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University of California Santa Cruz Social And UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL CONNECTIVITY IN KELP FOREST ECOSYSTEMS A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY by Rachel Zuercher December 2018 The Dissertation of Rachel Zuercher is approved: ____________________________________ Professor Mark H. Carr, chair ____________________________________ Dr. Carrie Pomeroy ____________________________________ Professor Peter T. Raimondi ____________________________________ Professor Paul L. Koch ____________________________ Lori Kletzer Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies Copyright © by Rachel Zuercher 2018 Table of Contents Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................... v List of Figures ............................................................................................................ vii Abstract ...................................................................................................................... xii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. xvi Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: Coastal marine ecosystem connectivity: pelagic ocean to kelp forest subsidies ........................................................................................................... 9 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 10 Methods....................................................................................................................... 19 Results and Discussion ............................................................................................... 21 Tables and Figures ...................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 2: Pelagic energy in the diets of a temperate reef fish assemblage ........ 77 Abstract ....................................................................................................................... 77 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 78 Methods....................................................................................................................... 86 Results ........................................................................................................................ 97 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 102 Tables and Figures .................................................................................................... 111 Chapter 3: Central California’s nearshore fishery as a social-ecological system ....................................................................................................................... 129 Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 129 iii Introduction ............................................................................................................... 130 Methods..................................................................................................................... 133 Results ...................................................................................................................... 145 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 159 Tables and Figures .................................................................................................... 170 Chapter 4: Social and biophysical factors influencing catch composition in central California’s commercial nearshore fishery ................................. 205 Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 205 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 206 Methods..................................................................................................................... 211 Results ...................................................................................................................... 216 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 219 Tables and Figures .................................................................................................... 226 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 236 Appendices ............................................................................................................... 240 Appendix 1: Supplemental material for Chapter 2 ................................................... 240 Appendix 2: Supplemental material for Chapter 3 ................................................... 262 Literature Cited ...................................................................................................... 280 iv List of Tables Table 1 .1: Oceanographic forces that influence the dynamics of mero- and holo- planktonic subsidy delivery. 68 Table 1 .2 : The occurrence of pelagic red crabs in California (adapted from Lluch-Belda et al. 2005). 70 Table 1 .3: Characteristics of (a) the recipient ecosystem, (b-c) the resource inputs, and of (d) specific consumers influence the relative importance and consequences of a cross-ecosystem trophic subsidy. 71 Table 2.1 : Blue Rockfish inhabit the water column and are planktivorous, while Black Rockfish, also an active-swimming, midwater fish, tend to be piscivorous. Kelp Rockfish are demersal with a broad diet, and Black-and-Yellow Rockfish and Black Surfperch are largely benthic invertivores. Gape width differs by species as well, with small-mouthed Blue Rockfish constrained to smaller prey, and Black, Kelp, and Black-and-Yellow Rockfishes able to consume larger crabs, octopus and fishes. 111 Table 2.2 : Diet composition of four species of nearshore Sebastes rockfish and the Black Surfperch by percent frequency of occurrence (%FO), percent prey-specific number (%PN), percent prey-specific volume (%PV) and percent prey-specific index of relative importance (%PSIRI). 115 Table 3.1: Species managed under the Nearshore fishery management plan (i.e., “nearshore species”) with basic ecological attributes. 171 Table 3.2: Hierarchy of themes (or Nodes in NVivo) used to code interview data. 174 Table 3.3a: The top ten fishery mixes of nearshore permit holders (1999 to 2002) who made landings of nearshore species in central ports. 193 Table 3.3b : The top ten fishery mixes of shallow and deeper nearshore permit holders following the implementation of restricted access (2003 to 2015) who made landings of nearshore species in central ports. 195 Table 3.4: The average (± SD ) number of annual pounds landed and annual number of nearshore trips (as estimated by the number of v distinct nearshore landings in the CFIS data) pre- and post-MPA establishment (Monterey and Morro Bay, pre: 2003-2006, post: 2008- 2011; Fort Bragg, pre: 2007-2009, post: 2013-2015) for shallow and deeper nearshore fishermen. 202 Table 4.1: The variables tested for their effect on the species composition of nearshore landings. 226 Table 4.2: Results from a PERMANOVA analysis with 999 permutations testing the effect of biophysical and socio-economic variables on catch composition. Data is for 2004 to 2015 with 1372 observations. 230 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1: In addition to the primary production of phytoplankton, there are more episodic influxes energy and nutrients from the pelagic ocean. These trophic subsidies to the nearshore kelp forest can be divided into two categories: (1) holoplanktonic organisms transported to the kelp forest; and (2) meroplanktonic organisms settling to the kelp forest. 66 Figure 1.2: Taxonomic groups (not an exhaustive list) of the common taxa of holoplanktonic and/or meroplanktonic organisms that may serve as trophic subsidies to nearshore rocky reefs on the west coast of North America. Other phyla that likely comprise subsidies to the kelp forest include: Rotifera and Chaetognatha (holoplankton), and Porifera, Rotifera, Nemertea, Chaetognatha, Sipuncula and Brachiopoda (meroplankton). 67 Figure 1.3: Pelagic red crabs on kelp ( Macrocystis pyrifera ) in coastal habitats of Monterey Bay, California in August 2015. 69 Figure 1.4: Spatial and temporal variability in the density of juvenile rockfish in the kelp forest water column. A) Temporal variability is demonstrated with the time series of rockfish recruitment data from Stillwater Cove, Carmel Bay, California. B) Spatial variability is demonstrated with rockfish recruitment data from sites in and around Carmel Bay in 2010. 75 Figure 1.5: The net energy flow away from and back to the kelp forest ecosystem resulting from rockfish reproduction and the subsequent recruitment of
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