Altault Strike, Viet Nom

AIR POWER: SOUTHEAST ASIA...THE INVADER RETURNS...COPYRIGHT & MILITARY AUTHOR

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1963

Air Power: E quaeizer in Southeast Asia Maj. Gen. Theodore R. Milton, usaf

T he Invader Ret ur n s...... Col. Robert D. Johnston, usaf

C opyright L aw and the Mil it a r y Author M. C. Freudenberg

Air War Collece 1946-1963 ...... 35 Col. John A. McCann, usaf

SCIENTISTS IN B l U E ...... 44 Col. David R. Jones, usaf

Are You Rea dy for Spa c e? or Lost in the Land of AV?...... 52 Col. Francis X. Kane, usaf Maj. Jack W. Hunter, usaf ^ir Operations in Viet Nam T he Vie t Nam Air Force...... 60 Capt. Mack D. Secord, usaf

Air Esc o r t —A COIN Air Technique...... 68 Lt. Col. James F. Sunderman, usaf

R e SUPPLY IN THE PlCKLE B a R R E L ...... 7 4 Air University Review

CoMMAND AND CONTROL AND THED e CISION-Ma KINC P r O C E S S ...... 7 7 Lt. Col. Clifton L. Nicholson, usaf

Air c r a f t Tir e Management...... 81 Col. Elmer G. Prohaska, usaf Air Force Review J ob-Knowledce Test ing in the Air F orce...... 88 Dr. Chester J. Judy

T he Contributors...... 94

the cover Address manuscrípts to the Editor. Air Uni- versiti/ Review, Aerospace Studies Instituto, In our concem nbout the day-to-day Maxwell Air Force Base, Aia. Printed by the events of the limited conflict in Viet Covemment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Nam. we may tend to overlook the Copies are available from the Air University broader implications of the role of air Book Department, Maxwell Air Force Base. power in the Far East. Major General Ala.: single copy, 75 cents; yearly subscriptíon, 'Theodore R. Milton, in his article $3.50. USAF hecviuunc pu bl ic a t jo n 50-2. "Air Power: Equalizer in Southeast Asia,” challenges us to adopt a some- Vol. XV No. 1 NOVEMBEB-DECE.MBEH 1963 what wider perspective in this arca. *

AIR POWER:

EQUALIZBR IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

M ajor Gen er a l Theodore R. M il t o n

N TH E lush, green delta south of Saigon, in Southeast Asia he must consider the terms work stops in a rice paddv as a B-26 of this accord. It did, of course, provide for I bomber rattles by overhead. It is the the creation of an International Control Com- same old B-26 the peasant watched in 1953. mission, operating under the general purview But the inarkings are Vietnamese instead of of the United Nations, chaired by the U.S.S.R. Freneh, and the antagonists of record in this and England, and composed of military mem- present war are Vietnamese against Vietnam­ bers from índia, Poland, and Canada. The ese. Behind one side, of course, is interna- duties of this commission were to see that the tional Communism. Behind the other, the provisions of the Geneva accord were carried United States. out. Some nine years later this International The end of the Freneh war in Indochina Control Commission still functions. It is one was marked by the Geneva accord, and before of the more interesting sights these days at anyone can understand the military problems Tan Son Nhut, in Saigon, to watch the icc

4 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEW members board their ancient Boeing Strato- gets, when identified, became a subject for liner, the same old Stratoliner that twa flew protracted negotiations, and it was sometimes in the late 1930’s, and set course serenelv for two or three w^eeks after reconnaissance had Hanoi. located a target before permission w'as given The accord of 1954 tinis inarked the end to strike it. More often the permission never of French military dominance in Indochina, carne. And so it was into this situation that although it vvould be fair to say that the pa c a k and the Thirteenth Air Force arrived in French military influence has lived on to the December 1961. present day in one wav or another. The vvith- The directives were clear, and the intent dravval of the French left a very considerable of the U.S. Government was even clearer. The vfacuuin. Except in rare instances, the Viet- directives w?ere to go into the Republic of Viet namese had not been trained for positions of Nam and establish Communications, put in a leadership in the French colonial forces and, tactical air control system, bring in an advisorv as a resnlt, were ill equipped to take over, tactical squadron, put new radars into posi- without help, the military defense of the Re- tion, build the cantonments necessary to house public of Viet Nam against either aggression the troops, and to do it all in a minimum or the increasinglv active Communist minority amount of time. The Administration s position vvithin the country. was stated much more simply: it did not in- The United States provided this outside tend to lose in the Republic of Viet Nam. help. A Military Assistance Program, and a The military scene suggested World War very substantial one at that, took on the job II all over again, and early World War II at of bolstering the government. It was a pro­ that. Officers and noncommissioned officers gram entirely dominated by classic ground- stared unbelievingly at each other as they force thinking. Its aim was to train and equip lined up. mess kits in hand, for their “C ra- a Vietnamese armv capable of withstandirig an tions. Old-timers, slogging through the mud to invasion by a similar force from North Viet their tents in the evening, had to pinch them- Nam. There was an Air Force in this program, selves to believe that it was not the old South but it was pitifully small. Overt externai ag­ Pacific Theater come to life. This time, how- gression has yet to come, but the situation in ever, the priorities were a little higher and the Republic of Viet Nam steadily worsened things moved much more quicklv. as the Viet Cong took over larger and larger Scarcely a vear and a half later the tents sections of the country and gained more and are almost all gone, and living conditions in more support, whether voluntary or not, from Southeast Asia are generally at a pretty decent the peasantry. levei. The first tactical air control system has Finally, in the fali of 1961, it looked very been replaced, from the Communications much as though the government of Viet Nam standpoint, with the very latest word in tropo- itself would be in danger of collapsing from scatter. For navigational aids we now have massive Hanoi-based infiltration and subver- tacan and the Tactical Area Positioning Sys­ sion unless immediate and sweeping measures tem. The old French airdromes at Bien Hoa, were taken. General Maxwell Tavlor, then the Tan Son Nhut, and Da Nang are graduallv President's Military Adviser, brought a mili­ being rejuvenated to modern standards. De- tary and civilian group to the scene for an tachment 2 of the lst Air Commando Group urgent and on-the-spot appraisal. The survey, has been in Viet Nam since December of 1961 in essence, showed that the armed forces were and has now flown literallv thousands of mis- incapable of dealing vvith the kind of threat sions with its Vietnamese counterparts. With- that w7as facing them. The Air Force, for out attempting to detail them here, it is suffi- example, though small, was reasonably well cient to say that our efforts in the Republic of equipped with A-1H aircraft, but there was no Viet Nam have been timely and productive. vestige of a tactical air control system. Tar-» Outside the old borders of French Indo­ AIR POWER: EQUAL1ZER IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 5

china, but essential to our militarv position in Group in Laos, some progress was detectable Southeast Asia, is Thailand. in the right wing forces’ capability. Not to There are few better places for an air- overstate the case, the progress was modest. plane buff than the flight line at Don Muang, The Air Force, like the one in the Republic Bangkoks big and only airport. Anv day he of Viet Nam, was a minor appendage to the can vvatch the international jets of 21 flag program. When the U.S. Mission left Laos, carriers—Lufthansa, Quantas, Garuda, Pan there was not the vestige of a command and Am, Umted Arab Airlines, Cathav Pacific, and control system, and there was no reconnais- more. In between the comings and goings of sance capability. Lao pilots are able enough as the international traffic, our observer will see stick and rudder men and have a fine disre- vsaf F-102’s on dailv routine air defense gard for in-flight emergencies. But they, and scrambles and, from time to time, RF-101’s. the Lao Air Force, do not represent a very The Thai Air Force is flying F-86F’s, F-86L s, great force at this time. and assorted transports and trainers. Across The two countries, Thailand and Laos, the runwav he will see a C-46 taxiing out to have much in common. Their languages are take off for somewhere. C-130’s are alvvays in evidence. It is a scene—here at Don Muang—of enormous activitv. The chilian jets emphasize the commercial importance of the area. The F-102’s, the F-86s, the C-46 call attention to the basic uneasiness in Southeast Asia. And the intense air traffic makes clear the impor­ tance of the airplane to Southeast Asia. On the same flight line at Don Muang our observer will also see an old C-47 with the markings of Air Laos. The seats, while austere. are adequate, the air smells only slightlv of fish oil, and the stewardess, in her Lao costume, is fetching. It is, besides, the only practical way to get to Luang Prabang. Airports in Laos are C-47 airports at best. The one at Luang Prabang is a C-47 airport at its very worst—potholed, short, and without even the basic amenities. There are no modem air facilities in Laos, no place where jet fight- ers, for instance, could be based. At the same time there are few roads in Laos, and still fewer good ones. As evervone must know bv now. Laos is a difficult place to get around in. What is worth remembering is that it is diffi­ cult for anyone, not just Western troops, to get around in Laos. And it is next to impossible to move militarv forces of any significance—that is to say, with equipment beyond that which can be carried on a man’s back—without de- tection from the air. In the few vears before 1962 that the L nited States operated a Militarv Assistance 6 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

very nearly the same. Their religion, Butl- Thailand in the past two years—certainly not, dhism, is also the same, and over the years there at any rate, in the time we were allowed. has been considerable Crossing back and forth If we include in our defínition of South­ across their common border, with consequent east Asia just these countries—Viet Nam intermarriages. (North and South), Laos, Thailand, Cam­ The fact remains that there are more dif- bodia, Malaya, and the Philippines—we have ferences than similarities, at least in a military a very big area. Adding Burma, Indonésia, sense. Thailand is a prime base for any air and, of course, Borneo, makes it an area equal activity on the mainland in Southeast Asia. to about half the size of the United States. It The hard-core base is, of course, Clark Air is an area of poor surface Communications, of Base in the Philippines. On the mainland, mountains, swamps, and jungles. The country- Thailand is the only country where we have side in that part of the world has not changed the base complex capable of supporting a sig- since World War II, and foot soldiers, for all nificant air effort. This base complex, together their fine new air mobility, are essentially no with the Communications and the logistic better equipped to fight in an impenetrable stockpiles essential to a base complex, all jungle than they were in the days of MemlPs represent a very considerable Military Assist- Marauders. ance Program over the last several years. At Takhli, for example, where we keep a contin- gent of F-100’s, we have a runway of over 9000 feet. At Korat the runway is 10,000 feet, T he aer operations of the past and at Ubon over 8000 feet. Don Muang has two years have, by lessons in the field, reaf- over 10,000 feet. At Takhli, Don Muang, and firmed concepts for the use of tactical air that Ubon we have permanent usaf contingents. were developed from experience in World Thailand, headquarters for sea t o , has also War II and the Korean War. They have also been the host country for most of sea t o ’s ac­ exposed several bogus ones. Let us deal with tivity. the valid lessons first. Bordering Thailand on the south is Malaya, First of all, the airplane is the equalizer in a pleasant country of jungles and plantations. Southeast Asia. Whether you are fighting light- The military power to meet externai threats ly armed guerrillas or contemplating a more is supplied by the British Commonwealth. The ambitious conflict with a trained and fairly Far East Air Forces of the raf have two splen- well-equipped force, such as the Pathet Lao, did air bases, Butterworth in Malaya and you must base your tactics on the use of air Tengah in Singapore, capable of taking anv- power. Without it you cannot move, you can- thing, including century-series fighters. not see, you have no logistics. Without air Cambodia, on Thailand s eastern border, power you are, in spite of your spectacidar is determinedly neutral. From a military stand- weapons, in worse shape even than guerrillas point it would be a very great help to the over- with homemade rifles. Their advantages in all military situation in Southeast Asia if Cam­ knowing the language and the terrain and in bodia were in one way or another an ally. being acclimated offset your firepower advan­ To the south of these countries of main­ tages. This is not to say that the airplane solves land Southeast Asia lies Indonésia, a liuge and all problems. It does not, by a very long shot, unaligned country equipped with more mod­ but it is essential to the solution of the prob­ em hardware than any other Southeast Asia lems. And it has to be used with considerable nation. maturity. In Southeast Asia this maturity has And to the east lie the Philippines. With- not always been in evidence. out the fortunate circumstance of our base in Two years ago air contributed very little the Philippines, we could not have carried out to the struggle in the Republic of Viet Nam. the very extensive support of Viet Nam and There was no tactical air control system, and AIR POWER: EQUALIZER IN SOUTIIEAST AS1A 7

thus no possibilitv of quick reaction. Targets fessional aerial reconnaissance in any sort of were selected in a mistv fashion, and decisions military operation in Southeast Asia. In this for air strikes were sometimes weeks in Corn­ part of the world, intelligence is hard to come ing. Once again it was confirmed that air by. Aerial photographs, interpreted by knowl- power without a command and control system edgeable and usually native photo interpret- is no air power at all. The decision for massive ers, are a prime source of intelligence. It takes and, hopefully, decisive aid in the Republic good cameras and expert pilots to get these of Viet Nam brought the U.S. Air Force into pictures. This is one thing that we have the tactical air picture. Now, less than two learned or, if you prefer, proved again. years later, the machinery for the control of The fourth lesson, one which has been air power in the Republic of Viet Nam is at a brought home time after time in the past very high standard. This is our second lesson. three years, is the essentiality of Clark Air The control machinery is there and, up to a Base in any important military undertakings point, it works very well. It is a good system, in this part of the world. It was comforting the tactical air control system, proved and re- and quite obviously impressive to our allies in fined in two wars. In the Republic of Viet sea t o to see F-100’s from Clark landing at Nam it could handle a great many more air- Takhli in Thailand only five hours after the craft than it now has to deal with. In its pres- order to deploy had been given. The support, ent structure, it could support the employment the planning, the very construction of our can- of tactical air forces in an expanded war in tonments on the mainland have all depended, that area. to a very great degree, on our base here in the A third lesson is pointed up bv tactical Philippines. Beyond that, it is hard to know, reconnaissance in Southeast Asia, which two in this volatile area of Southeast Asia, where years ago was a primitive operation carried the next trouble may come from. We cannot out largely with hand-held K-28 cameras. The afford to disperse our resources too thinlv. We RF-lOTs have clearly established the value of are extremely lucky to have, secure from any — the absolute necessitv for—sophisticated, pro- insurgency problems and with no troublesome 8 AIR UN1VERSITY REV1EW

bordeis with other countries, a close friend in balloon as being a likely counterinsurgency tbe Philippines. Our base here has made the weapon. difference in our ability to react anywhere in But we must not get too bemused with a Southeast Asia. situation where the only hazard to our aircraft There are, unhappily, other less solid comes from small-arms fire. If we are not to theories that are also being certified in the suffer the same eventual fate that has over- sometimes artificial laboratorv of tbe Republic taken other air forces that learned their les- of Viet Nam. The war in the Republic of Viet sons in artificial situations—and here I refer Nam remains essentially, of course, a war be- for example to the Italians in Ethiopia, the tween tbe government of that country and the Germans in Spain—then we would be wise not Communist insurgents. But we are deeply to mistake success in this operation for proof committed, and our own people are being that slow-flying, low-Hying aircraft, either fixed killed. Beyond that, equipment and, more sig- or rotary wing, will survive against even mod- nifícantly, some theories are being put to a erately advanced opposition. test—presumablv the ultimate test of actual The borders of Cambodia, Viet Nam, and combat. Laos appear on the maps, and, to an extent, they actuallv exist. But if one day, in response to our increasing success in the Republic of T he actions that we liave taken Viet Nam, we should find ourselves faced with in the Republic of Viet Nam, as I have said “volunteer” troops of the Pathet Lao, China, earlier, have been both timely and effective. or North Viet Nam, we should be prepared to So long as this war can be confined to the operate once again as a tactical air force— borders of that country and remain a counter- without any painful, unlearning period as we insurgency campaign, it would be hard to find transition back to present-day aircraft. Insur­ fault with anything we have done. The danger gents are not by choice poorly armed. It is lies somewhat deeper. entirely within the area of the possible that The Republic of Viet Nam, from the mili- they, in some future campaign, would include tarv standpoint, is essentially an artificial defected elements of well-equipped regular situation. The opposition, until now at anv forces. rate, has consisted of poorly armed although We should stav flexible, and certainlv we fiereely determined Communist-led guerrillas. should maintain an open mind as to the tactics So long as the opposition remains fairly primi­ and techniques needed to defeat the enemy tive, without a genuine antiaircraft capability, of the moment. But we must not allow these to say nothing of any air capability, we can do tactics and techniques to take on too much pretty much as we please. In fact, it would importance in the shaping of our force struc- not be hard to imagine the old observation ture or the design of our new equipment. Hq Thirteenth Air Force RETURNS

COLONEL ROBERT D. JOHNSTON

\ A modem air age when jets fly faster than the resulting A-26, aptly called a “hopped-up, tough I speed of sound, encirele the globe in brief big brother” of the A-20, proved to be the fastest, hours—when outer space vehicles are changing most versatile, and deadliest médium bomber de- Buck Rogers fantasies into Science realitv—a eom- veloped during World War II. paratively medieval aircraft, an inveterate veteran, To meet the Air Force specifications set forth is again doing valiant Service in the time of its in 1940, Douglas undertook to prototype tluee second resurrection. This old warrior, modified experimental models: (I) a light bombardment and patched for its latest role as a eounterinsur- attack plane, (2) a night-fighter modification, gency vveapon, is the Douglas B-26 Invader. and (3) an aerial destroyer mounting a large- caliber carmon. The A-26 was test-flown 10 July 1942 and went into production in September birth of the Invader 1943. It first appearcd in combat in 1944. By The B-26 began its career as the A-26, an May 1945 six A-26 groups were committed to "attack bomber. The Douglas Aircraft Company overseas theaters, and acceptances of the airplane began design of the plane for the Army Air Forces reached almost 2500 by August 1945. in January 1941, intending to incorporate in it Early in WW II the usefulness of eurrent the best features of the A-20, which then equipped attack aircraft, both Allied and enemy, tended the aaf light bombardment squadrons. Especial to become limited as increasingly effective defense attention was given to developing greater range was brought about by improved fighters and and heavier homb load, in which characteristics ground weapons. As a counterbalance, the Air the A-20 had shown its deficiencies during the Forces needed a fast, light bomber with excep- early operations in the Southwest Pacific. The tionally heavy firepower and capable of operating 10 AIR UN1VERSITY REVIEW

efficiently both at treetop levei and at médium foot span.The fuselage was shaped and reinforced altitude. by aluminum ribs. Each of the two Pratt & Speeifically desired was a plane to perform Whitney engines developed 2000 horsepower for a half-dozen or more types of attack missions, all take-off, and each was equipped with an internai intended to destroy ground installations and im- single-stage, two-speed, gear-driven blower. The mobilize the enernv to the point that a way could Hamilton Standard full-feathering, three-bladed be paved for forward surface action. It would propellers were 12 feet 7 inches in diameter. The attack landing parties, naval craft, mobile or landing gear was fully retractable and hydrau- eneamped troops, supply and ammo dumps, and fically operated. A specially designed feature was moving trains. In order to survive in these varied the dual-slotted, electrically operated flaps which missions against the deadlv defense of which the extended outward and downward, creating greater enemy had proved himself capable, the plane lift and drag than conventional flaps. would have to be tough, able to withstand heavy The A-26 was designed throughout for quick gunfire, and armored for its crew’s protection. repairs and engine changes to simplify mainte- It had to fly “low and slow and then faster than nance and minimize “down" time. For example, the top fighters of the day. It would have to be the engine cowling was in two halves and could armed vvith heavy offensive and defensive gun­ be removed or installed in a few minutes, using fire and carry great bomb loads long distances. only a spark-plug wrench. Finally it had to be mass producible, and quickly. A profound respect for the capabüities and VVhen the A-26 experienced delays early in 1942, demonstrated prowess of this old war-horse grew at a time when the aaf was planning to replace in World War II and lives on today. The boys all other médium bombers with it, General Arnold who carne in low, hit hard, and got the hell out insisted he wanted the Invader “for use in this chalked up enviable records for themselves and war and not the next.” their “carriers.” As noted previously, these Invad- The Invader was bom of these needs and ers could dish it out, but they also could take specifications, and the skill, foresight, imagination, terrific punishment and still make it home on their and genius of many miÜtary and civilian agencies own power. assisted in its birth. Among the many attributes After Julv 1944 production of the A-26 claimed for it were the range of a very heavy mounted steadily. It was truly proving itself in bomber, the bomb load of a heavy bomber, the the war in Europe. In their first 17 missions over maneuverabüity of an interceptor, and the speed heavilv defended targets in Nazi Germanv, the of a fighter. Invader groups were “on target" every time and An all-metal midwing monoplane powered by only one plane was lost. And although in the two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engines, the A-26 Pacific the A-26’s were mainlv assigned to low- Invader had a combat weight of 35,000 pounds level bombing and strafing attacks, few failed and an airspeed of 360 miles per hour— more than to return to base. 60 miles faster than other médium bombers. Its Pilots of the Invader claim a good deal of combat range reached 1000 miles with a two- to its success was due to the plane’s easy handling. four-man crew, depending on whether the bom- One veteran of 66 combat missions, Lieutenant bardiers nose and the rear gun position were Colonel H. G. “Tad” Hankey, stated, “You don t installed. It was formidably armed with eighteen get the sensation of speed until you get close to .50-caliber machine guns and fourteen 5-inch the ground.” To demonstrate his point, he took rockets, and by use of the bomb-bay and wing his A-26 out of the 300-mph straight flight and racks it could carry ordnance loads up to three put it into a dive over a railroad track. He pulled tons, varying from fragmentation to 1000-pound up at the top of the telegraph poles and hurtled demolition bombs. Overall length was 51 feet 3 down the track at a speed which made the poles inches, and maximum height 18 feet 6 inches. one long blur. He then pulled back on the wheel The Invader’s wings were of two-spar, full- and put the plane into a climb, reporting later cantilever, laminar-flow construction, with a 70- that he had been climbing better than 1000 feet TIIE INVADER RETURNS 11

a minute and registering nearly 300 mph in the delivery of 18 to 20 aircraft a inonth to the com­ climb. On reaching an altitude of 7000 feet he bat lines. resumed straight flight, then feathered the right The reconditioning was by no means routine. engine, and eontinued cruising along at more These B-26’s that carne off the production lines than 200 mph. While still flying on one engine, at Ogden ama were recognizable as the sturdy, he swung the airplane across the sky in long, easy reliable, maneuverable old war-horses of WW II tums and then climbed to altitude with no ap- but “beefed up,” revamped, and modified to meet parent strain. the needs of the new “liinited” war. The ingen- Though a latecomer. the Invader compiled ious inventiveness of the work force at Ogden a distinguished combat record in World War II ama brought many types of Invaders ofl the lines and won hearty acceptance bv the crews who —reconnaissance, photographic (both day and flew it. night), night intruders, fighters, tow-target planes, and light bombers, all specially equipped. One unusual modification was a B-26 equipped with first rebirth of the Invader loudspeakers which, from one mile up, blared anti-Red information over the enemy lines. After World War II the Invader, now re- Although the “mig Alley” duels between the designated the B-26 after the usaf had abolished usaf Sabrejets and the Soviet-built MIG-15’s re- the attaclc classification in 1947, began slipping ceived the attention of the press, it was aircraft into oblivion like an old hero laid to rest. It was like the Invader which applied direct pressure to pickled, preserved, and put in storage. Although the enemy on the ground, taking a tremendous it had committed itself valiantly the Invader was toll of enemy manpower and equipment and ulti- being supplanted, supposedly, by the lightning mately making an armistice possible. Tales of the jet aircraft of the future which were writing his- daring and successful night-intruder attacks by tory in the skies. the Invader are legion, as are also its successes Then carne the dark days of the summer of in interdiction missions and in dropping delayed- 1950 and the advance of the Communist North action parademolition and parafragmentation Korean army into South Korea. Without question bombs on targets not requiring saturation bomb- air power provided the decisive force which en- ing. The Korean Communications svstem was abled U.S. and U.N. ground forces to retain a widely scattered and offered few targets worthv foothold on the península. But in the thinly of large groups of fighters or bombers. The nourished postwar usaf modern aircraft were Invader and other low-flving, slower planes were desperately short. For months to come the. war employed in relatively small numbers in seeking had to be fought with the leftovers of World out and destroying Communist bridges, trucks, War II. Fortunatelv there were thousands of air­ trains, barracks, and supplies. The “special pur- craft in pickled storage, among them many hun- pose” paramunitions were parachuted from B-26’s dreds of B-26’s. Dozens of others were found on with deadly accuracy during daylight hours, and almost every base, where they served for logging B-29 Superforts often dropped fiares for the B-26 flying time or fast administrative flights. night intruder sorties. Their use in this conflict The time was ripe for the resurrection of prevented excessive loss of personnel and equip­ the old Invader. Off the air bases and out of the ment on the low-level strikes required for the boneyards they carne, first in a trickle, then in a small targets. They lent high morale and confi- steady stream as crews could be retrained and dence to the aircrews. the aircraft restored to combat condition. Much praise is due the maintenance and production technicians on the aircraft Lnes at Ogderi Air Materiel Area, Hill Air Force Base, Utah. During in storage again the Korean War years they reclaimed and re- The years after the Korean conflict saw the conditioned more than 1000 B-26’s, averaging appearance of the giant long-range jet bomber 12 AIR UN1VERSITY REV1EW and the sound-barrier-breaking jet fíghter. The fix them for a one-time fiight to the production validity of professional opinion that the prime lines at Hill afb. Tliere approximately two B-26’s defense requirement vvas a capability for success- a month were equipped for active duty and ful delivery of nuclear bombs or vvarheads on the rolled off the lines to make history once again enemy could not be denied. The emphasis in as they had during two previous confliets. national defense policy was of necessity on the At Hill afb, the B-26’s were completely dis- building of a modem force of long-range, strategic mantled and reworked, an average of 11,500 nuclear bombers and nuclear-tipped ic bm s . Pow- man-hours being expended on the overhaul of erful auxiliary ground and naval forces were also each aircraft. Many special pieces of equipment maintained against the prospect of limited war, and devices not available in the Air Force supply other Koreas, perhaps more than one at a time. system were specially manufactured there or In later years, in View of the inroads that were obtained through war surplus, cannibaliza- Communist-inspired revolts, insurgencies, infiltra- tion, or reclamation from other B-26’s and in­ tions, and guerrilla attacks were making, a careful stalled in these aircraft. As they carne off the restudy of our defense posture confirmed a need line completely reworked with extra armament for special forces, equipment, tactics, and strate- and improved equipment installed, they were gies in the realm of counterinsurgency ( coin) flown to Eglin afb. Florida, where they took their operations. While assuredly not wanting or in- plaee with the T-28, the C-47, and other vehicles tending to fight in all the free vvorlds counter­ being used for counterinsurgency training under insurgency battles, the United States armed forces direction of the Special Air Warfare Center there. reeognized that they must lead materially in The rehabilitation process continued on other shaping the local struggles against Communist B-26’s pulled from storage, and direct deliveries aggression. All-out efforts were bent toward train- were made not only to Eglin but to the Canal ing, advising, supplying, and equipping those Zone and Southeast Asia, where intensive train­ who need help in effective coin operations. Yet ing of Allied crews continued in all phases of while United States policy dictates that American airborne operations for counterguerrilla activities. forces will not be committed to coin engagements, Carrying .50-caliber machine guns in its nose, the usaf could be called upon to fill in with air rockets under its wings, and a great variety of capability during the ínterim of development of bombs in its belly, this revitalized B-26 was and adequate indigenous forces within the friendly is a natural for jungle warfare. Technieians as- nations. signed to the System Support Manager for the B-26 as well as maintenance and supply person­ nel at Ogden ama have for the past two years the Invaders second rehirth also worked unstintingly to support special proj- Recognizing that it had an aircraft which ects from which the B-26 emergcd as a prime could meet the need and cope with the unique coin vehicle in the current world hot spots. In characteristics of coin warfare, the United States April 1961 the 4400th Combat Crew Training Air Force early in 1961 again decided to resur- Squadron, “Jungle Jim,” was activated at Hurl- rect the war-weary old B-26 Invader. Revamped burt Field, Florida. This unit was committed to and revitalized, this new version of the B-26 the special training of usaf personnel in the B-26 is proving to be the most versatile aircraft in the and other WW II aircraft and equipment. in Air Force s counterinsurgency inventorv. order to provide for liaison and supervisory func- In January 1961 Ogden ama logistics sup- tions necessary to aid friendly foreign air forces in port, maintenance, and supply personnel began developing combat capability with similar equip­ to rehabilitate the B-26’s that were stored at ment. Advanced training of friendly foreign air Davis-Monthan afb, Arizona. Reparable control force personnel was also given in the operation. surfaces and other spares available at Hill afb, maintenance, and combat employment of these Utah, were made serviceable, airlifted to Davis- aircraft. The project also provided for further Monthan, and installed on the aging airframes to development of conventional weapons and tactics THE INVADER RETURNS 13

and techniques of equipment suitable to the en- naissance, and interdiction aircraft. Its Hexibility vironment of newly emerging countries. enables it to operate successfully against uncer- In November 1961 Project “Farm Cate, a tain as well as anticipated wide-range enemy detachnient of Jungle Jims, began furnishing sup- capabilities. port to the Invaders and other coin aircraft de- • The Invader’s low and slow Hying allows ployed to areas of insurgency in Southeast Asia. its crew time to see the Heeting targets. Its two- In May 1962 a 60-man detachment from place “four eyes” enable it to cirele for successive the Special Air Warfare Center at Eglin was attacks with the moving targets still within visual deployed to the Canal Zone to instruct Latin- range. Its two engines, armor plate, and fast- American forces in all phases of counterguerrilla getaway power protect it from the small-arms activity. This project. “Bold Venture,” ably sup- ground fire of the insurgents. ported the deployment and included three B-26's for use as trainers. Tvpical of Air Force units the Counter Invader using the Ogden AMA-repaired Invaders is the 6th Fighter Squadron (Commando) of the lst Air At the present time a newly configured B-26 Commando Group. The B-26 is considered the is being flight-tested at Eglin. It has been re- backbone of this Florida-based squadron’s array worked by a private contractor from specifications of aircraft. which includes another old favorite, provided by the Aeronautical Systems Division the T-28 Trojan. of the Air Force Systems Command. Upon com- The special features of the B-26 which adapt pletion of flight test and acceptance by the Tacti- it to meet the unique requirements of coin war­ eal Air Command, additional aircraft will be fare will bear elaboration. modified and assigned to coin duties in South­

• The overall strategic aim of coin is to east Asia. win the indigenous popidace to the side of the This new Counter Invader has been proto- free world, and we must protect the people while typed for the Air Force as a research and devel- winning them over. The Communist insurgents opment vehicle by the On-Mark Engineering are often intermingled with the indigenous peo- Company. The old war-proved performer has ples, and it would be disastrous if bombs were been redesigned, modified, and modernized to dropped promiscuously and noninsurgents were become an even more versatile and formidable injured. Against no aerial opposition the Invader Hying weapon. specially adapted to fit the peculiar can be relied on to flv low and slow enough to requirements of coin warfare as todav’s stiper- “see” its target and pinpoint its bomb drop. sonic attack aircraft cannot do. The B-26 Counter Invader possesses a di- • Communist-inspired insurgencies are versity of armament and reconnaissance ability. inost probable in technologicallv backward, newly On each wing are a rocket-launcher pod, a emerging nations with poor lines of communica- machine-gun pod, a 750-pound bomb, and a tion. Sufficient modem airfields to snpport sus- napalm bomb. If a longer mission is called for, tained operations are nonexistent. The time and the napalm bomb can be replaced by a 230- manpower necessary to bnild such airfields during gallon-capacity fuel drop tank. To eflFect minimum criticai strike periods would negate the potencv speed loss, these units are spaced aerodynamieallv of a particular strike. In the ínterim until vtol on the wing. Adding to its firepower, three .50- aircraft become available, the Invader with its calibcr machine guns are mounted in each wing. short-take-off-and-Ianding capabilities can be de- The nose firing power has been increased to eight ployed in the best possible tactical disposition .50-caliber guns, symmetrically positioned, making to counter opposing forces. for greatly increased close-snpport capabilities. • The insurgents laek of significant air Bombs, fiares, and/or torpedoes—up to 4000 and of sophisticated weapons and munitions ere- pounds—rest in the bomb bay. ates made-to-order conditions for the Invader’s In only four man-hours the eight-gun nose optimum capabilities as a close-snpport, recon- can be replaced with a glass nose to adapt this 14 AIR UN1VERSITY REVIEW

versatile aircraft to level-bombing and photo- abilities, under full armament, allow it to reach reconnaissance missions. these areas; its loitering ability allows its crew to Special technical features designed and locate the trouble spot; and its distinctive and vvorked into the new Counter Invader are: diversified armaments allow the selection of weap- completely remanufactured airframe ons suitable for the target spotted. These abilities 2500-hp water injected engines (Pratt & are unique with this new Counter Invader and Whitney R-2800, 103-VV) are of vital importance in this vicious jungle type of coin warfare. fully reversible propellers vvith automatic If carrying no externai or ferry fuel, a feathering Counter Invader can cover a 500-nautical-mile dnal flight Controls (right side removable for radius with full stores, loiter for one and one-half access to bombardier nose) hours in the process of seeking out and destroying 6000-pound-thrust ja t o installations targets, and return to base with an adequate land­ heavy-duty brakes with antiskid system ing reserve of fuel. During such a mission this nose wheel steering B-26 can carry armament weighing 8000 pounds. 100,000-BTU heater If externai fuel is carried, the radius can be ex- tended to 800 nautical miles. air-conditioning for cockpit This new counterinsurgency weapon system deicer boots is outstandingly capable of levei bombing at alti­ propeller, windshield, and carburetor anti- tudes to 30,000 feet, dive bombing, photorecon- icing system naissance and electronic surveillance, and close complete fire detection, waming, and extin- ground support. Since it uses only proved com- guishing system ponents common to many U.S.-built military and permanentlv installed wingtip tanks with civilian craft, its operation is simplified. By virtue dumping system of its years of tried and true Service, the B-26 is no longer sensitive to the maintenance problems quick-change nose capability often inherent with new designs. It requires few electric elevator trim special tools and little ground support equipment. two 300-amp d.c. generators and two 2500- The Counter Invader can be immediately avail- VA inverters able in quantity, by off-the-shelf procurement. It provisions for a full complement of airbome is capable of operation from small, unimproved electronics, including hf, vhf, and uhf airfields through a combination of low power communication, vor navigation, lf/adf, loading, ja t o , reversible propellers, and antiskid instrument landing system, tacan, auto­ brakes, and its large, low-pressure tires permit matic pilot. if f coder, loran, marker bea- operation from grass or unprepared fields. Truly con, integrated flight system, intercom it is a made-to-order vehicle to counter Communist system, and radars. guerrilla threats. Taking a look at history past and the com- Following the classic guerrilla pattern, insur- plexion of the present and trying to envision what gencies often take place in areas where the timely may come, one can but paraphrase regarding delivery or emplacement of troops is virtually this valiant old warrior the Douglas B-26: “Old impossible. The B-26 Counter Invader was de- Invaders never die—they just keep on being re- veloped to counteract this situation. Its long-range born, and reborn, and . . Ogden Air Materiel Area THE INVADER .. . PAST AND PRESENT

World War II. A formation of Douglas A-26 In- vaders of the 9th Bombardment Division leaves a Cerman ammunition dump in flames near Rhein- bach, ten miles Southwest of Bonn. Invaders har- assed enemy troops and frequently separated them from their supply sources by attacking rail lines, roads, bridges, supply and ammo depois.

Death of an Invader. With bombs stitt in its bay, an A-26 of the 9th Bombard- ment Division plummets earthward after a direct hit by flak took off a wing tip seconds before scheduled bomb re- lease over a dump in northern France. Invacling Hitlers Germany. Two A-26's of the U.S. Ninth Air Force drop bombs on a Siegfried Line strong point in the path of American groimd forces. Each fhjing day the A-26 ran missions on the Western Front in cooperation with actions by the three armies of General Omar Bradleijs U.S. 12th Arnuj Group. Note the precision of the tico hombers. The twin engines and tail assembly of the second plane line up so tvell be- hind the lead A-26 as to be nearly invisible. The six bombs of the first plane are leading the following stick of six from the second bomber straight in to the target.

Pacific Invader. In the spring of 1945, ivith the German collapse near, A-26 units ivere among those redeplotjed from the European Theater to the Pacific via the U.S.A. to assist the an- ticipated invasion of fapan. One of the first A-26’s to reach Okinawa was this one of the 48th Bombardment Squadron,41 st Bomb Group. Out of the boneyard. A typically battered veteran of World War 11 is pulled from storage for recondition- ing before being dispatched to a new war in Korea.

In storage. War-weary old B-26 Invaders (now redesignated) put out to pasture ut Davis- Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. Douglas Aircraft Company produced 2446 of these planes, and they were accepted by the Army Air Forces for service in Europe. After World War II some 400 of them were stored in the United States for use in future contingencies. Slany others were allocated to USAF bases for proficiency flying. Restoration. R-26 invade rs heing rehahilitated at Ogden Air Materiel Area preparatory to combat Service in Korea. The only B-26's available in the Far East at the start of the Korean War were two squadrons stationed at Johnson Air Base, Japan. Ten B-26’s flown to Ashiya Air Base in western Japan for an exercise were the first Invaders to see action in the Korean War. Thcy helped cover the evacuation of civilians and dependents from Seoid. These B-26’s in their original configuration were soon followed bty others that had been given bigger engines, more efficient propellers, extended nose cones, better arma- *nent, and higher load capacity for bombs and napalm. Many of them had been specially modified for night bombing operations. Altogether, the modified B-26 proved itself in Korea as a rugged and deadly offensive weapon, well worth the effort expended on it.

Combat ready in Korea. B-26's silhouetted against the mountains near Pusan await their next mission. The undispersed parking shows complete air superi- ority in the United Nations zone of the advance. The hazards of winter. Snow removei crews ready a 11-26 for another homhing mission. Elevators and wings tvere covered by improvised cloth sleeves as protection against the elements. The Invader was seldom grounded dtiring the rigorous Korean winter. Over North Korea. Invaders of the 3d Bombardment Wing drop quarter-ton demolition bombs on Com- munist territory. Deep-penetration bombing raids on supply and ammunition dum ps were a specialty of the B-26, which carried 5000 pounds of bombs, rockets, 2 napalm tanks, and over 5000 caliber-.50 rounds. Out of storage again. B-26 survivors of the Korean War are recondi- tioned and redesigned at Hill Air Force Base for the new Air Force counterinsurgency prograin. Again engines and propellers are re- placed and a more serviceable and longer nose cone installed. In several new configurations, the B-26 Invader is a faster and vastltj improved plane, successfully fulfilling numerous specialized missions. \

Loaded for combat. The new YB-26K or Counter Invader is shown on a ramp at Hill Air Force Base, April 1963. With rockets under its wings, eight aerial machine guns in its nose, and other features which add to its firepower and maneuverability, the Counter Invader is proving an invaluable asset in the Viet Nam Air Force for COIN missions.

Attack mission, 1963. The Invader nears its third decade of combat operations. COPYRIGHT LAW

AND THE MILITARY AUTHOR

M. C. F reudenberc

HE M ILITARY author today finds a Arts, bv securing for limited times to Authors fantasticallv increasing amount of copv- and Inventors the exclusive Right to their re- T righted source material from which he spective YVritings and Discoveries. may wish to draw information dealing with This constitutional provision is the basis for any subject, whether it be in an area of logis- both patent rights and copyrights as provided tics, Science and technologv, medicine, admin- in the LTnited States statutes. Before compar- istration, personnel, education, entertainment, ing these respective rights it is well to note or public relations. He faces the difficulty of that “YVritings” as a category has been broadly determining the extent to which he can quote interpreted so that statutorv Copyright protec- from or otherwise use such published source tion is afforded for a varietv of works of art, material without incurring personal legal lia- drawings or plastic works of a scientific or tech- bilitv or subjecting the Government to a pos- nical character, photographs, pictorial illus- sible suit for damages for Copyright infringe- trations, and motion pictures in addition to the ment. The following comments are intended better-known categories of works which are to be generally informative about copyrights literally writings, i.e., books, periodicals, news- and helpful when Copyright problems arise. papers, lectures, dramatic compositions, etc. Although this treatise considers primarily There is confusion in many minds be- the author s Copyright infringement problems tween “statutory Copyright” in the United in works organized in words, occasional di- States and that to which some refer as “com- gression will make clear other areas of poten- mon law Copyright.” The word “Copyright” tial Copyright infringement, i.e., drawings, standing alone usually refers to the right cre- music, statuary, etc. ated by statute in a published work. In the The L nited States Constitution empowers Congress— United States the common law right of an author to first publication of his unpublished To Promote the Progress of Science and useful intellectual propertv is recognized, but such 24 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

right expires upon general publication by or in this instance is not necessarily of a direct on behalf of the author and without restric- pecuniary nature. Performance of a copy­ tion. This common law right is of indefinite righted musical publication in a restaurant or duration vvhereas statutory Copyright lasts for hotel dining room where there is no charge for 28 years, with a renewal term of 28 years admission is considered a performance for under certain circumstances., profit. Such performance is obviously not elee- mosynary but is part of the total for which statutory rights of Copyright owner the public pays merely by ordering a meai, and the purpose of employing music is to The United States Copyright statutes1 de­ realize greater profit for the establishment.3 fine the exclusive rights of a Copyright propri- It has been suggested that increased enlist- etor in both general terms and specific terms. ments because of the stirring performance of These general and specific exclusive rights, to a military Service band may be deemed an in- be discussed later, are the bases for legal re- direct profit to the Government.4 Such a sug- dress to prevent any unauthorized person from gestion, however, goes far beyond the law of copying or misappropriating the copyrighted decided cases where the profit factor has in- work or unfairly encroaching upon the pro- volved attempted pecuniary gain. The mere tected area without risking liability for in- broadeasting by a commercial radio station of fringement. Just what constitutes copying and a copyrighted musical work without authoriza- what might be excused as a fair encroachment tion is recognized as an infringing performance iuto a protected area vvill also be discussed. for profit. So also it is a performance within Generally, a Copyright proprietor lias the the meaning of the statute to provide means exclusive right to “print, reprint, publish, copy, for reception of a broadeast of a copyrighted and vend the copyrighted work.”2 These words work publicly, as in the case of radio receivers encompass the entire area of making and pub- provided for hotel guests.3 lishing or selling any original or copy of everv Since statutory Copyright can usuallv be copyrighted work. acquired only after publication and proper Among the more specific statutory rights marking of all copies with Copyright notice, are the exclusive rights to translate or make it will not coexist with a right existing at com­ another version of a literary work, and to ar- mon law.,; Statutory Copyright is available for range or adapt a musical work. certain works not reproduced for sale, such as In the case of lectures, sermons, addresses, lectures, musical, dramatic, or dramatico-musi- or other nondramatic literarv works, there is cal compositions, motion-picture photoplavs, an exclusive right to deliver, authorize de- photographs, motion pictures, works of art, livery of, read or present, and play or perform plastic works, or drawings.7 Such works need the copyrighted work in public for profit or to not be published to enjoy protection of the exhibit, represent, produce, or reproduce it in statute. Notwithstanding that Section 2 of the any manner or by any method whatsoever. Ex- Copyright law States “Nothing in this title shall clusivitv in this categorv of works also extends be construed to annul or limit the right of the to making or having made any transeription or author or proprietor of an unpublished work, record thereof. There is indication that the at common law or in equity, to prevent copy­ words “transeription” and “record” include ing, publication, or use of such unpublished copies in stenographic shorthand or the like work without his eonsent, and to obtain dam- as well as any copies made by disc or tape re- ages therefor,” it appears that a compliance cordings, although there has been little litiga- with the statute to register a Copyright in a tion in this area to provide a clear basis for work not reproduced for sale will terminate statute interpretation. common law rights.8 As to musical compositions, exclusivity ex­ When a military author wishes to use tends to public performance for profit. Profit material from some work which does not bear COPYRIGHT LAW AND THE MILITARY AUTHOR 25 prescribed Copyright notice and when tliere is not bear a separate Copyright notice, however, doubt that there has been a general publica- no separate registration for the contribution tion thereof, he should not proceed with such can be made. If the contribution is a literary, use without either release from the author or dramatic, or musical work, the notice should consultation with appropriate legal counsel appear on the first page (the title page) of responsible for cop>TÍght matters. It must be the contribution. kept in mind that personal liabiíity for im- The notice in a musical work appears proper use of unpublished material mav result either upon the title page or upon the first because the law9 which exempts a Govern­ page of music. The notice in a motion picture ment employee, acting in an official capacity, should appear on the title frame or near it. from personal liabiíity for infringement of For certain works, i.e., generally, graphic and statutorv Copyright is not considered to extern! artistic works, a special abbreviated form of to violations of the common law right of first notice which does not include the year of first publication, as pointed out later in this article. publication is permissible. This may consist of the svmbol © , accompanied by the initial, monogram, mark, or svmbol of the Copyright Copyright notice owner, provided the owners name appears According to Section 10 of the Copyright elsewhere upon some accessible portion of the statutes, a copyrighted work must bear a pre­ work. scribed form of notice of Copyright. It must appear on all copies of the work published or liabiíity for Copyright infringement offered for sale in the United States bv author- ity of the Copyright proprietor. For certain In the event of infringement of a valid works the location of the notice is also pre­ Copyright, Section 101 of the Copyright statute scribed. provides that the infringer shall be liable: to In almost everv instance a copyrighted an injunction restraining infringement; to pay work will be marked “Copyright,” “Copr.” or damages and account for profits; to deliver in- © in addition to the year of first publication fringing articles for impoundment pending liti- and the name of the Copyright proprietor. The gation; to deliver infringing articles for de- Copyright notice in a book or other printed struction; or to pay rovalties for certain repro- publication appears upon the title page or the duction of musical works on records or tapes page immediately following. The “page im- as permitted by statute. Section 104 is a crimi­ mediately following” is normally the reverse nal statute providing punishment by imprison- side of the page bearing the title. ment and fine for willful infringement of Copy­ The notice in a periodical appears upon right for profit. the title page, upon the first page of text, or The foregoing paragraph gives some incli- under the title heading. One notice in each cation of the extent of liabiíity imposed upon volume of a book or in each edition of a news- private persons or organizations. When the paper or periodical is sufficient. Many periodi- United States Government is involved in the cals are published with only a single general infringement, the exclusive remedy of the Copyright notice covering the issue as a whole. Copyright proprietor, under a 1960 provision Whether an individual contribution published in the law, shall be by an action for damages without a separate notice is protected bv the against the United States in the Court of general notice ordinarily depends upon the Claims.10 However, prior to bringing suit, a arrangement between the periodical publisher Copyright proprietor may seek administrativo and the author of the contribution. It is some- settlement for infringement of copyrights un­ times possible for the author to obtain from der a law11 which was also amended in 1960 the publisher an assignment of Copyright in to authorize military departments to use cer­ the contribution. VVhere the contribution does tain appropriated funds to make settlement for 26 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

any infringements of Copyright. assignee of such owner with respect to any Prior to 8 September 1960 Congress had copyrighted work prepared by a person while not given consent for the United States as a in the employment or Service of the United sovereign to be sued for Copyright infringe- States, where the copyrighted work was pre­ pared as part of the official functions of the ment, and a Copyright owner could seek re- employee, or in the preparation of which Gov­ dress only against individuais directly respon- ernment time, material, or facilities were used: sible for the act of copying a copyrighted vvork And Provided further, that before such action even if they were Government employees act- against the United States has been instituted ing in accordance with their official duties. the appropriate Corporation owned or controlled A 1940 court decision12 had widespread by the United States or the head of the appro­ repercussions among Government employees, priate department or agency of the Govern­ making them much more aware of the rights ment, as the case may be, is authorized to enter of Copyright proprietors. Tvvo employees of into an agreement with the Copyright owner in full settlement and compromise for the damages the United States, who were members of the accruing to him by reason of such infringement engineering staff of the Bonneville Administra- and to settle the claim administratively out of tion, were found personally liable for damages available appropriations. as a result of making a negative print and Except as otherwise provided by law, no twelve photostatic copies (8" x 10") of a copy­ recovery shall be had for any infringement of a righted map which included some technical Copyright covered by this subsection committed data. The court acknowledged that the em­ more than three years prior to the filing of the ployees were acting in what they believed to complaint or counter-claim for infringement in the action, except that the period between the be the interest of the United States but held date of receipt of a written claim for compen­ that their position as employees did not en- sation by the Department or agency of the title them to the immunity of the sovereign as Government or Corporation owned or controlled its agents. by the United States, as the case may be, having A statutory amendment of 8 September authority to settle such claim and the date of 1960 added the following two subsections to mailing by the Government of a notice to the Title 28, U.S. Code, Section 1498. claimant that his claim has been denied shall not be counted as a part of the three years, (b) Hereafter, whenever the Copyright in unless suit is brought before the last-mentioned any work protected under the Copyright laws date. of the United States shall be infringed by the (c) The provisions of this section shall not United States, by a Corporation owned or con- apply to any claim arising in a foreign country. trolled by the United States, or by a contractor, Enactment of these statute provisions has subcontractor, or any person, firm, or Corpora­ exempted Government employees, acting with- tion acting for the Government and with the in the scope of their official responsibilities, authorization or consent of the Government, the exclusive remedy of the owner of such Copy­ from both civil and criminal personal liabilitv right shall be by action against the United for Copyright infringement. States in the Court of Claims for the recovery As of the end of 1962 there had been no of his reasonable and entire compensation as Copyright cases in the United States Court of damages for such infringement, including the Claims under 28 U.S. Code 1498, so that this minimum statutory damages as set forth in sec­ court’s attitude toward the Governments use tion 101 (b) of title 17, U.S. Code: Provided, of copyrighted material and the application of that a Government employee shall have a right the “fair use” doctrine in the area of Govern­ of action against the Government under this ment publications or the writings of Govern­ subsection except where he was in a position to order, influence, or induce use of the copy­ ment employees is somewhat uncertain. righted work by the Government: Provided, This article cannot treat problems of pat- however, that this subsection shall not confer a ent or Copyright infringement covered by para- right of action on any Copyright owner or any graph (c ), quoted above, because of the ap- C opyright law and the military a u t iio r 27

plicability of different laws in di£Ferent foreign Vice Admirai Hyman G. Rickover,14 the Court countries. However, the military author acting of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit, in the performance of official duty in a nato thought the Copyright statute should be read countrv is exempted from personal liability “to refer to publications commissioned or under a provision of the nato Status of Forces printed at the cost and directiori of the United Agreement applying to activities in countries States. These would be authorized expositions ratifying or acceding to this agreement.® on matter of governmental interest by govern- mental authority.” In remanding the Rickover case to the District Court, the Supreme Court Government publications failed to comment on these quoted interpreta- From a practical point of view the mili­ tions but did criticize an Agreed Statement of tary author should feel free to use in connec- Facts dravvn between counsel as undetailed tion with his ofiBcial duties any information and loose, if not ambiguous, and woefully in- available to him in publications of the Govern­ adequate as a record for adjudicating the ment unless the material is marked with Copy­ issues concerning the rights of the public right notice. There are instances vvhere mate­ versus the private copyrights in the speeches rial with a valid privately owned Copyright of Rickover. has appeared minus its Copyright notice in Other cases have dealt with the issue of Government publications. However, no such Government interest in works of Government possibility should be permitted to interfere employees and are in accordance with or at with the activities of the military author nor least not inconsistent with the above interpre- impose upon him any burden of investigating tations. A 1929 case15 sustained the private whether or not the material is wholly within Copyright of a Government employee who was the public domain. an instructor on military sketching at Fort Section 8 of the Copyright law States that Leavenworth. He prepared in leisure time, not “Xo Copyright shall subsist. . . in any publica- as an incident of being an instructor, a text for tion of the United States Government, or any general use including a part on military sketch­ reprint, in whole or in part, thereof: . . How­ ing. His superiors requested and received his ever, it also States that “The publication or permission to print this part as a pamphlet for republication bv the Government. . . of any limited use in instruction at the school. The material in which Copyright is subsisting shall pamphlet bore notice of Copyright and was not be taken to cause any abridgement or properly registered at the Copyright Office. annulment of the Copyright.. The court held the pamphlet not to be a publi­ In the aforementioned statutes the term cation of the United States Government. “publication” presents some diflficulty in inter- Interesting, but not too enlightening in pretation because it might appear to have dual points of law, is the case16 concerning the meaning, i.e., either the act of printing and writings of Clark of the famous Lewis and distributing, or the material being published Clark expedition. Both men held commissions in which the Government has a proprietary for this military venture, Lewis being in charge interest. One study concludes that the refer- and directed by President Jefferson to keep an ence to Government publication means a pub­ official record. Clark, second in command, kept lished work produced by the Government, and unofficial notes of a similar nature although perhaps to one owned by it, but not to the he was not under direct order to do so. Clark, mere act of printing and publishing by the at Lewis’s request, sent his notes to Jefferson Government.13 for perusal, and the evidence indicates the In the case involving several speeches of latter two considered Clark’s journals as pri­ •Article VIII, paraeraph 5 (g), States: "A member of a vate and not of official character. These per­ torce or a civilian component shall not be subject to any pro- ceedmuj for the enforcement of any judgment fciven agninst him sonal writings were deemed by the court not of hi SPT£> ’n * matt,vr arisine from the performance to be the work produet of a Government rep- 28 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

resentative engaged in the performance of his that an employee has a right to secure private duties and accordingly not public documents Copyright in a work related to his official re- owned bv the United States. sponsibilities when the employee has made a The Rickover case undoubtedly will be substantial or significant contribution to the retried, and any nevv decision is apt to elab- work on his ovvn time or outside of his official orate on the tests as to the Government versus responsibilities. Efforts by an employee out­ employee rights in the area of Copyright. In side of his official duties and warranting pri­ this case Admirai Rickover and several Gov­ vate Copyright may even be in the nature of a ernment officials are now joined as codefend- revision or reorganization of some official work ants. The plaintiff is a private partv seeking where there is a recognizable literarv or edi­ free use of Rickover speeches on the basis that torial contribution by the employee. Such thev are not properly copvrightable because private copyrights are particularly desirable of the relationship of the subject matter to when the copyrighted work might not other- Rickovers official Governmental responsibil- wise be disseminated to the public. Most such ities. situations can be readilv distinguished from In the aforementioned study, Copyright the case17 holding that a Copyright obtained in Government Publications, it is made clear by a Department of the Interior employee on that even among various Government agencies a map was held in trust for the United States there are different views as to what is a “Gov­ Government since (1) the map was related ernment publication” vvithin the meaning of directly to the employee’s work, (2 ) it was 17 U.S. Code, Section 8. Even if a narrow defi- made with materiais and information fur- nition in terms of works prepared for the nished by the Government, (3 ) it was printed Government bv its employees in the course of and engraved by a division of the Department their official duties is attempted under the of the Interior, and (4) there was no evidence existing law, there remain some areas within that the preparation of the map was not done this definition where it seems practical and on Government time. even desirable that copyrights should be ob- tainable by or on behalf of an employee. copyrightability and use of copyrighted work Private publication of works produced for a Government agency, with Copyright notice in Since Copyright appears to subsist in some the name of the private publisher, may be pre- source material, the question arises as to how ferred over publication through Government and in what manner sources may be used facilities for several reasons, and there are without incurring liabilitv to the Copyright apparently instances where this is being prac- owner. Two principal categories of source ticed. Private publication may be more expe- material may be used without Copyright lia- ditious, it may provide an edition of higher bilitv. Thev are (1 ) material which is not quality, a private publisher may cover a par­ copvrightable under the law and (2) material ticular market more effectivelv thereby achiev- the use of which may be defended by assertion ing widest preferred dissemination of Informa­ of the “fair use” doctrine. Neither of these tion, and the private publisher will bear the categories is well defined, although there are cost of printing and distribution. Private pub- hundreds of cases that tend to serve as guides lishers may be hesitant to assume such costs, for definition. however, unless thev can obtain Copyright Merelv determining that a work bears proprietorship. Of course the Government in- proper notice of Copyright does not establish terest in such instances should be protected by that the Copyright proprietor enjovs an exclu­ retaining or obtaining complete freedom to sive right to all parts of the work. Generallv use or publish, and in some cases sell, the the Copyright extends to an original manner of copyrighted material for Government purposes. expression in the work rather than to the gen­ It can be argued with considerable merit eral subject matter treated by the author. The Copyright law and the miijtary author 29

protectíon afforded by Copyright will not per- protection afforded by Copyright is measured mit an author to withdraw basic- ideas or con- by what is actually copyrightable in the publi- ceptions from use by the public, thus depriv- cation and not by the entire publication.-0 ing the public of the opportunity of achieving Whether or not a particular part of a greater intellectual heights or activity in new copyrighted work is copyrightable and thus intellectual areas. protected is a question of law rather than one If an author could, by copyrighting his of fact. This was pointed out in a recent case-' work, withdraw ideas or Information from the holding that bold statements of fact in a con- stock of materiais avaiiable for other authors, sumer magazine relating to testing and rating each cop>TÍght would restrict literary and of dishwashers could hardly be stated in anv artistic development in Science, fiction, history, different fashion and that such statements did and other areas of literature and the fine arts not have any original literary form which to the detriment of, rather than to the benefit would entitle them to Copyright protection. of, the public. On the other hand, this same case also pointed The Supreme Court has said, coneerning out that whether the defendant s use was “fair the extent of protection under a Copyright, use” and whether there was proper Copyright “Where the truths of a Science or the methods notice on the plaintifFs work were questions of an art are the common propertv of the of fact. whole world, anv author has the right to ex- One notable exception to the concept that press one, or explain and use the other in his mere facts are not copyrightable is found in own wav.”18 In this case there was no ques- compilations such as telephone directories, tion but that the defendant had copied from a city directories, and similar efforts where there copyrighted treatise dealing with a svstem of is no original literary technique or unique bookkeeping, but the alleged infringer made mode of expression involved. The courts re- a different arrangement of columns and used spect the efforts of the author by preventing different headings. The court held here that another from taking unfair advantage of a the copyrighted book on the bookkeeping Sys­ previous authors work rather than putting tem was not infringed by a similar book using forth the same effort to make a similar compi- a similar plan which achieved similar results. lation. If a similar or even identical compila- As indicated above, the decisions stress tion is made by independent effort, there can that Copyright protection extends only to the be no Copyright infringement.22 manner of expression rather than to the plot, Even if a copyrighted text is known to theme, idea, or thought expressed. However, eontain data copied from public lists such as Weil in his Law of Copyright goes a little those in public files of federal, State, or local farther in summarizing the law to be that governments, there may have been sufficient where “there are trulv original thoughts em- independent effort on the part of the author bodied in the work—not merely in the expres­ in organizing the material, rather than merely sion of thought, but in the thought so ex- copying it verbatim, to warrant protection. pressed, then Copyright exists in such intellec- Historical facts are not copyrightable per tual creation throughout. The scopc of Copy- se, nor are errors or misleading statements right is, then, always measured by the extent appearing as facts in published historical ac- of, and nature of, the original icork emhodird counts.2:{ The use of such misinformation has in a creation.”i'1 been urged as evidence of infringement of a A copyrightable work must be original in copyrighted work, but a reader lias the right that the author creates it by his own skill, to obtain it and re-express it in his own wav. labor, and judgment. Even though a work con- News has no semblance of any kind to lit­ tains noneopvrighted matter dedicated to the erary propertv, and the owner of a copy­ public, a Copyright thereon is valid as to the righted report of a news event may prevent new and original matter, and the degree of its appropriation, but the public is not to be 30 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW deprived of knowledge of the event. Others Blank forms used in bookkeeping or may develop a similar report, even using as charts used with mechanical instruments are a guide the earlier report. This conserves all not intended to communicate facts or ideas interest of public policy, and no burden is im- and are not copyrightable.29 Articles intended posed on the later user except to make no un- for practical use in cooperation with a ma- earned profit at the expense of the first re­ chine, mechanical devices used in production, pórter. In a case involving competing news gestures or motions of actors, movements of a Services, the taking of uncopyrighted news dance or a spectacle, and mere arrangement of from early editions of a competitor and selling a musical composition apart from the original and distributing it without any original investi- composition itself are not copyrightable. The gation or expense was not actionable under property rights in an arrangement may be rec- the Copyright statute but was held to be un- ognized, however, if it consists of unique ele- fair competition.'-4 However, the question here ments which combine to produce a finished was not so much the right of either competitor product which has a being or distinctive exist- against the public as the rights of the competi- ence of its own.30 tors between themselves. Since the news was To try to elaborate further on copyright­ published, no right of first publication re- able items is perhaps futile because there is a mained, and for the most part the news re- grave danger of misleading the reader as to leases were not protected bv statutory Copy­ the fine line between copyrightable and non- right. Therefore the court resorted to tort law copyrightable material. of unfair competition to protect the property rights of the parties. fair use In holding a news account of Germany’s submarine fleet in 1917 to be protected by “Fair use” has crept into the law of copy- Copyright, a court gave the following test to rights from judicial decisions using this term distinguish copyrightable authorship and lit- to encompass an indistinct area wherein use erary quality and style from noncopvrightable of copvrighted material has been deemed to recitais of news or facts. “It reveals a peculiar be justifiable without liabilitv on the part of power of portraval, and a felicitv of wording the user notwithstanding that there may have and phrasing, well calculated to seize and been actual copying. Probablv the area of “fair hold the interest of the reader, which is quite use” will never be set out in the Copyright beyond and apart from the mere setting forth statutes because of the difficultv of putting of the facts. But if the whole of it were con- into words a workable definition having the sidered as stating news or facts, yet the ar- requisite elasticitv. rangement and manner of statement plainly As a legal concept there are different discloses a distinct flavor and individualitv of points of view as to whether “fair use” is reallv expression peculiar to authorship, bringing the no infringement at all within the spirit and article clearly within the purview and protec- intent of Copyright law or whether it is an in­ tion of the Copyright Law.”25 fringement which is justified and for which Courts will not lend their aid to protect there should be no cause of action by a Copy­ authors of immoral works.2íi In determining right owner. The first view would seem to be whether a work is indecent or immoral, some preferred, particularly if the militarv author courts have adopted the tests laid down in is involved in any correspondence regarding cases arising under the Postal Statutes27 denv- the use of copvrighted matter to avoid any ing mailing privileges to indecent works. Un­ record which might be evidential as an ad- der those statutes the work must be considered mission against interest, i.e., correspondence as a whole and have a direct tendencv to cor- should not contain any statements or implica- rupt morais. Mere vulgaritv or coarseness of tions that a contemplated use appears to be, or language does not condemn it.2S may be, an infringement. COPYRIGHT LAW AND THE MILITARY AUTHOR 31

As case law has developed, the bounds of author in the case of a private publication that this doctrine of “fair use” have continually is not a part of his official duties. Depending changed, and the scope of the doctrine has upon the facts, the severity of an injunction varied depending upon the type of copy- against publication may be assessed, in addi- righted works. The doctrine has wider applica- tion to damages. Of course, no injunction will tion in the areas of Science and education than fie against publication by the Government be­ in the area of the purer artistic creations. cause of the provisions of 28 U.S. Code 1498. Fair use accounts in part for the fewer In 1841 Justice Joseph Story enunciated law suits concerned with infringement of in the case of Folsom v. Marsh32 several views copyrights in the scientific and technological on Copyright law which have been repeatedly fields than in other literary fields. Of course it quoted and accepted in later legal decisions. is also recognized that many copyrighted sci­ This case involved the use of private and entific works are published with the primary official letters of George Washington. The fol- aim of achieving personal prestige by con- lowing quotations from the case are helpful tributing to pubfic knowdedge with full reward guides to any author. by way of professional recognition rather than In cases of Copyright, it is often exceed- pecuniary reward by Copyright licensing or ingly obvious, that the whole substance of one enforcement. Another factor in minimizing work has been copied from another, with slight Copyright litigation in the technological fields omissions and formal differences only, which may be the statutory protection afforded by can be treated as studied evasions; whereas, in patents. In this latter instance an inventor may other cases the identity of the two works in obtain his reward by patent licensing and will substance, and the question of piraev, often benefit by unrestricted dissemination of infor- depend upon a nice balance of the comparative mation regarding his invention. Similarly com- use made in one of the materiais of the other; the nature, extent, and value of the materiais mercial gain by sale of products or Services thus used; the objects of each work; and the may be enhanced by unrestricted publication degree to which each writer may be fairly pre­ of information concerning them. sumed to have resorted to the same common Because of the desire for professional sources of information, or to have exercised recognition by authors, military writers should the same common diligence in the selection and give credit for material taken from another’s arrangement of the materiais. Thus, for exam- work, particularly when it is copvrighted. The ple, no one can doubt that a reviewer may presentation of any copied matter as original fairly cite largely from the original work, if his is not “fair use” in the opinion of both literary design be really and trulv to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism. men and the courts. “The want of acknowl- On the other hand, it is clear, that if he thus edgement or denial of indebtness is a very cites the most important parts of the work, with strong indication of an animus furandi, and a view, not to criticise, but to supersede the use excludes the question of fair use, or lawful of the original work, and substitute the review abridgement.. . . Mere honest intention on the for it, such a use will be deemed in law a piracy. part of the appropriator will not suffice,. . . as A fair and bona fide abridgment is not a the court can only look at the result, and not piracy. at the intention in the mans mind at the time of doing the act complained of, and he must A mere selection, or different arrangement of be presumed to intend all that the publication parts of the original work, so as to bring the of his work effects.”31 work into sinaller compass, will not be held to Even though a book contains material be such an abridgement. There must be real, substantial condensation of the materiais, and which is proper subject for Copyright, a part intellectual labor and judgement bestowed of it may still infringe the Copyright of an­ thereon; and not merely the facile use of the other. Such facts may affect the remedy avail- scissors; or extracts of the essential parts, con- able against an infringement by a military stituting the chief value of the original work. 32 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

Justice Storv further said: cluded and use the old directorv as a pad or tablet rather than write out the names in long- . . . the author of any letter or letters, (and his hand, no literary work would be saved, no representatives,) whether they are literary com- positions, or familiar letters, or letters of busi- literary property would be taken awav, and ness, possess the sole and exclusive Copyright no injurv inflicted, except in saving a certain therein; and that no persons, neither those to amount of copying and thus making the new whom they are addressed, nor other persons, work cheaper and easier to accomplish. In have any right or authoritv to publish the saine such cases infringement of Copyright mav de- on their own account, or for their own benefit. pend more upon the idea of unfair competi­ But, consistentlv with this right, the persons to tion and the unlawful saving of labor in order whom they are addressed, mav have, nav, must, to avoid the necessary original research than by implication, possess, the right to publish any upon the appropriation of any literary ideas letter or letters, addressed to thein, upon such occasions, as require, or justifv the publication or arrangement, based upon literary abilitv or public use of them; but this right is strictly and studied plan.33 limited to such occasions. A paraphrase, parody, or burlesque of a eopvrighted work is treated no differently The Copyright mentioned here vvould today from any other appropriation.34 An extensive cover both the right of first publication of un- review of the “fair use” doctrine, its origin published letters as well as statutorv Copy­ and application, is considered in the cases33 right if the letters have been published with holding that Jack Bennvs television show notice of Copyright. Quoting further from burlesquing the motion picture “Gaslight” Justice Storv: could not be defended as fair use. . . . third persons standing in no privity with The law mav permit those working in a either party, are not entitled to publish such field or Science or art to make use of ideas, letters to subserve their own private purposes opinions, or theories and in certain cases even of interest, or curiosity, or passion. the exact words contained in a eopvrighted It is not onlv quantitv of appropriation book in that field. In such cases the law im- but also vaiue that is looked to. It is useless to plies the eonsent of the Copyright owner to a refer to particular cases as to quantitv. fair use of his publication for the advancement of the Science or art.36 However, when the If so much is taken, that the value of the original copying of scientific information is used for a is sensibly diminished, or the labors of the orig­ purelv commercial purpose, the mere copying inal author are substantially to an injurious ex- of three sentences from a book has been found tent appropriated by another, that is sufficient, to constitute infringement, even when the in- in point of law, to constitute a piracv pro tanta. fringer acknowledged the source of the infor­ The words “fair" and “unfair” seem to be mation.37 It was argued in this instance that the key words in many Copyright decisions. the sale of the plaintifFs book, which was of a Cases in which Copyright infringement lias scientific character, was retarded bv the com- been found have brought the Copyright law mercialization of a part thereof in a cigarette close to the law of unfair competition. The advertisement. The commercialization cast re- directorv, map, and dictionarv cases are prime flection on the authors professional ethics. examples wherein literary effort is secondarv Although the official works of militarv authors to the fact of unfair saving of labor and ex- would not be of a commercial nature, they pense. If a person preparing a new map should should not use eopvrighted material in any go out through a district and make original wav that would reflect improperly on the survevs and jot down his results, using the old copvright owner, for such use can clearlv de- map as a check or convenient memorandum feat a defense based upon the “fair use” doc­ tablet, or if in preparing a directorv a can- trine. vasser sbould go to all addresses to be in- A New York court stated that the doctrine C opyright law and tue military author 33

of fair use "permits a writer of scientific, legal, 1498. The Air Force does not have any pro- medicai and similar books or articles of learn- hibitory regulations regarding patent infringe­ ing to use even the identical words of earlier ment but does respect any well-founded claims books or writings, dealing with the same sub- for patent infringement, such claims being ject matter.”3S What constitutes a scientific usuallv handled administratively. document was questioned bv the judge in this It is the view of this writer that the case. He referred to what he looselv labeled a present military regulations might well be re- “Sex Science Magazine—Ulustrated" and said: laxed to prescribe more practical restraints for “It is hard for me to perceive how the defend- the military author, to merely preclude his use ant's magazine could bv the remotest possi­ of copvrighted material except with approval bilite come within the classification of a scien­ of the Copyright proprietor or proper military tific document. For instance, the article deal­ authoritv, whenever risk of Copyright infringe­ ing with the sex problems of Mongoloid prosti- ment is foreseen or where there is any doubt tutes, despite its rather imposing title, would. as to whether the “fair use” doctrine is appli- in mv opinion, hardlv aid the defendant s mag­ cable. Because of the “eminent domain” as- azine in attaining classification as a work of pects of the law and because of the possible Science." defense of the “fair use” doctrine to negate infringement, it can be argued that much of the red tape required by literally following military regulations present regulations might be avoided. It is At the present time the respective military understood of course that no military depart- regulations of the Air Force, Armv, and Navv ment can be absolved of liabilitv for claims of contain essentially the same recognition of Copyright infringement, but such a change in proprietary interests of Copyright ovvners. regulations would take cognizance of the dif- Each includes an admonition similar to that ferent status under the present law of the in­ in Air Force Regulation 110-8, stating: dividual and the Government and would prob- ably reduce the number of instances where Copvrighted matter will not knowingly be in- Copyright releases need be obtained. corporated in publications prepared bv or for Even the present military regulations offer the Air Force, except with the written consent of the Copyright owner, or upon the approval of no guide as to what is “copvrighted matter.” the Secretary of the Air Force or his duly au- It is probablv imprudent, however, for any thorized representative. military author to assume without advice of legal counsel that any part of any work beai- The unequivocal nature of such a regulation ing proper Copyright notice is not copvrighted may raise some question as to its current matter, since this is a question of law rather practical application in vievv of the fact that it than one of fact. was drafted at a time when the personal lia- bilitv of authors for the military was at stake, Office of the Judge Advocate General, H

13. Study #33. Copyright in Government Publications, by 26. Richardson v. Miller, C.C. Mass. (1877), Fed. Case Caruthers Berger, Oetober 1959, prepared for Senate Committee No. 11791, 20 Fed. Case 722. on the Judiciarv, 86th Cong. 2d Sess. 27. 18 U.S. Code, Sect. 334. 14. Public Affairs Associates, inc„ v. Rickover, 284 F. 2d 28. Cain v. Universal Pictures Co., D.C. S.D. Calif. 262, 127 U.S.P.Q. 231 (1960), later vacated by the Supreme (1942), 47 F. Supp. 1013, 56 U.S.P.Q. 8. Court and remanded. 365 U.S. 841, 132 U.S.P.Q. 535 (1962). 29. Baker v. Selden. 101 U.S. 99. 25 L. Ed. 841; Brown 15. Sherrill v. Grieves (S. Ct., D.C.), 57 Wash. L. R. 286 Instrument Co. v. Warner Register of Copyrights (1947), 161 (1929). F. 2d 910, 73 U.S.P.Q. 427 16. United States v. First Trust Co. of St. Paul, C.A. 8 30. Brown Instrument v. Warner supra; Supreme Records (1958), 251 F. 2d 686. 116 U.S.P.Q. 172. v. Decca Records, D.C. S.D. Calif. (1950), 90 F. Supp. 904, 17. Sawyer v. Crowell Publishing Co., D.C. S.D.N.Y. 85 U.S.P.Q. 405. (1942), 46 F. Supp. 471, 54 U.S.P.Q. 225. 31. Lawrence v. Dana, C.C. Mass. (1869), Fed. Case 18. Baker v. Selden, 101 U.S. 99 (1879). No. 8, 136, 15 Fed. Case 26, 4 Cliff 1. 19. Emphasis added in Harold Lloyd Corp. et al. v. Wit- 32. Circuit Court, Dist. of Mass., Fed. Case No. 4901, 9 wer, C.C.A. 9 (1933), 65 F. 2d 1, Cert. dismissed 54 S. Ct. 94, Fed. Case 342. 296 U.S. 669. 33. West Publishing Co. v. Edward Thompson Co., C.C. E. D.N.Y. (1909), 169 Fed. 833 (843). 20. Dorsev v. Old Surety Life Insurance Co., C.C.A. 34. West Pub. Co. v. Edward Thompson Co., supra; 10 (1938), 98 F. 2d 872, 39 U.S.P.Q. 92. Loew’s Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting Co., D.C. S.D. Calif. 21. Consumers Union v. Hobart Mfg. Co., D.C. S.D.N.Y. (1955) , 131 F. Supp. 165, 105 U.S.P.Q. 302; affirmed C.A. 9 (1961), 199 F. Supp. 860. 131 U.S.P.Q. 438. (1956) , 239 F. 2d 532. 112 U.S.P.Q. 11; affinned Columbia 22. Jewelers’ Circular Pub. Co. v. Keystone Pub. Co.. Broadcasting System Inc. v. Loew's Inc. (1958), 356 U.S. 43, C.C.A. 2 (1922), 281 F. 83, affirming 274 F. 932, Cert. denied 78 S. Ct. 667, 2 L. Ed. 2d 583; rehearing denied 356 U.S. 934, 259 U.S. 581. 42 S. Ct. 464. 78 S. Ct. 770. 2 L. Ed. 2d 764. 23. Oxford Book Co. v. College Entrance Book Co., 35. Loew's v. C.B.S., supra. C.C.A. 2 (1938), 39 U.S.P.Q. 7. 36. Holt and Co., Inc., et al., v. Liggett and Mvers To­ 24. International News Service v. Associated Press (1918), bacco Co. (1938), 23 F. Supp. 302, 37 U.S.P.Q. 449. ' 248 U.S. 215. 37. Holt & Co., supra. 25. Chicago Record-Herald v. Tribune Assn., C.A. 7 38. Thompson v. Gemsback, D.C. S.D.N.Y. (1950), 94 (1921), 275 F. 797. F. Supp. 453, 87 U.S.P.Q. 238. AIR W A R COLLEGE 1946-1963

C olonel John A. M c C ann

HE MISSION assigned to the Air War for families to join the students in residence College at its founding in 1946 was as they pursued ten months of education rela- T"To prepare selected officers for the tivelv free from the extra duties, rank-inherent employment of large Air Force units to insure harassments, and tight schedules associated the most effective development of the Army with previous assignments. The entire pro- Air Force as a whole and to consider the broad gram of the Air War College was designed to aspects of air power.’’ produee an atmosphere conducive “to expand- On the same day that Air Universitv ac- ing man's comprehension and enlarging his tivated and estabhshed the new sênior school thinking powers,” in the words of the first for usaf and other Service officers, 15 March Commandant. 1946, Major General Orvil A. Anderson was “General Andy,” as he was called, adopted assigned as its Commandant. the seminar svstem of instruction and insti- When the first class of the Air War Col­ tuted the principie of academic freedom, both lege began on I September 1946, vacancies of which are vital concepts still valid and in the membership of staff and facultv were practiced by today’s Air War College. Guest filled from the student body. Additional stu- lecturers, outstanding in their individual fields, dents were drafted into Service on the facultv were utilized almost exelusively to present the as the course progressed, so that instructors various subject areas of the curriculum. Gen­ and students graduated together at the end of eral Anderson on occasion mounted the ros- the first class. trum to emphasize an idea or to analyze a The members of the first class to attend concept, so that the students had the benefit the Air War College were, almost to a man, of his thinking and comprehension. One grad- distinguished combat veterans newly returned uate of that first class claims that “General from the various theaters of war where they Andy practicallv dared you not to think.” This had held criticai positions of responsibility. unique combination of talented headmaster, They knew intimatelv the problems and imported subject specialists, and a highly se- strains that needed resolution in the conduct lect student body gave the Air War College a of the air war, and they were chosen to attend distinguished inaugural. the new school to broaden their horizons and During the ensuing three years of opera- enhance their potential for future high com- tion, the Air War College faculty undertook mand and staff assignments. The war-expand- refinement and improvement of its programs. ed facilities of Maxwell Field made it possible A thesis program was introduced, a reading 36 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW improvement course made its appearance, the Extension Course Division was created, and a civilian educational adviser became a mem- ber of the CommandanFs staff. Initially it was expected that the Air War College would be concerned primarily with militarv problems directlv related to the em- ployment of large air units. National and inter- national affairs vvere not to be neglected but rather vvere to be accorded a supporting role. However, over the relatively few years the college has been in existence, there has been a continuous reinterpretation of the schools mission and how it should be accomplished. Partieularly after 1947 it became increasinglv apparent that the traditional relative isolation of military officers from domestic and interna- tional policy matters had to be discarded. The complex interservice relationships vvhich de- veloped, the realities of a prolonged cold war with the Soviet Union, the continued utiliza- tion of Air Force officers in nonmilitary Gov- ernmental agencies following World War II, all tended to ehange the emphasis on the qual- ifícations required of sênior officers for high command and staff positions. Without dimin- ishing the requirement for instruction in pure military art, the need for raising the study of national and international affairs bv sênior offi­ cers from a supporting role to something ap- proaching coequal status became evident. The task of developing sound concepts for the em- plovment of aerospace power could be carried out onlv if those conducting the study had a proper awareness of the influence of political, Major General Orvil A. Anderson addressing the economic, and psvchosocial factors on national first Air War College class in September 1946. objectives and resultant national and military strategies. Plans to revise the curriculum along these curriculum was carried forvvard, accounting guidelines vvere well established by the end for the shifts from its original concepts. This of the 1949—50 school vear. Before the revision planning activity was accelerated when subse- had progressed meaningfully, however, the quent orders from Headquarters usaf directed Korean conflict suddenlv emerged, necessitat- the preparation of a plan for continuing Air ing the revision of all usaf peacetime sched- War College instruction through the establish- ules. On 20 June 1950 a teletvpe message from ment of a correspondence-tvpe course to re- the Pentagon suspended Air War College stu- place the regular resident course. Somevvhat dent operations indefinitely. later the Pentagons indication that the resi­ During the period vvhich follovved this dent program might be reinstituted early in abrupt cessation of instruction, revision of the Januarv 1951, on an accelerated basis, provid- AIR WAR COLLEGE 1946-1063 37

ed additional impetus to tlie curriculum revi- independent, analytical, Creative thinking. The sion then well under way by the faculty, distinctive task of the Air War College is to which had remained relatively intact after educate sênior oflScers in a way that will pre­ the shutdown in June. pare them to plan and conduct future military General Anderson as Commandant of the operations in the national interest. Air VVar College challenged the reasoning that It has been traditional with professional had resulted in the closing of the college on military schools to prepare for war in time of the basis of its lack of prudence as to usafs peace. This preparation has become increas- ultimate welfare. He pointed out tlie short- ingly important within the past two and a half sightedness of denying the Air Force the op- decades. Traditional military functions have portunity to produce, on an orderly basis, expanded enormously. First, sênior officers highly qualified oflBcers because of a tempo- have become increasinglv concerned with rary shortage in overall officer strength. He International affairs—with the premises of mili­ cited the examples of the U.S. Army, which tary policy, with the purposes for which mili­ at that verv time was reinstating its War Col­ tary forces are used, and with the terms of lege, and the U.S. Navv, which had not cur- reference under which thev will be deployed. tailed anv aspect of its professional educa- Second, sênior officers have had to concern tional efforts. The General concluded his themselves with a greater number of military reclama on the schooFs closing by pointing support functions. Problems such as finance, out that professional militarv education is a supply, research and development, public rela- criticai requirement in the evolution of an tions, manpower, and management have effective Air Force and is essential to the Na- grown more complex and more demanding of tion’s security. the sênior officer’s time and attention. These The General’s persuasiveness, abetted by developments have complicated the task of the Nations reassurance to the managers of sênior military education. In the future the its militarv establishment in terms of man- problems confronting the officer in high com- power and monev under President Trumans mand and staff positions will be even more leadership during the Korean affair, brought complex than in the past. about a modified reversal of the directives that A key development of our time has been suspended the college’s resident program. the idea that national security is a function New directives stipulated that the Air War that encompasses tlie responsibilities of both College could conduct two courses per year military and nonmilitary agencies. Military of five and one-half months each. On 10 June agencies have tinis become partners in an en- the Air War College was notified that the nor­ terprise greater than the military alone. For mal ten months’ course for the class of 1952 example, the Communist exploitation of in- would be reinstituted with a commencing surgent movements in underdeveloped areas date of 9 Julv 1951. of the world has required the United States to generate a unified national eífort dedicated to the achievement of stabilitv and conditions favoring harmonious international relations. /\s the sênior professional school With the passage of time this concept of na­ in the Air Force educational svstem, the Air tional security as a Government-wide func­ War College continues to maintain a graduate- tion has become increasinglv explicit. This level environment. Its student body is com- broad function is reflected in the curriculum posed of a highly selected group of mature, of the Air War College, as indeed it is in all successful, and ambitious men. The learning the sênior military schools today. Implicit in environment of the school is oriented toward this concept is the consideration that sênior freedom in the expression of ideas and toward military officers and civilians will participate making it possible for each student to pursue in the formulation and execution of diverse 38 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW national securitv policies and programs. This complex roles which they are required to play consideration will be paramount until nation­ in American and Western society. al securitv itself ceases to be a concern of U.S. The Air War College does not provide national policy. Sueli a prospect is not likely approved Solutions to the problems that are in the foreseeable future. Tlius the Air War presented to the student body throughout the College curriculum is designed to prepare academic year, nor does it attempt to pre- sênior officers to function in the increasinglv scribe or suggest in any manner vvhat the solu-

More than 2300 Air War College graduates—sênior officers of the Air Force, Army, Navy, Marine Cor ps. Roíjal Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, and a few civilian Government officials—attended the school when it ivas housed on the “old campus." AIR WAR COLLEGE 1946-1963 39

tions should be. In general, the inilitarv prob- pursues individual professional scholarship lems that must be dealt with in the higher designed to develop his capabilities and en- echelons of command and staff are so complex hance his professional stature as a member of and diversified and frequentlv include so the faculty and as a sênior officer of the Air manv intangible and elusive factors as to pre- Force. clude solution by formulas or established The nature of the mission and objectives precedents. Therefore the Air War College of the Air War College establishes the inher- student and his seminar group should arrive ent requirements to increase the scope and at Solutions to problems through individual depth of thinking and to develop in the stu­ studv, analvtical reasoning, and reflective dent a capacity to treat military problems thinking. The value of Solutions will depend objectivelv and with facility and competence. in large measure upon the degree to which These requirements, together with the high the student or the seminar group applies or- experience levei of the students, have resulted derly, judicious, and logical thought proc­ in the selection of a system of instruction that esses. In fact the basic approach to Solutions emphasizes lectures and seminars as the prin­ of problems affecting the national interest is cipal means of informing the students of the the avoidance of traditionalism, rigiditv of current phases and problems studied in the thought and doctrine, standardization of in- resident program. Lectures are presented by struction, and the provision of dogmatic outstanding visiting specialists, who are ex- answers to problems of the future. The Air pected to deal, in a criticai and comprehen- War College is not a postwar school. It is a sive manner, with the central issues and prob­ prewar school. lems met in each aspect of a studv area. The faculty of the Air War College re- Primarv emphasis in the lectures is placed quires officers who are especiallv selected on upon a clear statement of the overall situation, the basis of individual background, experi- on an analysis of major conditions and con- ence, interest, abilitv, and potential. Generally trolling factors, and on the interpretation 'of these individuais are graduates of a sênior past experience, present trends, and possible servdce school or joint college at the Air War future developments. Free and frank question- College levei and of a civilian college ( master ing of lecturers and joint discussion of the degree desirable), sênior officers in the grade subject by the lecturers, faculty, and students of colonel or lieutenant colonel with consider- are encouraged. able career potential, officers with experience Seminars are designed to supplement the in joint or major commands, and officers with lectures and the individual research of stu- specialized or technical knowledge that dents. These sessions afford opportunities for uniquely fits them for duty with the Air War informal discussion in small groups and some- College. times with visiting specialists on matters that The faculty prepares and implements the relate to problems assigned to seminars. The curriculum and its underlying theorv. How- seminars further provide students with valu- ever, faculty members working directlv with able experience in conducting and participat- student seminars as faculty advisers serve ing in discussion groups, in extemporaneous more as counselors than instructors. As facultv presentation of ideas and viewpoints, and in advisers they are primarilv concerned with analysis of problems under discussion. ensuring that each student fully understands Reading assignments are designed to pro­ his assignments and treats all eíements of the vide the students with appropriate back­ course of instruction in a logical, thorough, ground and source material. They include not and timelv fashion. In addition to serving in onlv a variety of commerciallv published ma­ an evaluative function, each faculty member is teriais and Government publications but also assigned to a studv area in support of the numerous reports, memorandums, and policy mission of the Air War College, where he documents available onlv in Government files. 40 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

ÍN ever ceasing refinements have purpose of this course is to provide informa- evolved the current Air War College curricu- tion to non-active-duty Air Reserve Forces lum into a planned sequence of interrelated sênior officers which will bring them up to studies. These studies provide the student date on the military aspects of our national with a comprehensive understanding of the security policy. In addition, a résumé of Air nature and scope of international relations and Force plans, programs, and problem areas is conflicts; the formulation of national security presented. policy; the basic concepts for the employment Additionally, field exercises are conducted of military forces—particularly air forces—in each year for the students and faculty at a general, limited, and unconventional wars; number of Department of Defense installa- and the application of these understandings tions. These exercises provide a fírsthand and concepts to current and future national and acquaintanceship with information and prob­ military strategy in the attainment of U.S. and lems not available in textbooks or from lec- allied objectives. tures but the knowledge of which can provide The thesis program, the major portion of a realistic conception of operations vital to the Air War College students’ research activ- the security of the country. ity, complements the lecture, reading, and In recognition of the increasing impor- seminar parts of the curriculum. Each student tance of officers in high command and staff selects a problem dealing with some aspect of positions holding academic degrees in addi­ national defense for detailed research and tion to having broad military schooling and analysis. The objectives of the program are experience, an off-campus George Washington to increase the individuaPs professional knowl- University Center of the College of General edge, to improve his analvtical and writing Studies was created on Maxwell Air Force abilities, and to provide an opportunity for the Base. Established in the fali of 1961, the cen­ development of ideas or concepts dealing with ter provides an opportunity for Air War Col­ significant problems of national defense. The lege students, faculty, and previous graduates operation of the program is flexible enough to further their formal academic education in to permit each student to work at his own off-duty hours. Courses are offered toward the educational and experience levei, to develop Bachelor of Arts degree in the College of Gen­ his abilitv to analyze a problem, and to write eral Studies and toward the degree of Master effectively about it. The program thus pro- of Arts in International Affairs. Both these vides the Air Force with new ideas, new courses are complementary to the Air War analyses, and frequently with a fresh treat- College resident program and may be pursued ment of old ideas. by individual option. Another enrichment program in the resi- dent school curriculum is the annual National Security Forum. A group of prominent civilian -A.IR war college education is leaders from the United States and Canada, not confined to those officers fortunate enough representing the executive strata of business, to attend the resident school. By 1960 it had industry, education, nevvs media, publishing, become apparent that a need existed to pre- professional, government, and other important sent the War College curriculum for nonresi- fields, is invited to participate for a week with dent students in a shorter course designed the students of the Air W ar College in a spe- specifically for the active-duty sênior usaf cial phase of their instruction. officer who could not attend the resident During the earlv spring of each year ap- school. To meet this need the Extension proximately thirtv sênior officers of the Air Course underwent a series of modifications. Reserve Forces (generais one year, colonels This nonresident program was reorganized in the next) are offered the opportunity to join 1962 into the Air War College Associate Pro­ the student body for an entire week. The gram, comprised of the Air War College Cor- Since Jutj 1962 the Air War College has conducted its resident and nonresident pro- grams from splendid facilities on Air Universitys Academic Circle, Maxwell AFB. 42 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW respondence Course and the Air War College Study and instructional materiais, guid- Seminar Course. The missions and objectives ance, and evaluation are provided by mem- in both courses of the awc Associate Program bers of the Air War College faculty. The text are identical with those of the resident pro­ for each week of the seminar phase of the gram. course is presented in the form of a chapter, The awc Correspondence Course con­ containing all the study materiais: a statement tinues to ofFer a modified Air War College of the lesson objective, an introduction to the study program through correspondence meth- subject being studied, suggested topics for ods. discussion and analysis, required readings, The awc Seminar Course represents a and a list of references for those desiring to novel educational concept that offers a new do supplementary reading. methodology of study presentation for select- usaf has incorporated the Air War Col­ ed active-duty sênior usaf officers. It com­ lege Seminar Course into its permanent edu­ bines the advantages of guided self-study cational structure. Authorization has been with those of group discussion. Through the granted to maintain 60 active seminar groups successful merging of group and individual at all times. The program is worldwide in learning techniques, more comprehensive and scope; active groups now include four in meaningful results in the understanding and Europe and six in the Orient. It is expected appreciation of course materiais are achieved. that groups will be established in the Canal Briefly, the Seminar Course provides for the Zone and Alaska in the near future. Already establishment of seminar groups of approxi- the fíve groups begun on a test basis have mately fifteen officers each at selected Air completed all seminar requirements. No sig- Force bases. These officers meet once a week nificant number of simultaneous thesis com- for 80 two-hour sessions for discussion of a pletions was expected of this initial test group; modified version of the Air War College resi­ however, it is noteworthv that already some dent curriculum. theses have been presented which have fully The course includes two broad areas of satisfied all requirements for graduation. achievement: the seminar phase, which is a group effort directed toward a guided course of study, and the thesis program, which is an T he presen t organization of the Air War Col­ individual undertaking. lege has evolved slowlv throughout the years. In the seminar phase, normally expected From an early staff of the Commandant and to be completed in two years, students, in his assistant, with manv academic divisions addition to participation in the group discus- directly subordinate, through various inter- sions, are also required to make individual mediate modifications, the educational struc­ oral presentations to their seminars and to ture has evolved to the present organization. submit written papers for evaluation by the Serving as key members of the Commandants Air War College faculty. staff are the Deputy Commandant, an Assist­ The principal individual effort, a thesis ant to the Commandant who counsels on edu­ concerned with some aspect of aerospace cational matters, raf, State, Navy, and Armv power, is introduced into the curriculum at Advisers, and four Directors representing Ad- the end of the first year of the seminar pro­ ministration, Curriculum, Associate Courses, gram. During the second year, students may and Evaluation and Plans. accomplish their theses in conjunction with As of 7 June 1963, 2618 individuais had their seminar work and thereby complete the successfully completed the requirements for entire course in two years. Those students graduation from the Air War College resident, who prefer to work on their theses after com- correspondence, and seminar courses. pleting the seminar schedule must do so with- Normal size of the Air War College resi­ in one year in order to achieve graduation. dent classes during the period 1956 through AIR WAR COLLEGE 1946-1963 43

1962 was 166 students. This quota was in- mission requirements in the future. To be creased to 184 students for the class of 1963. sure, continued achievement of usaf expecta- The size of the current class, which began on tions of the Air War College will require 5 August 1963, is 277 students. Nine new skilled leadership, constant ingenuity, and members have been added to the faculty to dedicated effort, but current estimates of the accommodate this larger student bodv and to situation for the near future appear most ensure qualitv standards expected of the Air favorable. War College. Alumni, students, and faculty are well This increase in the student bodv, the aware of the high honor accorded them in dynamic nature of the curriculum, the oppor- their selection for assignment to the finest tunity to sustain improvements through the professional military education in the Air evaluation process now in force, as well as the Force. It is expected that this education contributions alreadv manifest from the Air should enable them to competently exert their War College Associate Program, should en- proper influence in meeting the worldwide able the Air War College to fullv meet its power challenges to U.S. national security. Air War College SCIENTISTS IN BLUE

COLONEL D a VID R . JONES

N A SPEECH at the Naval Research Lab- in 1794 to satisfy the arms requirements of a oratory in 1961, Dr. Harold Brovvn, the young nation. They have ranged from organi- I Director of Defense Research and Engi- zations designed to do specific tasks, like the neering, stated a growing concern within the arsenais of the Army, to those whose missions Department of Defense for the loss of Service were stated in rather broad terms, like the in-house capability in the scientifíc, engineer- Naval Research Laboratory. A common char- ing, research, and development areas. He went acteristic of all these organizations has been on to cite four “very good and clear reasons their reliance on civilian scientists to staff their for performing research, development, test, research and development efforts. In none of and evaluation within the Defense Labora­ the defense laboratories or research organiza­ tories.” These vvere, generallv, to explore new tions was any serious attempt made to rely ideas, to manage contract work more intelli- upon the military staff to accomplish technical gently, to provide scientifíc direction to re­ work. Rather, the military members of the search and development programs, and to organizations tended to assume the role of develop technicallv proficient officers for fu­ managers or administrators. ture operational needs. More recently the There are some very definite reasons be- Assistant Secretarv of the Air Force for r & d , hind this reluctance to build up a technical Dr. Brockway McMillan,0 emphasized the staff of military scientists, but the bases for unique role of the militarv scientist and engi- them seem to be more traditional than real. neer and suggested some steps that could be One of the most often cited has to do with the taken to improve the career motivation and notion that every officer should be considered opportunities for the military officer in r &d . a potential chief of staff and therefore he The purpose of this paper is to describe a lab- should spend his time being trained to handle oratory in whieh at least some of these goals a broad range of problems, instead of working are being attained and to point out some of within the narrow confines of a specific disci­ the administrative considerations that might pline. A military officer was trained to be a facilitate the progress on in-house capability leader of troops and a commander of organiza­ within the Air Force. tions; any additional training was acquired Federal defense laboratories have varied only for its broadening influence. The working greatly, in both organization and purpose, scientist in the defense laboratory was a since the Springfield Arsenal was established civilian, and for the most part the military man ®In a speech delivered at Material Central, quoted in AF was an administrator. Policy Letter No. 116, February 1963. SCIENTISTS IN BLUE 45

Manv present-dav Armv and Navy officers operation of the military Services which pro- have received graduate training, and manv are vide for that defense. In today’s technology, and will continue to be expert in their field, decisions governing the selection of weapon but for the most part Service emphasis on Systems and their employmerit frequently re- career goals has precluded their pursuing these quire value judgments sensitive to the defense interests without frequent return to “line" needs of the Nation. Experience has shown that duties. The Air Force has generally approached sucli judgments, difficult at best, are literally the problem somewhat differently, so that offi- impossible to achieve unless competent man- cers assigned to research and development agement talent is available witliin the Govern­ activities are not penalized bv the promotion ment and the military Services and then onlv if system. this talent is backed by the advice of competent, Since militar\- scientists were neither con- unbiased scientific talent intimately acquainted sidered for the positions nor available in suffi- with problems associated with the defense of cient numbers to fill them, the military depart- the Nation. ments have relied largelv on civilian scientists I submit that this unbiased advice can be to staff their research facilities under Civil Serv­ provided onlv by technical talent, that is, by ice rules and regulations. Manv of these labora- those who have worked in some depth on the tories have rendered remarkable Service to the Science associated with the problem, in contrast countrv. During times of national emergency to the hand-waving expert currently in vogue thev have solved many of the Nations most who frequently is asked to render opinions or urgent and pressing defense problems. In give advice without adequate study of the prob­ peacetime the more appealing and satisfying lem. This should not be construed to be dis- work in the basic or applied Sciences has tended paraging of the many dedicated scientists who to draw the sênior scientists back to the campus have worked unstintingly on defense problems or to industry, where an additional incentive with as deep a sense of patriotism as anv man could be found in a pav scale more attractive in uniform. The Nation could not long continue than that of Civil Service. in the present technological race without count- These same incentives are very appealing ing heavilv on these people for technical advice. to the good young men just out of school who There will alwavs exist, however, an area of perform the bulk of the actual laboratory work decision-making in which the scientificallv ex­ and from whose ranks come the future research pert but operationally uninformed adviser is at leaders of anv organization. Defense contrac- a distinct disadvantage and in which lie cannot tors can afford to offer these men salaries com- and should not play a major role. It is this area mensurate with the going rate for their abilities. in which there exists the greatest need for tech­ If, in fact, it is difficult to establish and nically trained officers, proficient in both the maintain a qualitv research effort in a defense military and scientific disciplines, who can pro- laboratory, whv must we fight the problem? vide the technical judgment required to meet Why not buy research Services from nonprofit operational needs. The more favorable environ- research organizations, much as we buy weapon ment indicated by recent pronouncements by Systems? In the first place, there are rules which high Government officials gives some justifica- forbid anvthing smacking of control of Gov­ tion for optimism on the Outlook for Science in ernment funds bv non-Government employees. the Services. Dr. McMillan, in the cited speech, There are also reasons to believe that the ob- stated the need quite succinctly in calling atten- jectives cited bv Dr. Brown would not be tion to the very real difficulties encountered in achievable through this device, particularly in training technically qualified officers to be the the development of technically proficient offi­ r &d leaders of the future. He pointed to the cers. More than this, I believe that developing Materials Laboratory at YVright-Patterson as an an in-house capability is fundamental to the excellent example of the kind of organization whole problem of national defense and the equipped to provide such training. And indeed 46 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

there is an impressive number of ranking r &d too often these scientists soon refuse to bother officers who are alumni of that laboratory. with the shallow treatment they must give such problems and learn to avoid them, thus depriv- the research laboratory's (lífficulties ing the Nation of a source of technical opinion. Basic research should occupy at least a portion How does one go about creating within a of a defense laboratory’s total effort, for the rea- defense laboratory an in-house capability that son that there are frequently encountered in will achieve the goals stated by Dr. Brown? almost any discipline high-risk projects which There seem to be certain essential characteris- might be unattractive to a university but which tics of a laboratory that must be present in could yield such large rewards for defense that order to encourage the grovvth of scientific they must be explored. The investigation of talent. One of these has to do vvith the nature new ideas beyond the capability of privately of the laboratory effort, another with the man- funded organizations is another reason. But agement philosophy under which it operates, basic research programs in defense laboratories and another with the diíferent kinds of people should meet certain other requirements, such required if the laboratory is to perform work of as the interchange of personnel between labora­ sufficient qualitv to justify its existence. tories to avoid the “ivorv tower” complex, or Since we are concerned here strictlv vvith perhaps these programs should be confined to research laboratories operated within the De­ those fields having a direct and important bear- partment of Defense, the tvpe of problems ing on the mission and capability of the Service. which they attack and their method of opera- The proper research objective of a defense tion would bear in some way on defense mat- laboratory is the study of problems directly ters. There have been times, especially during related to national defense. I do not think anv- wars, when research organizations have indeed one will quarrel with the tenet that funda­ studied problems relating in a very direct way mental defense problems are broad enough and to defense problems of one sort or another. In deep enough to absorb all the research effort periods of relative peace, however, there has the Nation can afford to apply. These problems been a decided tendency to view such opera- will support fundamental research basic enough tional problems as being too shallow for good in nature to satisfy any scientist. Onlv by work- research. These defense organizations, almost ing on problems directly associated with na­ without exception, have then reverted to a tional defense can a scientist develop and main- policv of doing research which perhaps per- tain a competence to provide the technical tained in a general way to operational problems judgment needed to direct the defense effort. but which in the main was oriented towards the But how is the research organization, spe- accumulation of basic knowledge. cifically the scientists who make up its working The eonduct of basic research for its own bodv, to be made aware of national defense ends can hardly be the sole justification for a problems? Certainly not by working in an defense laboratory. There are many educational “ivory tower” atmosphere in splendid isolation or nonprofit organizations where such research from the real world around them, hoping that is more properlv performed. The argument is people will go away and let them carrv out frequentlv advanced that the competence of their own private research projects. It is a dis- the individual scientist of a defense laboratory turbing fac-t that weapon system developers, to solve defense problems is enhanced by bis the engineers and hardware designers, often work in basic research. Undoubtedlv his scien- are so busy with the real problems associated tific competence in a particular discipline is in- with developing a workable system that prob­ creased as a result of this activity, but his com­ lems vital to the performance of a new weapon petence to answer questions on problems with system have not been considered until quite which he has no daily contact can hardly be late in the development cvcle. They must then better than that of the hand-waving expert. All be investigated belatedly at considerable ex- SCIENTISTS IN BLUE 47

pense and worry. Some system is needed where- granting freedom for the laboratories to pursue by the defense scientist can be brought into the these objectives in a manner dictated by their picture earlier. scientific judgment, all too frequently the mili­ This deficiencv would indicate that there tary Services and dod agencies require that the is a proper role and place for the defense lab- various research agencies justify their programs oratory within the management structure of the in detail before funds will be made available. Department of Defense and the military Serv­ In the course of regular budget reviews, inter- ices. A defense laboratory without a direct tie mediate and necessary goals are sometimes lost to the system developer and the using agency is sight of, making the development of a cohesive vvorking in a vacuum and cannot be considered research program extremely difficult. Fortu- as contributing to the defense effort in any real nately this eriticism does not hold across the way. The defense research scientist must get to boarcl and a few research organizations have understand the details of defense systems as been given fairly broad latitude in developing they may be aífected or influenced by the en- their programs, but these few are indeed excep- vironment of which he is knowledgeable, and tional. A very discouraging feature of this man­ he must be introduced to the problems early agement system is the severe loss of morale enough in the planning stage of the system to through lack of confidence in the integrity and make the maximum contribution of which he is competence of laboratory directors. This factor capable. This does not reduce him to the role of alone has influenced many promising technical- a fireman, provided an intelligent judgment is ly trained officers to leave the Service. made on the scientific merits of the particular problem. Another and far more pragmatic problem T hus fa b I have pointed out some that hampers the operation of defense labora- of the difficulties encountered in the operation tories is the anachronistic management system, of a research organization within the Depart­ a direct carrv-over from a tvpical military or- ment of Defense. Generally these have been ganization, which a research agency certainlv problems associated with keeping a fresh new is not. Most of these laboratories are operated outlook among the personnel of the laboratory, under a hodgepodge of rules and regulations condueting research under the restrictive pro­ that tend to hamstring the research effort. Exist- curement and supply procedures presently in íng procurement regulations give very little force within the Department of Defense, and freedom to the scientist to obtain necessary the limited management responsibility passed Services and equipment from sources which in down by the dod. The picture would be pretty his opinion are best qualified to provide them black were it not for some small signs of im­ at a time when they will be of most value. The provement, albeit in a very limited area of work. defense scientist is expected to use the same At least one example can be cited which may supply procedures to conduct research as those point the way towards a much better research used by the maintenance people to keep aircraft effort within defense laboratories. in commission, despite the great disparity be- tween the two activities in their abilitv to pre- Nuclear Effects Research Laboratory dict supply requirements. There have recently been some encouraging signs of improvement The Nuclear Effects Research Laboratory in this area, but much more needs to be done. is the name given to a group of activities within Another source of irritation to the defense the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland scientist is the tendency to centralize control of afb, New México. These activities have been research activities and programs at a levei in- largely concerned with the role of nuclear consistent with sound management principies. weapons in ballistic missile warfare, although Instead of exercising broad control by specify- not exclusively. The Nuclear Effects Research ing objectives and then providing funds and Laboratory is presently made up of a theoretical 48 AIR UN1VERSITY REVIEW group, a mathematics group, an experimental Since most of the work accomplished is classi- group, and a contracts group. The theoretical fied, it is difficult to cite specific examples in group makes an effort to understand the funda­ more than general terms. One of the most out- mental nature of the problems undertaken by standing achievements has concerned the vul- the laboratory and to explain these in the form nerability of ballistic missile Systems to effects of hypotheses or theoretical models. The mathe­ produced by a nuclear weapon detonation. In matics group supports the theoretical group and one program a postulated kill mechanism was the entire laboratory by providing digital Com­ theoretically explored, experimentally simulat- puter facilities and techniques for numerical ed, and described in terms of kill radii for spe­ analyses of physical problems. The experiment­ cific Systems. The results were then confirmed al group conducts the in-house laboratory ef­ with definitive experiments during the recent fort, carrying out sufficient experimental re- nuclear tests. In another program the funda­ search so that a broad appreciation of the mental work of the laboratory towards under­ nature of the problem is gained. The contracts standing the phenomenology of high-altitude group enlists the research effort of the Nations nuclear detonations led to the calculation of industries on those laboratory problems deemed the trapping efficiency for electrons injected suitable for this approach. Contracted prob­ into the earth’s magnetic field by a high- lems must, as a guiding principie, be under- altitude nuclear detonation. These are called stood well enough by the in-house personnel so Argus electrons, after the series of high-altitude that they can provide intelligent management. tests in 1958 which bore the name of Project More simply, we contract onlv those things Argus and in which the phenomenon was first which we know how to do. A1I exploratory and observed. It was again observed and measured pivotal efforts are done in-house. in the latest series of high-altitude tests in the Under the operating philosophy of the Pacific. These and other research programs be- Nuclear Effects Research Laboratory, only ing conducted in the laboratory have thrived those problems are accepted which can reason- under the rather broad management policies ably be expected to lend themselves to a solu- in force for the past three years. tion or better understanding with a few vears In accordance with its personnel policies, of concerted laboratory effort. The total num- the Nuclear Effects Research Laboratory is es- ber of problems that can be accepted is deter- sentially a “blue suit” organization, made up mined by the size of the laboratory force, the for the most part of military scientists drawn number varving also to some extent with the from the several sources available to an Air quality of the personnel. Considering the aver- Force organization. As previouslv indicated, age of the quality we have seen in several years’ Air Force personnel policy permits an officer experience and the number of technicians and to pursue a career in research and ordinarilv clerical people necessarv to support them, we does not penalize him for this specialization. have arrived at an optimum figure of about 200 Thus there are a number of career Air Force personnel. This assumes a certain levei of base officers with advanced degrees in the physical support, such as machine shop and electronics Sciences who are available for assignment to buildup, and does not include the number of the laboratory and who generally have suffi- people required for the procurement and sup- cient maturity and experience to provide the plv functions. necessarv management structure. These offi­ The laboratory has been fortunate enough cers, usually captains or majors, come from in the past to be supported in its work by fairly civilian educational institutions through the broad guidance and adequate funding, so that Air Force Institute of Technology programs or the particular direction of the group effort was from the afit residence school itself at Wright- largely determined by the group itself. The Patterson afb. Another source of technicallv results are remarkable considering the short trained officers is the Air Force rotc program, time the laboratory has been in operation. the last two vears of which commit the cadet SCIENTISTS IN BLUE 49

to four years of military service. The more valu- officer could not be seriously considered as a able of this last group of officers are those who seientist because of his other interests. Slowly obtained a deferment of their military obliga- coming about is the realization that younger tion and pursued advanced degrees. There are people can do some substantive work early in indeed some exceptional new officers at the their careers, especially if they are at the Ph.D. baccalaureate levei who perform very well, but levei. During the past two years we have been the officer with the advanced degree can usu- encountering more and more competition in allv do something of significance in a matter of obtaining selected people from those available. months or even weeks whereas the officer with only a bachelors degree generally requires a substantially longer time. T he worth of a research organization depends One of the most frequently voiced reserva- upon the technical quality of its people, prob- tions about staffing a research laboratory with ably to a far greater extent than in any other military scientists is the instabilitv of the or- type of activity. Furthermore the particular ganization as a result of the personnel turnover. complexion that a research program will as­ However, a degree of instabilitv perhaps pro- sume bears a direct relationship to the spec-ial vides the means of infusing into the organiza- talents of its people. In an organization devoted tion the new blood and fresh ideas mentioned to basic research, such as a university, this is earlier. To achieve this balance in the labora­ an accepted way of life. It is also true to an tory, we are counting on duty tours of about extent in the Nuclear EfFects Research Labora­ five years for career officers and four-vear tours tory, where the work is directlv applicable to for ROTC-committed officers. In addition a defense problems. Securing adequate priori- stable force of Civil Service personnel is main- ties on the selection of specifically trained offi­ tained at about 30 per cent of the total strength. cers by name and qualification is a major prob- Although the replacement rate for the military lem for the laboratory today and one that may personnel does not seem excessive, amounting very well determine its fate. to about 14 career officers and 37 rotc officers In effect, we are conducting a large-scale per year, the care with which they must be experiment in the operation of a defense lab­ selected makes the task a fairly difficult one. oratory based on the concept that scientists in There are about 200 regular or career Air uniform frequently contribute as much to na- Force officers graduating each year with ad­ tional defense as those in mufti—occasionally vanced degrees in the physical Sciences, and even more. At the Nuclear Effects Research some 150 from the rotc source. Of this number Laboratory we have been fortunate in the high those who can conceivably make a contribu- degree of motivation among the staff that has tion to the research effort must be identified, made this experiment a successful one. We in- and steps must be taken to get them assigned tend to continue this effort to demonstrate, to the laboratory. within the bounds of the mission of the Air There is considerable competition within Force Weapons Laboratory, that an in-house the Air Force for the Services of career officers, capability can be achieved, technicallv profi- but until recently there has been little difficultv cient officers can be realized, and a quality lab­ in obtaining selected rotc officers. I believe oratory that is responsive to problems of na- this reflects the attitude held by most research tional defense can be operated within the De­ or development organizations, that the military partment of Defense. Air Force Weapons Laboratorij lst Lt. James F. Lamb (left)-M.S., chemistry, North Texas State Teachers College —checks progress on an ion exchange separation sijstem setup in the Biophysics Radio-chemistry Lab. Capt. William F. Hargraves II (right)-M.S., physics, Miami University—notes the voltage output on gas gnn facility in Physics Division.

M ilitary Scientists

The Air Force .Nuclear Effects Research Laboratory at Kirtland AFB, New México, is a “ blue suit” organizai ion, slaffetl largely by military personnel with degrees in the physical Sciences. In lhe laboralory’s facilities they investigale a variety of problems, most of which relate to nuclear weaponry for ballistic missiles. lst Lt. Richard Witkover-M.S., physics, University of Califórnia at Los Angeles—prepares to photograph a plasma physics device with the KCF-600 camera, shooting at a rate of 100 million frames per second.

lst Lt. David Davis (left)—B.S., physics, Ohio Wesleyan—works the console for plasma research experiments. In the Structures Division, 2d Lt. Early Eastburn

COLONEL FRANCIS X . K a NE and M ajor Jack W. Hunter E ARE in the second half of the took on new importance. Understanding of opening decade of the space age. the internai combustion engine became criti­ WSoviet and U.S. achievements cai. have made this a familiar, accepted fact. How- Today we are in a period of experimenta­ ever, the military uses of space are still unde- tion in space. Demonstrations of the use of fined. We face three forms of skepticism in space are off in the future. Efforts to answer determining the role of space in our defense: Questions 2 and 3 are not under way. We in the Air Force must be ready to try to answer (1) Is manned space flight technically feas- them when the time comes. This means that ible? we, as individuais, must have the knowledge (2) Do military space operations have any of the principies underlying space operations. militar\' worth? We must know the language of space, under- (3 ) Do they fill any strategic need? stancl it, and be able to apply it. Our technical strategy in answering these Most of the principies of space operations three questions is to confine our efforts in come from astronomy and celestial mechanics. space to research and development. In large They have evolved over the centuries. Others, measure, we are concentrating on the first such as Newtons laws, are basic to any under­ question only. Presumably, the effort to an- standing and use of the physical environment. swer the others will follow. As we acquire additional knowledge of the In a historical context, we are in a period phenomena of space, such as radiation belts, analogous to the decade immediately preced- solar flares, and meteorites, we will have to ing World War I. In that period extensive know their effects on space operations. Let us research and development was accomplished look at a few of these principies and data and in an effort to answer Question 1, about then examine how they apply to space opera­ manned flight. Some limited demonstrations tions. were conducted to answer Question 2 about Among the fundamentais of space opera­ manned air operations. For example, the tions are the notation and orbit orientation United Kingdom fired the first machine gun in depicted in Figure 1. Terms such as apogee, an aircraft (1911), used the radio for air/ perigee, true anomaly ( sometimes called ground Communications (1911), and flew merely “anomaly”), lines of apsides and nodes, some support during army maneuvers (1912). and orbit plane are the ordinary, working The U.S. dropped the first bomb (1911). The language of those involved in space activities. Italians were the first to use the airplane in The inelination of the orbit plane (i) will war (the capture of Tripoli from the Turks nearly always be a consideration because in 1911). launchings into equatorial orbits will be fair- There was one underlying theme in the ly rare. This inelination is expressed in de- ferment of this earlv experimentation and grees. The inelination of the Mercurv orbits, demonstration—individual initiative. All these for example, has been approximately 28°. events did not just happen. They were made Launchings from Vandenberg have put our to happen bv men with imagination, curiosity, Discoverers into polar orbit, 90° inelination. foresight, and energy. These pioneers were Some of the fundamental laws and equa- “self-starters.” They were not pushed out onto tions of orbital mechanics shown in Table 1 the frontiers of technology, operations, and are, of course, the same laws used in physics, strategy. They went there earlv. To get there, or derivations therefrom. A few observations they had to use a new world of knowledge, of are nonetheless interesting. For instance, the principies, and of data and had to apply it to velocity of a satellite in a circular orbit 300 specific projects, inquiries, and demonstra­ nautical miles above the earth is precisely tions. Dihedral, camber, chord, aspect ratio, 24,888 feet per second, while that of a circu­ lift drag became their language. Meteorology lar orbiting satellite 200 nautical miles lower equatorial plane

Figure l . Notation for a geocentric orbit i, the inclination of orhit, or angle, betvveen the orbital plane and the equatorial plane. line of nodes, line at which the orbital plane intersects the equatorial plane. ascending nade, point where the satellite crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north. . the longitude of the ascending node, or angle betvveen the line of nodes and the direc- tion of the vernal equinox. The value of fí fixes the orientation of the orbital plane and together vvith the value of i defines the plane precisely. o, argument of perigee, or angle from the ascending node to the perigee as measured along the orbit. The value of oj gives the direction of the major axis of the orbit vvith respect to the line of nodes and so describes the orientation of the satellite orbit in its plane. line of apsides, a line of indcfinite length that passes through the foci of an ellipse. The major axis of the orbit is a segment of the line. u, argument of latitude, or angle from the ascending node to the satellite, measured along the orbit. v, true anomaltj, or angle from perigee to the satellite, measured along the orbit. ARE YOU READY EOR SPACE? 55

is about 700 feet per second greater. At either (with 5000 pounds of propellant) used to pro- altitude, the tremendous kinetic energy of a pel a 15,000-pound spacecraft would provide satellite in orbit is one of the most significant only about 2500 feet per second velocity incre­ fundamentais of the orbital mechanics when ment. The comparison here between AV re­ one contemplates a proeedure for “changing quired and AV available is somewhat exag- direction” in space. An example of the amount gerated but serves to emphasize two points: of velocity increment (or AV) required for a first, orbit plane changes should always be made at the higher altitude (lower o,); and Table 1 second, higher values of vvill almost cer- Laws of Orbital Mechanics tainly be required for appreciable increases £) p = Cfnimz p _ force Qf attraction in AV available from maneuvering engines. r G — gravitational constant A few other words used in space opera- mi — larger mass (earth) tions, defined in Table 3, were chosen to point m:> — smaller mass (satellite) up the discussion which follows. Transfer will r — earth radius plus altitude be basic to space operations whether eircum- (where earth considered earth or circumlunar. Dog/eg is used in most point mass) changes of orbit plane, although another 2) Jítr + gr = E %v2— kinetic energy method is described later. Also, note that gr — potential energy rendezvous names a fairly gross maneuver as E — specific mechanical compared with docking. energy Figure 2 illustrates a particular type of 3) vr = H vr —angular momentum transfer, the Hohmann transfer. This is the H — specific angular momentum path which is followed to change from a lower altitude to a higher altitude in the same spacecraft to change its orbit plane elevation orbital plane with the minimum expenditure is readilv shown bv Equation 3 of Table 2. of energy when time required to reacli the If a plane change of 60° is considered, a new altitude is not a primarv consideration. simple calculation indicates that as much Holding in a parking orbit at an altitude energy is required to change orbit plane as is of about 100 nm will generallv precede transfer required to maintain a circular orbit. to higher altitude orbits, particularly when On the other hand according to Equation rendezvous with an orbiting satellite is re­ 4 of Table 2, for nominal values of a quired. Because of the earth’s rotation, a maneuvering engine weighing 10,000 pounds launch site such as Cape Canaveral passes

Table 2 Common Equations of Orbital Mechanics

(1) = V - f Ve, P - Gmi or gEr E2 (14 x 1015 ft3/sec2) r — earth radius plus altitude (2) «... - V ,.c Aí (3) AV = 2v, sin AV zo V. — satellite velocity Ai (4) AV = I.p g 1 n VV„ ” £ AV w.. - w„ I»p W» — total initial weight WP — propellant weight Table 3 Definitions ephemeris. Orbital path. either by direct ascent from launch anomaly. Arc distance between two vehicles site or by transfer from parking in coplanar orbits. orbit. transfer. Maneuver by which a spacecraft docking. Maneuver by which a spacecraft changes orbital altitude. makes soft physical contact with dogleg. Maneuver by which a spacecraft a target vehicle. changes orbital plane, executed at intercept. Maneuver by which a spacecraft apogee of transfer orbit if altitude is placed at a specific point (target change involved. vehicle) in space at a specific rendezvous. Maneuver by which a spacecraft time, executed as a continuous is placed in proximity (within 20 trajectory from launch site or nm) to a target vehicle, executed parking orbit. through orbital planes inclined greater than vehicles are in the correct position relative to abont 30° twice a day. However, in order to one another for the execution of a Hohmann launch into a plane of 45° from Canaveral transfer. without doglegging, for example, as much as The dogleg is not the onlv maneuver that a 16-honr delay can be encountered. And even can be used for a change of orbit plane. The after waiting 16 honrs for the launch site to svnergetic plane change shown in Figure 3 rotate into the plane of the orbit, it is very is a maneuver available only to spacecraft likelv that a satellite with which rendezvous with hvpersonic lift-to-drag ratios greater than is required will not be in the proper location one. By making this maneuver, the astronaut for direct-ascent rendezvous. In fact, vvhen can change his orbit with as much as 50 per Canaveral passes under the 45° plane, a satel­ cent reduction in the amount of energy re­ lite in that orbit coukl be over Australia. In- quired up to altitudes of about 600 nautical stead of waiting several days ( or perhaps miles. Aerodvnainic lift available during the weeks) nntil the orbiting satellite is in the precisely controlled turn at low altitude right position, we will simplv launch into a (about 35 nm) to the desired orbit plane ac- coplanar parking orbit and wait until the two counts for the reduction in energy required as

Figure 2. Hokmann transfer Figure 3. Synergetic plane changing Figure 4. Closing maneuver

Figure 5. Near-range closing maneuver

sysfem velocity with respect to earth \ 58 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEW comparecí with changing plane at orbit alti­ the higher altitude because of the lower tude. energy or AV requirement.) Figure 4 shows These and other maneuvers will be rou- the relative position of the two spacecraft at tine in space operations. Let us look at the rendezvous, the astronaut then initiating the phases of a future space flight which one day closing maneuver as illustrated. The near- will be commonplace. For the sake of illus- range closing maneuver, as shown in Figure 5, tration, let us assume that an astronaut is brings the astronaut within inspection range. planning to inspect one of our unmanned Com­ Finally, the payoff phase of the operation is munications satellites which malfunctioned performed. The astronaut maneuvers his before being injected into its operating orbit. spacecraft around the satellite, using his sen- The satellite is in a 300-nautical-mile circular sors to determine the cause of the malfunc- parking orbit at 60° inclination. A manned tion. This maneuver is shown in Figure 6. spacecraft launched from Canaveral will be Other aspects of the operation that have limited to a maximum orbital inclination of to be calculated are left for the reader. about 52° by the imposed launch azimuth re- (1) How do you determine the “launch strictions. Thus, after being put into a 100- window” for this inspection? nautical-mile circular parking orbit, a Hoh- (2) How long must the astronaut remain in mann transfer is used to reach the 300-nauti- orbit before he can initiate his re-entry and cal-mile altitude with a dogleg maneuver at land at Edwards? apogee to change orbit plane from 52° to 60°. (3) Assuming his spacecraft has a lift/drag (Note that plane changes are always made at of .30, what is his “footprint”?

Figure 6. Inspection maneuvers

AK ~ 2 fps ARE YOU READY FOR SPACE? 59

To H el p in finding the answers, a bibliography tists. Air University conducts the Aerospace is given. References 12 and 17 vvill be par- Operations Course of the Warfare Systems ticularly useful. One suggestion is made: In School. The output of these schools is quite trving to visualize space maneuvers, have a limited. globe handy. The wall map of the air opera- If you want to be among the pioneers of tions planner is an unsatisfactory tool for the space planning and operations, you should do space operations planner. as the air pioneers did over a half-century ago The Air Force has several programs to —take the initiative to understand the new en­ educate space planners and operators. The vironment and the principies on which opera­ Aerospace Research Test Pilot School at Ed- tions in it are based. By preparing yourself, wards is training our X-20 astronauts. The Air you wil not be lost in the Land of AV, but Force Institute of Technology gives formal ready for space. education up to the doctorate levei for scien- Hq Air Force Systems Command

Blbllography 1. American Astronautical Society. Advances in the Astro- 10. Koelle, Heinz Hermann. llandbook of Astronautical nautical Sciences, Vol. 6, Proceedüngs of the Sixth Annual Meet- Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. ing. New York City, 18-21 January 1960. New York: Macmillan, 11. Macko, S. Satellite Tracking. New York: John F. 1961. Rider, 1962. 2. Benson, O., Jr., and Strughold, H., (ed.) Physics and Í2. Markey, Winston R. The Mechanics of Inertial Posi- Medicine of the Atmosphere and Space. New York: John Wiley tion and Heading Indication. New York: John Wiley & Sons, íc Sons, 1960. 1961. 3. Brouwer, D., and Clements, G. Methods of Celestial 13. Ordway, Frederick I.. Gardener, James P., Sharpe, Mechanics. New York: Academic Press, 1961. Mitchell R., Jr., Wakeford, Ronald C. Applied Astronautics: 4. Califórnia, University of, Engineering and Physical An Introduetion to Space Flight. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Sciences Extension. Space Technology. Berkeley: University of Prentice-Hall, 1963. Califórnia, March 1958; New York: John Wiiey & Sons, 1959. 14. Stearns, Edward V. B. Navigation and Guidance in 5. Duncan, Robert Clifton. Dynamics of Atmospheric Space. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Entry. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. 6. Ehricke, K. A. Space Flight. Vol. 1, “Environment and 15. Thomson, William Tyrrell. Introduetion to Space Celestial Mechanics." Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1960. Dynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961. 7. Helvev, T. C. Space Trajectories. New York: Academic 16. USAF Academy, Astronautics. Elements of Free Flight Press, 1960. Trajectories. (Instructional text only.) 8. Herrick, S. Astrodynamics. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 17. White, J. F. Flight Performance Handbook for Pow- 1961. ered Flight Operations. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. 9. Jenson, Jorgen. Design Cuide to Orbital Flight. New 18. Wolff, Edward A. Spacccraft Technology. Washing­ York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. ton, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1962. Operations in Viet

THE VIET NAM AIR FORCE

C aptain Mack D. S ec o r d

ITH A history spanning barely more than During its infancy the air unit was composed W a decade, the record compiled by the of an observation squadron, a liaison squadron, Republic of Viet Nam Air Force ( vn a f) belies its and a headquarters agency. For observation mis- tender age. In terms of combat sorties flown, num- sions the French-built Morane-Saulnier-500 was bers of enemy soldiers killed, and quantities of used, while the liaison squadron fulfilled its re- supplies destroyed, this 12-year-old organization quirements with several MS-500’s, two C-47’s, and has more than proved its worth in battle. a pair of C-45’s. The latter unit was based at Sai- Before any then-and-now comparison of facts gon’s municipal airport, Tan Son Nhut. The obser­ and figures, let us look for a moment at how the vation squadron split its forces between Nha vn a f has traveled the often-bumpy road of expan- Trang, on the coast of the South China Sea, and sion from an original force of less than 300 men to Saigon. In 1954 a light combat squadron was today’s manpower total of sornething over 6000. added to the inventory and equipped with 16 twin- Just as the U.S. Air Force first flew as an arm engine Marcei Dassault-312 light bombers. giving of the U.S. Army, so it was with the vn a f. Organ- vn a f its first real combat arm. All previous mis- ized by the French in 1950 to supplement the sions had been in the realm of combat support. French Air Force in the battle for Indochina, its since vn a f pilots flew only liaison and observation original name was the Air Department of the Joint missions, leaving the actual fighter strikes to the General Staff. Not until 1956 did it become a sep- B-26’s and F-8F's of the French Air Force. arate operating arm of the Vietnamese Department Concurrent with the establishmcnt of the of National Defense. vn a f was the beginning of a program to train AIR OPERATIONS IN VIET NAM 61

erews for it. The initial group of pilot trainees, 11 were gradually withdrawn, and the four-year-oid in number, reported to Nha Trang Air Base in Vietnamese Air Force had to assume an increas- December 1951. Just as in America, the eager ingly important role in the country’s fight against cadets divided their days betvveen long classroom the Communist guerrillas, who remained behind sessions in aerodvnamics, navigation, and military after the signing of the Geneva accords. The last studies and occasional airbome instruction in the French Air Force personnel departed in 1956. sturdy MS-500. .AU the teaching was done by As a result of the withdrawal of the French French instructors in the language of their home- Air Force, 1956 was a busy year for the vn a f. In land. January Tan Son Nhut and Bien Hoa Air Bases Following graduation of the 11 pilots in Octo- were activated, and the liaison squadron at Nha ber 1952, some were integrated into French aerial Trang was moved to Tan Son Nhut to provide units in the Hanoi area, while others joined the better Service to the headquarters located there. newlv established vn a f units. The Air Training Bien Hoa, 17 miles to the northeast, became the Center at Nha Trang began training observers the home of the lst Fighter Squadron and the Air same month the first class of pilots was graduated, Depot. The latter, which carne into being in April, and this group of six candidates won their wings in provided maintenance and supply support for the April 1953. vn a f students who were destined to entire vn a f. become bomber or transport pilots received about To provide Communications and navigation two months of schooling in light airplanes in aids, the Air Traffic Center was also established France, then went to Morocco for a year to sharpen that spring, as was the Air Medicai Center. In June their skills in the North American T-6. They re- the lst Fighter Squadron received 25 F-8F Bearcat tumed to France for more training in the MD-312 fighters, and the lst Air Transport Group accepted until they sailed to Viet Nam four months later, 32 C-47 transports from Military Assistance Pro- readv to master C-45, C-47, or MD-312 cockpit gram sources. The forerunner of today’s Joint Air duties. Operations Center was activated at Tan Son Nhut The Geneva conference in July 1954 produced in July, with the title of Air Operations Center. the armistiee which ended the eight-year battle Major Tran Van Ho was selected as first com- between the French and the Viet Minh. This agree- mander of the newly renamed vn a f. ment also divided the countrv in half at the 17th After the momentous growth of vn a f in 1956 parallel and marked the beginning of the decline of activities leveled off as the vn a f continued its fight French influence in the Republic of Viet Nam. to drive the insurgents from their hiding places From that date forward French fighting forces in the jungles and rice paddies. It was only in the fali of 1961 that another buildup of any significance occurred in the Vietnamese air arm as a result of the American decision to offer increased assistance ------to the Vietnamese republic. When the French armed forces personnel left the countrv, the United Editor's Note States began sending military advisers to this war- Progress Report torn Southeast Asia land. The number of these USAf >oclicol oir experfj worlt side by s!de with their advisers, however, remained quite small until the Vietnomese officer and airmon counterparts in molding fali of 1961, when the U.S. advisory complement lhe Viet Nam Air Force to the tacficol oir concepts and doctrines for COIN operotions The VNAF thot has de- began to grow rapidly to meet the increasing veloped exemplifies the principie ol central control o( challenge of Communist domination in the small oll lactical oir power in the theoter It is integrated into republic. a tacficol air control System and operotes its own Joinl Air Operotions Center Fost becoming o deodly-ellec- In January 1962 records show that the vn a f tire tocticol oir force, the VNAF is officiolly credited flew a total of 251 combat sorties with their one with more thon one*third of oll Viet Cong casualties. Its combot sorties hove increosed from 250 o month in eady squadron of AD-6 fighters. In startling contrast is 1962 to olmost 1500 o month in A p ril 1963. the April 1963 figure for combat missions, which

continued on page f>6 Saigon Harbor. T-28 aircraft arrive by carrier deck after President Kennedy declared U.S. assistance in building up Viet Nam armed forces. Earmarked for the Viet Nam Air Force, the T-28’s wait for truck delivery to nearbij Tan Son Nhut Air Base.

At Tan Son Nhut Viet Nam ground crews scruh down their new aircraft and prepare them for flight. Readij for the next sortie. Ttjpical Viet Nam Air Force pilots, average age 24-25, have been trained by the French or in USAF fhjing schools. Each has logged well over 100 combat sorties.

Taxiing out for another strike against the Viet Cong guerrillas, VNAF T-28 fighters are armed with rock- ets, napalm hombs, and ,50-caliber for strafing rans. A T-28 fighter-bomber element showing the tiger-head emblem of the 516th bighter Squadron, VNAF, climbs over Nha Trang Biuj for a combat strike against the VietCong. The target lies in the mountains, tvhich rise from the baij and extern/ on inland. 66 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

reflects a total of almost 1500 offensive sorties over 100, and by fali of that year the total was flovvn against Viet Cong personnel and emplace- nearing 200 a month. Losses from Viet Cong am- ments. The 1962 tabulations for Viet Cong killed bushes (their favorite method of attack) declined and wounded in action show almost 4000 troops sharply when vn a f began to put an L-19 forward in these two categories, the majority in the kia air control team and a flight of strike aircraft above group. More than 11,500 structures belonging to each important convoy. A similar result was the insurgents were destroyed or damaged by vn a f achieved when strike aircraft began escorting both air strikes, and more than 1500 boats were sunk by passenger and freight trains along those portions firepower from vn a f aircraft. The latter accom- of the railway where Communist attacks were most plishment may seem somevvhat inconsequential, frequent. but in the Mekong Piver delta region of Viet Nam An operation with the nickname “Night boats represent virtually the only means of trans- Angel” has been the salvation of many outposts and portation in an area that has few roads, even fewer strategic hamlets in the strife-tom country. Since bridges, and literally thousands of canais and other Viet Cong attacks on village defenses come most vvaterways. frequently under cover of darkness and especially In addition to the usual interdiction, close- in the period just before daylight, vn a f crewmen air-support, and reconnaissance roles of a tactical fly an all-night vigil over certain portions of the air force, the vn a f has proved itself worthy in the country in C-47 flare ships, ready to heed the call field of helicopter escort. During the first five of a besieged outpost with an umbrella of light. months of 1962 a total of only a few helicopter Often just the brilliant illumination produced by escort sorties had been logged. After some intensive the paraflares is enough to halt the attack, but in indoctrination, U.S. Air Force advisers and their most cases fighters are scrambled from the nearest vn a f counterparts convinced ground force com- base to add their persuasive power to the battle. manders that air escort of all heliborne operations This airborne alert not only gives a much faster would result in an immediate and marked decline reaction time in case of attack but also serves as a in helicopter losses. Escort sorties jumped over 600 powerful deterrent to all within earshot of its per cent in August 1962, and the number has re- engines. mained fairly constant since that time. vn a f tac- vn a f liaison missions, carried out with L-19’s ticians have refined rotary-wing escort techniques and L-20’s located at Tan Son Nhut, Pleiku, and based on their experience with this kind of mission Da Nang, have also shown a steady increase since and have been extremely successful at preventing the early days of 1962. From January of that year helicopter losses to the often deadly Viet Cong to March 1963 the sortie rate increased 250 per ground fire. cent. One major difference between the U.S. Air In the airlift category, vn a fs fleet of C-47’s Force and the vn a f is that all air power in the continues to provide a lifeline of support to isolated Vietnamese republic is assigned to and controlled bases. Resupply by any other method is virtually by the Viet Nam Air Force. There is no armv or impossible, so the dependable “Gooney Birds” navv aviation. Consequently heliborne operations, make daily drops of food, ammunition, and other although planned and carried out by Army of Viet supplies to the many settlements cut off from all Nam forces, involve vn a f aircraft and crews for other means of outside aid. Tonnages of cargo off- transportation from the pickup point to the landing loaded by the vn a f fleet have remained relatively zone. Helicopter training for vn a f pilots has been stable since late 1961, averaging 250 tons per carried out at Tan Son Nhut Air Base since Febru- month, of which more than one third is airdropped. ary 1963 by Military Assistance Advisory Croup Passenger manifests have shown a significant in­ instructors from the usaf school at Stead Air Force crease, the April 1963 figure more than doubling Base, Nevada, using H-19’s for training vehicles. the January 1962 tally of some 5000 passengers. Another area in which vn a f has proved its usaf advisers have been particularly im- mettle is in convoy and train escort. Between Jan- pressed with the ability of vn a f crews to perform uary and July 1962 these sorties totaled slightly troop-carrier and aerial resupply missions. Their AIR OPERATIONS IN VIET NAM 67

accuracy in dropping paratroopers into a forward the 2.75 rockets expended by T-28’s, A-lH’s, and battle zone or resupplying a remote outpost has B-26’s have been especially effective. Of the variety given usaf observers new goals to shoot for. Cows, of bombs available for delivery, best results have pigs, ducks, and chickens practically fali at the feet been obtained with clusters of six 20-pound frag- of waiting ground forces, as do bags of rice, canned mentation bombs. goods, and other of the less perishable foodstuffs. Spearheading the vn a fs concerted effort to Whenever ammunition supplies run low, abvn drive the Viet Cong from the Republic of Viet Nam forces know they can depend on vn a f to deliver is 34-year-old Col. Huynh Huu Hien. He was planeloads of whatever their artillery, mortars, or selected vn a f commander in October 1962, re- rifles require. On many occasions a sudden and placing Col. Nguyen Xuan Vinh, who went to the prolonged Viet Cong attack has been repelJed by United States to study at a civilian university. ammunition delivered during the heat of the battle Colonel Hien, a graduate of the French Air Force by vn a f C-47’s dropping their cargo from treetop pilot training program in 1954, is equally at home levei while dodging ground fire. in the cockpit of an A-1H or a C-47, since he has One area that continues to plague both vn a f previously commanded both fighter and transport and their usaf advisers is evaluating the effective- squadrons. At least once a week, and sometimes ness of the varietv of firepower delivered by strike more often, he leaves his office at Tan Son Nhut, aircraft. Jungle foliage grows to almost unbeliev- climbs into a T-28 or an A-1H, and flies a strike able thickness in Southeast Asia, effectively screen- mission. ing most strike results that might otherwise be ob- Colonel Hiens youthful appearance, like that served by fighter pilots. The foliage also prevents of the men he commands, hides a grim determina- assessment by ground forces, who might have to tion to win the long, often-frustrating battle against spend several days clearing a trail of less than a a hit-and-run enemy that seeks to overthrow the mile in order to count Viet Cong losses. In rela- elected government and turn free men into slaves tively open areas intelligence reports confirm that of a Communist regime.

Hq 2d Air Division AIR ESCORT—A COIN AIR TECHNIQUE

L ie u t e n a n t Colonel James F. S underman

AMONG THE air tactics used bv the Viet Nam Viet Nam. Government use of this rail system to J. Air Force and its usaf advisers in the war haul large amounts of food supplies, construction against the Communist insurgent guerrillas is air materiais, and heavy bulky equipment for civilian escort of trains, truck convoys, U.S. Army heli- and rnilitary use was absolutely essential. The rail copters, vn a f and usaf combat airlift support air- line also provided a good setup for the piratical craft, and inland and Coastal vvaterway shipping. Viet Cong, especially where the trains moved Prior to the beginning of aerial escort in the through mountainous country, into and out of steep summer of 1962 by vn a f/ usaf tactical aircraft, canyons, over bridges, and through densely foli- surface movement of troops, supplies, and equip- ated areas. ment was a hazardous gamble for Army of Viet The frequency of Viet Cong ambush increased Nam ground forces. VVell-armed bands of Com- on the roads and rail line in the fali, winter, and munist insnrgents, expert in the art of ambush. spring of 1961-62. In the months immediately plagued Viet Nam’s single north-south rail line, prior to aerial surveillance escort, almost every the limited roadways in the country, and the many supply and troop train traveling the system was miles of navigable river and canal waterways. ambushed. The Viet Cong employed a variety of It was highway banditry on a bold and profit- ambush techniques, including dynamiting tlie able scale for the Viet Cong. Ambush provided rails, ripping up sections of the rails, neatly remov- them a lucrative source of food, ammunition, weap- ing a section of track and resetting it sufficiently to ons, and war supplies, not to mention an effective derail the locomotive and the cars. Other tricks of quick-strike means to kill Vietnamese soldiers and the Viet Cong involved removing the spikes from their U.S. advisers. a stretch of rails or removing one very small section A large portion of the rnilitary personnel and of a rail. Log piles across the tracks would do the combat logistical support moved throughout the job too. country via usaf C-123 in-country airlift, supple- Most ambushes involved techniques that mented by the C-47 “Goonev Birds” of the vn a fs would not destroy the rolling stock but merely en- 43d Transport Group. Yet rnilitary requirements able the Viet Cong to steal the contents of the box- dictated certain amounts of surface transport, espe- cars. It was in the insurgents’ best interests if the cially short-distance movements within provinee government rail equipment remained intact and sectòrs or areas contiguous to fortified villages, out- the trains kept running. posts, or garrisoned establishments. It is interesting to note that the Viet Cong Then, too, a single-line railroad ran from Sai- never ambushed a passenger train. On occasion in gon eastward through flat country to the Coastal the past passenger trains were stopped (and thev town of Phan Thiet. From there it traced a course still are), and the passengers were robbed in the northward, winding through the Coastal mountain best American Wild West fashion before the train ranges and along the seashore to Nha Trang, Da was allowed to continue. But the sole victims of Nang, and up to the 17th parallel, which divides the ambushes were the freight supply trains. Aerial escort. A Vietnamese Air Force B-26 twin-engine light bomber makes a low pass over a truck convoy traveling through Viet Cong-infested territory in the Republic of Viet Nam. Ambush by Communist insurgent bands constantly plagued such convoys until Vietnamese officials called for tactical air power to fiy truck and train escort missions. A frequent sight along Viet Nam’s single north-south rail line before aerial escort was emploijed to ride protective cover for freight and troop trains. Viet Cong soldiers “take off” as the camera plane approaches this ambushed section of a freight train north- east of Saigon in early spring 1962. Open door on the box- car indicates that supplies were in process of being carried away. Since VNAF started riding “aerial shotgun’ for trains in sumtner 1962, not one train has been ambushed that had protective air cover.

The armed VNAF T-28 fxghter-bomber makes a low pass over a slow-moving freight train as it passes through a densely wooded Viet Cong-suspect area in the mountains north of Phan Thiet. Armed with four air/ground rocket pods and two wing-mounted .50-caliber machine-gun pods, the T-28 packs a heavy wallop of firepower xvhich the Viet Cong have learned to respect. The L-19 FAC spotter and radio control plane are flying up ahead of the supply train inspecting tracks, bridges, and adjacent cover. The T-28’s fhy in pairs, the partncr on this escort mission orbiting overhead, readtj to strike instantaneously. An L-19 forward air control radio plane inspects a river bridge Crossing. The L-19 maintains radio contact with the train under escort and with fighter-bombers patrolling nearby. Its fiight pattem takes it back and forth over and ahead of the train, to check the bridges, rail line, and adjacent right-of-way. If signs of possible Viet Cong ambush are detected, the L-19 rádios the train to stop and calls in the fighter-bombers. The Vietnamese observer in the back seat, a target intelligence expert, is armed with an automatic rifle.

Flying in pairs, one T-28 maintains high cover position. The other goes down on the deck to inspect the train and the densely wooded country- side along the tracks. On es- cort duttj the T-28 carries a rack of antipersonnel frag- mentation bombs, an air/ ground rocket, and a .50-cal- iber macliine-gun pod under each wing. All told, the two T-28’s carry sufficient fre- power to deal with any size Viet Cong forcâ that may at- tempt to ambush the train.

The single-seat A-1H fighter-bomber (former AD-6 Navy dive bomber) is the big brother to the T-28 in the VNAF. With its 12 externai under-wing bomb racks and four 20-mm wing-mounted cannons, the A-1H packs a heavier firepower than the lighter T-28. 72 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

On the road the frequency of Viet Cong am- Because of central govemment control of rail btish of military truck convoys moving personnel traffic, the problem of scheduling air escort for and equipment became criticai as U.S. military trains is a small one. This is not the' case in the assistance increased. Weapons and ammunition military truck convoy department. Army of Viet badly needed by the Communists were removed Nam units are spread throughout the country. from the dead and wounded victims of the ambush Local commanders schedule their own convoy by the insurgent forces. movements, and it is their personal responsibility The techniques for truck convoy ambush to request air escort from the Joint Air Operations varied, but it was a more deadly game than rail- Center ( ja o c ). Unfortunately many convoys con­ road ambush, with the objective to kill, steal, and tinue to travei the open country without air escort. destroy. In either case, train or truck ambush, by It follows that enemy ambush still occurs, and of the time rescue forces arrived at the scene the elu- course when it does happen it attracts press head- sive enemy had faded into the countryside. lines. First step in the evolution of air escort to sur- Statistics portray the rising utilization of tacti­ face travei in Viet Nam carne in the form of strip cal air escort for train movements in the Republic alert for fighter aircraft on bases in various sections of Viet Nam. In the five-month period August of the country. Upon receipt of a radio vvarning of through December 1962, aerial escort sorties for an ambush or impending ambush, the fighters trains numbered less than 100. In the first five would scramble to the scene. It was quickly learned months of 1963, air escort missions for trains rose that in the time lapse between scramble and arrival to nearly 250, a 150 per cent increase. Comparable at the ambush area the Viet Cong had completed figures on air escort for ground forces truck con­ their damage and disappeared. voys during these same periods show very little in­ Continuous air escort from point to point was crease in the utilization by ground force command­ the next step. This tactic proved highly successful ers of this successful tactical air technique. In the and was adopted as operational procedure. August-December 1962 period truck-convoy es­ Air escort today normally comprises a force cort sorties numbered around 180, while the Jan- of three aircraft, one L-19 forward air controller uary-May 1963 sortie figure stood at about 200. liaison plane and two T-28’s or A-lH’s (AD-6’s). The only category in which vn a f tactical air Frequently one B-26 substitutes for a pair of fight­ escort sorties have declined significantly in this ers. The L-19 fa c serves as a radio relay station comparative time period is in air protection flights between radio operators on each end of the train for U.S. Army helicopter operations. The drop here or truck convoy and the circling fighters or light has been from over 700 in the August-December bomber. It also acts as target spotter and attack 1962 period to around 350 helicopter escort sorties director for the heavily armed fighters in case from January through May 1963. Tactical air escort Viet Cong ambush is detected or groups of Viet for helicopters is flown by the vn a f, using T-28, Cong are spotted near the road or rail line. The A-1H, or B-26 aircraft, only when requested by L-19 flies at low altitude, weaving, “essing,” or arvn officials and their U.S. Army advisers. circling over the slow-moving train and out ahead Greater use of air protection, most Air Force to inspeet the tracks, bridges, and areas paralleling officials feel, is a matter of education. Until ground the road or rail bed. Orbiting in the near vicinity, commanders learn to take advantage of it and co- sometimes sweeping low alongside or ahead of the ordinate their convoy movements with the ja o c train or truck convoy, the armed fighters always and request air escort, little can be done to wipe stay within strike distance, ready to react to the out this remunerative Viet Cong tactic that pro- command of the L-19 fa c aircraft. vides the insurgents a source for arms and ammu­ Every freight and supply train traveling the nition. governments one rail line is now escorted by vn a f As the number of tactical air escort missions tactical aircraft between certain points where the increases, the number of Communist Viet Cong Viet Cong are most likely to strike. Generally speak- ambushes and the amount of ground-fire opposition ing, these points are in mountainous or heavily decline. While air escort is no permanent panacea wooded areas. for this military problem, it does offer the best AIR OPERATIONS IN V1ET NAM 73

solution available to date. This conclusion rests on moving freight—has been suificient to deter the the fact that not one rail shipment or truck convoy Viet Cong from carrying out a planned ambush. air-eseorted by vn a f aircraft has been hit by Viet The rapid reaction capability of the fixed-wing Cong ambush. tactical aircraft, combined with its selective variety Experts credit the success of this coin air of firepower, makes it the one counterinsurgency technique largely to the fear which the Viet Cong weapon that can counter decisively the Viet Cong’s forces have of tactical air power. It has been proved operating techniques in the rugged mountains, from captured Viet Cong soldiers and documents jungles, and swamps of Southeast Asia. The Viet that the presence of escort aircraft—even one un- Cong have a deep respect for the capability of the arraed L-19 weaving over and ahead of a slow- tactical air weapon. Hq Pacific Air Forces RESUPPLY IN THE PICKLE BARREL

HE USAF aircrews resupplying many isolated coin outposts or footholds deep T within Viet Cong-infested territory prove daily thal lhey can hit the pickle barrei with paradropped bundles. The C-123 assault transport is lhe mainstay of the airlift for coin warfare in Viel Nam. In combat cargo missions alone this versalile aircrafl airdrops 10 to 15 tons per day in small packages of food, ammunition, weapons, and medicines to reniole strategic hamlets, Vietnaniese govemment outposts, and U.S. and Viet Nam Special Forces detachments. Theparadrop zone is normally marked with a circle 50 feet in diameter as near as possible to the fortified compound or bivouac. Pinpoint accuracy is mandatory to prevení the supplies from falling into the hands of the always lurking Viet Cong guerrillas. The drops are usually made from altitudes of 200 to 500 feet, depending on the terrain. usaf aircrews ha ve developed the bull’s-eye technique to perfection.

An armed Viet Nam Army outpost from the copilot’s position of a C-47. A fenced and ditched perimeter guards the compound. Troops are housed in the typical Vietnamese thatched structures. Such isolated outposts, with no surface roads for access, must depend entirely on aerial paradrop missions for food and supplies. Point defense position of a remote Vietnamese post. Artillery weapons in circular revetments have 360° field of fire against ground attack.

Paradrop chutes with cartons attached are launched from inside a C-123. Hitting the drop zone takes trigger-quick coordination and actions between the loadmaster in the rear compartment and the pilot up front. The rough, densely forested mountain terrain, so characteristic of much of Viet Nam, makes a hazardous job even more dangerous. (m

Self-loading accuracy. A paradrop carton almost settles into a waiting truck parked in the drop zone. The 50-foot circle, marked by strips of white carwas in right foreground, forms a bulFs- eye target for the aircrews. Additional para- drops have clustered all cartons in a very small area. Vietnamese soldiers from a nearby out- post recover supplies before guerrillas arrive.

The sturdy, dependable C-123 assault transport returns to base accompanied by Viet Nam Air Force T-28 fighter escort, after completing several paradrop missions. The swollen stream and dense forest are typicai of the terrain in the Southern delta region.

*

1:4 JVC COMMAND AND CONTROL AND THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

L ie u t e n a n t Colonel Clifton L. N ic h o l s o n

OMMAND AND CONTROL: what tion acquisition, processing, and dissemination is it and why all the emphasis? It has emploved by a commander in planning, di- C been vaguely thought of as every- recting, and controlling operations. thing from command systems in support A command and control svstem is a com- areas, such as research and development, posite of equipment, skills, and techniques logistics, and supplv, to the guidance systems which is capable of performing the clearly in drones and surface-to-air missiles. There is defíned function of enabling a commander to really nothing new about command and con- exercise eontinuous control of his forces and trol or command and control systems. Military weapons in all situations by providing him commanders have alvvays devised organiza- with (a) the information needed to make tions and methods to secure knowledge need- operational decisions and (b ) the means for ed to make intelligent decisions and issue disseminating these decisions. A complete intelligent commands. However, the time svstem includes all subsvstems, related facili­ compression brought about by new weapon ties, equipment, Services, and personnel re­ systems has established requirements for de­ quired for operation of the svstem so that it cisions to be made within minutes on matters can be considered a self-sufficient unit in its of national security. The problem is to mech- intended operational environment. anize the flow of information required in the From these definitions it is evident that a decision-making process in order to keep pace command and control svstem can exist at any with modem weapons. This, of course, re- levei of command where decision-making quires an understanding of (1) the basic de­ authority resides regarding the control of cision-making process, (2) the assistance that forces. This system, at a lower command levei, can be provided to the decision-maker by can also be a subsystem of a higher-echelon technology, and (3 ) the military commanders command and control system. All these sys­ requirements. tems then become subsystems of a national In order to clear up any misunderstand- system responsive to the President as com­ ing, the standard military definition for com­ mander in chief of the armed forces. The total mand and control is: an arrangement of per- system, if properly designed, should provide sonnel, facilities, and the means for informa­ each levei of command with the information 78 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

needed to make appropriate decisions. These ing procedures. Closely related to habits are decisions and execution orders should follow standing operating procedures. While habits established command channels to ensure are recorded in the central nervous system, proper delegation of authority and responsi- standing operating procedures are formal, bility, which has proved to be the most im- written programs. These recorded programs portant key to successful military manage- provide a means for bringing habitual pat- ment. terns into the open where they can be exam- ined, modified, and improved. An organiza- the decision-making process tional strueture is itself a partial specification of decision-making programs. It establishes a An understanding of the fundamentais of common set of presuppositions and expecta- the decision-making process is necessary prior tions as to organizational responsibilities for to the design of an automated command and decisions; it establishes subgoals to serve as control system. Many erroneous images of the criteria of choice in various parts of the or- decision-maker exist. Some see him as a com- ganization; and it establishes operational data- mander who suddenly rouses himself from collecting and reporting responsibilities in thought and issues an order. Others see him as particular organizations so that they can com- a happv-go-lucky fellow with a coin poised municate events requiring attention to ap­ ready to risk his action on a toss. Still others propriate decision points. see him as a commander at a staff meeting in Traditional techniques for nonprogramed the process of saving “yes” or “no.” All these decisions are not easily described. When images ignore the whole lengthy, complex executives or military commanders are asked process of alerting, exploring, and analvzing how they make unprogramed decisions they that precedes the final decision. generally describe the use of “judgment,” Decision-making comprises three prin­ which depends upon experience, insight, in- cipal phases: determining the necessity to tuition, and possibly creativity. This does not make a decision, finding possible courses of reallv explain the process and leads to further action, and choosing among courses of action. examination. One thing that is known is that The amount of time spent on each phase de- training in orderly thinking helps in nonpro­ pends upon the levei at which the decision gramed decision-making. The military “esti- is to be made. Only a small fraction of the mate of the situation” is an excellent example time involved is spent in making the final of such a procedure. It is well known that decision or choice, while the majoritv of effort some men have developed the decision-mak­ is spent on the other two phases. ing skill much better than others. This skill is Decisions are generally of two types: pro- developed through professional training in gramed decisions and nonprogramed deci­ basic principies and through experience and sions. Decisions are programed to the extent job rotation that the organization itself pro- that they are repetitive or routine. They are vides. The detailed process of aequiring deci­ nonprogramed if they are novel, if there is no sion-making skills is as mvsterious as the basic cut-and-dried method for handling the prob- learning process. The only known technique lem since it has not arisen before. Sueli was for improving nonprogramed decision-making General Eisenhower’s D-Day decision in is to select men who have demonstrated a Europe. capacity for it and continue their training and Traditional techniques for programed de­ planned experience. cisions have usually been understood and applied. Habit is the most general of all tech­ electronic data Processing niques. The collective memories of organiza- tional members are vast encyclopedias of The introduetion of the Computer and factual knowledge, habitual skills, and operat- electronic data-processing techniques in the COM MAN D AND CONTROL IN DECISION-MAKING 79

area of programed decision-making has ex- Extreme care must be taken in establish­ tended the range of accuracy of programable ing the data base in a command center. Con- decisions in many areas. While computers sider all the questions a commander could were initíallv conceived as devices for solving ask. The number is virtually infinite. For ex- mathematical problems, it graduallv became ample, there are several thousands of the clear that there were other wavs of using form “Where is the ______?” or “Who is them. If a model or simulation of a situation commander of the ______?” Let us say, for can be programed for a Computer, the be- the sake of argument, that on any given day havior of the model can be ascertained over he could ask any of one billion questions. a whole range of conditions. The Computer However, the chance that he may ask a given then becomes a powerful tool to assist the question is not random. There are certain decision-maker in all decision areas. The Com­ questions which he is almost certain to ask; puter, of course, cannot have insight or be others he is almost certain not to ask. The im- Creative and can onlv do what it is programed portant thing to recognize is that the estimate to do. of that probability is a very nonlinear function In general, problem solving proceeds by of the efficiency of staff work. A poor staff establishing goals, detecting differences be- will have only a hazy idea as to what the tween present situation and goal, finding in commander is thinking, and therefore it may memorv or by search the tools or processes be forced to prepare for a wider range of that are relevant to reducing the differences, possible questions than necessary. Indeed, it and applving these tools or processes. Each is the feeling of inadequacy in keeping in problem is normallv broken dovvn into sub- close touch with what is really relevant that problems. Each subproblem is then broken prompts the desire to have more and more down into others until a subproblem is found facts around “just in case.” The first-rate staff that can be solved. By successive solution of anticipates what information the commander such subproblems the overall goal is eventu- will require. In fact, by anticipation of the ally achieved—or given up. This general tech- problems and considerations that are going to nique of problem solving can be programed arise, by being acutely aware of his traits in a Computer, e.g., chess and checkers play- and habit of mind, the staff leads his thoughts ing programs that are capable of beating and conditions his interests. proficient players. It is this tvpe of program Unless the information base is established that suggests future innovations in the use of by the staff as a result of real and present computers to assist in the decision-making needs, the volume of data can climb astro- process. nomically while relevance plummets and the system becomes glutted by “information” that desired concept does not inform. This problem is greatlv ag- gravated by industry’s encouragement of the In the desired concept, the information designing of such systems around elaborate base required for automating command opera- electronic equipments and the conducting of tions is the primary concem and the direct “systems analyses” by civilian engineers whose task of the commander’s staff. This staff must training has been predominantly in hardware also maintain the information base, develop or Computer programing and not in the con- plans, lay out programs, establish planning crete problems of military leadership or the factors, specifv operating procedures, etc. rigors of the military staff. Thus it is from the daily work of the staff, The essence of the concept of operational from the dynamic perspective of the command control systems can be stated concisely; context, that the specifics of the informational requirements of a command center must be (1) The information base of the command generated. center will be maintained by the center staff 80 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEXV

in the memorv of the centers Computer Sys­ within the military. Under this concept, each tem. staff functional area or agency supporting the (2 ) The Computer itself will act merely as recentlv approved National Military Com­ a highly sophisticated Communications device mand Center must analvze its own activities serving the staff hv linking its members direct- to determine the desired information base to ly vvith the Information base. be put into a Computer in conjunction with (3 ) Each command staff office will have the desired programs and operating proce- direct access to the information base on a dures. The information requirements estab- nearly instantaneous basis through its ovvn lished at the national levei prescribe the in- console or display units. puts desired from the next lower levei of (4 ) The svstem will allow multiparallel command. This principie then continues down access to the Computer svstem for all staff through normal channels of command to the offices. lowest levei. It is obvious that each subele- ment of the national svstem must be com- Thus the information base in the Computer patible with higher-eehelon systems in terms svstem becomes a dynamic tool for the com­ of data elements, codes, and operational mand staff. The information base in the Com­ language. Therefore the design of command puter svstem is solelv the product and re- and control systems will tend to be a relatively sponsibility of the staff. Each staff office centralized function, with representation from maintains that part of the base for which it is each functional area working intimatelv with responsible. The information base becomes in the appropriate technical personnel. fact the context of command, as current as the The recent emphasis on military com­ staff maintains it, as responsive as the staff mand and control has resulted from the real- molds it to staff needs, and as sophisticated in ization that electronic data-processing equip­ its calculations as the staff is sophisticated in ment can greatlv assist commanders at all carrving out its funetions. leveis to make accurate and timelv decisions This concept of automating command that otherwise could not be made without operations is the only one that has the poten- tial of greatlv enhancing command capability considerable human effort. Such automation presentlv in progress will most surelv result in the time-tested pattems of niilitarv com­ in proposals for major changes in organiza- mand doctrine. It augments the capability of tions and levei of authority and responsibility. a commander and his staff to exercise com­ One thing, however, must not be forgotten mand prerogatives, rather than putting him in concerning military command and control the position of a spectator overwhelmed by automation: that is, a peacetime svstem must facts about events that are already history. not be devised that cannot operate under war- time conditions. The appropriate delegation of authority and responsibility will be as valid F rom the initial definitions it is seen that in anv future war as it has been in past wars. command and control is an organized deei- Individuais properly trained and experienced sion-making process which, within the concept in the decision-making process remain the discussed, is partieularly amenable to auto- most valuable asset in any command and con­ mation through the use of computers and trol system. data-processing equipment. This includes both the operational and “business” areas Hq United States Air Force AIRCRAFT TIRE

COLONEL ELMER G. P r OHASKA

ATISFYING Air Force customers to predict and control. He lias the dual task neetls for aircraft tires is one of the of reducing these uncertainties to known S most important responsibilities of the planning factors and at the same time finding Air Force Logistics Command and, more spe- wavs and means to perform his job at reduced cíficaüy, of the Ogden Air Materiel Area. costs. Some of tlie tire manager’s support Contrary to popular belief, aircraft tires problems, their Solutions, and the management and ground vehicle tires are alike onlv in that techniques employed to minimize support they are both round and mounted on vvheels. costs merit closer consideration. The essential rieed for aircraft tires that can safelv withstand the stresses of high-speed inventory take-offs and landings and the great weights of modem .lircraft is obvious. The difficulties To support 52 aircraft types, ranging from faced by the tire inventory manager at Ogden the L-20 to the B-58, 248 diflferent tires are Air Materiel Area stem primarily from a mul- procured, stored, and distributed to approx- titude of intangibles which are both difficult imately 400 bases worldwidc. The present 248 82 AIR UNIVERS1TY REVIEXV

master stock numbers represent a reduction above 80 degrees are detrimental and induce from 100 master items, a reduction that earlv deterioration. Wet or damp conditions, stemmed from a comprehensive Air Force/ as well as strong air currents, are avoided as industry analvsis of tire requirements. This is much as possible. Tires stored in a vertical a continuing program, with the ultimate ob- position experience less deterioration than jective of having but 125 master items in the those stored horizontally. The age of an air­ Air Force tire inventory. This item reduction craft tire plays an important role in its Service program, coupled with other management im- life. Excessive aging promotes hardening, provemcnt techniques, has permitted a sub- cracking, ozone checking, loss of volatile oils, stantial reduction in tire investment. In fiscal and general deterioration of the rubber used vears 1959—61 the average annual tire buv in the tire. All these factors reduce or detract exceeded $39 million. The fy 62 procurement from satisfactory performance. Considerable vvas süghtly less than $15 million. The fy 63 research has been done to e.xtend the life of actual obligated expenditure for tires and tires in storage. Good stock control and issue tubes was $12.7 million. The reductions in the practices relative to issuing oldest items first procurement program have served to Iower are followed. Colored plastic tape around the the total tire inventory from $112 million in tread is now being used to denote vear of October 1960 to $43 million in October 1962, manufacture. For example, tires manufac- the date of the last worldwide stock balance tured in 1962 have a white band, while 1963 report. manufactures are banded with green tape. This permits positive age identification of the tire life tires at all storage sites.

In computing tire requirements, the tire transportation and distribution manager is concerned with two elements of tire life. The first concerns the probable num- Most aircraft tires are manufactured in ber of landings that each tire will accrue. The the East. When Shelbv af Depot, Ohio, man- unpredictability of demand which plagues all aged this commoditv, cross-hauling was min- materiel managers is present to a large degree imized. After ooama assumed the inventory in making this estimate. The many combina- function upon phaseout of Shelbv af Depot tions of relative crew proficiency, aircraft in 1958, single-point depot distribution in- loading, and runwav servieeabilitv cause con- volved contractor deliveries from various East- sumption rates to vary greatlv on both sides ern plants to Hill afb, Utah. Customer re­ of the estimate. The second element is the quirements were then filled bv distribution shelf life of a tire. Jet aircraft tires have a from ooama’s single-point storage. A study Service life of three vears; reciprocating- was undertaken to determine the optimum engine aircraft tire life is five vears. These distribution pattern. Two basic conclusions obsolescence factors represent the skeleton in were reaehed. It was determined that four the tire managers closet, since he must avoid tvpes of tires were required in such large unacceptable losses due to obsolescence. (This numbers that a direct vendor-to-user distribu­ need has led to such programs as the “hand tion pattern would be feasible. During the me down" concept of tire retreading and the first half of fy 62 this procedure permitted a ground vehicle program, each of which is savings of over $30,000 in transportation costs. discussed later in this article.) The second conclusion, that other tires should be distributed from more than one storage point, resulted in the designation of two stor­ tire storage age and shipping locations in addition to Cool, dry, and dark areas afford the ideal ooama. These locations are the Middletown conditions for tire storage. Temperatures ama, Olmsted afb, Pennsvlvania, and Okla- AIRCRAFT TIRE MANAGEMENT 83

homa City ama, Tinker afb, Oklahoma. The the type on which originally installed is re- geographical areas serviced by the three ac- ferred to as the “hand-me-down” concept. tivities are reflected in the accompanying map. Tires for the KC-135, B-57, and B-66 can be In addition to shortening the depot-to-user retreaded and reused on the same type air­ pipeline, this three-point distribution pattern craft. Two retreads of a given tire are permis- wiU save approximately $1 million in trans- sible in these instances. With an anticipated portation costs annually. recoverv rate of 35 per cent on new tires and 45 per cent recoverv of the first retread, it is estimated that $2.8 million of “new buy” cost maintenance/failure reporting can be avoided annually. The maintenance data collection system Serviceability standards are of course prescribed by afm 66-1 has provided an ex- much higher for aircraft tires than for ground- tremely useful tool for the tire manager. When vehicle tires. In the past aircraft tires that tires are removed at base levei, for any reason, could no longer be used on aircraft have been a failure data card containing a description of disposed of as scrap rubber. Air Force studies the failure, when discovered, and other sup- indicate that manv such tires have sufficient porting data is prepared and routed into the Service life remaining to warrant use on data-processing system which supports the ground vehicles—an extension of the “hand- data-collection system. From the reports fur- me-down” procedure. Such tires fali into three nished the inventory manager, mean-time- groups. Group I can be mounted on ground between-failures ( mtbf) can be established vehicles and used immediately without modi- or revised, and necessarv materiel improve- fication. Group II tires require minor modifi- ment projects ( mip ) can be established which cations for ground-vehicle use, such as slight may lead to changes in tire specifications and trimming of the tire bead to permit mounting technical manuais. Such data, properly ana- on the vehicle rim. Group III tires require lvzed, can also pinpoint bases that experience modification of both the tire and the ground- an excessive number of irregularities, such as vehicle wheel. Phase tests in Group I and II foreign-object damage to tires. Accumulated have been completed, and Phase III tests are failure data may also form the basis for initi- under way. The potential savings in this pro­ ating research and development projects to in- gram are extensive, as indicated by the volume crease tire Service life or otherwise reduce shown in the accompanying tire usage chart. costs. When used in conjunction with tire issue and usage information, these failure data tire improvements also serve a useful role in the determination of quantitative requirements for tires. Improved tire technology has been a joint Air Force/tire industry effort for manv years. tire retreacl program Keeping pace with the rapid technological advances in aircraft design, increased loads, Through extensive laboratory and field and higher take-off, landing, and taxi speeds testing, it has been determined that a re- has been difficult. stricted aircraft tire retread program is prac- As previously stated, there are few simi- tical, safe, and economical. Retreads can be larities between an aircraft tire and a ground used on the B-47, the B-50, the KC-97, the passenger vehicle tire. The accompanying tire KC-135, the B-57, and the B-66. New tires comparison chart indicates the superior tech­ only can be used on the B-52, but B-52 tires nical requirements for the aircraft tire as com- can be retreaded and used on the B-47. New pared to a ground passenger vehicle tire. The B-47 tires, when due for retread, can be re­ passenger tire listed is used on some American treaded and used on the B-50 and KC-97. The compact cars. The aircraft tire is used on the use of retreaded tires on aircraft other than F-104. Similarity of the two tires ceases with Aircraft Tire Usage on Ground Vehicles

Aircraft Aircraft Annual Wear-out Ground-Vehicle Tire Size Application Generation Application

18x4.4 F-100D, F 20,792 Mowers, wheel- barrows, motor scooters 18x5,5 F-101 nose 13,308 Power mowers, motor scooters 30x8.8 F-100/102/106 main 84,000 Fork lifts, pickup trucks 38x11 C/KC-135 nose 3,240 Vehicles with 750x18 tires 44x13 B/RB-57 main 1,656 Vehicles that use size 1100x20 tires, such as dump trucks dollies, etc. 24x7.7 F-105 nose 2,964 GAM-77 trailers

Tire Comparison, Aircraft v. Passenger Ground Vehicle

Aircraft Passenger

Size 25x6.75 6,50x13 Diameter, outside (inches) 25.0 25.0 Section width (inches) 6,50 6.50 PIv rating 18 4 Load rating (pounds) 13,000 835 Deflection (per cent) 32 17 Maximum speed (mph) 275 100 Efficiency (load lb/tire lb) 400 40 Rated inflation pressure ( psi) 300 25

diameter and section comparison. The F-104 speed is intermittent as compared with the tire is 18-ply, the automobile tire 4-ply. The consistent speed of an automobile, the F-104 load rating ratio of the two tires is 15:1, or tire must withstand speeds up to 275 miles per 13,000 ponnds to 835 pounds. Deflection hour. One of the most significant indexes of (bending) requirement of the aircraft tire is relative quality is the tire load capacity per 32 per cent or nearly twice that of the auto pound of tire vveight. In our example the load tire at 17 per cent. Although aircraft ground is 10 times greater on the F-104 tire than on AIRC.RAFT TIRE MANAGEMENT 85 the Automobile tire. Inflation pressures are wheel tires are now held on the runway at directly proportional to tire load. Since 1945, high speeds under high dynamic loads. VVhile when 120 psi was maximum for Air Force considerable research and development is still aircraft, inflation pressures have risen steadily needed in this area, substantial improvement until todav thev stand at 300 psi. has alreadv occurred. In 1945, 222 pounds of About the time that speed and inflation load was carried for each pound of tire weight requirements became significantly criticai, on a typical aircraft tire; by 1950 this had in­ tubeless tires were introduced. Although these creased to 310 pounds, by 1955 to 375 pounds, helped, thev created other problems, such as and todav is up to 400 pounds. This increased diffusion of the air through the carcass and efficiency has been attained with added safety, leakage at the bead seat area. This diffusion despite the increased severity of utilization. of air increases the tendency toward separa- The constant search for improved de- tion because of increased pressure throughout signs to utilize available materiais in the most all plies and components. This is plausible efflcient manner has resulted in two major de- when one considers the amount of stored sign contributions: low profile tires and utili­ energv from high inflation pressures. The tire zation of reinforced or fabric treads. used on the B-52 has 603,000 foot-pounds of Another major industry contribution to potential energv, suflBcient to put a piece of safer tires is its abilitv to test tires under con- tread the size of a golf bali into orbit. ditions similar to those to which thev are sub- Prior to the jet age, nose-wheel and tail- jected while on the aircraft. Aircraft tire-test- wheel tire loads decreased with increased run- ing today is a rather complicated process, wav speeds during take-off so that maximum necessitating complex equipment satisfactory loads were existent only for short periods. For for programing all variations of tire loads and this reason increased loads during braking speeds as well as incorporating other required were permissible. However, with radical aero- features, such as camber, yaw, and the heating dynamic changes in modem aircraft, nose- of tires experienced on supersonic aircraft.

Tire Storage and Distribution Points 86 AIR UNIVERSITY REV1EW

The tire industry has invested large sums for mine when a tire has reached its maximum- procurement of testing equipment to dupli- wear Service life. Many different cord colors cate realistic operating conditions. are being used todav. The object of this speci- Typical test equipment is the 320-mph fication change is to standardize the colors to “runway” facilitv used to create 1970’s tires be used. todav. It is housed in a specially designed Tread Reinforcement. The tire improve­ building to accommodate the most advanced ment needed in this area amounts to a tread concepts in dynamometer technology. The that will withstand foreign-object damage and test wheel is spun bv two electric motors increase Service life. delivering 8600 hp with maximum torque of Ice Grips. Ice-grip tires have the tread 50,000 foot-pounds. It can spin a tire under loaded with wire bits. The size, length, and rated load from standstill to 300 mph in only 18 seconds. Simulated take-off and taxi loads amount are being standardized and will be in- of over 80,000 pounds can be imposed on tires eluded in the specification at the conclusion of a test program. from 16 inches to 6 feet in diameter. The opposite end of the motor shaft drives a Tread Patiern. Operational usage and unique tire-on-tire test unit that appraises tests have proved that grooved treads give new materiais, designs, and construction at a better Service on high-performance aircraft top speed of over 500 mph. All four test units than dimpled or other tvpes of tread. Further of the machine can be operated independently tests are being conducted to determine and at anv desired load or speed. Tires can be pre- standardize the quantity of grooves required heated to 800 degrees F to si mu late the effect per tire. of supersonic flight. Yaw and camber up to 15 W ear Critério. Tread patterns and trac- degrees can also be introduced. Precise con- tion qualities have a definite bearing on wear trol of all operations is afforded by complex criteria. Wear requirements are being defined elcctronic instrumentation, both automatic and and will become a part of af specifications. manual. An electronic programmer, follovving Tread Vulnerahility to Foreign-Object taped instructions, programs tests, which are Damage. Laboratory tests provide certain in- recorded and monitored via closed-circuit formation; however, field experience is being television for safetv. obtained through the maintenance data-collec- The need for a material combining some tion system. Tire improvements will ensue of the properties of both rubber and steel is from analvsis of these data. very real, to keep pace with new developments in other components of our aerospace vehicles. Dimensional Tolerances. All dimensional With this realization, manv thousands of dol- tolerances maintained by the tire manufac- lars and man-hours are being expended in re- turers must be compatible with those main­ search and testing in an effort to produce a tained by the airframe contractor. If tolerances material that will effect substantial improve- are relaxed, operational problems develop ments in tires. The transition to this new (e.g., tires overgrowing wheel-well enve­ material may come very suddenly, as did the lopes). Dimensional tolerances in current necessary conversion from pure rubber to specifications need to be tightened. synthetics during World War II, or more Deflection Parameters. In dynamometer gradually as in the switch from tube-type tires testing, deflection parameters are inadequatelv to tubeless. Some of the current tire specifica- controlled ( i.e., 32 per cent plus 3 per cent tion improvement projects scheduled for early or minus 4 per cent). Qualification on the completion are: dynamometer at a lower per cent deflection W ear Indicators. Tire wear indicators are and a higher inflation range does not ade- colored cords embedded in the tire casing so quately duplicate the temperatures incurred that operating personnel can readily deter­ during operation at the allowable higher per AIRCRAFT TIRE MANAGEMENT 87

cent deflection. Specifications are being up- a concentrated research and development ef- graded to overcome this deficiency. fort is needed to produce the breakthrough that will create a tire material which provides a completely safe, longer-wear tire for use on T he .vir force and the tire industrv, working botli the current and future aircraft fleet. As side bv side, have made substantial progress Major General Don Coupland, ooama Com- in improving the quality of aircraft tires and mander, recentlv put it to an Air Force/in- in the management of this high-dollar-invest- dustry meeting: “While I’m not in the develop­ ment program. Many additional improvements ment business, I would like to urge the entire are foreseen, and, particularly on the technical industrv to go \vay out.’ My idea of the tire side of the program, they are essential to keep we need is one that is vastly different from pace with technological advances in the air­ the one we are all accustoined to seeing in the craft programs to be supported. Most of all, warehouse today.” Ogden Air Materiel Area Air Force Review

JOB-KNOWLEDGE TESTING IN THE AIR FORCE

D r . G hester J. J udy

OB-KNOWLEDGE tests have long been usetl to a corps, the Army Air Corps, in 1926. At this J by the military Services, but little of their his- particular time many of the better qualified men tory is documented either in the literature on test- were leaving the Army Air Service. The Congress ing or in that edited for the professional military therefore allowed the Army Air Corps to establish person. Although tests of the aeromechanical skill procedures for identifying preeminently qualified of enlisted personnel have been used since the personnel who would be eligible to receive supple- Twenties, aeronautical job-knowledge testing has mentary pay for duties essential to flying. To that received its chief impetus and development during end, Air Mechanic ( am) ratings were established. the past fifteen years. Through research, experi- Eligibility for these ratings became, in part, a mat- mentation, and validation these job-knowledge ter of a candidate’s being able to perform relatively tests constitute a major factor in the evaluation of well on a paper-and-pencil test covering his job. usaf enlisted personnel. A practical grade, however, based upon perform- The first extensive use in the United States ance, was added to written test scores to arrive at of examinations for men engaged in military aero­ an overall evaluation for each examinee. By mid- nautical activities carne after the passage of a bill 1928 some 900 men from a total of 9500 enlisted by the Congress elevating the air arm of the Army persons in the Army Air Corps held am ratings. In

This article is based on research sponsored by the 6570th Personnel Research Laboratory, Aerospace Medicai Division, under AFSC Project 7734, and in somewhat diflerent form was delivered as a speech at a Technical Training Measure- ment Conference at Keesler AFB on 6-7 February 1963. AIR FORCE REVIEW 89

1930 the corps enlisted strength had climbed to Two of the programs were established within Air 12,000 men, and 1500 of them were rated am’s . Force research organizations where job-knowledge The examinations used in am testing were tests were developed as neeessary or preliminary assembled from the item files maintained at the parcels of the total research effort. The tests de­ Service training centers, where the subject inatter veloped in one of the research units evolved into of part of the curriculum was the same as that of operational tools of continuing value. The third the required tests. Questions in the modem paper- program, which extended in time beyond the ex­ and-pencil format were chosen to sample informa- perimental efforts of the research organizations, tion assumed to be important for those individuais was an outgrowth of the career guidance concept who were, or were soon to be, responsible for and is still in existence. To enable the interested maintaining aircraft, aircraft engines, aircraft elec- reader to Iearn more than the basic history and trical systems, aircraft hydraulic systems, or other underlving educational philosophies of these first such equipment or subassemblies. In each exam- three Air Force test-development organizations, a ination an attempt was made to duplicate the rela- few key references will present Information con- tive emphasis given the various topics in particular ceming the characteristics of the examinations courses. In an engine examination, for example, 15 these organizations devised. questions might touch on the topic of carburetion, 25 might touch on the topic of ignition, 10 on Technical Training Research Lahoratory, lubrication, and so on. Chanute AFB (1949-52) In the years immediately before World War II an extensive series of job-knowledge examina­ Procedural aspects of research on job profi- tions was developed for the am testing program, ciency conducted within the Human Resources and most enlisted persons working in aircraft Research Center ( hrrc) of the Air Training Com- maintenance activities had opportunitv to take one mand required the development of measures on a or more of these tests. However, with the expan- number of hypothesized kinds of job knowledge sion of the armed forces at the beginning of World such as “basic” knowledge, “functional” knowl­ War II and organization of the Annv Air Forces, edge, or “troubleshooting” knowledge. Altogether, the am testing program and am ratings were aban- about 50 tests were constructed bv or under the doned. Instead, those holding these ratings were contract sponsorship of personnel of the Chanute given advanced rank to compensate for the loss of laboratory. These tests eovered a number of the am pay. It was evident at the time that manv of more important technical specialties of the time the am duties required highlv intelligent and able and were used extensively in the research program men who either were not to be found in the lower of the laboratory. All were paper-and-pencil tests, grades or should not have been kept there. Yet and most were multiple-choice in fonn. Demaree under the am system it had been possible for a et al. present a good deseription of tests used in person in the grade of private to eam as much one study on the proficiency of Q-24 radar me- as a technical sergeant, excluding rations and cjuar- chanics.1 The “Tab” test used in that study demon- ters allowances. In 1941, the last year the system strated an early, if not the first, application of was used, 8500 men from a total enlisted strength “branch programing,” which has come to be asso- of 134,000 held am ratings. ciated with the name of Norman Crowder in the During World War II no explicit attention field of automated instruction. Other members of was given to the further development and use of the laboratory have reported research in which job-knowledge tests. But with the establishment prominent use was made of the tests constructed of an independent Air Force and the initiation of at the laboratory.2-3 4 a Career Guidance Program after the war, the The Chanute tests are now of histórica! in- making and giving of job-knowledge tests again terest, principally. Acceptable leveis of accuracy became a large activity. Three separate programs (reliability) and relevance (validity) were at- were started, each with a slightlv different orienta- tained, but the extended use of permanently tion and with slightly different overall purposes. assigned technical experts and the additional use 90 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

of highly qualified technical representatives from research at hrrl are of more than historical sig- manufacturing concems made the test-develop- nificance. They continued in use after 1958 within ment operation an expensive one. So far as the the Strategic Air Command, and tests covering writer is aware, no subsequent attempt has been assigned equipment (or assigned jobs) seem to be made to duplicate the procedures or any of the a continuing requirement for the evaluation of special kinds of tests pioneered by the Chanute command job training programs. group. 2200th Test Squadron, Mitchel AFB (1953—58) Human Resources Research Laboratories, Bolling AFB (1949-52) In 1949 two new units were established, one in the Air Training Command at Scott afb and As compared with the Chanute enterprise, a the other in the Air Materiel Command at Wright- somevvhat greater amount of attention was con- Patterson afb, for the purpose of constructing job- currently and later given to the matter of job- oriented tests for the selection of Air Force war- knovvledge test construction by elements of the rant officers. The two units were expanded to Human Resources Research Laboratories ( hrrl), include the development of other job-knowledge Headquarters Command, usaf. There, ajso, a tests required in the new airman career program, criticai need existed for good measurements of job and the total workload eventually became so great knowledge that could be used in researching on- that a third unit was established in the Conti­ the-job proficiency. The initial emphasis was on nental Air Command at Mitchel afb. In 1953 the oral examination techniques, in which speciaUy three units were Consolidated and designated as trained evaluators were needed.5 Later, paper-and- the 2200th Test Squadron, which on 1 January pencil tests, constructed with the help of ex- 1958 was reorganized as the Airman Proficiency perienced airmen, were substituted for the oral Test Braneh, Personnel Laboratory, Lackland afb, examinations.6 then a part of the Wright Air Development Center. After hrrl became the Human Factors As of May 1963, approximately 225 tests are being Operations Research Laboratories ( hforl) under developed or revised annually, so that a goal of a the Air Research and Development Command in revision everv two years for each test mav be 1952, a larger program was started in which an achieved. At the present time tests are available attempt was made to provide examinations cover- to cover the jobs being performed by about 85 per ing the jobs of airmen responsible for the main- cent of the airmen in the Air Force. Each year tenance of all major weapon systems then used by these tests are taken by approximately 200,000 the Strategic Air Command and the Air Defense airmen stationed throughout the world. Command. When hforl became a part of the Air A good description of test development accom- Force Personnel and Trainíng Research Center plished by the 2200th Test Squadron, including ( afptrc) in 1954, additional tests on the pattern types of tests, construction procedures, administra- established by hrrl were prepared, published, and tion and control. processing and analysis of the used by the Strategic Air Command and the Air tests, has been provided by Gilhooly.9 Most of Defense Command. A report by Morsh gives de- what Gilhooly said is still true of the program now tailed information on one of the tests constructed in existence, though the job-knowledge tests and under the sponsorship of hforl.7 One of the last airman proficiency tests are now designated as examinations constructed under the sponsorship of specialty knowledge tests (skt ). The skt program afptrc (which was dissolved in 1958) covered is designed to measure the job knowledge required the knowledges necessarv on the part of personnel for an individual to progress in his career field. responsible for the maintenance of B-52 aireraft. Useful information about the limitations and The development of this test has been described potential contribution of job-knowledge tests in by Buckner.8 Air Force settings is contained in the numerous Unlike the Chanute tests, written examina­ rcports that have been prepared as a part of the tions of the varietv which derived from the earlv research and evaluation effort associated with the AIR FORCE REVIEW 9J

on-going test developmerit programs. (Sixty-six of varying proficiency) much more in terms of inter- the reports prepared at the 2200th Test Squadron, est and motivation than in terms of the amount of ali unpublished, are in the library of the 6570th job knowledge possessed.13 Some of the work of Personnel Research Laboratory, Lackland afb, Huinphreys and Sehmid supports the notion that Texas.) the best measure is a consensus obtained from sev- eral different ways of defining proficiency, specific- ally including the use of printed tests and the Where do we stand today in ratings of supervisors.14 These findings have irn- job-knowledge testing? portant implications for the use of tests. These Because job-knowledge tests enter into im­ implications will be mentioned later. porta nt decisions, it is proper to inquire into their One traditional concern with respect to the adequacy from the standpoint of their relevance matter of validity, i.e., whether or not job-knowl­ to those decisions. Among people responsible for edge tests measure what they are supposed to building tests, this matter is covered under the measure, has to do with the circumstance that they concept of “validity,” and most test psychologists are written tests and may to a large extent be would say that it is the most important character- measuring ability to handle verbal material. Of istic of an examination. This accounts for the ex­ course the ability to read and understand technical treme care generally taken to ensure that a test publications may be one valid aspect of “profi­ really does cover the important aspects of a job ciency,” but test psychologists have given some and that the information called for is unquestion- attention to the larger problem. One fac-et of the ably needed, not merely something “nice to know.” general matter was investigated by Polin, whc One aspect of that carefulness is the close atten- found a mean reading levei (using the Forbes- tion given to the selection of the most knowledge- Cottle Readabifity Formula) of “llth grade” for able of the available persons to serve as subject- tests of four specialties in the intelligence field.15 matter consultants. The judgments of these per­ Chajet, using the Flesch formula with 24 tests, sons are crucial when it comes to the identification found a mean reading levei corresponding to the of the important things to cover in a test. Fortu- “12th grade.”16 His syllabic count was equivalent nately. the procedures used by the Air Force can to that of the seeond year of coliege, but the aver- be, and usually are, specified in much detail in age sentence length corresponded to the eighth manuais, regulations, and other technical publica- grade. These leveis are not above the range of tions. These materiais are unquestionably the ap- reading leveis of airman groups now entering the propriate point of departure for test construction. Air Force. Test validity is essentially a matter of judg- Another point of view is that written job- ment, and many test psychologists who have been knowledge tests tend to be “book tests,” which closely associated with job-knowledge testing pro­ greatly favor those with academic interests and grams in the Air Force have maintained that skills. Most of the research involving test scores careful judgments obtained from subject-matter and mensures of formal education have shown the specialists conceming test content are more mean- relationships between them to be low and nonsig- ingful than judgments of another kind used in the nificant. As a result, one writer observed that typical “validation” study. In such a study, judg- “irrelevant academic factors are not playing an ment or opinion of peers, supervisors, or others important role in the measurement of job knowl­ conceming the rating or ranking of a sample of edge.”17 More recently, however, with the use of airmen on some scale of “proficiency” is compared information on the completion or noncompletion with their scores on a job-knowledge test. In the of certain high school courses rather than a gross Air Force situations these relationships have been measure such as “years of education,” it appears found to be rather low, generally.10- J1>12 Mc- that the relationships may be higher. These find­ Quitty, Wrigley. and Caier have demonstrated ings are being explored further, but a time may further that Air Force supervisors tend to describe soon be coming when more information on the trained mechanics (those selected on the basis of formal education of airmen will be used in selection 92 AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

and assignment. In that event it may eventually be all aspects of good training, which necessarily in- unnecessary to inelude examination questions on cludes some “doing,” can be measured by paper- physics, mathematics, or chemistry. The reader and-pencil tests. may remember newspaper accounts of a speech The last variety of investigation that will be given by the Commander, Air Training Command, mentioned here, and one that also bears indirectly before a World Affairs Couneil meeting in Los on the matter of validity, is the one which shows Angeles in 1961, in which he mentioned that the the marked relationships existing between scores Air Force must teach mathematics and electricity obtained on job-knowledge examinations of the to many new airmen before they can be taught kind now used in the Air Force and grades eamed their jobs. in Air Force teehnical schools. Brokaw, for exam- A few years ago a study was conducted which ple, reports a median produet-moment correlation seemed to indicate that the Air Force might expe- of .55 for 46 Air Force specialties.23 Other studies dite its total training task if it would send the bot- have shown the same general levei of relationship tom portion of the aptitude group selected for any between measures of job knowledge and teehnical specialty to teehnical school and assign the high- school grades. Thus it appears that many of the aptitude airmen directly to the job.18 Of course, knowledges and understandings measured by the as the reader knows, this sort of thing is just not present specialty examinations are similar to done, in the Air Force or anywhere else. But the knowledges and understandings developed in tech- research did point up the circumstance that there nical training courses. A portion of whatever util- is a wide variation among individuais when it ity can be claimed for teehnical school grades, as comes to the capacity to benefit from experience. predictors of good performance on Air Force jobs, The formal, structured leaming situation in the can also be claimed for job-knowledge tests of the teehnical school may have been better for those kind now constructed. with limited capacities, whereas the brighter boys The largest difference between the present may not have been overly handicapped by the un- sk t system and the older am tests is in the utiliza- struetured environment found in on-the-job leam- tion of test scores. As indicated earlier, an attempt ing situations (some may have been better off, was made in am testing to weigh a practical score actuallv). into a composite evaluation for each examinee. The Measures of experience have been often used present undertaking is to estabjjsh a series of check as one of the criteria against which job-knowledge points at each of which supervisory opinion is an tests have been “validated,” but measures of ex­ important factor. The airman must first be recom- perience have not been found to correlate particu- mended for testing by his supervisor. After he has larly well with job-knowledge test scores.19-20-21>22 passed an examination, he must be recommended One way of explaining these findings, as far as the for skill upgrading by his supervisor. After he has present specialty tests are concerned, is to point been certified at a higher skill levei, any actual out that experience is necessarily gained on spe- promotion in military rank is dependent upon the eifie equipment, and it is doubtful that a general size of existing promotion quotas for his specialty examination, covering a whole specialty, should be and, again, upon the current desires of his super­ expected to discriminate between high-experience visor or commanding officer. Thus major provision and low-experience groups. In certain assignment is still made for supervisory opinion to play an im­ situations, or in specialties in which airmen have portant role in the total evaluative procedure. In a good chance to gain experience in several shreds, practice, however, overwhelming emphasis may test—experience relationships may be higher. But come to be given to test results.24 “knowing the answers” and being able to perform in a manner characteristic of those with experience are not, of course, identical. Training people, espe- A mid a certain amount of difference of opinion cially those in the Air Force, are very much aware concerning the role, meaning, interpretation, con- of this, and they generally provide schedules which struetion, and use of job-knowledge tests in the give heavy emphasis to “leaming by doing.” Not Air Force, it is believed that a majority of well- AIR FORCE REVIEW 93

informed persons vvould support most, if not all, sc-ores and performance factors such as those that of the following statements. can be observed by supervisors. • Tests of achievement in job-knowledge • Pressures generated through the use of areas meet a continuing Air Force need for feasible, test scores in coinmand evaluation systems may manageable, and economical evaluation devices. result in personnel and training practices that do • The limitations as well as the strengths not contribute to the achievement of training goals. of written tests should be fully recognized. Such • Knowledge of research findings such as tests can give valid indications concerning per­ some of those mentioned here, if they are properly formance potential in actual jobs, but performance interpreted, can be quite useful to an Air Force itself is also a function of a number of other factors, manager faced with decisions concerning the use such as motivation and interest. of job-knowledge tests. • Optimum personnel evaluations are ob- • Test development requires a parallel re­ tained when some balance is reached with respect search effort if the produet is to be analyzed, un- to the relative emphasis given job-knowledge test derstood, and improved. Hq 6570th Personnel Research Lahoratonj

Notes 1. Robert G. Demaree, Norman A. Crowder, Edward J. Gaier, "An Approach to Isolating Dimensions of Job Success,” Morrison, and Melvin S. Majesty, Proficiency of Q-24 Radar Journal of Applied Psychology, 38 (1954), 227-232. Mechanics I. Purposes, Instruments, and Sample of the Study, 14. Lloyd G. Humphreys and John Schmid, Jr., “A Re- Research Bulletin 54-50 i Lackland A FB : Air Force Personnel analysis of Criterion and Predictor Variables for Q-24 Radar & Training Research Center, November 1954). Mechanics,” Technical Memorandum 57-16, Personnel Labo- 2. George B. Simon, Evaluation and Combination of ratory, Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Criterion Measures by Factor Analysis: A Study of B-25 Pre- August 1957.® fiights, Research Bulletin 54-23 (Lackland AFB: Air Force 15. A. T. Polin, "Readability oí APTs,” Evaluation Re­ Personnel (t Training Research Center, May 1954). port 5409, 2200th Test Squadron, Hq ConAC, July 1954.® 3. Chester J. Judy, A Comparison of Peer and Supervisory 16. George Chajet, "Readability of APTs with Low and Rankings as Critcria of Aircraft Maintenance Proficiency, Re­ High Cutoff Scores," Evaluation Report 5506, 2200th Test search Bulletin 53-43 (Lackland AFB: Human Resources Squadron. Hq ConAC, September 1955.® Research Center, November 1953). 17. Judy, A Regression Analysis of One Set of Airman 4. Robert A. Swanson, The Relative Effectiveness of Train- Proficiency Test Scores, p. 5. ing Aids Dexigned for Use in Mobile Training Detachments, 18. Chester J. Judy, “Field Training Versus Technical Technical Report 54-1 (Lackland AFB: Air Force Personneí Sehool Training for Mechanics Maintaining a New Weapon and Training Research Center, March 1954). System,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 42 (1958), 384-388. 5. Howard I. Hausman, Joseph T. Begley, and Howard 19. Eleanor F. Maxwell, “An Analysis of the Proficiency L. Parris, Selected Measures of Proficiency for B-29 Mechanics: Test Performance of Airmen Working in Field, Organizational, Study No. 1, HRRL Report No. 7 (Bolling AFB: Human Re­ and Depot Maintenance—AFSC 43271, Reciprocating Engine sources Research Laboratories, July 1949). Technician,” Evaluation Report 5504, 2200th Test Squadron, 6. Howard J. Hausman and Joseph E. Morsh, The Avia- Hq ConAC, June 1955.® tion Mcchanic Tcsting Program in the Operational Commands, 20. Eleanor F. Maxwell, "An Analysis of Test Perform­ Development Report 56-53 (Lackland AFB: Air Force Person­ ance of Shredout Populations on the APTs for AFSCs 43151 nel & Training Research Center, May 1956). and 43171,” Evaluation Report 5510, 2200th Test Squadron, 7. Joseph E. Morsh, Development of the Written Evalu- Hq ConAC. June 1955.® ation of Mechanics' Proficiency (WEMP) Measure for B-50 21. Eleanor F. Maxwell, "A Comparative Study of the Aircraft, Development Report 56-75 (Lackland AFB: Air Force Test Performance of Airmen in the 47130 and 47131 AFSCs Personnel te Training Research Center, June 1956). who were administered the 47150-51 Airman Proficiency Test,” H. D o n a l d N . B u c k n e r , Construction of a Proficiency Evaluation Report 5401, 2200th Test Squadron, Hq ConAC, Examination for Maintenance Personnel on a Netc Weapon Januarv 1954.® System, Development Report 56-105 (Lackland AFB: Air Force 22. Captain Emcst Madril, Lloyd E. Buttram, and Peter Personnel & Training Research Center, August 1956). W. Hemingway, "A Comparison of the Performance of Sênior ^ri,ntls M. Gilhooly, "Proficiency Test Development Reciprocating Type Aircraft Mechanics and Sênior Jet Type and Research for Airman Career Program of the United States Aircraft Mechanics on the Aircraft Maintenance Supervisor- Air Force " American Psychologist, 11 (1956), 547-553. Technician (AFSC 43170-43171) Airman Proficiency Test,” Evaluation Report 5302, 2200th Test Squadron, Hq ConAC, 10. James A. Thomas, “Analysis of Selected Variables of November 1954.® Air Force Sample Survey." Research Report 5711. 2200th Test 23. Leland D. Brokaw, Prediction of Air Force Training Squadron. Hq ConAC, Septemher 1957.® and Proficiency Critcria from Airman Classification Battcry 11. George Chajet and Joseph Schwartz, "ínterim Report AC-2A, Technical Note 59-196 (Lackland AFB: Personnel on Sample Survey Data for Air Traffic Control and Waming Laboratory, Wright Air Development Center, October 1959). J,ntj_^,,PpIy (04) Career Fields,” Evaluation Report 5610, 24. Air Training Command Advisory Board, Eightli Re- -200th Test Squadron, Hq ConAC, October 1956.® port (Randolph AFB: Air Training Command, 20 October 1962). Chester J. Judy, A Regression Analysis of One Set of Airman Proficiency Test Scores, Technical Note 60-139, ASTIA Document No. AD 240-361 (Lackland AFB: Personnel Labo- “Unpublished paper available on loan to DOD agencies ratory, \\ nght Air Development Division, June 1960). from the Library, 6570th Personnel Research Laboratory, 13. Louis L. McQuitty, Charles Wrigley, and Eugene L. Lackland AFB, Texas. Contributors

M ajor Gen er a l Theodore R. Mil t o n (USMA) is Deputy Chief of Staif for Plans and Operations, Pacific Command. Dur­ ing World War II he served in the Eighth Air Force and com- manded the 384th Bombardment Group. He led the B-17 raid on the ball-bearing w.irks at Schweinfurt, Germany, in 1943 and the first major daylight raid on Berlin in 1944. After the war he was Chief of Stnff of the Continental and Atlantic Divi- sions, Air Transport Command, and during the Berlin Blockade was Chief of Staff for the Combined Airlift Task Force. Upon graduating from the Air War College in 1953, he was named Executive Assistant to the Under Secretary of the Air Force and in 1957 became Executive Assistant to the Secretary of the Air Force. General Milton commanded the Thirteenth Air Force, PACAF, before assuming his present duty in August 1963.

C olonel Robert D. J ohnston is Chief, Aircraft System Sup- port Management Division, Directorate of Materiel Manage­ ment, Ogden Air Materiel Área, Hill AFB, Utah. This division provides worldwide logistic support for the B-26 Invader and other aircraft. During World War II Colonel Johnston served as fighter pilot. Seven and a half of his 22 years’ Service in the U.S. Air Force have been in England, Korea, and Hawaii.

M axwell C. F reudenberg (B.S. E.E., University of Illinois; LL.B., George Washington University) is an attomey in the Patents Division, Office of the Judge Advocate General, Head- quarters United States Air Force. He is a member of the bar of the District of Columbia. C oi-onel John A. M c C ann (M.A., Miami Universdy of Ohío) was Vice Commaudaut, Air War College, until his rcccnt assign- ,nent to thc Air Force Institute oi Technology as Deputy Cüni- mundant, During World War II 1»- served lirst with the Anny Air Forces School of Applied Tuctics, Orlando, Florida, und then for two years ín the CHI Thrutcr, vvhere he was S-2 for the 443d Troop Carrier Group, the 3d Combat Cargo Group, rtud the North Burmu Air Task Force, and Operations Ollicer, 69th Composite Wlng. Alter the war he returned to civilian pursuits but retained his reserve status, serving as Air Base Group Comniandei and Wing Executive, 433d Troop Carrier Wing. He was rcealled to uctive duty with this wiug in 1950 at Greenville, South Carolina. Otlier assignments have been as student, Air War College, 1952; War Plans Ollicer, USAFE, und Chief of Intelligence Plans, USEUCOM, in Gemiany and France; and faculty member and Deputy Coinmandunt for Extension Course, Air War College, from 1956 until he became Vice Commandant in 1961.

C olonel Fhancis X. Ka .ve (USMA; Ph.D., Georgetown Uni- M ajor Jack W. H unter (M.S., Massachusetts Institute of versity) is Chief, Space and Ballistic Missile Planning Division, Technology) is an astronautical engineer in the Space and Bal­ DCS/Plans, Hq AFSC. In World War II he served in the Pacific listic Missile Planning Division, DCS/Plans, Hq AFSC. During Theater as fighter pilot and instructor. During the Korean War World War II he served as fighter pilot and instructor in a he was an operational planner in Hq USAF. Other assignments P-39 replacement training unit. Recalled to active duty in have been in joint planning and USAF war planning; as assist- 1950, he served with the 136th Fighter Bomber Wing in Korea. ant in establishing the Mutual Defense Assistance Program; as Subsequent assignments have been as Project Engineer, Rome Assistant Air Attaché, American Embassy, Paris; and as Special Air Development Center, 1952-53; as graduate student at MIT Assistant to the DCS/Development, Hq USAF. His articles have under AFIT, 1953-55; as Project Officer and Chief, Fixed Fire been published in Missiles and Rockcts, Air Power Historiou, Control Section, Air Force Armament Center, 1955-58; Bomarc-B Air Force magazine, and Air University Quarterly Reciew. Staff Project Officer, Air Proving Ground Command, 1958-60; and training with industry ( astronautics and space vehicles) at General Dynamics/Astronautics under AFIT from 1960 until his current assignment in 1961.

C aptain Mack D. S ec o r d (B.A., University of Alabama) has been Information Officer, Itazuke Air Base, Japan, since May 1961. Commissioned from AFROTC in 1952, he took flying training and was assigned to the 6149th Tactical Control Squad- ron at K-47, Korea, as a “Mosquito” pilot. In 1955 he was assigned to ARDC’s Iriterceptor Pilot Research Laboratory, Tyn- dall AFB, Florida, as a research assistant and mission pilot. Later he was Chief of Public Information, Air Proving Ground Center, Eglin AFB, Florida. While writing his article on the Viet Nam Air Force, Captain Secord was on temporary duty with the 2d Air Division, Saigon, Viet Nam, where he flew 26 combat support sorties as a forward air controller in L-19 aircraft. C olonel Clifton L. Nic h o l so n ( M. A., George Washington University) is Chief, Command and Control Branch. Directorate of Plans, DCS/Plans and Operations, Hq USAF. Commissioned from flying school in 1943, he served two years as instructor and squadron commander in advanced flying school. After obtaining his B.E.E. at North Carolina State College in 1951 under the Air Force Institute of Technology, he joined Hq Second Air Force as a communications-electronics officer. He later was assigned to the Directorate of Operations, 314th Air Division, Korea. Retuming from Korea in 1957, he was assigned to the Rome Air Development Center and served as chief of a research laboratory for three years. Prior to his current assignment Colonel Nicholson attended the Army War College in 1961- 62, concurrently attaining his \1.A. in International Affairs.

L ie u t e n a n t Colonel James F. Sunderman (M.A., University of Florida ) is Assistant Chief for Information and Production, Office of Information, Hq PACAF. Commissioned in 1943, he served as a glider instructor in Troop Carrier Command’s Tac- tical Flight School and later with the Fifth Air Force, South­ west Pacific Theater, during World War II. Separated in October 1945 as a lst lieutenant, reserve, he undertook gradu- ate study and taught at Florida University and at the University of Miami. Recalled to active duty in 1951, he was for three years Associate Editor, Air University Quarterly Revietv. Later as Deputy Chief, then Chief, Magazine and Book Branch, SAFOÍ, he organized and directed the USAF Book Program from 1954 until his present assignment in July 1962. Colonel Sunderman is a graduate of the Squadron Officer Course, Air University. He has compiled four aviation and air power books and published numerous articles.

C olonel Elmer C. Prohaska (B.A., Coe College) is Deputy Commander, Ogden Air Materiel Area, Hill AFB, Utah, having advanced to this position from that of Director of Materiel Management, OOAMA. Previously he has held management assignments at Headquarters USAF and Headquarters Air Force Logistics Command. He was Director of Plans and Programs, Headquarters Air Materiel Forces, Pacific Area, before joining OOAMA in 1960. Nearly 7 of his 25 years’ Service have been in Guam, the Philippines, Japan, and Hawaii. Colonel Prohaska is a graduate of the Air War College.

Dh . C hester J. J l -dy (Ed.D., Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versíty) is on the staff of the 6570th Personnel Research Labo­ ratory, Aerospace Medicai Division, Air Force Systems Com­ mand, Lackland AFB, Texas. He joined the Army Air Corps in 1939 and served in the Air Training Command until 1948, when he began graduate study in personnel psychology. He was employed at the Technical Training Research Laboratory, Chanute AFB, Illinois, from 1951 until he assumed his present duties in 1954. Dr. Judy’s numerous studies in the field of personnel research have been published as Air Force documents and in professional joumals.

C olonel David R. J ones (M.S., Ohio State University) is Chief, Physics Division, Research Directorate, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, N.M. During World War II he was a fighter pilot in the CB1 Theater. After the war he was Wing Adjutant during the founding of the Air Tactical School at Tyndall AFB, Florida. Since taking his master's degree in nuclear physics in 1949, he has been concemed with nuclear weapons effects and testing, first at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 1952-1954, at Hq USAF 1955-59 as Chief of the Weapons Effects Branch in the Research and Development Directorate, and in his present job. Colonel Jones is a 1955 graduate of the Air Command and Staff College. EDITORIAL STAFF

L ie u t e n a n t Colonel Ken n et h F. G antz, USAF, Ph.D., Editor L ie u t e n a n t Colonel Hakmon H. H ar pe r , USAF, Executioe Ofjiccr E dmund O. Barker, Associate Editor, Plans ir Progranis A ngel dL. M edl n a , Dr. Fil., Associate Editor, Foreign Language Editions J ack H. M ooney, M.A., Associate Editor, Research ir Writing J ohn A. W est c o t t , J r ., Art Director and Production Manager J osé M. B en iamino , B.el Ciências Jur. Soes., Assistant Editor, Brazilian Edition W il l ia m J. D e P aola, lllustrator

ADVISERS

Colonel Quentin J. C oss. Hq Air Force Systems Command; C olonel Geor c e Schen- kein. Hq Tactical Air Çommarid; C olonel Ràymond L. T owne, Hq Military Air Transport Service; Lie u t e n a n t Colonel J ames F. Si nderman. Hq Pacific Air Forces.

ATTENTION

A,r Uweniiy Reviev, ,5 published to sfimulate professiona! though» concerning aerospoce doctrines. strafegy, taclics, and related techniques. Its contents re- !'ecr fhe opm.ons o( its authors or the investigations and conclusions of its edi- ,ors a' are nof fo be construed as carrying any official sanction oí the Deparl- 'T'ern o; ,he Air Force or of Air Universify. Informed contributions are welcomed. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE AIR UNIVERSITY REVIEW

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