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Issue 2001­03 Summer, 2001 In This Issue: 1. The Future of Oysters in Chesapeake Bay: Different Paths to Restoration 2. Field Trial Summary of C. ariakensis vs. C. virginica 3. Oyster Resources on the Web 4. A Man and his Ideas: Remembering Max Chambers 5. Low­Cost Recirculating Systems for Eels 6. Research Briefs – Reports from UM Labs: Restoring Atlantic Sturgeon to the Chesapeake Bay Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Fish Muscle Development and Growth Sturgeon Ranching in Russia 7. The Business of Charter Boats 8. Aquaculture in the Classroom Update 9. New Publications 10. Maryland Sea Grant Extension Program Internet Addresses 11. Subscription Information The Future of Oysters in Chesapeake Bay Different Paths to Restoration Don Webster, Eastern Shore Marine Agent Don Meritt, Shellfish Aquaculture Specialist After record­setting oyster harvests in the late 19th century, Maryland's oyster fishery began its long decline. By the mid­ 1930s it had settled into annual landings of two to three million bushels a year from public oyster grounds and remained there for the next half century. In the last decade, however, harvests have plunged to less than a tenth of what they were, averaging under 200,000 bushels a year. This steep downturn had its origins in the 1950s, when the oyster parasite Haplosporidium nelsoni spread MSX disease from Delaware Bay southward through the coastal bays and into the lower Chesapeake. MSX and, later, Dermo began ravaging oyster reefs that were already damaged from years of overharvesting, habitat destruction, land erosion and runoff, pollutants and questionable management practices. MSX caused a fundamental shift in the focus of production: until 1955, Virginia had led Bay­wide harvests with production from private, or leased, grounds. These grounds were planted and harvested by growers who largely relied on the incredible production of oyster seed in the James River. By 1970, MSX had wiped out vast tracts of oysters on these high salinity grounds. Because lower salinities are not as conducive to MSX, many areas in Maryland's upper bay were not as badly affected. In contrast to Virginia, Maryland manages oysters primarily as a public fishery, and has historically discouraged leaseholds for private growers. In 1961, the state initiated a new oyster repletion program to help keep "natural" or public oyster bars in production. This program involved dredging buried shell from non­productive oyster grounds, transporting them into areas that historically had high spat set, then removing oysters after the spawning season for planting on public bars in the upper bay. With lowered precipitation in the 1980s, high salinity ocean water pushed further up the bay, bringing with it conditions that were more favorable to MSX, which now flourished in areas where it had not previously been a great threat. In addition, the parasite that causes Dermo, Perkinsus marinus, began to appear. MSX and Dermo were thought to be limited to regions where salinities were greater than 15 parts per thousand (ppt). However, by 1980 Dermo had begun to appear in regions with salinities as low as 10 to 12 ppt. Areas that had previously not been threatened by Dermo were now susceptible to these low salinity strains. The management practice of transplanting oysters from areas of high salinity to low salinity in order to purge the parasites was common during this period, including Maryland's repletion program. While this approach seemed to work well with MSX, it proved to be a disaster with Dermo. Transplanted oysters infected with low salinity­tolerant strains of Dermo probably spread the disease into tributaries that had never before had it. With low precipitation and higher salinities in the 1980s, Dermo began to cause oysters to die in ever­widening areas. It was then that Maryland harvests plummeted ­ in Virginia, the future was bleaker. Many oystermen left the water, while year after year shucking houses and processing plants began to close down. Hatcheries and Oyster Restoration While Maryland and Virginia's resource management efforts focused on maintaining the commercial fishery, by the late 1980s, scientists, environmentalists and other citizens were making a strong case for the importance of oysters and oyster reef habitats as a key factor in the health of the ecosystem. The loss of oysters, they argued, was contributing to the decline of Bay water quality itself. As a primary filter feeder, oysters siphon large quantities of water, removing algae for growth and reproduction. With oyster populations in such low numbers, they were no longer filtering the amount of algae they once did. In 1987, Roger Newell, a scientist at the Horn Point Laboratory, part of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science (UMCES), estimated that it would take diminished stocks of oysters more than a year to filter the volume of the Bay, compared with the six days it would have taken at the beginning of the century. The overabundance of ungrazed algae leads to biological and chemical processes that contribute significantly to the depletion of oxygen and the decline of underwater vegetation. The growing public awareness about the oyster's ecological importance (i.e., in removing algae and therefore nutrients) has been the impetus not only for citizen interest but, surprisingly, active engagement in oyster restoration. That engagement is evident in the popularity of oyster gardening programs such as those sponsored by the Chesapeake Bay Foundation (CBF) and supported by the Oyster Alliance, a partnership of CBF, the Oyster Recovery Partnership, the University of Maryland Sea Grant Program and UMCES. Hatcheries have begun to figure prominently in these and other restoration efforts. The Chesapeake's oyster resources were so great for so long that even during the years of decline in the 1930s, the potential of hatcheries for commercial and restoration aquaculture was largely ignored. However, with the unremitting presence of MSX and Dermo, that view has been changing. Hatcheries make it possible to better Selective breeding of oysters is control production, for example, to produce oyster seed with being carried out in order to undetectable levels of oyster parasites and to attempt develop broodstock that can breeding oysters that are resistant to disease. withstand the ravages of disease. While production size hatcheries are not in operation in the Chesapeake, hatchery activities have been stepped up considerably at the UMCES Horn Point Laboratory ­ over the next several years, these efforts should begin to provide the kind of data we need to assess the costs and benefits of hatcheries for oyster restoration and aquaculture. Billions of eyed larvae are now produced for setting on bagged or containerized shell in large tanks. They are then moved to boats for placement in nursery areas and, after a month or two of growth, are moved once more to grow­out sites where they are released onto bottom grounds that have been stabilized to accept seed. As part of the hatchery effort, selective breeding of oysters is being carried out in order to develop broodstock that can withstand the ravages of disease. Selectively­bred stocks such as CROSBreed are being tested in a cooperative effort by researchers at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), the UMCES Horn Point Laboratory, the University of Delaware and Rutgers University. They are also evaluating native stocks that have survived in areas with high disease pressure and comparing them with selectively­bred stocks. These oysters have been placed at sites in Maryland and Virginia and in Delaware Bay. While there are signs of success, it could still take a while to get the proper field tests for demonstrating just how resistant these strains are over the long term. In addition to the use of hatcheries, state agencies have also begun to explore different restoration strategies. While the Maryland Department of Natural Resources has continued efforts with traditional repletion programs, it is now engaged in programs that include designating oyster sanctuaries which are off­limits to harvest. Such sanctuaries could enhance sustainable production for the fishery by protecting from harvest those adults with inherent (i.e., genetic) resistance to disease, as well as those that exhibit faster growth. Non-Indigenous Oyster Species Another approach to oyster restoration has involved the use of non­native or exotic oysters, which scientists originally investigated as candidates for hybrid crosses with Crassostrea virginica, the species native to the Chesapeake and the eastern seaboard from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. They thought that hybrids could combine native taste with disease resistance. Crosses, however, were found not to be feasible and that line of investigation has largely been abandoned. However, research has expanded to investigate the potential of introducing non­native oysters to the Bay. At first, the Pacific species Crassostrea gigas appeared to be a strong candidate ­ native originally to Japan, it had been imported to the west coast early in the century and has long been the basis of the industry there, which is largely dependent on hatchery production. It is also the basis of commercial production in other countries as well and is the most widely cultured oyster in the world. But C. gigas turned out to be a poor choice for conditions in the Bay. Another species that held promise was the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. Though also introduced into the Pacific Northwest from Japan many years ago, hatchery production was limited there because of the region's high salinities. This doesn't appear to be the case for the Chesapeake ­ VIMS researcher Stan Allen, using protocols developed by the International Conference on Exploration of the Seas (ICES), began carefully controlled studies of the oyster in quarantine systems. The larvae produced at VIMS were cultured as "triploids," meaning they were rendered sterile through manipulation of the chromosomes, so that they could not reproduce.

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