Key words : Nursing theory, Theory development, Korean world view

A Conceptual Review of the Korean World View for the Development of Nursing Theory

Lee, Young-Ja*

Ⅰ. Introduction the popularity of the modern hospital system. However, the Western health care system, in In the 1980s, remarkable attention was paid particular nursing, has not been successfully to the conceptual developments of nursing from integrated with indigenous health care in Korea. indigenous cultural bases in the Korean nursing For instance, the Western concept of self-care community. In early 1980, the Korean Nurses based on individualism has never been Academic Society began to realize the implemented in the family oriented Korean importance of an indigenous view of Korean society. Independent self-care without family nursing and declared the decade of the 1980s as intervention is not often seen in Korea. The "The Years of Nursing Theory Foundation"(Ha, family member's intervention in the modern 1980). The underlying assumption of this hospital in Korea makes a unique Korean style, attention was that the basic theoretical concepts triad human relationship instead of the of nursing in a society should be derived from exclusive Western type of dyad relationship their indigenous cultural materials. between the patient and the health care Unfortunately, most nursing theories in Korea professional. Visitors from Western countries are were directly introduced from Western societies often surprised to find another small bed for the without any filtering. family caregiver beside the patient's. In this Western nursing was first introduced in Korea regard many problems in the health care system in the early twentieth century and rapidly in Korea seem to have originated from the expanded after the Korean War. During this differences between Western and Oriental process, the Western concept of nursing, which culture. These discrepancies which originated was yet unfamiliar to the majority of the Korean from Western individualism and oriental people had been exclusively adopted along with collectivism have resulted in a difference in

* Professor, Department of Nursing, Inha University 투고일 2002년 7월 31일 심사의뢰일 2002년 8월 4일 심사완료일 2002년 11월 1일

- 612 - 성인간호학회지 제14권 제4호, 2002 meaning of "health" and "nursing". perceived. According to Jung, each society has The fact that the conflict between Western its own system of "archetypes" that manifests a approaches and the present Korean situations of unique form of beliefs(Jung, 1931). The world nursing practice has demanded new theoretical view or the archetype of thought is not a frameworks which help explain the Korean logico-empirical system but a broad conceptual nursing phenomena. The construction of theory view which has emerged from the total culture for practical activities should proceed step by and has accumulated from physical, step beginning from a general, cultural socioeconomic, cultural, and spiritual meanings background to the specific concept formation. throughout the history of a society. It assumed The identification of a philosophical foundation that all types of behaviors were generated by means the formation of a metaparadigm of a the archetype of traditional world view. A discipline and is preliminary work for theory theory based on a different world view could be construction(Sarter, 1988). Two decades ago significantly different (Leininger, 1987). In this Alexander(1982) asserted that there is regard the identification of a typical Korean fundamental role of presupposition in theory world view seems to be the prerequisite of construction as well as an empirical test of theory construction and nursing practice for a theories. This presupposition, which entails a society which has its own unique historical and culturally preset world view, affects every step cultural background. of theory construction such as the orientation of Thus this study has attempted to configure an ideology, the derivation of a concept and a the Korean world view and the major principles model, and the implicit direction of every step of this world view from classic literature in of the empirical test of theories and data order to develope a more appropriate nursing collection. The study design is always bound in theory in Korea. the basic cultural orientation of the society, which means the presupposition of a society Ⅱ. Study Methods leads scholars to choose certain types of research method and data collection. 1. Study materials Unfortunately, few theoretical works in the Korean nursing community have paid attention The materials on the Korean world view was to the nature of a world view as a foundation selected by the following two criteria: (a) the of theory construction. Even the pioneer studies, nature of central ideas expressed in the that attempted to construct theories from materials and (b) their assumed impact on traditional culture, simply derive their key Korean society. concepts from manifesting attitudes and It seems clear that almost all scholars in behaviors without reference to the unique world Chosun Dynasty including such distinguished view of a traditional Korean society. Neo-Confucian scholars as Yi T'oegye(李退溪), Yi Therefore, it seems critically important to Yulgok(李栗谷), and Kwon Keun(權槿) have identify a basic theoretical perspective which derived their disciplinary principles from a very can generate various propositions and working concise treatise, Taegeukdosul(太極圖設). All the hypotheses. Such a perspective is often called a classic texts of the Chosun Dynasty in Korea "world view"(世界觀) or "archetype of thought"(思 are based on the ideas of the Taegeukdosul. 考原型), which involves how the life-world is Therefore, the world view of the Chosun

- 613 - Dynasty came to be formed within this Ⅲ. Study Results Neo-Confucian framework and has been predominating belief system up to the present 1. The Configuration of Korean World View time. The major literatures of analysis were 1) Foundation of Korean World View Taegeukdosul(太極圖設), I Ching(易經)and Tao Te Scholars agree that the fundamental sources Ching(道德經). In addition to these texts, To of Korean thought are Confucianism, Buddhism, Become a Sage or The Ten Diagrams on Sage Taoism, and Shamanism(Kim, 1973). However, Learning(聖學十道), The Analects(論語), The it is well-known that Neo-Confucianism has Mencius(孟子), The Great Learning(大學), and been the most influential system of thought in The Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) were also late Korean history. Neo-Confucianism is a reviewed. belief system synthesized during the early Sung Dynasty, (宋)(11th and 12th centuries) by 2. Methods of Analysis incorporating Taoism and Buddhism into the principles of orthodox Confucianism(Chan, The purpose of the study was to configure the 1967a). Although Taoism and Buddhism can be Korean world view from classic cosmological identified as independent belief systems, there works such as Taegeukdosul, I Ching, and Tao is no question that Neo-Confucianism has Te Ching. To achieve the goal, this study played a dominant role in Korean society employed an ordinal method of literature review throughout the last kingdom of the Chosun to examine the major context of the materials. Dynasty(朝鮮王朝)(Chang, 1991; Yoon, 1980). Two criteria were set for an objective review of Some scholars also argue that Shamanism has the works. The first criterion involved the been another influential source of Korean identification of major principles and thought. However, it has been largely subprinciples. The study adopted ideas over intermingled with the three other philosophies which a majority of scholars could reach an (Kim et al., 1988; Lee, 1981). For the purpose agreement. To meet this criterion, the study of the present study, it is important to establish cross-checked various commentaries and related how key ideas have been integrated within the works on the core classics to confirm the framework of Neo-Confucianism and how this agreement. system of beliefs has been adopted by Korean The second criterion involved the impact of society. the ideas on Korean society. The objective was The Chosun Dynasty was exclusively ruled by to consider any principles or subprinciples that the principles of Neo-Confucianism(Hahn, 1970), have persistently circulated as important and its classics became the textbooks for civil concepts in society such as "harmony." The service examinations. Many villages opened application of the criterion was largely based on Neo-Confucian influenced schools called the current works related to classics. HyangGyo(鄕校), which taught the classics. Since a systematic world view was too broad Shrines for worship of Confucius were built to conceptualize into a single term or principle, within these Hyang-Gyos. During this process, the study attempted to differentiate the schema the ideas of Neo-Confucianism began to into several subprinciples, although the permeate deeply the political, social, and subprinciples are not mutually exclusive. cultural spheres of Korean society and personal

- 614 - 성인간호학회지 제14권 제4호, 2002 life. In particular, the rules of family rituals (無) and the Buddhist conception of emptiness such as weddings, funeral services, and ancestor (空) into his newer ideal form of Orthodox worships were designed by the great master of Confucianism(Hwang, 1969; Chan, 1967b). The Neo-Confucianism, Chu Hsi(朱熹). These ideas of the Taegeukdosul were stated in a principles were officially adopted as standards of condensed treatise, which consists of only 249 civil conduct, and a strict normative system of Chinese characters with a diagram. It was so behavior persisted in Korean society for more condensed and complicated in its meanings that than 500 years. One of the chief characteristics only the great masters such as Chu Hsi could of this ritualistic system is its male dominant interpret Chou's theory. In fact, Chu Hsi was hierarchical principle. Thus far the system has not just the interpreter of Chou's theory but a restrained females in the Korean society, and great scholar who could develope the theory their activities have been strictly limited within further and successfully integrate all of its ideas the family circle. As a reaction to this culturally into Chinese life. The Neo-Confucianism ordained oppression, women in the family transmitted into Korea was exclusively based on employed many shamanistic rituals to gain a the works of Chu Hsi and developed further by sense of release from male hierarchical great Korean scholars such as Yi T'oegye and Yi oppression(Kim et al. 1988; Lee, 1981). As a Yulgok. Virtually all of these further result of this process, Shamanism becoming developments of Neo-Confucianism by Korean mixed with the dominant ideology of Neo- scholars were based on the ideas of the Confucianism. Taegeukdosul(Yi T'oegye, 1568/1986; Kwon Keun, 1397/1974). During the Chosun Dynasty, 2) The Origin of Neo-Confucianism almost no idea could be developed outside of the The central idea of Neo-Confucianism was doctrines contained in the Taegeukdosul. formulated by Chou Tuni(or Lienhsi: 周廉溪) during the Sung Dynasty of China in the 11th 2. Principles of Korean world view century. This cornerstone of the philosophical system is shown in a very short essay called the Korean flag consists of a round circle Taegeukdosul. Although many scholars had depicting the Neo-Confucian concept of the contributed to the development of Neo- Great Ultimate(太極) and four trigrams(四卦). It Confucianism, Chou Tuni was recognized as its shows how all facets of a citizen's life are founding father. Taegeukdosul, Chou's cosmic considered by the principles of Taegeukdo(太極 theory, presents, as the title indicates, an 圖). This part derives major principles of a Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Korean world view from the Taegeukdosul and Ultimate or Supreme Pole(太極). This is the directly related works, which can serve as the theory of the creation and evolution of the metaphysical foundation for a nursing theory. In universe and is known to be an Oriental order to understand the principles of archetype, cosmology derived mainly from the Confucian it is necessary to identify three dimensions of The Book of Change, I Ching(Chan, 1963). this metaphysical principle. The first one is the Chou Tuni adopted the Great Ultimate and principle of change(變化) that represents an Yin-and-Yang principles from the I Ching for his ontological base. The second dimension is theoretical framework.. On this basis, he identified as unity(統一性) that represents the assimilated the religious Taoist idea of Nonbeing structure of the universe. Finally, the third one

- 615 - is charactrized as humanity(人本主義)(Lee, moments. The Taegeukdosul shows a sequential 1975). Of course, these principles are not production of a change process through which mutually exclusive, and they should always be the Ultimate of Non-being produces the Great understood to be closely interrelated. Ultimate. The Great Ultimate produces Five Elements of Yin and Yang(陰陽五行), which in 1) Principle of Change turn produce each human being and myriad The basic nature of Taegeuk(太極) is things. In this perspective, Neo-Confucianism is dynamism. The myriad things surrounding one characterized by earthly developmentalism. All are never static and always in a state of these phenomena exemplify the process of movement. The Taegeukdosul begins, "The Non production(Yoon, 1980). Ultimate! And also the Great Ultimate. The Great Ultimate through movement generate the (2) Cycle yang. When its activity reaches its limit, it The Taegeukdosul states, "If we investigate becomes tranquil"(cited in Chan, 1963). All into the cycle of things, we shall understand the change is seen as a result of continual interplay concepts of life and death"(cited in Chan, 1963). between yin and yang and at the same time In this regard, the concept of change implies becomes a source of formation of myriad things more than the meaning of movement. The term but also the sheer manifestation of the interplay "change" in I Ching denotes a cyclic movement (Lee, 1988). Therefore, all things are in the (Wilhelm, 1950). The ancient Chinese had dynamic process of organic system manifesting observed the changes of nature for a long time tension and also harmony through the incessant and found an orderly cycle of movement. alteration of yin-and-yang forces. The idea of Finally, they wrote the I Ching to predict future change is not straight forward and simple but events based on the principles of cyclic intricate and very complex. Through the movement(Chih, 1981; Hwang, 1969). analysis of Taegeukdosul and related works, The authors of I Ching depict the cyclic four subprinciples of change are apparent as movement also by a circle of 64 hexagrams. follows: (a) production(生産性), (b) cycle(週期性), Each hexagram within the circle represents a (c) mean(中庸), and (d) synchronicity(同時性). gradual change and indicates a cycle of movement(Wilhelm, 1950). Among the 64 (1) Production hexagrams, the first alone perfectly explains the I Ching is composed of 64 hexagrams. The cyclical nature of change. The first hexagram, first hexagram is Kh'ien(乾), which represents "Kh'ien(乾), represents what is great and production of myriad things. The concept of originating(元), penetrating(亨), advantageous production is also emphasized in the (利), and correct and firm(貞)"(Legge, 1973). Taegeukdosul, which states: "The interaction of This kind of natural cycle is easily applied to these two material forces engenders and human daily life. The principle of Kh'ien, transforms the myriad things. The myriad things therefore, is a principle that considers produce and reproduce, resulting in an unending everything to be in a perpetual state of change transformation"(cited in Chan, 1963). The and under the influence of the reproductive Universe is conceived as a process of change cycle (Capra, 1984). through creation and production. The change is not a static state but a sequential process of (3) Mean

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The notion of the Mean(中庸) is one of most complement each other to comprise a whole. prevalent ideas of the Oriental people. These kinds of logic have been characterized in However, the character "中庸" contains many other terms such as "parascience"(Lee, 1975) or meanings. The great Chinese master, Ch'eng "correlative thinking"(Capra, 1984; Needham, Tzu(程子), described the Mean in the following 1956). passage: ". . . being without inclination to either side is called Chung(中); admitting of no 2) Principle of Unity change is called Yung(庸)(子程子曰 不偏之謂中 不易 Another salient feature of Oriental world view 之謂道 )"(Legge, 1895). Chu Hsi interpreted the is the principle of unity. According to the Mean as being a state of inclination to either Taegeukdosul, all things originate from one side, neither short nor excessive in its source, the Great Ultimate, and all creatures inclination, but just and proper(Lee & Hahn, are commonly subject to the elemental forces of 1983). yin and yang. Nothing exists outside of the The principles of the Mean in everyday life domain of the Great Ultimate. emphasize fairness and equilibrium in one's These ideas reveal a conceptual framework of state of mind. The Doctrine of the Mean shows the organismic system whose parts are that "while there is no stirring of pleasure, interdependent yet complementary to each other. anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to Thus, the system forms an apex of Great be in the state of Equilibrium"(The Doctrine of Ultimate and is comprised of four subprinciples the Mean, chap. I, 2). Lao Tzu also said, "Much of unity as follows: (a) organic system(有機體的 speech leads inevitably to silence. Better to hold 體系), (b) immanency(偏在性), (c) holism(全一性), fast to the void(多言數窮 不如守中)"(Tao Te and (d) harmony(調和 ). Ching, chap. V). (1) Organic System (4) Synchronicity Orientals have perceived the universe as an In the first part of the Taegeukdosul, one organic system(Fang, 1957; Lee, 1975). This finds the following passage: So movement and perspective originated from the development of tranquility alternate and become the root of Neo-Confucianism, particularly from the each other, giving rise to the distinction of yin Taegeukdosul text. The Taegeukdosul text shows and yang, and the two modes are thus a series of production and reproduction of established(cited in Chan, 1963). creatures and conveys a sense of their The relationship between yin and yang is not interrelations. This process reveals an organic causal but a simultaneous correlation that can system, which is considerably different from the be characterized as one of "synchronicity." more rigid, mechanical model common to According to Jung(1967), synchronicity refers to Western thought(Capra, 1983). One of the "the coincidence of events in space and time as distinctive characteristics of the organic system meaning something more than chance"(p. xxiv). is its notion of autonomy. Therefore, all things The idea of synchronicity also is found in the including humans must be understood within the diagram of the Taegeukdo. In yin, yang is framework of an ever-changing organic system. hidden(symbolized with a light dot) and in yang, yin is hidden(symbolized with a dark (2) Immanency dot). The one presupposes the other, and they All execept two hexagrams of the I Ching,

- 617 - Kh'ien(乾) composed of all " - " and K'un(坤) (4) Harmony composed of all " - ," contain two elements of The search for balance and harmony has yin and yang. The nature of each hexagram is always been the central concern in Oriental determined by its number of yin-or-yang daily life(Chih, 1981). The Taegeukdosul states: emblems. In other words, the elements of yin "By the transformation of yang and its union and yang are immanent in all the creatures. with yin, the five agents(elements) of water, One hexagram contains two different elements fire, wood, metal, and earth arise. When these that are mutually inclusive. The Hexagram five material forces are distributed in denotes the Buddhist principles of "one in all" harmonious order, the four seasons run their and "all in one"(Chan, 1967b; Kim, 1991). The course."(cited in Chan, 1963). This passage Taegeukdosul also stated, "The interaction of denotes a harmonious natural system under two material forces engenders and transforms which all things originate from yin and yang the myriad things"(cited in Chan, 1963). This and the Five Elements. Therefore, the statement reveals an interpenetration of relationship between system parts is not in elements and a mysterious conflation of Oriental conflict but is mutually complementary at the harmony. One cannot judge others only with elemental level. The Taegeukdosul also indicates their external forms without understanding their the need for a perfect harmony between human hidden nature. According to Neo-Confucian beings and nature. doctrine, the interpenetrating forces characterized In Oriental thought, humans and nature are by yin and yang are called "ch'i"(氣)or Ether, coalesced with each other under the universal and ch'i is immanent in all creatures. The idea law of Tao. In Oriental society, the universe of immanency is closely related to the next may be viewed as a grand unity characterized sub-principle of holism. by four sub-principles: (a) organic nature of system, (b) immanency, (c) holism, and (d) (3) Holism harmony. The central focus of this unity is a Sobel(1979) described holism as "an attitude harmonious relationship between humans and or perception that attempts to view the whole nature. Humans, insofar as they are microcosms person in the context of the total environment". of the universe, are never alienated from In Oriental society, a human is perceived as a nature. The two are spiritually entwined. The macrocosm within a universe because a human four sub-concepts of unity also are mutually with ch'i originated from T'ai-Chi, which is the inclusive; however, one element is not enough origin of all other creatures. Thus, a view of to attain the condition of unity. holism is found in a human's daily life situations into which all the elements have 3) Principle of Humanity interpenetrated and coalesced. In Oriental According to Chu Hsi's interpretation, the society, mind and body are perceived as a Taegeukdosul tells about the origin of changes unified system. As a result of this perception, and the inheritance of human nature(Yi the human body is not seen as a simple physical T'oegye, 1568/1986). A human being's nature is entity but an entity entwined with spirits inherited from the supreme nature of Heaven, according to the principle of immanency(Kim, which is demonstrated by four virtues: 1991). Humanity(仁), Righteousness(義), Propriety(禮), and Wisdom(智). Among the four virtues, the

- 618 - 성인간호학회지 제14권 제4호, 2002 meaning of Humanity is broad enough to imply in the Sung Dynasty. Chu Hsi thought of the rest of them(Chung, 1991). The Chinese Reverence as a fundamental source to become a ideograph, "仁," is composed of two characters: sage(Yi T'oegye, 1568/1986). Yi T'oegye also "人" and "二." The character, "人," indicates constructed his famous Ten Diagrams on Sage people while the character, "二," means two; Learning on the base of Reverence(Yi T'oegye, thus, Humanity(仁) symbolizes a "close 1568/1986). Chu Hsi added the ideas of relationship" between people(Wu, 1986). This Reverence to his interpretation of the character implies the fundamental social nature Taegeukdosul. According to his interpretation, of humans. Confucius was interested in the one will be emancipated from desire and become construction of an ideal society and made the wise if he or she practices Reverence. One will practice of Humanity one of the cornerstones of be capable of reaching the state of tranquility, his utopian model. However, it is still difficult which is one of spiritual "emptiness," if he or to determine a clear meaning of the concept and she practices Reverence. Furthermore, one will practice of Humanity. be in a state of moral correctness and learn Humans, as the center of the universe, sacredness if he or she retains tranquility and inherit both natures of Heaven and Earth(Lee, emptiness(Yi T'oegye, 1568/1986). Neo-Confucianism 1975). Therefore, humans can follow Heaven's particularly emphasizes two aspects of rules through the practice of Humanity, and Reverence. One is to be discreet in word and "man's character is to be cultivated by his deed and respectful to others as a way of treading in the ways of duty. And treading cultivating personal virtue. The other one is a those ways of duty is to be cultivated by the psychological aspect of self-cultivation through cherishing of Humanity"(The Doctrine of the the state of Mean and no desire. It is clear that Mean, chap. XII, 22). Because the idea of this aspect of meditation comes from the Taoist Humanity is too complicated to describe in full, idea of tranquility(Wu, 1986). the most essential rules of practice, particularly related to health care, seem to be Reverence (2) Loyalty (敬), Loyalty(忠), Compassion(恕), and Filial Loyalty is important for the practice of Piety(孝). Humanity. Originally, it required that people pay their loyalty taxes to their rulers and their (1) Reverence states. Later it acquired new meanings including The concept of Reverence has slightly changed sincerity to friends and being dutiful and good as the doctrines of Confucianism have evolved. to people and striving to attain the mind of According to The Analects, Confucius classified sincerity or the "Way of Heaven"(Wu, 1986). Reverence into three categories. The first one Many classics concern the nature of the loyalty. involves approaching one's duties with Confucius wanted to practice Humanity through Reverence and being trustworthy in what one Loyalty and Compassion. The Analects points says(I, 5). The second is to be reverent in the out that "The way of the Master(Confucius) service of others(V, 16), and the third one consists in doing one's best and in using oneself requires that one cultivates oneself for the as a measure to gauge others. That is all(夫子之 achievement of Reverence(XIV, 42). 道, 忠恕而己矣)"(The Analects, IV, 15). However, Above all, those who paid serious attention to Mencius used the term of "Loyalty" in a the matter of Reverence were the NeoConfucians somewhat different meaning from that of The

- 619 - Analects. He said, "Teaching others what is Compassion with another individual's position good is called the exercise of fidelity(敎人以善, 謂 seems to be the most important principle of 之忠 )"(The Mencius, book 3, part 1, chap. IV). nursing. Neo-Confucians also attempted to relate Loyalty to the mental state of sincerity. (4) Filial Piety According to the Commentary on The Doctrine of In Oriental society, Filial Piety is the most the Mean, "The mind of doing your best for important virtue in practical life. Filial Piety is others is loyalty(Wu, 1986). Probably, the the prime rule in kinship practices and the Chinese character of Loyalty, "忠," may show the foundation of social norms(Wu, 1986). Filial central meaning of the term. It is composed of Piety is not only regarded as an ethical two characters, "中," which means "center," and imperative, but it is also a function of universal "心," which means "mind." Therefore, the order. It is thought to be a principle inherited characters "中心" are equivalent to the concept of from Heaven and Earth. According to the one mind indicating the importance of doing Taegeukdosul and the Yi T'oegye's commentary one's actions sincerely in a unified fashion with (1568/1986), humankind is originated from one's heart and mind in the right place(Yi Kh'ien, which represents father, and from K'un, T'oegye, 1568/1986). which means mother. Therefore, the practice of Filial Piety is a Heaven Earth principle (3) Compassion stressing that all humankind must observe and Compassion is another important element in pay back their indebtedness. the practice of Humanity. The character "恕" is One of the important issues in Filial Piety is composed of "如" representing "same" and "心" how it is practiced. Confucians have always indicating "mind." This interpretation implies been pragmatists emphasizing the daily practice that others should be taken care of just like of their abstract moral rules. In practicing Filial one's self(Lee & Hahn, 1983). In general, Piety, Confucius suggested many forms. Among Compassion means "to be sincere, to reflect them he first introduced an absolute obedience often on whether, when you act for others, you to one's parents(The Analects, II, 5). In further are doing your best"(Wu, 1986). For Confucius passages, he emphasized succession of a it is the most important element in the practice parent's will and accomplishment(The Analects, of Humanity. Once his disciple asked him, "Is I, 11; IV, 20; The Doctrine of the Mean, chap. there a single word which can be a guide to XIX, 5), dissuasion of a parent from doing conduct throughout one's life?" he said, "It is wrong in the gentlest way(The Analects, IV, perhaps the word 'Compassion.' Do not impose 18), not just providing food but serving with on others what you yourself do not desire"(The one's heart(The Analects, II, 7), and Analects, XV, 24; The Doctrine of the Mean, preservation of one's own body as a gift from chap. XIII, 3). While The Analects identifies one's parents(The Book of Filial Piety, chap. I). Compassion as the best way to reach the Although the idea of Filial Piety is not completion of Humanity, The Doctrine of the limited to parents but extends to others in Mean emphasizes Compaassion as the best way society, overemphasis on the Filial Piety for to reach the state of Mean. Compassion is a one's parents has resulted in a type of natural state because human beings inherit ethnocentric care of family. This tendency is Heaven's nature according to the Taegeukdosul. contradicted somewhat with the idea of

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Reverence in which one should respect others category of unity was composed of four and not just one's own parents. subcategories that included organic system, immanency, holism, and harmony. Finally, Ⅳ. Conclusion the last dimension of the world view was humanity representing the subprinciples of This study set two interrelated objectives. reverence, loyalty, compassion, and filial The first was the configuration of a Korean piety. The principle of humanity that was world view and the second one was to derive intensively developed in Korea has long principles of Korean world view drawing from constituted a primary rule of conduct in classic cosmological works. The results of the Korean society and can be the most analyses are summarized as follows. important principle of nursing. 1. The Korean world view was characterized by 3. It would seem that the most salient features a single grand theory derived from the of Korean thought are harmony and humanity Taegeukdosul. It was originally formulated as or the state of harmony that was Neo-Confucianism during the Sung Dynasty characterized by holism. They could be in China, and was transmitted into Korea reached through the principle of mean. The late in the 14th century. It was significantly fundamental Oriental idea of genesis was reformulated by many scholars such as Yi focused on the principles of humanism. All of T'oegye and Yi Yulgok, who placed emphasis the principles of the universe were designed on the virtue of humanity and cultivation of for human existence. Each human being was the human mind. According to the theory of regarded as the highest form of excellence in Taegeuk, the myriad things including man the universe. originated from a single source called Taegeuk and all creatures shared in certain Ⅴ. Implications for Further Studies elements or energies called "ch'i." Therefore, everything in the universe belonged to one The study results revealed several important family, and each manifestation of the "one" theoretical implications to develope the Korean was related to the "many." The all- nursing theory in the future. encompassing and holistic nature of the The first implication is an importance of the organic system was a distinctive world view in a theory construction and an characteristic of the Korean thought insofar empirical investigation. The results of the study as "one" always implied numerous other provide some ideological orientations of an elements or forces in the same universe. indigenous Korean nursing theory development. 2. Through the analysis of the Taegeukdosul From these ideological resources, various forms and related classics, three major principles of of the theory development such as grand theory the traditional world view were identified. as well as middle range model may be They were the principles of change, unity, constructed with principles and sub-principles of and humanity, which represented heaven, unique Korean world view. Alexander suggests earth, and man. The first category of change the continuous stages of theory development. consisted of four sub-principles(i.e. production, Beginning from the most abstract level of cycle, mean, and synchronicity), which presupposition leads to the most concrete and represented the nature of change. The second empirical level of observed statement. Then, the

- 621 - major stages such as ideological orientation, compassion to patients in large Western model, concept, definition, classification, hospitals. The hospitals are too large and too categories, proposition and methodological bureaucratized to practice such attitudes of hypotheses are filled between the two extreme personal care as sincere loyalty and deep poles. An Important rule of this continuum is hearted compassion. The concepts may need to interpenetration of each stages. For instance, be modified if they are to fit into modern society the highest level of presupposition must always or institutions must be modified to fit the imply the contexts of empirically observed traditional principles. statement and vice versa(Alexander, 1982). The fourth implication is an argument to be The second issue is the necessity of a new made about the sub-principle of reverence, an theoretical framework and the assumptions for element of Neo-Confucian humanity. The idea of constructing theory. Many nursing professionals reverence involves respecting human beings on in the Korea have been seriously concerned an equal basis and caring for others as brothers about the necessity of developing nursing theory and sisters, an idea akin to the Christian fit Korean cultural situations, and they have concept of brotherly love. In traditional society, attempted to find the best path of theory this type of idea widely prevailed in social life construction along those lines. However, the involving many people beyond the family most important of these efforts seem to be not boundary. Modern society urges that health care the motivation itself for the construction of professionals practice egalitarianism in treating theory but the basic assumptions for the their clients with a measure of loyalty and foundation of the theory. From where can one compassion. The harmonious combination of derive the fundamental assumptions of theory? formal and informal treatment in modern From the principles already explored in other hospitals seems to be the most fundamental societies or from the indigenous views of native issue in developing countries. society? Since the basic role of conceptualization in nursing theory is a description and References explanation of nursing phenomena, new ideas must be based on the realities that are Alexander, J. (1982). Positivism, Presuppositions socioculturally enmeshed. In approaching the and Current Controversies. Berkely: reality of Korean health care, one of the University California Press. problems seems to be the taken-for-granted Capra, F. (1984). The Tao of physics. New assumptions of existing Western-based theory. York: Bantam Books. Construction of theory for Korean nursing Chan, W. (1963). A sourcebook of Chinese requires a fresh view of the clinical and cultural philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton phenomena and a new method of speculation. University Press. The third implication is whether such key Chan, W. (1967a). The story of Chinese sub-principles as loyalty and compassion can be philosophy. In C. Moore(Eds.), The Chinese directly utilized in theory construction as well mind. Honolulu: East-West Center. as in nursing practice. Since the beginning of Chan, W. (1967b). Synthesis in Chinese rapid industrialization of Korea in the early metaphysics. In C. Moore (Ed.), The 1960s, it has been increasingly difficult to Chinese mind. Honolulu: East-West Center. emphasize the practice of loyalty and Chang, H. (1991). Naturalistic view of Neo-

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Confucianism in Chosun dynasty. In Chang Lee, J. Y. (1975). The I Ching and modern Hwoeik (Ed.), Science and philosophy. man: Essays on metaphysical implications of Seoul: Tongnamoo. change. New York: University Books, Inc. Chih, A. (1981). Chinese humanism: A religious Lee, J. Y. (1981). Korean shamanistic rituals. beyond religion. Taiwan: Fu Jen Catholic New York: Mountain Publishers. University Press. Lee, J. Y. (1988). Korea's Taeguk Thought: A Chou Tuni. (Unknown). Taegeukdosul, In Chan paradigm for modern science. In Korean W. (Ed.), A sourcebook of Chinese philosophy Studies, its tasks and perspectives. Paper (Chap. 28). Princeton, NJ: Princeton presented at the 5th International University Press. Conference on Korean studies, Seoul, Korea. Chung, C. (1991). A social-psychological analysis Lee, K. B., & Hahn, B. Y. (Trans.)(1983). The of the four-seven debate: Its implications great learning and the doctrine of mean. and issues. Korean Sociology, 24(Summer), Seoul, Korea: Hongshinmoonhwasa. 25-44. Legge, J. (1973). I Ching (The Book of Ha, Y. S. (1980). Toward a Development of Changes). New york: Causeway Books. Nursing Theory. The Journal of nurses Leininger, M. (1987). A new generation of Academic Society, 10(1), nurses discover transcultural nursing. Hahn, W. (1970). The history of Korea. Nursing and Health Care, 8(5), 263. Honolulu, Hawaii: The University Press of Legge, J. (Trans.)(1895). (The) Mencius. Hawaii. Shanghai, China: The Chinese Book Co. Hwang, W. (1969). T'ai-Chi-Ch'uan and I Needham, J. (1956). Science and civilization in Ching. Chinese Culture, A Quarterly Review, China. (Vol. II). Cambridge: Cambridge 1(1), 120. University Press. Jung, C. (1967). Foreword. in I Ching or The Sarter, B. (1988). Philosophical Sources of book of changes (p. xxiv) (R. Wilhelm & C. Nursing Theory. Nursing Science Quarterly, F. Baynes, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Winter, 1988, 1(2), 52-59. University Press. (Original work published Wilhelm, R. (1950). The I Ching or book of 1924) changes (C.F. Baynes, Trans.). New York: Kim, D., Choi, I., Choi, K., & Choi, T. (1988). Pantheon. (Original work published 1924) Korean folklore. Seoul, Korea: Saemoonsa. Wu Yi. (1986). Chinese philosophical terms. Kim, S. I. (1991). Physics and Korean New York: University Press of America. philosophy. Seoul, Korea: Koryowon. Yi T'oegye. (1986). To become a sage: The ten Kim, Y. (1973). Oriental thought: An diagrams on sage learning. (Cho N. K., introduction to the philosophical and Trans.). Seoul, Korea: Kyoyukgwahaksa. religious thought of Asia. Totowa, NJ: (Original work published 1568) Roman and Littlefield. Yi Yulgok. (1966). Introduction to basic Kwon, K. (1974). Explanatory diagrams for principles of Confucianism. (Lee B. S., introduction of Neo-Confucianism. (Kwon D., Trans.) Seoul, Korea: Eulyumoonhwasa. Trans.). Seoul, Korea: Eulyumoonhwasa (Original work published 1577). (Original work published 1397). Yoon Sa Soon. (1980). A Study on Korean Confucianism. Seoul, Korea. Hyundamsa.

- 623 - - 국문 초록 - 과 관련 해설서들로 하였다. 연구결과: 한국인의 세계관의 원리로서 변화의 원리, 한국적 간호이론개발을 위한 한국인의 통일성의 원리, 인본주의 원리를 도출하였다. 그들 각각 세계관에 대한 개념적 고찰 의 하위개념으로 1) 변화의 원리에는 생산성, 주기성, 중용, 2) 통일성의 원리에는 유기적 체계, 동시성, 전일 이 영 자* 주의, 조화, 그리고 3) 인본주의 원리에는 敬, 忠, 恕, 孝을 도출하였다. 연구목적: 이 연구는 한국의 전통적 문화에 기초한 한 결 론: 서양의 간호개념이 아닌 한국인의 세계관의 원 국적 간호이론 개발을 위하여 고전문헌과 관련문헌으로 리와 하위개념을 기초로 한국인의 고유한 건강과 간호개 부터 한국인의 세계관을 도출함을 목적으로 한다. 념을 도출함으로서 한국적 간호이론 개발에 기여할 수 연구방법: 한국인의 세계관 도출을 위하여 문헌분석방 있다. 법을 적용하였다. 연구자료는 조선왕조 500년과 현대까 지 한국인의 사상체계에 가장 큰 영향을 끼친 성리학의 주요용어 : 간호이론, 이론개발, 세계관 근간을 이루는 태극도설과 역경을 중심으로 한 고전문헌

* 인하대학교 의과대학 간호학과 교수

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