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Persephone Unbound: the Natural Environment, Human Well- Being and Gender, Explored in Selected Texts, 1775-1900

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Persephone Unbound: The Natural Environment, Human Well- Being and Gender, Explored in Selected Texts, 1775-1900 STEPHEN EDWARD HUNT A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of the West of England, Bristol for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Humanities, Bath Spa University College, Bath September 2002 Hunter caught" .<• A///1 t'.wiiff <>f f//i- fcmi>f-r»r. FLIM-FLAMS! THE HUNTER CAUGHT, AND THE ESCAPE OF THE EMPEROR! ABSTRACT: PERSEPHONE UNBOUND With reference to Wordsworth's suggestion that the 'love of nature' leads to the 'love of man', this thesis examines claims that a sympathetic engagement with the natural world can contribute to human well-being and social progress. It considers how such claims might be substantiated by surveying a range of literary representations of the natural world between 1775 and 1900. Categories of human well-being are explored in three contexts: valuing and accessing the countryside, botany and attitudes to animals. These accounts are focused in discussions of literary encounters with particular genera: mid-Victorian seaweed collecting and the satirical treatment of the great apes. The ecocritical groundwork of Bate and Kroeber is extended to examine a range of non-canonical texts that confirm and complement, but also occasionally contend, the Wordsworthian approach. Particular attention is paid to the ways in which the human negotiation with the living world is complicated by gender identity. Gender affects access to the countryside and determines the public context in which knowledge about the natural world is represented and shared. However, this thesis offers a contributionist literary history in which an interest in other species has advanced women's social status in terms of mobility, education and opportunities to participate in science and politics. This work takes its theoretical impetus from environmentalist and feminist cultural theories. The ideas of thinkers such as Murray Bookchin, on social ecology, and Freya Mathews, on the ecological self, have been particularly influential. The present analysis concludes in the belief that, in challenging the gendered hierarchy in the self-other opposition, such ideas represent a sophisticated continuation of the Romantic critique of the problematic relationship to the natural environment that exists in capitalist society. In so doing, ecocritical approaches make for a fruitful reconsideration of Romantic and Victorian nature literature. in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My primary acknowledgements must go to my parents and my supervisors. Graham and Maureen Hunt are owed much love and thanks for their encouragement, generosity and patience, not only during six years it has taken to complete the present thesis but also during previous my work as an undergraduate at Bath Spa University College and as a Masters student at the University of York. Equally, I would like to take this opportunity to ackowledge the assistance and diligence of my supervisors for their invaluable support over the last six years: Mr Richard Kerridge (Bath Spa University College), Dr William Hughes (Bath Spa University College) and Dr Robin Jarvis (University of the West of England), Professor Jeremy Hooker (University of Glamorgan), Dr. Jeff Rodman (formerly Bath Spa University College). I have also received invaluable support from the staff of the Graduate School at Bath Spa University College: Dr Paul Davies, Dr Gaynor Kavanagh, Mrs Allison Dagger and Mrs Jean Gardiner. Additionally, I received essential assistance and unfailing support from the library staff and archivists at the following institutions: Bath Spa University College, Mr Nigel Paine of Bath Spa Slide Library, the British Library, The Bodleian Library, Bath Public Library, the University of the West of England, the University of Bath and the University of Bristol, University of Exeter. As ever, love and mutual aid was received from Howard Lee and Fay Stevens, Joe Duncan (together with computer therapy), Stephen Churchill, Ruth Pooley, Martine Alien, Simon Skarritt, Diane Mason, Stephen Zweifel, Olga Gomez and Fred Gilham - together with countless cups of herb tea and sympathy. Equally, Ceri Burton for the lively discussion that initially inspired the project. It is also necessary to acknowledge the encouragement and inspiration of my comrades in the Green Discussion group with love and respect - Christopher Tyndale, Mary Van Reimsdyk, Dr John Wills and Dr Karen Jones, Graham Burgess, Tony Waterhouse, Gavin Withers, Katherine Wall and Nick Campion - as well as members of the Bath Eco-Futures and Bath Animal Rights/Earth First! groups. Merlin for inter-species insight and for creating those essential screen breaks by so assiduously/expressively vocalizing his needs. Much generosity was also forthcoming from members of the Association for Studies in Literature and the Environment (ASLE) and the wider academic network. The prompt and courteous assistance received from the following were particularly appreciated: Dr Juliet Brodie (Department of Applied Sciences, BSUC) who advised on phycological accuracy in Chapter Eight, Linda Beattie (RSPCA Enquiries Co-ordinator), Ann Dinsdale (Bronte Society Librarian), Emma Donaghue (novelist and playwright), Prof. David Goodman (Open University), Linda Irvine (curator at the Botany Department of the Natural History Museum, Kensington), Sarah Mason (BUAV), Dr James Ogden (University College of Wales at Glamorgan), Chris Reed (RSPCA Information Officer), Linda Rhodes (Community Librarian, Barking Central Library), Prof. John Tallmadge (The Union Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio) and Prof. Donald Worster (University of Kansas). This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from this thesis may be published without full acknowledgement. The manuscript has been prepared in a style consistent with the MHRA Style Book: Notes for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses, 5th edn, rpt. with corrections (London: Modern Humanities Research Association, 1999). Archaic, idiosyncratic and American spellings have been retained in quotations. Frontispiece and Chapter Separators 1. D'lsraeli, Isaac. Flim-Flams! Or the Life and Errors of My Uncle and His Friends [ 1805], 2nd edn, 3 vols (London: John Murray, 1806), Plate VI, Vol. II, p. 167. THE HUNTER CAUGHT, AND THE ESCAPE OF THE EMPORER! 'Exhibits an unlucky accident to which the Members of the AURELIAN Society are subject; to be caught in their own flappers! The likeness of my UNCLE is exquisitely preserved through the gauzy texture, while the solid SECRETARY "respires, " (though with difficulty) under the needle of the great artist. My Uncle's ventilating hat is in the fore ground.' 2. Thomas Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts by Thomas Bewick and His School, ed. By Blanche Cirker (New York: Dover Publications, 1962), plate 172, n. 9. 3. Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts, plate 103, n. 1. 4. Bewick, plate 168, n. 3. 5. Illustration by Hugh Thomson, taken from Mary Russell Mitford, Our Village (London: Macmillan, 1893). 6. Illustration from Charlotte Smith, Elegiac Sonnets with additional sonnets and other poems [1784], 7th edn (London: A. Strahan for T. Cadell, 1795). 7. Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts, plate 148, n. 8. 8. Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts, plate 136, n. 10. 9. Seaweed collectors taken from Anne Pratt, Chapters on the Common Things of the Sea-Side (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1850). 10. Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts, plate 127, n. 6. 11. Illustration of 1895 by F. H. Townsend from Thomas Love Peacock, Melincourt, or Sir Oran Haul-ton, (London: Macmillan, 1927), frontispiece. 12. Emblem of the Victoria Street Society. 13. Bewick, 1800 Woodcuts, plate 224, n. 5. This thesis has been printed on recycled paper by Aztec Printing & Graphics, 42A College Green, Bristol. CONTENTS Preface I. Introduction Roots and Contexts 3-7 Kinship and Affinity 7-11 New Cosmologies and Senses of Loss 12-14 The Nature of Nature 15-19 II. Nature Writing and Human Flourishing Nature Scepticism 25-27 Frameworks for Human Well-Being 27-29 Physical Needs 29-31 Social and Psychological Benefits: 32-41 Anti-Pastoral Voices 36-39 Sense and Sensitivity 39-41 Spiritual and Ontological Benefits: 41-58 The Aesthetics of Nature: Mystery, Beauty, Wonder and Fear 41-47 The Evolution of Respect for Nature 47-50 Ecology and Self-Realization 51-58 III. Wordsworth's Vision of Moral Improvement: 'Love of Nature Leading to Love of Man' From Red to Green: Ecocritical Responses to The Prelude 67-71 Wordsworthian Nature and the Growth of the Mind 71-73 Humanizing Landscapes 73-77 Farce and Presumption: Some Doubting Voices 78-82 IV. Other Encounters: Sharing Green Shadows with Intimates The Romantic T: Some Female Glances 86-90 The Natures of Mary Wollstonecraft 90-98 The Natural History Dialogues of Charlotte Smith and Priscilla Wakefield 99-107 Terror and Refugia in the Letters of Helen Maria Williams 107-11 The Green Shadows of Elizabeth Barrett 111-12 V. Wandering Lonely: Women's Access to the Romantic Countryside The Hedging-In of Women's Terrain 119-21 The Allure of Languor: Sedentary Lives and the Enclosure of Women 121-22 Beautiful Landscapes and Sublime Wilderness 122-26 Legal Impedimenta: Enclosure, The Game and Trespassing Laws, the Vagrancy Acts 126-28 Lonely Lanes and Imprudent Encounters 128-34 Charlotte Smith and the 'Lunatic' 134-38 Mobility and Social Mobility 138-44 VI VI. Cultivation and Blossoming: Botany in Education Vertu and Ecstasy: Botanizing with Rousseau 152-57 Botanical Accomplishments
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