fantasies of Escape ..................................................................................................................... 94 3.1 “no one is going to catch me and make me a man:” Eternal Youth, Boyhood, and Girlhood............................................................................................................................... 96 3.2 “only a sort of dead baby:” Peter Pan, Possession, and Death............................... 106 3.3 Neverland, the Queer Temporality of Eternal Childhood, and the Threat of Heterosexuality ................................................................................................................. 112 3.4 The Turn of the Screw and the Feminine Threat of “Protection” .......................... 116 3.5 The Author of Beltraffio and the Avenging “Angel of Propriety” .......................... 121 3.6 “So I never laid a longing hand on Dolcino:” Denied Gratification and the Erotic Child................................................................................................................................... 124 3.7 Tim: A Story of School Life and Queer(ed) Sentimental Fiction ............................ 128 3.8 “A Story of School Life:” Eton as “queer nursery” ................................................ 133 3.9 The Llewelyn Davies Boys and the Limits of Death as Escape .............................. 135 4.0 “It was in his nature to do it:” Victorian Accounts of Child Suicide ............................. 138 4.1 Little Father Time and the Logical End of the Child who “likes to die” .............. 140 4.2 The Limits of Suicide as Resistance: Eugenics and the Power to “Let Die” ......... 143 4.3 Suicide, Class, and Childhood in British Newspapers ............................................ 150 4.4 "if they did not go and commit suicide, they were driven upon the town, to do something even worse:” Suicide as an Act of Propriety ............................................... 159 4.5 “a young girl in a naked condition”: Child Suicides that Attracted National Attention ............................................................................................................................ 161 4.6 “Child,” “Actress,” “Prostitute:” What Defines a “Child” in Death? .................. 164 vi 4.7 Fatalistic Genetics, Fatal Narratives, and the Danger of Suggesting that any Child is Destined for Death ........................................................................................................ 167 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 171 vii Introduction: Child Death, Eugenics, and the Fiction of the Unproductive Child In the nineteenth century, children were more likely to die than they were to lose a parent. Victorian Great Britain had a steady infant mortality rate of about 15%, and one in every four children died before the age of five.i While scholars of childhood have often linked the increase in mourning for dead children during the nineteenth century to a decrease in child mortality, based on the assumption that parents became more attached to children whom they expected to live, these statistics call that causality into question.ii Although Victorian children died less often than children of previous generations (prior to the nineteenth century, most children probably died before they were five),iii childhood death was common, and was fundamental to the Victorian understanding of childhood. The figure of the child that emerged from the Victorian era is still the dominant model through which people in the twenty-first-century United States and Great Britain understand childhood, and, I argue, it is impossible to understand the way in which childhood is imagined in the modern era without centering the idea of the child’s death. The mid-to-late nineteenth century saw a proliferation of texts about the death of children, both by popular authors such as Charles Dickens, and by lesser-known writers wishing to share their personal experiences with death. While the prevalence of these texts may suggest that they upheld earlier notions of childhood death as an unfortunate, but common, fact of life, they in fact did the opposite, framing the deaths of children as great and unique tragedies (as they are typically framed today). In contrast to earlier moral tales about the death of children, these deaths are not presented as warnings to other children, but instead as something linked to Victorians’ increased idealization of childhood as a distinct phase of life marked by freedom, helplessness, innocence, and unproductiveness, which relied upon this figure of the dead child. From this perspective, the 1 dead child is frozen permanently in its ideal form, unable to grow up or change. The notion of childhood as a separate category (which became prevalent in the nineteenth-century) is constantly belied by the liveliness of actual children, who grow, change, and move in and out of it. Made into objects
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