1980/No. 5 by Dennison I. Rusinow THE OTHER ALBANIA: Europe [DIR-I-'80] 1979 Part I: Problems and Prospects

The Socialist Autonomous Province national question. The province now when David Binder of The New of Kosovo--population 1.5 million, has a pofitical status, a leadership, a York Times and this reporter were of whom about 80 percent are more adequate infrastructure, and first in Skivjani. Just to the left of Muslim Albanians--is the poorest of plans that all augur well, but what the entrance loomed the familiar Yugoslavia's 8 federal units. It is also happens will also depend on bulk of the house in which 26 a bundle of economic and social economic conditions in the rest of Hadris, including 11 children, had problems whose continued Yugoslavia and beyond, where lived--a high, fortress-like nonsolution could threaten present short-term forecasts are in "Metohija tower" of smooth-cut international as well as Yugoslav general extraordinarily gloomy. stone and narrow windows, built stability and peace. Its problems, in This two-part exploration of these more for defense than for comfort origin the legacy of Kosovo's issues and questions--in Part I and characteristic of western particular history within the through summaries of some Kosovo, where such dwellings are Ottoman Empire and then pre- and problems and prospects and in Part lived-in monuments to the early postwar Yugoslavia, have been II with vignettes of village, factory, province's violent history. Straight uniquely aggravated by rates of and city streets--is based on visits ahead in the walled, defensible economic growth and social change to Kosovo in October and farmyard the haystack and mud that are considerable but inadequate November 1979 and conversations were still in place, and an old man to satisfy aroused expectations, less with numerous local officials, was shucking and chopping corn for than the rest of the country's, ill- including a three and one-haft hour winter fodder for the cattle. Outside digested, and along with political survey of the state of the nation and the compound the little mill that had power unevenly and changeably the world by Provincial Communist been a principal source of the distributed among nationalities Party President Mahmut Bakalli. Hadris' relative prosperity still divided by religion and ancient The timing of these visits was straddled a branch of the rivulet, antagonisms as well as language fortuitously well chosen: Yugoslav now swollen with autumn rains, that and culture. The potential threat to President began an is the village's main street, Yugoslav and thereby to international abruptly scheduled and intensive wandering among other Metohija stability is more acute and directly four-day tour of the Province on towers and more modest dwellings international because Kosovo "s October 15, reportedly doling out of sunbaked brick on its way from Albanian majority, a large butpoor, criticism but also approving the Hadri homestead to the widely despised, and until recently ambitious local plans at closed-door asphalted Prizren-Pe(: highroad, oppressed non-Slavic minority in sessions; Albanian foreign policy, where the mosque stands. Except Yugoslavia, fives next door to an nervously watched from Kosovo, for a few new houses glimpsed independent Albanian nation-state seemed to be in motion toward through poplars dressed in bright a classic setting forfrredentism. some degree of opening to the autumn yellow or over high walls "the (almost) unchanging village," of are poor, but world; and a combination of these The people Kosovo as Skivjani was described in a 1965 is rich in partly or events with a deadline for a new Kosovo largely A UFS Report about Yugoslavia's unexploited natural resources, Five-Year Social Plan made the Albanian minority, still seemed to of minerals and labor. autumn of 1979 a season for particularly deserve that title in 1979. The reasons for the failure to exploit evaluation and decision-making by these resources and raise standards Kosovo pofiticians and planners. 1. see-D.I. Rusinow, '"The Other Albanians" [DIR-2-'65], AUFS Reports, more quickly are partly historical Southeast Europe Series, Vol. XII, No. 2, and cultural, partly contemporary At first glance, through the gate in 1965, for the village, the Hadris, and a and pofitical, and largely disputed the high wall that surrounds the general view of conditions in Kosovo between Kosovo and the rest of the Hadri family compound, nothing (then officially Kosovo and Metohija, or country, which also aggravates the seemed to have changed since 1965, Kosmet) at that time. 2/DIR-1-'80

MONTENEGRO

Pritina A

KOSOVO A

Uro,evac

A A Suva Reka

ALBANIA

That this is not quite so became second "limousine," a small Prizren or Pritina!" the old man apparent one step inside the Hadri Yugoslav-built Fiat, and three said proudly. More housing and gate. Near the old man, where a trucks. Beyond the Mercedes, more horsepower, he also steaming dungheap had perfumed clustered around the end of the explained, reflected another form of the farmyard air 14 years ago, a compound opposite the Metohija growth in his extended family since black Mercedes came into view-- tower, three large new two-story my previous visit: from 26 members not new and one of the smaller houses of commercial red brick to 60, including 32 children and a models, but undeniably a Mercedes were under construction, one of dozen or so teen-agers and and only part of a family horsepower them nearly finished and the others unmarried young adults. pool (in 1965 consisting of two live well on the way. "There will be horses) which now also includes a nothing better or more modern in DIR-1-'80/3

Kosovo is still the poorest and most led to the creation of an were humbled in 1966, is that the traditional corner of Yugoslavia. independent Albania but left local Albanian majority is now in Indeed, and despite assistance from one-third of the Albanians outside charge of the province. These the rest of the country that has its borders, in neighboring parts of developments have revolutionized lately and belatedly been almost as the Slavic Kingdoms of and the ethnic pecking order there. They generous as 30 years of unfulfilled Montenegro and thereby in also have the potential to promises, Kosovo is year by year Yugoslavia after 1918. Now, revolutionize international relations relatively poorer in terms of according to estimates of Albania's in a region in which there are now, Yugoslav per capita averages: population made by officials in in effect, two neighboring and growth rates in almost all sectors Kosovo, these Yugoslav citizens of competing Albanian states--one of (except population growth!) are Albanian nationality, whose them autonomous within almost always lower than those of birthrate of 32/1,000 is the highest in nonaligned "Titoist" Yugoslavia and already far richer regions. But the Europe, have increased from the other a sovereign and external symbols of increased one-third to nearly one-half of the "Stalinist" Albania whose absolute and even per capita wealth Albanian nation. This makes them xenophobic rulers in Tirana claim and "modernizing" social change in proportionately the world's largest that theirs is the motherland of all the Hadri farmyard are not an irredente. Most of them, moreover, Albanians... and also the world's isolated phenomenon and still live adjacent to the borders of first totally atheistic and only truly constitute an appropriate the Albanian state, in southern Marxist-Leninist state. introduction to other and related Montenegro, in western Macedonia, The Albanians' numerical transformations, outside and inside and especially in Kosovo, home to preponderance in Kosovo is the homes and minds of the Hadris 916,168 of the 1,309,523 Albanians unchallenged and growing. In the and many other Kosovars, altering counted by the 1971 Yugoslav 1971 census they constituted 73.6 cultural values, ethnic pecking census. Until very recently they percent of the province's 1,243,963 orders, and politics as well as living were also a persecuted minority, inhabitants; with their birthrate and standards and styles. discriminated against in education intervening migrations, they must and employment, harassed by police of now be about 80 percent of its The quality and quantity these largely recruited from among their changes, and of what has not present estimated population of principal ethnic rivals, and generally 1,540,000. The most important changed or is changing too slowly regarded as just above gypsies at for peace of mind and polity, are of minorities are Serbs and the bottom end of Yugoslavia's Montenegrins-- 18.3 and 2.5 percent more than local and sociological ethnic pecking order. interest. During an official visit to in 1971 and somewhat less today-- the province in October 1979, Tito Except for the unusual and and their kinsmen of Muslim faith himself repeated that an unhappy aggravating circumstance that the who are now counted as a separate and unstable Kosovo, which could "unredeemed" Albanians are nearly nationality in Yugoslav censuses, result from a perpetuation of the as numerous as the "redeemed" and who were 2.1 percent of growing gap between Kosovar and ones, this so far sounds--and Kosovo's 1971 population. Some of Yugoslav standards, would historically has been--a classic case these are descendants of the South inevitably destabilize the rest of of the consequences of Slavs who stayed behind during the Yuoslavia and thereby, given incongruence between ethnic and exodus, from what had been the Yugoslavia's pivotal geographic and state boundaries in the heartland of medieval Serbia, that political position, the wider world. contemporary, nationalistic world. took place in the 1690s and 1730s What Tito did not describe in detail, Two developments of the 1970s, and that left the land empty and presumably out of respect for the however, are giving the tale a new open to Albanian migration and sensitivity of Yugoslav-Albanian and somewhat different twist. The settlement. The rest are newcomers, relations and the question of first, a result of constitutional either since Kosovo's annexation to Albanian irredentism inside changes adopted in 1971 and 1974, Serbia in 1913 or since its Yugoslavia, was the rationale for is that Kosovo, while still formally a reannexation to Yugoslavia in 1945, such a Balkan domino theory and Socialist Autonomous Province after four years of inclusion in a the likely role, direct or indirect, of within the Socialist Republic of wartime, Axis-ruled "Greater the Albanian connection. Serbia, has come to enjoy most of Albania." From 1918 to 1941 and the attributes and powers of a again from 1945 to 1966 these Serbs Albanian irredentism is as old as the separate republic in the Yugoslav and Montenegrins ruled the region twentieth-century Albanian state federation, where the autonomy of and (along with a Turkish minority and older than Yugoslavia. In an age the republics has also increased so of about 12,000) dominated its of nationalism it was an inevitable much that many observers are these economy. Since 1966, and at an consequence of the way the days describing the system as a accelerating rate since the Ottoman Empire's last European confederation. The second, which constitutional reforms of 1971 and possessions were divided up after began after Serb nationalism and 1974, they have watched these roles the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, which the Serb-dominated political police and corresponding ones in culture 4/DIR-1-'80 and education being taken over by dismay) over current developments The reaction was predictable, but the Albanian majority. in Iran and elsewhere in Islam. the force with which it was expressed was significant. The These changes in relative numbers These wider issues and associated attitude that Albanians are stupid and in rank order of status or power dangers were inevitably in the back and lazy people who do not know shape the contemporary chapter of of an observer's mind--and in the how and will not work is "racism" the Kosovo question. The equation forefront of some conversations-- and therefore intolerable, although includes a locally overwhelming and during visits to villages, factories, this does not mean that Belgrade still growing Albanian majority that schools, and government offices. officials, or the Party, or even many has been a restive, discontented and Irredentisms per se were like Yugoslavs are racist, a characteristic at times ruthlessly suppressed non- icebergs in a fog--fleetingly most commonly found outside Slavic minority in larger Yugoslavia, glimpsed intimations of sentiments Yugoslavia or at worst in the now increasingly in charge of their whose full extent can only be Belgrade Earsija (the rumor mill, own affairs but grimly aware that inferred and whose existence, with petit bourgeois connotations). these affairs, and their poverty, are according to my official pilots, is in there not a nonracist not independent of the will, abilities, any case an optical illusion, the But is subtler, of the "send the Slovenes" and charity of the kinsmen of their product of expectations based on version one that the former oppressors. It also includes Belgrade and foreign prejudices and thesis, recognizes undeniable fact of historically local South Slav minorities whose misinformation concerning the derived cultural backwardness in members have lately lost their Kosovo climate. On the other hand, and argues that the time positions of dominance and and economic and Kosovo ethnic prejudices and costs of social modernization in sometimes even jobs for which they (and, of course, social problems this poorest province are too great are better qualified than their were more accomplishments) for the rest of a still poor and Albanian replacements, and who frankly or unavoidably displayed. country to subsidize can call on the sympathies of their semideveloped These, it is reasonable to assume, to speed the co-nationals in Serbia, Montenegro, without intervening are actually better navigational aids This version was also and elsewhere in the country whose process? in anticipating irredentism and other unacceptable: for all kinds of name--now an irony for many of totally political and social hazards than the only solution is to them--means Land of the South reasons either official pilots or isolated develop one's own cadres, not Slavs. instances of openly expressed import them. The factory that had disaffection or sedition, which tend visited in Suva Reka (described in this is the What is new in all to prove seriously mischievous only Part II of this Report) was proof, some as potential--and in circles, when they encounter widespread was reminded, that this was to the certain as it is hard verify, popular sympathy (or lead to possible and under the right irredentism: actuality--of a double terrorism, a possibility discussed circumstances could happen of Albanians longing for union with below). quickly. The main task, was told, either it is or as it Albania, as might "is to see to it that every day a few now be as a result of such a union of Therefore, as well as for their fewer stupidities are committed." nearly equal partners; and of Serbs intrinsic interest, it seems meet and And here lay one of the principal for of the major and Montenegrins longing proper to survey some virtues of Yugoslavia's concept of reunion with Serbia, which can be problems and accomplishments in self-management socialism: unlike economic achieved either by restoring Serbo- education and certain other concepts of socialism to Montenegrin dominance in the development before returning propagated farther to the east, it attitudes and prospects. Kosovo... or individually, by political recognizes the existence and even emigration out of the province. And inevitability of stupidities and two and Education as final spice to this brew come Population mistakes, and that the task is the course of a meeting with other potentially complicating In therefore to correct these rather senior Kosovo Party officials at the considerations. First, there are signs than justify and thereby perpetuate end of my November visit, quoted, of movement and opening, still them. unclear as to direction, on the part with deliberate imprudence, a of Albanian foreign policy in the Yugoslav friend in Belgrade who However this may be, there is one wake of Tirana's quarrel with China had suggested that Kosovo's Kosovo "stupidity" that everyone and consequent isolation in the economic problems could best be agrees is still being committed with world. Second, most Kosovar solved by sending a few thousand unremitting frequency and that Albanians are (Sunni) Muslims, and Slovene managers and technicians complicates all efforts at "cadre a visitor to the province in 1979 to run the province for a while. development" and every other form quickly comes to feel a kind of (Slovenia is Yugoslavia's richest of social and economic electric charge of interest and region and the Slovenes are known development. Despite some hopeful excitement (by October sometimes to the other Yugoslavs as "our signs that "demographic transition" mixed with apprehension and Swiss," with all that label implies.) may have begun in the past 10 years DIR-1-'80/5

(see Table I), the crude birthrate still 1971; and the school system, University, 73 percent of stands at 32 per 1,000 inhabitants despite genuinely heroic efforts and whom are Albanians, more than and population is increasing at 2.6 impressive quantitative expansion, equal the total population of Pristina percent per year. These are Latin is still woefully overcrowded and in in the first postwar years. American and African rates, higher many sectors qualitatively than Asian averages and far higher unimpressive or inappropriate to The elementary school attendance than those recorded in Yugoslavia Kosovo's needs. rate, at 93.1 percent (98 percent in as a whole, where the crude the first four grades, 89.2 in the last birthrate is 17.7/1,000 and natural Table II portrays the quantitative four), equals the Yugoslav average increase is down to .86 percent per development of the school system and is now better than in Bosnia- year, with lows of 14/1,000 and .3 during the 15 years since my first Herzegovina and Macedonia, percent in the Vojvodina (cf. visit to the Province. These figures although in the early 1970s (the European averages--excluding the are even more impressive if postwar latest figures available here) Kosovo Soviet Union--of 15/1,000 and .5 starting points, virtually ground still trailed in the percentage that percent per year for natural zero, are also considered: in completed the eight years of increase). Among the more obvious 1939-40, the last prewar school year, elementary schooling required by consequences: more than 53 total enrollment in Kosovo's Yugoslav law. Female education, a percent of all Kosovars are under 19 elementary schools, then conducted particularly sensitive issue in a years of age; the number of only in Serbian, was 32,790 (cf. predominantly Muslim and subsistence peasants is larger every 321,162 this year), of whom 36 traditional society where many year, despite a massive flight from percent were Albanians (cf. today's peasants only a decade ago refused the land and a consequent relative 81.4 percent, roughly the to send their daughters to school at decline in the agricultural population percentage of Albanians in the total all, is more impressive in primary from over 80 percent at the end of population); in 1939-40 there were than in secondary or university World War II to about 48 percent; 3,306 pupils in Kosovo secondary education, but has advanced across the number of unemployed and of schools (cf. 87,133 this year), and the board--to 45 percent of all emigrants grows rapidly from year none of them was Albanian (cf. ca. primary pupils, about 30 percent of to year, despite some 60,000 new 75 percent today). The more than all secondary pupils (but about 25.5 nonagricultural jobs created since 37,000 students enrolled this year at percent of those of Albanian

TABLE Kosovo: Selected Demographic Indicators

1953 1971 % 1978/79 (est.) cf. YU 78/79 (est.)

Total population 815,908 1,243,963 100.0 1,550,000 (1979) 22,107,000 (1979)

by nationality Albanian 916,168 73.6 Serb 228,264 18.3 Montenegrin 31,555 2.5 Muslim 26,357 2.1 Turk 12,244 1.0 Others and undeclared 29,105 2.3

crude birthrate 44.7/1,000 35.9/1,000 (1973) 32/1,000 (1978) 17.7/1,000 (1978) crude death rate 17.4/1,000 7.8/1,000 (1973) 6.2/1,000 (1978) 8.7/1,000 (1978) natural increase 27.3/1,000 28.1/1,000 (1973) 25.8/1,000 (1978) 8.6 / 1,000 (1978)

agric, pop. 72.4% 51.5% ca. 48 % (1978) 30.3% (1978) urban pop. 14.6% 26.9% 32.1% (1978) 45.6% (1978) active pop. 33.2% 26.0% 25% (1978) 42.3 % (1978)

employed* 107,000 165,000 (1979) of whom, women 32,600 19.8% 35% *in socialist and private sectors, excluding private peasants. Source: StatistiSki Godi#njak, SFRJ, 1979: additional date provided in Pritina, October-November 1979. 6/DIR-1-'80 nationality) and about 23 percent of of the third shift, which still keeps deteriorating situation: only 1.8 university students. many schools operating from 6 A.M. perCent of the province's to 10 P.M. Imer the preschoolers in only 5 towns The net result of this effort and of Jaka, Kosovo Secretary for of (Pritina, Prizren, Kosovska Kosovo's bottom-heavy Education, spoke class size, in some cases still 40-50 Mitrovica, Djakovica, and Pe,) can demographic profile: one-third of pupils, as an equally pressing be accommodated at a time when the total is in province's population problem and a flagrant violation of female employment is growing and school or university! Yugoslav school laws, which have increasing the demand for such School construction and teaching recently lowered the allowable facilities. staff have not kept pace. Pajazit maximum from 36 to 30-32. Nui is Nui, the Vice-President of the also concerned with the lack of pre- The financial burden of keeping Kosovo government responsible for school facilities (kindergartens and ahead of population growth and at cultural and educational questions, creches), a sector in which most of the same time improving the told me that the province's first Yugoslavia has done well but in coverage and quality of Kosovo's priorities in the school sector in the which Kosovo's high birthrate and school system, with one-third of the next years must be the elimination limited means have meant a population in school and most of the TABLE II

Education in Kosovo

1963-64 % 1978-79 % 1979-80 Primary

Total pupils 189,649 311,542 321,162 of whom, female ca. 82,000 ca. 43 140,000 45. n.a. of whom, Albanian 119,310 62.7 253,636 81.4 n.a. of whom, Serb/Montenegrin n.a. 56,456 18.12 n.a. of whom, Turks n.a. 1,450 .46 n.a. ('72-'73) % of age cohorts in grades 4 93.8 98.5 98 % of age cohorts in grades 5- 8 72.1 87.1 89.2 Secondary

Total pupils 20,130" 77,521 87,133 of whom, female n.a. 23,095 29.8 n.a. of whom, Albanian 9,701 48 57,473 74.1 n.a. of whom, Serb/Montenegrin 9,981 49.6 19,527 25.2 n.a. of whom, Turk 446 2.2 501 .6 n.a. of Albanians female n.a. 14,645 25.5

% of age cohort n.a. or 48 59.3** (1965-66) University

No. of faculties 3 10 10 Total students 3,292 34,702 37,379 of total, full time 662 24,124 23,903 of total, females 2,269 7,769 22.6 n.a.

Other postsecondary schools 6 6 6 students (full and part-time) 3,738 13,045 16,605 includes a//types of secondary schooling, including 6,067 in gymnasium (classical secondary schools); 1978-79 and 1979-80 figures include only general education secondary schools, a combination of gymnasiums and some other types. **48 percent is the figure supplied by Vice-President Nui, 59.3 percent by Secretary of Education Imer Jaka. Sources: for 1963-64, data collected in Pritina in 1965: for later years data collected in Pritina in 1979. (n.b. not all corre- spond to data in the Statisticki Godisnjak SFRJ, but discrepancies are minor and these are probably more accu- rate). DIn-I-'80/7

rest under- or unemployed, is the traditional, classical, general- together became a fully enormous. The percentage share of education gimnazije, the principal independent university in February educational costs in national income target of the reforms, than in 1970. Now there are ten faculties, has been more than double the Yugoslavia's more developed including agriculture, Yugoslav average of about 5.5 regions. As a result, 62 percent of electrotechnical, mining and metals percent since the mid-1960s. Kosovo's pre-reform secondary (in Kosovska Mitrovica), physical Inevitably, a large part of this burden schools were gimnazije. In 1977, education, natural science and must be carried by "the wider when 24.6 percent of secondary mathematics, and an Academy of community," meaning the rest of school graduates in Yugoslavia as a Art, in addition to those created in Yugoslavia, through various forms whole were gimnazije students, and the 1960s. At the beginning of the of grants-in-aid and subsidies. in SIovenia, the most developed present school year, 37,379 students Equally inevitably, the rest of the republic, only 18.4 percent, the were enrolled, so that Pri,tina is tied Yugoslavs tend to resent this, Kosovo figure was 36.8 percent. with Sarajevo as Yugoslavia's third seeing it as another aggravating Conversely, only 24.6 percent of largest university (after Belgrade dimension of the problem of a Kosovo secondary school graduates and Zagreb). An additional 16,605 religiously and ethnically different that year were produced by schools are enrolled in other postsecondary people whose one successful for skilled workers, compared to a "higher schools," for a total of vocation is in breeding children that Yugoslav average of 45.3 and a 53,986 students, which is nearly others must work to support. Slovene one of 55.4 percent. one-third of the total number of Thirdly, the new system's emphasis people employed outside peasant Meanwhile, the task of qualitative on extramural training in economic agriculture in the province. The improvement has been further enterprises is proving hard to put faculty of 1,000 is largely Albanian- to complicated by the extension into practice in a region where there speaking, like the student body, and Kosovo of Yugoslavia's current are so many pupils and so few three classes are taught in Albanian educational reforms, which are economic enterprises, mostly small for every one in Serbo-Croatian. eliminating the traditional gimnazije and unwilling to be overwhelmed by (classical general education torrents of unskilled, short-term secondary schools, equivalent to the A senior Party official spoke of "the apprentices. that we have so many German Gymnasien, French lycees, stupidity students"--40,000, he said, would or English grammar schools) and told the On the other hand, was at be more than enough--and consolidating secondary education of the Secretariat Education, described the large number who are in a "single ladder" of "schooling reforms, with their emphasis on like philosophy and centers" with complex diversified studying things career training, are particularly philology as "a luxury" that a poor career-oriented curricula and much which must needed in Kosovo, society at Kosovo's stage of emphasis on on-the-job vocational of prepare its enormous surplus development can ill afford. At the training. These reforms have led to youth to go locally unemployable provincial government, Vice- considerable disruption-- and and compete successfully elsewhere President Nu,i also addressed both opposition--in other regions, but there. "For when they got of these questions and offered his Kosovo as usual has extra problems it was "we must be example," said, own explanations. Lack of of its own. 'What professional asking Croatia, employment opportunities must be skills do you need?' and then of of curriculum, a primary reason, he thought, why First all, changes supplying them." pedagogical methods, teaching so many enroll at the university-- plans, etc., which are taxing the Similar problems exist in higher for example, more than 9,000 of the abilities and patience of most education, although here most of 13,645 pupils who completed teachers everywhere, are likely to them are in essence simply a more secondary school in Kosovo last prove the straw that breaks the serious version of problems that summer. As for overenrollment in camel's back for Kosovo teachers, plague most Yugoslav universities arts and humanities and the majority of whom are more as a result of rapid expansion and underenrollment in technical recently and barely qualified and new creations during and since the faculties, he blamed this primarily on had only just begun to cope with the 1960s. Pri,tina's university began past overemphasis on the gimnazije, requirements of the old system. The with a Faculty (college) of the traditional road to a university Provincial Secretary of Education Philosophy, as a branch campus of education and a type of school that called this "our poor base for Belgrade University, in 1960. encourages the humanities and teacher development." Secondly, Faculties of Law and Economics discourages science and and itself significant as an indicator were added in 1961-62, and a technology. Others are more of cultural expectations in a less Technical Faculty (its offerings inclined to blame popular attitudes, "modern" cultural environment, initially limited to construction typical of many underdeveloped secondary school demand and engineering) in 1965; the Faculty of societies, that view office jobs as development in Kosovo had led to a Medicine was celebrating its tenth more prestigious than technical relatively far greater emphasis on anniversary in fall 1979. These ones. 8/DIR-1-'80

TABLE III Kosovo: Selected Economic Indicators

Social Product--index of growth at constant prices

1952 to 1978 1952 to 1958 1958 to 1968 1968 to 1978

Yugoslavia 100 581 100 158 100 199 100 185 Kosovo 100 566 100 148 100 203 100 187

Social Product per capita 1953 1977 1978 INDEX INDEX mill. dinars INDEX

Yugoslavia 100. 100. 41,143 100. Kosovo 46. 30. 11,735 28.5 Slovenia 165. 200. Rate of Growth of Social Product (percentages) 1976 1977 1978 1979 (est.)

Total economy 2.1 5.1 4.2 7.2 Socialist sector 1.9 8.1 6.4 5.3 Private sector 2.7 -5.1 -3.3 14.3

Planned average annual rate of growth, 1976-1980 9.5 percent Actual average annual rate of growth, 1976-1978 3.8 percent Estimated average annual rate of growth for Plan period 1976-1980 5.4 percent

Comparative Economic Development, selected Indices YU Kosovo Slovenia

Population 1953 100% 4.8% 8.8% 1978 100% 6.9% 8.2%

Active pop. 1953 100% 3.4% 9.0% 1978 100% 4.1% 9.3%

Agric. pop. 1953 100% 5.7% 5.9% 1978 100% 9.8% 3.7%

Workers 1953 100% 2.1% 15.3% 1978 100% 3.0% 14.0%

Basic capital 1953 100% 1.7% 20.1% 1976 100% 2.7% 16.5%

Investment 1953 100% 1.2% 16.0% 1977 100% 3.1% 14.7%

Source: Data supplied in Kosovo, 1979, supplemented from Statisti#ki Godi#hkal SFRJ, 1979. DIR-1-'80/9

In a separate conversation Zeqe where a branch campus of the visitor returning to the province Shehu, as the University's .has a sound after several years' absence. Social Secretary, roughly equivalent to an reputation. (There are also 180 non- Product at constant prices--roughly American university's Provost, Yugoslav students, including at equivalent to Gross National agreed but argued that the least one Albanian-speaking Product (GNP) as measured in the imbalance is correcting itself, since American in the medical school). West--has grown by 581 percent 40 percent of students are now The further fact that the 1,231 between 1952 and 1978 and by 187 enrolled in "technical faculties." students who received diplomas this percent in the decade 1968-1978. However, other sources and year was equivalent to only 5 Even when discounted for a 95 statistics on recent graduating percent of those enrolled as full-time percent population growth since classes contradicted this assertion. students and 3.5 of all PU students 1952, this is impressive. Per capita Of 1,231 students who got their is also indicative, although not all national income, only 15 years ago diplomas in 1979, nearly 68 percent that unusual in other Third World or about $200, is now about $550. The were in undeniably nontechnical even several European countries factories (mostly small and mostly faculties: there were 324 graduates where life-long education seems to inefficient, but never mind) and the in law, apparently the most popular be taking on a very literal meaning. improved agriculture that have 278 in or philology contributed to these and other of all, philosophy On the other hand, and in apparent (faculties include history, the indices of growth dot the that contradiction of their contention 188 countryside and are reflected in the social sciences, and languages), too many students that Kosovo has improved living standards of the in economics, and 44 in art. An for its needs or funding capabilities, Hadris of Skivjani and many other additional 120 graduated in natural and too many studying the wrong Kosovars, particularly from the science and mathematics and 81 in subjects, both senior Party and Albanian majority, in both rural and medicine, leaving 196-- 16 percent officials insisted that government urban environments. The town- of the total--from all 6 strictly their society still needs all the dwellers of the province, another technical faculties together. university-educated people it can normal index of development, now Elsewhere was told that student get. In evidence it was pointed out account for nearly one-third of the quality and level of preparation is that only 130 of the more than 8,500 compared to a quarter in conspicuously lower in these who have graduated from Pristina's population, and under 15 percent in 1953. technical faculties, since they are university so far--and, according to 1970 who now hard-pressed to fill their quotas and these sources, only 10,000 of The 165,000 are will take anyone, whereas Kosovo's secondary school employed, although still far from more philosophy, philology, and graduates--are listed as adequate, are some 55 percent economics are oversubscribed and unemployed in this province of than at the beginning of the 1970s. overcrowded. This source had awesome unemployment. The All this reflects an impressive found many engineering students, senior Party official who made these amount of investment, far for example, whose basic points also vehemently denied exceeding the province's own mathematics were so deficient that a specific suggestion, often heard in capabilities: 21,941 million dinars he wondered how they coped with other parts of Yugoslavia as well, (18.50 dinars US$1) in the 3-year university-level work at all. that Pritina and other purportedly period 1976-1978 alone, about 80 of overlarge universities may be percent it in economic activities. The quality of a Pri,tina University manufacturing a social and political once is education is not a subject that If Kosovo's empty cup time bomb by turning out graduates it is university or provincial officials are thereby approaching half full, whose numbers or choice of Of eager to discuss, but one figure that still more than half empty. academic discipline can make greater psychological and political suggests relatively low standards them unemployable, either totally or (and is the 20 importance, it is filling less quickly plentiful scholarships) in accordance with their training and percent of the students who come than those of other Yugoslavs in expectations. Perhaps, however, he other republics and provinces, both from outside the province, although was so vehement because the Pritina is not normally considered developed and underdeveloped. The subject came up just after he had one of Yugoslavia's more desirable growing gap in development and been discussing alleged efforts by cities and student living conditions affluence is not only per capita, "external enemies" to foment the poorest in the where it is made worse by the are among Albanian nationalism and country. Some of these non-Kosovo Kosovar Albanians' birthrate, but in irredentism in Kosovo. students are Albanians from many sectors the gap is growing in Montenegro and Macedonia Economic Development: Running absolute values as well. who have come here because the Faster to Fall Further Behind Figures again speak more eloquently language of instruction and of That Kosovo has lately enjoyed than words or random impressions. Pritina's streets is primarily significant economic development is In 1953, when Yugoslavia's postwar Albanian, but others come from as manifest in the statistics (see Table economic development really began far away as Kragujevac in Serbia, III) as it is in visual evidence for a and the whole country could be 10/DIR-1-'80 classified as "underdeveloped," TABLE IV Kosovo's per capita Social Product was a lowly 46 percent of the Investments in the Socialist Sector Yugoslav average; Slovenia's, at the other end of the spectrum, was 165 Value in Structure percent. By 1977-- despite the Mill. dinars (%) enormous effort and all-Yugoslav 1976-1978 support, at least since 1957, that are reflected in the impressive gains Total Investments 100% 21,940.7 noted above--Kosovo's per capita Social Product was down to 30 1. Investments in the Economy 79.3% 17,390 100.0 percent of the Yugoslav average, Industry 10,538 60.0 while that of do-it-yourself Slovenia Agriculture 807 4.6 was up to 200 percent. In 1978 the Forestry 94 .5 Kosovo index slumped another Hydrosystems 1,095 6.3 notch, to 28.5 percent of the Construction 1,338 7.7 Yugoslav average. With about 7 Transport 1,861 10.8 percent of Yugoslavia's population, Commerce 913 5.3 Kosovo still has only 4.1 percent of Hotels and tourism 563 3.2 the country's economically active Crafts 150 .9 population and 3 percent of its Communal sector 13 .1 workers, but 9.8 percent of its Other 18 .1 peasants; its economy disposes of only 2.7 percent of Yugoslavia's 2. Investments in noneconomic sectors 20.7% 4,551 100.0 total stock of invested capital (plant, Communal housing 1,874 41.2 equipment, etc.) and produces 2.2 Financial services 36O 7.9 percent of both Yugoslav industrial Education and culture 832 18.3 output and the country's exports. Education and health protection 610 13.4 An estimated 100,000 Kosovar State organs and other 875 19.2 Albanians have emigrated temporarily or permanently in search of work, perhaps 40,000 of them to other parts of Yugoslavia and 60,000 to Western Europe. Actual Investment (Socialist Sector), The industrial sector, in particular, Percentage Shares by Source of Funding 1976-1978 (current prices) suffers from chronic problems and underutilization, lately severely Total Investments aggravated--as is true in many Investments in the Economy underdeveloped countries-- by fall- 100.0% 100.0% out from the problems besetting the older industrialized societies, here Total including the north of Yugoslavia. As Ismet Gusija, Director of the Self-funded by economic enterprises Provincial Institute for Social ("organizations of associated labor") 7.9 9.6 Planning, told the Belgrade daily Politika (October 12, 1979) and Self-funded by noneconomic institutions repeated to this reporter: "The rate ("organizations of associated labor outside of growth of Social Product is about the economy) 4.2 60 percent below plan, profitability is constantly falling, production is Self-managed Interest Communities, Noneconomy stagnating, employment has (education, health, social welfare, etc.) 2.3 slowed, enterprise indebtedness is growing. The complex economic Banks (largely from resources of the Fund of the conditions in the country as a whole Federation 68.4 88.1 have hit this region hardest, especially because of the Other bank credits 12.2 .5 unsatisfactory structure of the economy." It is well known, Communal budgets 1.0 .2 Pofitika's correspondent added, that utilization of capacity is Republic and Province budgets 4.0 1.6 DIR-1-'80/11

Actual Investment in Fixed Capital Per Capita, 1976-77 investments in the province's (Socialist Sector) economy--as evidence of their generosity, which they argue is all Yugoslavia Kosovo the more impressive and unsustainable because they, too, are Actual investment per capita, million dinars 18,392 8,619 still relatively underdeveloped and As percentage of Yugoslav per capita level 100.0 46.9 short of capital. They emphasize investment as a percentage of total Of which, investment per capita in the economy domestic Social Product--in in million dinars 14,096 6,722 Kosovo lately a phenomenal 45 As percentage of Yugoslav per capita level 100.0 47.7 percent, compared to a Yugoslav average of about 30 percent--as Investments in the Kosovo Economy as Percentage evidence that Kosovo is doing very of Investments in the Yugoslav Economy well indeed as a result of others' And they to 1970 4.O self-sacrifices. point 1966- and 1971 1975 3.6 investment-output ratios--the 1976 1977 3.0 capital-output precise figures are in dispute but are Source: Provided by the Provincial Secretariat for Information, undeniably much worse in Kosovo than in the rest of the Pristina, November 1979. country, where they are bad enough--as evidence that the core problem is criticism or are politically or unsatisfactory in many enterprises, divert inefficient if not criminally less sensitive at the that there are many organizational ethnically incompetent use of capital, not lack and technological "misfortunes," present time. of it. In addition, of course, they that working hours are not properly The arguments used in the dispute always return to Kosovo's birthrate used, and that there are are a kind of microcosmic echo of as the ultimate reason why running inadequacies in specialization and the wider world's "North-South harder, even if it were done more division of labor. dialogue" about development, with efficiently and with more means, the difference that Yugoslavia's can still mean falling further behind. The most notorious consequence is "developed" north is itself at the the number of Kosovo's industrial Kosovo officials and economists lower margin of that category. The enterprises--unusually high even by have no answer to this last donors emphasize the magnitude of Yugoslav standards, which are not accusation--apart, that is, from the aid they have provided and the chronically lose money. embarrassed references to vestiges good--that inefficiency with which it has been the aggregate, again according to of five centuries of externally In used. The recipients focus instead Pofitika (October 31 ), 17 of 31 imposed cultural backwardness, on the inadequacy of that same industrial branches are currently optimistic references to the theory assistance and argue that it is operating in the red. According to a of "demographic transition" because its use has been dictated by ("please note hopeful recent trends, report in Rilindja, Pritina's not that the donors' interests, theirs, with predictable lags, in our birth, Albanian-language daily (May 21, to local it is often inappropriate death, and natural increase rates"), 1979), total losses amounted to and for that development needs and defensive counteraccusations 1,640 million dinars in 1978 and "inefficient." The reason proves that the way the subject is raised 1,080 million in the first three that of the two sides only agree part smacked of racism and deeply months of 1979. from the "cultural problem arises resented myths of Muslim sexual "nonmodern value milieu," machismo. How to apportion the blame for this orientations," and similar phrases dismal picture and for the failure to that the charitable layman translates They, do, however, have answers or close the Kosovo gap even as "the heritage of the past" and the for the other accusations: prevent its widening is a major as plain uncharitable Investment aid has not, they point political issue--as it has been the backwardness--but here, too, they and out, been as generous as alleged. If centerpiece of interregional draw different conclusions. hence interethnic disputes between one looks at per capita investments, more developed donors and less Thus participants in the debate from a better indicator than investment as developed recipients of aid Yugoslavia's donor republics point a percentage of domestic Social throughout Yugoslavia for over 20 to the share of the rest of the Product, Kosovo has always done years. That the focus is now on community in investments in poorly and is lately doing worse. In Kosovo is largely because some Kosovo--as measured by externally 1976-77, as indicated in Table IV, per other underdeveloped regions have funded bank credits (see Table IV), capita total and economic made it and the rest are either doing currently 68 percent of total investments in Kosovo were 46.9 well enough at closing the gap to investments and 88 percent of and 47.7 percent of respective 12/DIR-1-'80

Yugoslav levels. This is not only too investment in extractive industries. and consume the output, again low for catching up, or even running The goal has been the exploitation including made-in-Kosovo energy, in place, but is less than in the later of Kosovo's extraordinary mineral as most Kosovars cannot. A 1960s or in 1957-1963, the wealth--especially lignite (52 particular complaint is that most of province's first investment boom, percent of known Yugoslav lignite Kosovo's extractive industries-- and when the figure was a still reserves, 46 percent of total known especially the highly mechanized inadequate 59 percent. Looked at coal reserves, and 27 percent of all open-pit lignite mining and another way, Kosovo's share in primary energy sources), lead and associated thermo-electric plants all-Yugoslav economic investments zinc (52 percent of Yugoslav that have been particularly favored has declined from 4 percent in reserves and already an important in this increasingly energy- 1966-1970 to 3.6 percent in export representing 25 and 13 conscious decade and that scar the 1971-1975 and merely 3.0 percent in percent of European production of Kosovo countryside and foul its 1976-1978. these metals), nickel(only in air--employ very few people, either in total numbers or per unit of As for sources of investment Kosovo), and magnetite, but also funds, investment. And these are precisely it is true that most comes from the bauxite, chrome, quartz, kaolin, the province's principal "objective" rest of Yugoslavia, primarily asbestos, marble, and cement marl. through economic problems. the Fund of the Federation, a development aid scheme similar to Although no one argues that these Kosovo's Plans the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno in resources should not be exploited-- It is at this point in the argument neighboring Italy. Given the limited especially, today, lignite as a cheap, that Yugoslavia's long-standing local base provided by Kosovo's plentiful domestic substitute for oil problems and disputes concerning own existing small and seldom in generating thermo-electricity-- interregional capital mobility and profitable enterprises, the only directing the lion's share of limited optimal investment strategies take alternative is virtually no investment investment funds to these sectors, on, in their Kosovo variant, a new and therefore no growth, which is largely ignoring processing focus for the 1980s. On the day obviously unacceptable to the industries, is said to have had two interviewed him, Planning Director whole of Yugoslavia and for many extremely unfortunate Ismet Gusija was on his way to a (to but reasons, some selfish and some consequences which a small meeting of the provincial of would dictated by partly altruistic growing number Kosovars government at which the draft of a "solidarity." add a third, which is environmental). new five-year plan, for 1981 1985, The first is that, like a parallel but Third, it is argued, the purported was to be presented. President Tito unavoidable emphasis on had just toured Kosovo, his first visit inefficiency of investment in Kosovo investment in infrastructure like is partly an unfair accusation and for since 1975 and only his fifth since roads, transport, and electrification, 1945, and according to senior the rest only partly to be blamed on it distorts the image and also the the deficiencies of the "cultural officials had given his blessing to the short- and medium-term reality of development strategy that had been milieu" and Kosovar work ethic that of investment as the "efficiency" laid before him--clearly to their Kosovar officials are so disarmingly and measured by capital--output great relief, since they freely willing to admit. Time and effort can profitability ratios. This is because in any case remedy these admitted that Tito's backing will be investment costs in these sectors necessary if the rest of the country deficiencies, as that frequently cited it are relatively high, generally takes is to be persuaded to go along. success story in Suva Reka and a far longer to complete construction few other happy exceptions prove. and begin realizing a return, and A central feature of this strategy More important, therefore, as an much of the real economic and was expressed in its bluntest form unfortunate legacy that will be social return (especially in the case by middle-ranking officials as harder to eliminate and as a lesson of energy) is not or cannot be follows: No more investment in for the future, have been the monetarily credited to the initial lignite mining and electric power consequences of a basic investment producers. The second, and more (with nonferrous metals also strategy that was imposed on important in the eyes of the Kosovo sometimes listed) from the Fund of Kosovo by the outsiders who have planners, is that the primary the Federation and other sources of provided the funds, who were beneficiaries of such investment in credits intended for the pursuing their own rather than and exploitation of Kosovo's natural development of underdeveloped Kosovo's economic interests, and wealth are not the Kosovars but regions. If "they" want more who have pursued a different producers and consumers in the Kosovo electricity (or metals), let strategy for themselves, at least richer republics. Their processing them pay for expanding capacities since the early 1960s. industries are fueled with Kosovo in this sector separately with direct This strategy, which Kosovo energy and raw materials and their investments. From now on we shall officials and planners are peoples, with employment and use development funds in determined to change, has higher incomes provided by these accordance with our own concentrated on extensive Kosovo resources, can afford to buy development interests, and this DIR-1-'80/13 means primarily in processing Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia, as much domestic as external, in the industries that employ more people and Montenegro, the other regions form of" 'or-else' type per investment dinar, quickly and in that are designated as psychological pressure" from more places, and that have better "underdeveloped" and therefore Trepea and other Kosovo producers profit margins. eligible for credits from the Fund of raw materials and energy, all at and the budget. present deeply in the red. One scheme of this kind goes well beyond Yugoslavia's borders and The same senior official cited three How realistic is this list, expecially was the subject of much other devices for increasing when those who must take the enthusiastic talk in Kosovo in investment from other sources that burden have increasingly urgent and autumn 1979. Negotiations with were also said to have Tito's similar economic problems of their Swiss, West German, and French approval or to be his proposals own, including unemployment and interests, who some sources claim during his October visit. The first capital starvation, at a time when are already close to signing, have as would be an all-Yugoslav "social austerity should be the watchword? their goal an additional 75 compact''2 under which all the Tito's support, if it was as strong as megawatts to be generated in republics and provinces would agree reported and if it is maintained by Kosovo from Kosovo lignite for that new industries, producing his successors, is undoubtedly direct export to these countries. The things that Yugoslavia needs but important, perhaps even capable of importers would pay for the does not yet produce, would be turning what a Pritina official called expanded capacity as part of the located in Kosovo. (What might "a dream list" into reality. On the deal. had first heard of this scheme these be? The source said he did not other hand, Yugoslavia's complex in Zagreb and Belgrade, where it know, since the idea was a new one, and genuinely pluralistic system of was treated as a Kosovar pipe but that he was sure an appropriate political decision-making in matters dream, unrealizable because of list could be devised.) The second of this kind, which gives each technological problems and costs-- would be an agreement by large republic and province a near-veto the inadequacy and enterprises to locate new branch that can be overruled only in inappropriateness of existing plants in Kosovo--on the model of exceptional circumstances and at transmission lines and the power the factory for automobile parts some risk, limits even the losses incurred when electricity is established at Pe, by Yugoslavia's President's awesome power when transported over great distances. principal car manufacturer, Crvena many regional or corporate interests These objections were discounted in Zastava of Kragujevac (Serbia), but may be injured, or think they may Pritina, where recent technological usually on a smaller scale. The third be. "Believe me," said a senior Party advances were said to have reduced was the one had already heard so official in Pritina who has done a losses in transmission to tolerable much about: all new investment in study of the American political levels and where the alleged energy and raw materials to be system, "getting something like this seriousness of Swiss, West German, funded separately and by their through our parliamentary and French interest was cited as consumers, so that credits from the [delegatskll system can be harder evidence that other costs were Fund, other than those for than it is for President Carter's considered reasonable. infrastructure, can be focused on programs in the U.S. Congress. The processing industries.IBut here, difference is that our press doesn't As for the Fund of the Federation was also told, the opposition is now write about it--and shouldn't, since and other sources of development it only upsets the public [da narod the 2 "Social Compacts" (dru#tveni aid from the rest of Yugoslavia, ne boil glava]." draft 1981-1985 Social Plan dogovon.., are self-management anticipates increased enactments adopted, on equal terms, by reportedly labor and Who's In Charge? (one source organizations of associated amounts high-level their associations, self-managing In 1965, when David Binder and this specified 25,000 million dinars from communities of interest and other self- reporter first visited Pritina and its the Fund and 12,000 million from managing organizations and region, the Autonomous Province of budgetary sources), despite communities, agencies of sociopolitical Kosovo-Metohija was, if readers in northern impatience with Kosovo communities, trade unions and other and outside Yugoslavia will permit inefficiency and countrywide sociopolitical and social organizations, the expression, a colonial economic problems to which the by which the parties thereto regulate dependency ruled, neglected, and orthodox answer is austerity. The socioeconomic and other relations of exploited by Serbian and local solution, acording to a senior general concern to the community Serbs. In addition to suffering are upon the official who said it has Tito's Social compacts binding economic and social discrimination, have concluded or parties which the Albanian majority was firmly and approval, is to maintain what he acceded to them... (from the Glossary called "the burden on the rest of the appended to the English translation of when necessary ruthlessly country "at its present level but The Associated Labor Act (Belgrade, oppressed by UDBa, the Serb- effect a redistribution of credits 1977) to explain such Yugoslav dominated Yugoslav State Security from that burden in favor of Kosovo. concepts in simple and clear(!) Service-- so effectively that, This would mean less for language). although this and the restiveness of 14/DIR-1-'80 the Albanians were common as the provincial flag). The Information--the able, amiable, and knowledge and Binder and were province's political autonomy was cooperative organizers of my watchful with what we thought expanded, in stages, through second visit of the autumn--was a were well-trained reporters' eyes constitutional amendments, and kind of prototype for what is and ears, no firm publishable there was to be no more encountered in other offices and in evidence of restiveness or discrimination against the Albanian enterprises and the university. oppression came to our attention. majority in employment and for Nehat Isljami, the Secretary for Instead, we were served with a rich public office. That this last was Information and until lately a menu of Kosovar Albanians in really happening soon became journalist and foreign ostensibly leading positions and evident from complaints, first in the correspondent--in Beirut during the ready to tell us that now, albeit only "political underground" and then civil war--for Pri,tina's Albanian- recently, Albanians were getting a publicly, of reverse discrimination language daily, is an Albanian of fair deal and were loyal to against local Serbs and Muslim origins. His deputy, Mark Yugoslavia. Interestingly, some of Montenegrins. In this as in the Nikaj, is an Albanian of Catholic the "token Albanians" and Albanian banning from official and polite origins, an extra twist of "the ethnic "Uncle Toms" of 1965 have almost usage of the term "(Jiptari" key" to recognize the non-Muslim miraculously survived intervening (Shiptars) because it was often used minority among the Province's political events to serve today as with pejorative connotations--it is Albanians. Two Assistant Grand Old Men of the Revolution, in actually an initially innocent Serbo- Secretaries are also Albanian. Then sometimes titular and sometimes Croatian rendering of Shqiptar#, comes Tihomir Salji,, the real positions of authority. which means "sons of the eagle" Secretariat's man-of-all-work, from and is what Albanians call scheduling and shepherding my visit of Any suspicion that tales themselves, and was used to to sending for coffee and slivovitz or discrimination and oppression of distinguish Yugoslav from Albanian settling the bill when the Yugoslav Albanians were being Albanians (now all are to be called Secretary or his assistants took me exaggerated by anti-Serb Albanian, Albanci) an American does not to lunch. He is Montenegrin but Croatian, or Slovene nationalists have to look far to discover bilingual and virtually bicultural, was dispelled by the detailed (if instructive analogies. from a mixed community near Pee possibly still understated) where mutual favors and mutual The first reference documentation that appeared in the important public defense bred good feeling and to the other side of the new Kosovo Yugoslav media a year later. This sympathy between Albanians and coin was two was after a smoldering all-Yugoslav by distinguished Slavs. This visitor would give all of members of the Serbian political crisis was resolved through Party's them roughly equal (and high) the writer the purge in July 1966 of Yugoslav Central Committee, marks for intelligence, helpfulness, Dobrica (osi( and the historian Vice-President Aleksandar and openness. Fifteen years ago it Rankovi(, founder and still informal Jovan Marjanovi(, at a Central would have been clear that the Slav of with his chief Committee in May 1968. boss UDBa, along meeting in such a group was actually but not in the and Albanian "nationalism and lieutenants Party UDBa. formally in charge. Today it is of The immediate consequences the irredentism" were being openly equally clear that this is not the easing of police supervision and promoted in Kosovo, they warned, case. UDBa's demoralization included and Serbs were suffering systematic sometimes violent Albanian discrimination in employment. As A similar mix and rank-order is nationalist demonstrations in the evidence they cited the emigration found at the province's political streets of Pri,tina and elsewhere, in from Kosovo of an increasing summit, where Party President November 1968 and during the number of Serbs and Montenegrins, Bakalli, as Kosovo's following year. "especially the intelligentsia." representative on the all-Yugoslav Although both also criticized several State and Party Presidencies, and These were followed and in part specific manifestations of Serbian Xhavid Nimani as President of the preceded by some additional nationalism and are well known as Presidency of the Province are all economic aid, genuine equalization more Yugoslav than Serb in their Albanians. One must work well of the Albanian and Serbo-Croatian patriotism, they were condemned down the list of the top dozen, by languages in administration and in by the Central Committee for being protocol or by power, to find Slavs topographical and personal "nationalistic" and "opposed to as Secretary to the Provincial Party nomenclature, and parallel symbolic self-management," and were Committee, President of the changes of psychological probably spared expulsion because Provincial Parliament, and President importance (e.g., a Party Congress a few months later of the Provincial Socialist Alliance. "Kosovo-Metohija" or "Kosmet" provided a less dramatic way to became simply "Kosovo," dropping drop them, which it did. While many of these top offices the Serbian term for the western were also occupied by "token" part of the province, and the In 1979 the ethnic composition of Albanians before 1966, atmosphere Albanian national flag was adopted the Kosovo Secretariat for as well as experienced observers DIR-1-'80/15 make it apparent here, too, that the senior Party official explained, "but country. Economically and socially it present occupants, and other it is easier for them to escape is Europe's most backward corner. Albanians in far more numerous because, however natural [prirodno] Its regime is unregenerately and by middle-ranking positions that were the environment is for them here, self-definition Stalinist, with all that once held by Slavs, really are in how much more natural in label implies for the oppression of charge now. Kragujevac or NIL," which are in the individual and the suppression Serbia. The problem, he continued, of "individualistic" values and Emigration of Serbs and "is complicated by our peculiar aspirations. Its boasts include the Montenegrins apparently continues, social structure, in which the most achievement of universal literacy especially of the traditionally Serbo- numerous nationality always lived and electrification, the world's so Montenegrin "intelligentsia." But worst. It has a lot to do with who is allegedly most egalitarian does that of Albanians of the traditionally urban. For example, the communism.., and the creation of nonintelligentsia, who cannot find Turks, historically urban, still live the world's first truly atheistic work in Kosovo. Albanian officials in best--better in fact than the society, accomplished by locking or the province try to put this into a Serbs--although they are only one transforming all mosques and "socioeconomic" perspective percent of the population." So the churches and through firm stripped of ethnic categories. "With Serbs and Montenegrins, deprived suppression of religious practices. It development below plan, limited of political positions that guaranteed is also xenophobically isolationist, opportunities, and limited income them a privileged social and traditionally maintaining few links made worse for the upwardly mobile economic status, go elsewhere "to with the outside world apart from because personal income share at least in the average the ideological leadership of a differentials are less in Kosovo than standards there, which are higher scattering of anti-Soviet and anti- elsewhere," was told, "it is no than here." Sometimes, he added, Chinese but "true Marxist-Leninist" luxury, especially for intellectuals, to Party members among them have splinter parties and far-reaching live here rather than in Ljubljana or been given Party orders not to go, propaganda, from Radio Tirana's even Kragujevac." This is why they but they do so anyway. powerful transmitters, characterized go, and it is because Serbs and Another official present at the same by a crudeness and extreme Montenegrins were traditionally Manicheanism that have not been preponderant in the social strata meeting noted that most of the Serbs and Montenegrins who heard from Radio Moscow since the that are most affected, and not high noon of the Cold War. because of ethnic pressures and emigrate are the offspring of or are discrimination, that proportionately themselves post-1912 immigrants to The Albanian state within the more Serb and Montenegrin Kosovo, not members of families Yugoslav (con-)federation that is professionals and skilled workers are that had always lived there, which ruled by Mahmut Bakalli and others leaving. Their places are taken by he thought significant. This recalled from Pri,tina is economically and newly educated and professionally an earlier conversation with one of socially the most backward unit in trained Kosovar Albanians, the latter, a university-educated that federation, but by almost all reinforced by an influx from the professional, who had said that indices of modernization, prosperity, Albanian minorities in Macedonia "psychological pressure" to and culture it is well ahead of and Montenegro. Here again, it was emigrate was intense, no matter Tirana's Albania. The principal said, the reasons are what officials might say, but that exceptions, if limited information socioeconomic, since the Albanian Kosovo was his ancestral home and from beyond the mountains is minorities live in the poorest parts of that he would be "a coward to the accurate, are rural electrification those republics. In the next breath, air breathe" if he succumbed and (but there is less to plug in over however, it was admitted that there went. there), literacy (shamefacedly are "cultural" reasons as well: after The Albanians, apart from the admitted in Pri,tina), atheism (if that all, Kosovo is predominantly estimated 100,000 who have also counts), and the cleanliness of city Albanian in culture, and Macedonia emigrated, remain. Whatever the streets (because it is said in Kosovo, and Montenegro are not. reason--luck in the employment the Albanians of Albania have lottery, love of nothing to throw away). An This admission led to others, homeland or family, lack of Albanian of Kosovo can normally be qualifying the contention that Slav initiative, or hopelessness-- they are apparently willing to live in a practicing Muslim (or Catholic), emigration has little or nothing to do except in political and a few other with nationality. The predominance Kosovo. But what country would they like professions. He is also usually free of Albanian culture, which is visibly Kosovo to be a part of, if they had a choice? to leave Kosovo or Yugoslavia and increasing as a result of growing seek his fortune or happiness self-confidence as well as policy, Kosovo, Yugoslavia, and Albania elsewhere if he wishes. In Tirana's must also have a reverse effect on The Albanian state that is ruled by Albania this is seldom possible. Kosovar Serbs and Montenegrins. Enver Hohxa from Tirana is, by all "They share the fate of Kosovo, reports, both literally and If a Kosovar Albanian is therefore [which is] underdevelopment," a figuratively a forbidding sort of freer and wealthier and has better 16/DIR-1-'80 prospects on both counts in Party, but not the head of a nation." establishing diplomatic and Yugoslavia, and in addition has a The viciousness of Albania's anti- commercial links with the rest of the (sub-)state of his own to run and in Yugoslav propaganda and its world--so far explicitly excepting which to preserve and cultivate his "slandering of Tito and the the Superpowers and Great Britain national heritage, would he not have Yugoslav system" are resented but (the last because of unresolved to be an idiot or a nationalist fanatic answered only in extreme cases mutual claims arising out of the to wish to see Kosovo become a ("we try to ignore it, but we cannot Corfu Channel incident in 1946). part of a "greater Albania" ruled be indifferent!"). Such a general opening by Europe's from Tirana? This is, indeed, the most closed society is also Apart from Albanian failure to tone common wisdom. welcomed with apparent down this propaganda, Kosovo- enthusiasm. There is, however, another way of Albanian and Yugoslav-Albanian looking at the matter. The Albanians relations are said to be developing Currently more ominous than of Yugoslavia are now nearly as "positively." Cultural exchanges, Tirana's propaganda and numerous as the Albanians of including textbooks, films, television "manipulations," a senior official in Albania. More of them are better programs, and the performing arts, Pritina suggested, is the purported educated and trained for "modern" have been increasing quietly and on new line of the anti-Communist life and are culturally more an ad hoc basis for more than a Albanian emigration in the West. It sophisticated. They possess far decade. Relations between the is considered highly significant that more social and economic universities of Tirana and Pritina attacks from this "infrastructure." Who, in these began in 1968, now include faculty quarter-- representing, the official circumstances, would run a Greater exchanges, mutual access to added, a small minority of Albanian- Albania if it came into existence? archives, and joint research projects Americans, "most of whom are and Would the Kosovars not quickly (particularly by Albanologists), either just good Americans or become the big fish in a little pond are regulated by annual cooperation sympathetic to present-day filled with their own kind, instead of agreements signed by the two Yugoslavia"-- have become being small fish in a bigger pond Rectors. A joint Kosovo-Albanian conspicuously softer in their view of largely populated by alien species scholarly symposium and festivities the regime in Tirana and tougher And is who generally despise them? to celebrate the centenary of the about Tito, the Yugoslav system, this not an (the enticing prospect, League of Prizren of 1878 first and especially the alleged abuse of especially for young, nationally organized movement for Albanian Albanians in Kosovo, where conscious intellectuals embittered from independence the Ottoman conditions in general are described by low status in Yugoslavia's ethnic Empire in modern times, with its as though they were worse than in pecking order and frustrated by lack base in Kosovo rather than Albania. More immediately of opportunity in Kosovo and by present-day Albania) is cited as a worrying, however, is evidence that cultural and linguistic barriers to high point and precedent. Trade extremist and terrorist organizations opportunity elsewhere in the between the two countries has risen in the Croatian nationalist country of their present citizenship? $800 to million in value, and Kosovo emigration are seeking and may Kosovo's Albanian officials Chamber of Commerce President have succeeded in establishing unsurprisingly and vehemently Nazmi Mustafa was in Tirana with a relations with this anti-Communist denied that many of their people are delegation, discussing higher levels Albanian emigration. The reason thinking in these terms. What for Kosovo-Albanian local trade, in why this is worrying is that the Yugoslav Albanians want, they said, November 1979. Albanian emigr(es have never is to be part of a Yugoslavia in which It is only recently, however, that the attempted, or at least never all nationalities enjoy equality of Albanian government has shown succeeded, in promoting terrorism respect, opportunity, and willingness, which is enthusiastically inside Yugoslavia, unlike the participation. What they want is a welcomed in Pritina, to put these Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood next-door Albanian state that is and other relations on a more and its ilk. And political terrorism, as independent, open to the world regular, government-to-government much of the world now knows from (including Yugoslavia), and more basis and to do so at a Tirana- painful experience, is today a democratic than it is. "Then the Belgrade level in addition to a contagious disease transmitted by question of frontiers will be Tirana-Pritina one. In autumn 1979 links among such bands of "anti- 'relativized'." What they do not Kosovo Secretary for Culture Imer social" elements ("as a Marxist," want is an Enver Hohxa who Jaka became the first minister of the source said, "1 won't accept that addresses them condescendingly as provincial or Yugoslav cabinet rank some of these should call "our brothers" and to be invited to an official visit in themselves 'leftist' "). He did not "paternalistically manipulates the Tirana. Officials in Pritina view all add, although it would have been Albanians of Kosovo," as it was these developments in the context appropriate, that the assassination phrased at high political level in of the Albanian regime's apparent of Yugoslav King Alexander Pritina. "He should remember that interest in compensating for the loss Karadjordjevi(; in Marseilles in 1934 he is a head of state and head of a of Chinese patronage and aid by was the product of analogous DIR-1-'80/17 cooperation between the Croatian often said that one reason why Whatever the truth may be, the separatist Ustaa and the partly Yugoslav authorities have lately prompt surfacing of such rumors separatist, partly irredentist Internal encouraged more visits by ordinary and the possibility that they just Macedonian Revolutionary Kosovar Albanians to Enver Hoxha's might be true are reminders of Organization (IMRO). Albania is so they will see the locked irredentism has lived and thrived in boarded mosques of that that official Another and quite separate outside and Kosovo's past, country and make are no reason for influence on the Muslim Albanians "atheist" protestations comparisons with the that it has evaporated of Kosovo--and the Slav Muslims appropriate believing functioning and sometimes newly merely because life in Yugoslavia is of Bosnia-Herzegovina--comes built mosques in Kosovo. On the undeniably better and freer than in from the ferment sweeping the other hand, it is in principle equally Albania, and that the subject is a Islamic world. Because it is at this that a new sense of pride in matter of interest and concern both stage both intangible and possible Islam could lead to an increased for Yugoslavs and the international subterranean it is impossible to pin sense of solidarity with community. down in terms of extent, quality, simultaneously religious and ethnic "An Albanian nationalist who works and significance. One is forced to brothers across the frontier beyond retreat to that most unreliable form for a Greater Albania," said a senior which religion is being suppressed. of evidence, which is vibrations in and Albanian official in Pri,tina, "is the antennae of "experienced In Belgrade was to hear rumors, guilty of madness, because the observers." In this instance this circulating in diplomatic quarters, process of achieving that goal would means their interpretations of that Albanian nationalists had lead to a Third World War." And nuances of change in their friends' succeeded in staging several that, he added, is why such people, and contacts' focus of interest and unpleasant incidents during when they occasionally surface, are reactions to sometimes superficially President Tito's October visit to rightly put into prison to join equally irrelevant things. So far their report, Kosovo. These allegedly included an occasional pro-Soviet at least from Kosovo, is so limited anti-Tito, pro-Hoxha slogan spray "Cominformists" and Serbian and primitive that it could be painted inside the Grand Hotel in nationalists, no matter what confirmed even on the antennae of Pritina when Tito arrived to stay Amnesty International may think an occasional visitor like this there ("but which Hoxha," Belgrade about it. It was a dramatic and correspondent: yes, there is a wits were asking, "Enver or possibly exaggerated remark, but reaction--a stirring of special Fadil?" the latter, as noted above, one capable of making an interest and excitement and an being Kosovo's representative on impression at a moment when unexpected knowledge of details Yugoslavia's collective State developments in other small (and about events in the Muslim world Presidency and no relation of the Muslim!) countries and provinces, whenever the subject comes up. Tirana one). The intensity of no more sensitively located along Beyond this, as of October 1979, security precautions that observed the great earthquake-prone political there was at most an occasional before the visit and my failure to and geological fault-zone that cautious word of enthusiasm for hear any rumor or mention of the divides the contemporary world, are Iran's Islamic Revolution, and by purported incidents when returned setting world peace at hazard. November some worried or shortly afterward tempted me to disapproving headshaking about the regard these stories with skepticism, (January 1980) latest news from Tehran. which was shared by usually well- Afghanistan, of course, came later. informed journalists in Belgrade. The potential effect on Kosovar Albanian attitudes toward Albania and toward irredentism is a matter of speculation and in theory could be either positive or negative. It is