1 Introduction

Notes

1 Introduction

1. UN initially used the term ‘peace-building’ in Secretary General Boutros-Ghali’s Agenda for Peace, but not for its ‘Peacebuilding’ Commission. 2. Oliver P. Richmond, Maintaining Order, Making Peace (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); The Transformation of Peace: Peace As Governance in Contemporary Conflict Endings (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 3. Such as the role of prominent personalities, such as Graca Machel, the wife of former South African President Nelson Mandela, in Burundi and Kenya; Jimmy Carter in North Korea, Nicaragua, Liberia, and elsewhere, and many special rep- resentatives of the UN, such as the former Finish President and 2008 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Martti Ahtisaari in Namibia and Kosovo, to mediate in particular conflicts. See Ann Kelleher and James Larry Taulbee, “Building Peace Norwegian Style: Studies in Track I ½ Diplomacy,” in Oliver P. Richmond and Henry F. Carey (eds.) Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005), pp. 77–78. 4. The distinction between Track I and II was originally developed by Joseph Montville, 1982, followed by the first book on Track II Diplomacy by John W. McDonald. For a summary of a dozen relevant definitions, see, for example, “Commonly Used Terms,” Search for Common Ground, available at: www.sfcg. org/resources/resources_terms.html 5. Louise Diamond and John W. McDonald developed the concept of multitrack diplomacy and established the Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy. See their Multi-Track Diplomacy: A Systems Approach to Peace (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1996, third ed.). For a website on one of the first modern examples of multitrack diplomacy, the case of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty of 1905 between Russia and Japan, mediated by Theodore Roosevelt, with involvement of the citizens and organizations of Portsmouth, see: www.portsmouthpeacetreaty.org 6. Roy Lidlicker, “Ethical Advice, Conflict Management vs. Human Rights in Ending Civil Wars,” Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 7, no. 4 (2008), pp. 376–387. 7. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith, The Dictator’s Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is almost always Good Politics (New York: 2011). 8. Sabrina P. Ramet, “The Collapse of East European Communism,” chapter 2 in Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 35–53. 9. Greg Mortenson and Greg Oliver Relin, Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace – One School at a Time (New York: Penguin, 2007). 10. Richard A. Falk, Law in an Emerging Global Village (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 1998). Jessica T. Matthews may exaggerate when she writes, “The Nation-State May be Obsolete in an Interneted World,” in “Power Shift”, Foreign Affairs (January–February 1997), p. 11, pp. 50–67. 11. “The Coming Anarchy,” The Atlantic (February 1994), available at: http://www. theatlantic.com/doc/199402/anarchy (accessed 2 December 2009).

234 Notes 235

12. John J. Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 13. Paul Collier, War, Guns and Votes: Democracy in Dangerous Places (New York: Harper, 2009). 14. Roland Paris and Timothy D. Sisk (eds.), The Dilemmas of State Building: Confronting the Contradictions (London: Routledge, 2009). 15. Joseph S. Nye, Understanding International Conflicts: An Introduction to Theory and History (New York: Longman, 2008). 16. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998). 17. Oliver P. Richmond (ed.), Palgrave Advances in Peacebuilding: Critical Developments and Approaches (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh (ed.), Rethinking the Liberal Peace: External Models and Local Alternatives (London: Routledge, 2011). 18. The most extreme version of this view is offensive realism, which finds little basis for cooperation in a world of unbalanced multi-polarity, per Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. 19. Catherine Barnes distinguishes between three types of NGOs (a) sectoral, (b) general structural reform, and (c) specific conflict resolution. Catherine Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeran, Malin Brenk, Marte Hellema and Juliette Verhoeven (eds.), People Building Peace II (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 2005), pp. 12–13. 20. One estimate counts the number of international NGOs at 38,000, available at: www.uia.org/homeorg.htm. 21. Common abbreviations are NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), INGOs (international nongovernmental organizations), and IGOs (intergovernmental organizations). 22. See the book of a chief whistleblower, the former chief spokesman for Cigna and previously Humana, Wendell Potter, Dangerous Spin: An Insurance Company Insider Speaks Out on How Corporate PR is Killing Health Care and Deceiving Americans (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010). Such fake “Astro Turf” NGOs, set up by public relations firms with millions of dollars, are created to lobby and make political attacks, such as Health Care America, which consisted of just two people, a role, Sarah Burke and a media spokesman, Bill Pierce. Abco Worldwide was the NGO created by the Washington, DC, “super law firm” Arnold and Porter, which defended tobacco companies. The NGO Health Care America, which claimed to represent consumers, was never exposed by the press as a previously non-existent front for the insurance industry with just a few members. No press account exposed the true nature of the NGO, which was particularly effective creation of a public-relations firm, which also employed a pollster to track reactions to the movie Sicko. A June 2007 article in The New York Times, describing the movie’s premier release, quoted Pierce as stating that the movie represented a move toward socialism. Bill Macinturf, the pollster for this campaign and later for John McCain, convinced the U.S. public to move away from its preference for greater government regulation of health care. Health Care America also hired a private investigator to obtain per- sonally embarrassing details on the film’s director, Michael Moore, which proved unnecessary because Health Care America’s advertisements and statement convinced the U.S. public that a single-payer option or universal care amounted to socialism and that Michael Moore was a socialist. The single-payer option was not part of the health insurance reforms enacted in 2010. A similar PR campaign, 236 Notes

featuring television advertisements with Harry and Louise, helped to terminate the Clinton Administration’s 1993 universal health care proposal. 23. For examples of studies based on subjective analyses, such as the AI reports, see Robert H. Howard and Henry F. Carey, “Courts and Political Freedom: A Measure of Judicial Independence,” Judicature, Vol. 87, no. 6 (May–June 2004), pp. 1–10; Steven C. Poe and C. Neal Tate, “Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 88 (1994), pp. 853–900. For the actual database used in the latter, see http://www.psci.unt.edu/ihrsc/poetate. htm (accessed 18 January 2010). I also used Freedom House data in Henry F. Carey and Rafal Raciborski, “Postcolonialism: A Valid Paradigm for the Former Sovietized States and Yugoslavia?” East European Politics and Societies, Vol. 18, no. 2 (Spring 2004), pp. 191–235. 24. Thomas G. Weiss and Leon Gordenker (eds.) NGOs, the UN and Global Governance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1996); Henry F. Carey, “NGOs and the Rule of Law,” Journal of Human Rights, special issue on “NGOs and the Rule of Law”, Vol. 2, no. 3 (September 2003). 25. Weiss and Gordenker (eds.) NGOs, the UN and Global Governance, p. 28. 26. Thomas Carothers, “How Democracies Emerge: the ‘Sequencing Fallacy,’ ” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 18, no. 1 (January 2007), pp. 12–27. 27. Michael Bratton, “The Politics of Government-NGO Relations in Africa,” World Development, Vol. 17, no. 4 (1989), pp. 569–587. 28. Roger Cohen, “The Hidden Revolution: the Serbian Students Who Brought Down Milošević,” The New York Times Magazine (26 November, 2000), pp. 43–47, 118, 148. 29. Sara Cameron, “The Role of Children as Peace-makers in Colombia,” Development Vol. 43, no.1, pp. 40–45. 30. Jaco Cilliers, “Transforming Post-Accord Education Systems: Local Reflections from Bosnia-Herzegovina,” in Siobhán McEvoy-Levy, Troublemakers or Peacemakers?: Youth and Post-Accord Peacebuilding (University of Notre Dame Press, 2006), pp. 173–194. 31. Hans Holmén, Snakes in Paradise: NGOs and the Aid Industry in Africa (Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, 2010), p. viii. 32. Shawn Teresa Flanigan, For the Love of God: NGOs and Religious Identity in a Violent World (Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, 2010), p. 5. 33. Walt Bogdanich and Jenny Nordberg, “Mixed U.S. Signals Helped Tilt Haiti toward Chaos,” The New York Times (29 January 2006), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/29/international/americas/29haiti. html?_r’1&scp’1&sq’Stanley%20Lucas%20Haiti&st’cse; Joshua Kurlantzick, “The Coup Connection: How an Organization Financed by the U.S. Government has been Planning the Overthrow of Elected Leaders Abroad,” Mother Jones (November/ December 2004), available at: http://motherjones.com/politics/2004/11/coup- connection. 34. For a cynical view, see Jim Rogers, Adventure Capitalist: The Ultimate Road Trip (New York: Random House, 2004). 35. Nye, Understanding International Conflicts, p. 36. 36. Testimony of U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill, before the hearing before the Senate Homeland Security Subcommittee on Contracting (21 April 2009), available at: http://www.cspan.org/Watch/Media/2009/04/21/Terr/A/17649/Senate+Homela nd+Security+Subcmte+Hearing+on+Detecting+Contract+Fraud.aspx 37. Under General Service Administration regulations on contract terms of the U.S. government, contractors cannot be reviewed once the contract is signed, Notes 237

if their pricing information was not accurate prior to contracting. There are no post-award audit rights for defective pricing. Furthermore, under a case in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, in UNITED STATES V. SA FAV I AN (17 June 2008), available at: http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp ?id=1202422506772&slreturn=1&hbxlogin=1 (accessed 27 August 2011), federal employees are not required to reveal everything they know to auditors and special agents reviewing contracts. Testimony of Brian Miller, chief of the U.S. General Services Administration, before the hearing before the Senate Homeland Security Subcommittee (21 April 2009), available at: http://www.gsaig. gov/?LinkServID=51C674FB-E625-82C3-400B9B96BD4EE2A2&showMeta=0 (accessed 27 August 2011). 38. Helen V. Milner, “Introduction,” to Milner and Andrew Moravcsik (eds.), Power, Interdependence and Nonstate Actors in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), pp. 3–30. 39. Jessica Matthews Tuchman, “Power Shift,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 1997), pp. 50–66. 40. See the Correlates of War Project data on civil war combined, for example, by Nils-Petter Gleditsch, Peter Wallensteen, Mikael Eriksson, Margareta Sollenberg and Håvard Strand, “Armed Conflict 1946–2001: A New Data Set,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 39, no. 5 (2002), pp. 615–637; Other factors are seen in studies, for example, by Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 56, no. 4 (2004), pp. 563–595; James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Ethnicity, Insurgency and Civil War,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 97, no. 1 (2003); Håvard Hegre, Tanja Ellingsen, Scott Gates and Nils Petter Gleditsch “Toward a Democratic Peace? Democracy, Political Change, and Civil War, 1816–1992,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 95, no. 1 (2001), pp. 33–48; and Nicholas Sambanis Ibrahim Elbadawi, “How Much War Will We See? Estimating the Prevalence of War in 161 Countries, 1960–1999,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 46, no. 3 (2002), pp. 307–334. 41. Mark Duffield, Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples (Cambridge: Polity, 2007); Oliver P. Richmond, “The Problem of Peace: Understanding the ‘Liberal Peace,’ ” Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 6, no. 3, (October 20 06), pp. 291– 314; R ichmond, The Transformation of Peace; Richmond and Roger Mac Ginty, “The Liberal Peace and Post-War Reconstruction”, Global Society, Special Issue, Vol. 21, no. 4 (2007); Michael Pugh, “The Political Economy of Peacebuilding: A Critical Theory Perspective”, International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 10, no. 2 (2005), pp. 23–42. 42. Stanley Hoffman, The State of War: Essays on the Theory and Practice of International Politics (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1965). 43. Johann Galtung quoted in Richard Pierre Claude and Burns H. Weston, “Questions for Reflection and Discussion,” Human Rights in the World Community (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), p. 282. 44. David Kennedy, “The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?” Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 15 (2002), p. 110. 45. Roberto Belloni, “Civil Society in War-to-Democracy Transitions,” in Anna K. Jarstad and Timothy D. Sisk (eds.), From War to Democracy: Dilemmas of Peacebuilding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 206–207. 46. Michael Edwards, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), p. 95. 47. World Bank, Local Level Institutions and Social Capital Study (Washington, DC: June 2002), p. viii. 238 Notes

48. Peter Uvin, Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1998). 49. Priscilla Hayner, Unspeakable Truths: The Challenge of Truth Commissions (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 19–20. 50. Michael Howard, The Invention of Peace (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001). 51. Reinhold Niebhur, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (New York: Charles Scribner, 1932). 52. Thomas G. Weiss and Leon Gordenker, “Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions,” in Weiss and Gordenker (eds.), NGOs, the UN and Global Governance, p. 71. 53. William S. Broad and David E. Sanger, “U.S. showed the World Exhibit A, Iran as Nuclear Threat; Now Exhibit B Upends It,” The New York Times (4 December 2007), p. A14. 54. In this book, NGOs will refer generally to domestic NGOs. Where the distinction between these two types of NGOs is made, international NGOs will be distin- guished as INGOs. The pejorative term BINGOs refers to Big International NGOs, which are criticized for dominating the smaller domestic NGOs typical of the developing world. 55. See the recommendations in the Final Report to the General Assembly of the Panel led by former Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, which made recommendations on the UN’s relationship with civil society. See also Sarah E. Mendelson and John K. Glenn (eds.), The Power and Limits of NGOs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002). 56. “Africa Live,” BBC Broadcast (25 February 2005). 57. Larry Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 221. 58. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Eastern Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). 59. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (Chicago: American Bar Association, 2010). 60. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Penguin Classics, 2003). 61. Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). 62. Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu, and Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation. 63. Giovanni Sartori, Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, NJ: Chatham Hall Publishers, 1987). 64. Larry Diamond, “Rethinking Civil Society: Toward Democratic Consolidation,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 5, no. 3 (July 1994). 65. Ian Smillie, Ian and Goran Todorović, “Reconstructing Bosnia, Constructing Civil Society: Disjuncture and Dilemma in Patronage or Partnership,” in Ian Smillie (ed.), Patronage or Partnership: Local Capacity Building in Humanitarian Crises (Canada: International Development Resource Centre, 2001). 66. “An Upside to the Relief Effort,” Newsweek (26 May 2008), p. 6. 67. Christopher J. Anderson and Aida Paskeviciute, “How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogeneity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society: A Comparative Study Notes 239

of Citizenship Behavior,” Journal of Politics, Vol. 68, no. 4 (November 2006), pp. 783–802. 68. Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeran et al. (eds.), People Building Peace II, p. 9. 69. Emphasis Added, Sheri Berman, “The Vain Hope for ‘Correct’ Timing,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 18, no. 3 (July 2007), p. 14. 70. David P. Forsythe, Human Rights in International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 71. Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeran et al. (eds.), People Building Peace II, p. 8. 72. Felice D. Gaer, in Henry F. Carey and Oliver P. Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs (London: Frank Cass, 2003), pp. 73–89. 73. Christof Heyns and Frans Viljoen, “The Impact of United Nations Treaties on the Domestic Level,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 23, no. 3 (August 2001), pp. 483–535. 74. Douglas Roche, The Human Right to Peace (Toronto: Novalis, 2003). The Oslo Declaration is described in chapter five, “Peace: A ‘Sacred Right,’ ” pp. 122–244. 75. “Opening Inaugural Session of the Peacebuilding Commission, Secretary- General Stresses Importance of Supporting Countries Emerging from Conflict,” UN Press Release, available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/pbc1. doc.htm (accessed 26 December 2010). 76. See, for example, Madeline Kristoff and Liz Panarelli, “Haiti: A Republic of NGOs?” (Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace, April 2010), available at: http://www.usip.org/publications/haiti-republic-ngos (accessed 27 August 2011). 77. Oliver P. Richmond, “The Liberal Peace,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 78. Please refer to Timothy T. Schwartz, Travesty in Haiti: A True Account of Christian Missions, Orphanages, Food Aid, Fraud and Drug Trafficking (Self-Published, 2010) and Jorge Heine and Andrew S. Thompson, Fixing Haiti: MINUSTAH and Beyond (New York: UN University Press, 2011). 79. Oxfam Briefing Paper, From Relief to Recovery: Supporting Good Governance in Haiti, no. 142 (6 January 2011), available at: http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/relief- recovery (accessed 15 January 2011). 80. David B. Steele, “Embedding UN Norms,” The International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 3, no. 3 (Autumn 1999), p. 80. 81. Clark Efaw and Avtar Kaul, “Rights-Based Development at CARE, International,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 82. Jo Ann Aviel, “NGOs and the Rule of Law in Central America,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 83. An exemplar of the cautionary tale is Elizabeth M. Cousens, “Introduction,” in Cousens and Chetan Kumar (eds.), Peacebuilding As Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 2001), pp. 1–19. 84. Cousens, “Introduction,” in Cousens and Chetan Kumar (eds.), Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies, p. 14. 85. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: With the New Supplement and Related UN Documents (New York: United Nations, 1995, 2nd ed.); Task Force on Postconflict Peace-Building, An Inventory of Postconflict Peacebuilding Activities (New York: UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs, June 1995). 86. Cousens, “Introduction,” in Cousens and Chetan Kumar (eds.), Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies, p.5. 240 Notes

87. John J. Hamre and Gordon R. Sullivan, “Toward Postconflict Reconstruction,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, no. 4 (2002), p. 89, pp. 85–96. 88. Charles T. Call and Susan E. Cook, “On Democratization and Peacebuilding,” Global Governance, Vol. 9 (2003), p. 233, pp. 233–246. 89. Earl Conteh-Morgan, “Peacebuilding and Human Security: A Constructivist Perspective,” International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 10, no. 1 (2005), p. 70, pp. 69–86; Marek Pavka, “Private Military Companies in Peacebuilding,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, p. 131; Michael Schloms, “Humanitarian NGOs in Peace Processes,” in Henry F. Carey and Oliver P. Richmond (eds.), International Peacekeeping, Vol. 10, no. 1 (2003), p. 42, pp. 40–55. 90. Jonathan Goodhand, Aiding Peace: The Role of NGOs in Armed Conflict (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 2006), p. 12; N. Ball, “The Reconstruction and Transformation of War-Torn Societies and State Institutions: How Can External Actors Contribute?” in T. Debiel and A. Klein (eds.), Fragile Peace, State Failure, Violence and Development in Crisis Regions (London: Zed Books, 2002), pp. 33–55. 91. Thomas G. Weiss, Beyond UN Subcontracting: Task-Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998). 92. Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security (London: Zed Books, 2001); Oliver P. Richmond, “The Liberal Peace,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 93. Peter Van Tuijl, “NGOs and Human Rights: Sources of Justice and Democracy,” Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 52, no. 2 (1999), p. 495, pp. 493–512. 94. Karin Aggestam, “Conflict Prevention: Old Wine in New Bottles?” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs, p. 16, pp. 12–23. 95. Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 96. Michael W. Doyle and Nicholas Sambanis, Making War and Building Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), p. 22. 97. Ibid., p. 19.

2. Pacting Dilemmas of Democratic Reconciliation

1. Julie Mertus and Jeffrey Helsing (eds.), Human Rights and Conflict (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 2006). 2. I. William Zartman, Cowardly Lions: Missed Opportunities to Prevent Deadly Conflict and State Collapse (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005). 3. William L. Ury, Getting to Peace (New York: Viking, 1999). 4. Roger Fisher and William Ury, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In (New York: Penguin, 1991). 5. Christine Bell, Peace Agreements and Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Michelle Parlevliet, “Bridging the Divide: Exploring the Relationship between Human Rights and Conflict Management,” Track II, Vol. 11, no. 1 (March 2002); Lisa Vinjamuri and Aron P. Boesenecker, Human Rights and Peace Agreements: Mapping Trends from 1980 to 2006 (Geneva: Center for Humanitarian Dialogue, 2007). 6. David B. Steele, “Embedding UN Norms,” The International Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 3, no. 3 (Autumn 1999), p. 80. Carothers, “How Democracies Emerge: the ‘Sequencing Fallacy,’ ” pp. 12–27. Notes 241

7. Rhoda E. Howard-Hassmann, “The Second Great Transformation: Human Rights Leapfrogging in the Era of Globalization,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 27, no. 1 (February 2005), pp. 1–40. 8. Paul van Tongeren, Malin Brenk, Marte Hellema and Juliette Verhoeven, “Introduction,” in van Tongeren et al. (eds.) People Building Peace II: Successful Stories of Civil Society (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005), p. 1. 9. Terry Lynn Karl, “Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America,” Comparative Politics, Vol. 23 (October 1990), pp. 1–20; Frances Hagopian, “Democracy by Undemocratic Means: Elites, Political Pacts, and Regime Transition in Brazil,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 23, no. 2 (July 1990), pp. 147–169. 10. Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. 11. Edward N. Luttwak, “Give War a Chance,” Foreign Affairs (July/August 1999), Vol. 78, no. 4. pp. 36–44. 12. David Easton, “An Approach to the Analysis of Political Systems,” World Politics, Vol. IX, no. 3 (April 1957), pp. 383–400. 13. See, for example, Carter’s interview on “Speaking of Faith,” (2 May 2007), available in the archives at www.speakingoffaith.org 14. Trudy Rubin, “Carter Should Have Focused on Reality,” The Atlanta Journal- Constitution (29 April 2008), p. A9. 15. Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeren et al. (eds.), People Building Peace II, p. 7. 16. Susan Burgerman, “Voices from the Parallel Table: The Role of Civil Sectors in the Guatemalan Peace Process” in Richmond and Carey, Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, pp. 219–225. 17. Edward N. Luttwak, “Franco-German Reconciliation: The Overlooked Role of the Moral Re-Armament Movement,” in Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson (eds.), Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 8–19. In the past decade, MRA changed its name to “Initiatives of Change,” just as it originally was called “The Oxford Group.” 18. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1991). Not only does he fore- cast amnesties, he also normatively thinks bygones should be let go in order to move forward. 19. Diane F. Orentlicher, “Why Human Rights Violators Should be Prosecuted,” Yale Law Journal (1992). 20. Alissa J. Rubin, “Political Power Plays Are Unsettling Iraq as US Reduces Its Role,” The New York Times (26 December 2008), pp. A1, A8. 21. Or Arthur Honig, “How Radicalization Leads to Peace: Explaining the Timing of Negotiations in Enduring Intra-State Conflicts,” Ph.D. Dissertation, UCLA (2009). 22. Nicholas D. Kristof, “Our Own Terrorist,” The New York Times (5 March 2002), p. A25. 23. Allister Sparks, Tomorrow Is Another Country: The Inside Story of South Africa’s Road to Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). For a wonderful film of one of these 1985–1990 talks between the ANC and the South African government, initiated by businessman Michael Young, see “Endgame” (PBS, Masterpiece Theater, available at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/endgame/young. html (accessed 12 December 2009). 24. BBC Newshour (28 January 2009). 25. Mark J. O’Reilly, Unexceptional: America’s Empire in the Persian Gulf, 1941–2007 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008), p. 138. 242 Notes

26. Anthony Lake, “Mediation in Managua,” Somoza Falling (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), p. 145. 27. I. William Zartman (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington: Brookings, l995). 28. Carter Interview on the “Tavis Smiley Show,” PBS (8 January 2007). 29. Available at: http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm (accessed 26 December 2010). 30. Leon Wieseltier, “Common Grounded,” The New Republic (4 November 2009), p. 56. 31. “Obama’s Address in Cairo” (2 June 2009), available at: http://www.nytimes. com/interactive/2009/06/02/us/politics/200900604_OBAMA_CAIRO.html# (accessed 26 December 2010). 32. Interview, Owen Bennett-Jones, BBC Newshour (16 December 2009). 33. Friederich V. Kratochwil and John Gerard Ruggie, “International Organization: A State of the Art of the Art of the State,” International Organization, Vol. 40 (1986), pp. 753–777; Gregory A. Raymond, “Problems and Prospects in the Study of International Norms,” Mershon International Studies Review, Vol. 41 (1997), pp. 205– 245; and Finnemore and Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,” International Organization, Vol. 52, no. 4 (Autumn 1998), p. 892. 34. Clare Lockhart and Ashraf Ghanin, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 35. This is what Finnemore and Sikkink call deonic, evaluative or normative quali- ties of constructing new norms through inter-subjective, discursive processes. See Finnemore and Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,” p. 891, pp. 887–917.

3 Dilemmas of Physical and Human Security

1. James Sheehan, Where Have All the Soldiers Gone? The Transformation of Modern Europe (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008). 2. Dietrich Fisher, Wilhelm Nolte and Jan Oberg, Winning Peace: Strategies and Ethics for a Nuclear-Free World (London: Crane Russak, 1989); Ken Booth, Theory of World Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 3. Michael Gordon Jackson, “A Necessary Collaboration: NGOs, Peacekeepers and Credible Military Force – The Case of Sierra Leone and East Timor,” in P. Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, p. 109. 4. Jeong Ho-Won, Peacebuilding in Postconflict Societies: Strategy and Process (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005), p. 39; Scott Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Post-conflict Reconstruction,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, no. 4 (2002), p. 98, pp. 97–109. 5. US Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Manual, FM 3-24/FMFM 3-24; chapter II, lines 238–243, available at: http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3-24fd. pdf. 6. See the PBS-Frontline Show, “The Lost American,” available at: http://www.pbs. org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cuny/ 7. Peter Van Tuijl, “NGOs and Human Rights: Sources of Justice and Democracy,” Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 52, no. 2 (1999), p. 503, pp. 493–512. 8. Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Postconflict Reconstruction,” p. 99, pp. 97–109; Ho-Won, Peacebuilding in Postconflict Societies: Strategy and Process, p. 39. Notes 243

9. Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Postconflict Reconstruction,” p. 99, pp. 97–109. 10. Robert I. Rotberg and Ericka A. Albaugh, Preventing Conflict in Africa: Possibilities of Peace Enforcement (Cambridge, Massachusetts: World Peace Foundation, 1999), p. 87. 11. Ho-Won, Peacebuilding in Postconflict Societies: Strategy and Process, p. 144. 12. Chris Cuomo, “War is not just an Event: Reflections on the Significance of Everyday Violence,” Hypatia, Vol. 11, no. 4 (1996), pp. 30–45; William C. Gay, “The Practice of Linguistic Nonviolence,” Peace Review, Vol. 10, no. 4 (1998), pp. 545–547. 13. Michael Nagler, “Redefining Peace,” Bulletin of Atomic the Scientists, Vol. 4, no. 9 (November 1984), pp. 36–37. 14. Terrence Lyons, Demilitarizing Politics: Elections on the Uncertain Road to Peace (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005). 15. One of the best examples of the second-generation conceptualization is presented in the large project in Thania Paffenholz (ed.), Civil Society and Peacebuilding: A Critical Assessment (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009). 16. Chadwick Alger, “Peace Studies As a Transdisciplinary Project,” in Charles Webel and Johann Galtung (eds.), Handbook of Peace and Conflict Studies (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 299–318. 17. Oliver P. Richmond, “A Post-Liberal Peace: Eirenism and the Everyday,” Review of International Studies, Vol. 35 (2009), pp. 557–580. 18. This is unacknowledged disappearance, not to be confused with solitary con- finement. 19. Samantha Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Harper Perennial, 2002), pp. 345–346. 20. See, for example, Thomas E. Ricks, Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq (New York: Penguin, 2006); Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq (New York: Pantheon, 2006); George Packer, The Assassins’ Gate: America in Iraq (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005); Peter W. Galbraith, The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created a War without End (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006); Eric Herrinig and Glen Rangwala, Iraq in Fragments: The Occupation and its Legacy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006); Charles H. Ferguson, No End in Sight: Iraq’s Descent into Chaos (New York: Public Affairs, 2008); Ali A. Allawi, The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008). 21. National Public Radio, “All Things Considered” (1 August 2007). 22. Roland Flamini, “Afghanistan on the Brink,” CQ Researcher (1 June 2007). 23. Francoise Chipaux, “Dans le provinces afghans, des conditions de travail dif- ficiles pour les ONG,” Le Monde (2 May 2007), p. 1. 24. Ahmed Rashid, “The Mess in Afghanistan,” New York Review of Books (12 February 2004), pp. 24–27. 25. The death estimate is highly uncertain, with 95 percent uncertainty, between 3.5 and 7.8 million have died since 1998 in a country with a population ranging from 56.8 million (UN estimate) to 69.9 million (Congolese Ministry of Health) and where the prewar death rate is unknown. Lydia Polgreen, “Congo’s Death Rate Remains Unchanged since the War Ended in 2003, Survey Says,” The New York Times (23 January 2008), p. A8. 26. http://doctorswithoutborders.org/press/release.cfm?id’4055&cat’press- release&ref’home-sidebar-right (accessed 9 November 2009). BBC, “DR Congo 244 Notes

Army ‘used as Bait,’ ” available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8347503.stm (accessed 9 November 2009). 27. Omar Ashour, The De-Radicalization of Jihadists: Transforming Armed Islamist Movements (London: Routledge, 2009). 28. Jennifer L. McCoy, “International Response to Democratic Crisis in the Americas, 1990–2005,” Democratization, Vol. 13, no. 5 (2006), pp. 756–775. 29. Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003). 30. Guillermo O’Donnell, “Delegative Democracy,” Kellogg Institute Working Paper, no. 172 (March 1992). 31. Rene Antonio Mayorga, “Outsiders and Neopopulism: The Road to Plebiscitarian Authoritarianism,” Paper submitted to the Conference “The Crisis of Democratic Representation in the Andes.” Kellogg Institute for International Affairs, University of Notre Dame, 13–14 May 2002, available at: http://cpo4303.info/yahoo_site_ admin/assets/docs/mayorgaa.393503.pdf; Kurt Weyland, “Neopopulism and Neoliberalism in Latin America: How Much Affinity,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 24, no. 6 (2003), pp. 1095–1115. 32. Andreas Shedler, Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006); Steven Levitsky and Lucian Way, “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism,” Journal of Democracy Vol. 13, no. 2 (2002), pp. 51–65. 33. For example, Daniel Yergin emphasizes the importance of energy security, “to assure adequate, reliable supplies of energy at reasonable prices and in ways that do not jeopardize major national values and objectives.” “Energy Security in the 1990s,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 67, no. 1 (1988), p. 111. 34. Stephen D. Krasner and Carlos Pascual, “Addressing State Failure,” Foreign Affairs (July/August 2005). 35. John S. Duffield, “International Security Institutions: Rules, Tools, Schools, or Fools,” in R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah Binder, and Bert Rockman (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 636. 36. Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Postconflict Reconstruction,” p. 98, pp. 97–109; John J. Hamre and Gordon R. Sullivan, “Toward Post-conflict Reconstruction,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, no. 4 (2002), p. 91, pp. 85–96. 37. Earl Conteh-Morgan, “Peacebuilding and Human Security: A Constructivist Perspective,” International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 10, no. 1 (2005), p. 72, pp. 69–86. 38. Michael Schloms, “Humanitarian NGOs in Peace Processes,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), International Peacekeeping, p. 43, pp. 40–55. 39. Mark Plunkett, “Reestablishing Law and Order in Peace-Maintenance,” in Jarat Chopra (ed.), The Politics of Peace-Maintenance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1998), p. 62. 40. Robert Orr, “Governing When Chaos Rules: Enhancing Governance and Participation,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, no. 4 (2002), pp. 139–152. 41. Richard A. Falk, Achieving Human Rights; Mary Kaldor, Global Civil Society: An Answer to War (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2003). 42. Francis Kofi Abiew, “From Civil Strife to Civic Society: NGO-Military Relations in Peace Operations,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs, pp. 24–39. 43. Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin, Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace ... One School at a Time (New York: Viking, 2006); and Greg Notes 245

Mortenson and Mike Bryan, Stones into Schools: Promoting Peace with Books, Not Bombs in Afghanistan and Pakistan (New York: Viking, 2009). 44. According to his first book’s website, available at: http://www.threecupsoftea. com/wp-includes/documents/GMBio.pdf. It is fair to say that his apparent self- promotion supports a remarkably inspiring effort. It is so unusual and praise- worthy that it underscores how extraordinary peacebuilding often has to be to succeed. However, the most important point is that Afghan families do prefer education for their children. 45. Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeren et al. (eds.), People Building Peace II, p. xi. 46. Carlotta Gall, “Taliban Free Aid Worker, Keeping Four,” The New York Times (29 April 2007), p. 8. 47. Mahmood Monshipouri, “NGOs and Peacebuilding in Afghanistan,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), International Peacekeeping, pp. 138–155. 48. Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Postconflict Reconstruction,” p. 104, pp. 97–109. 49. Kumar Rupesinghe and Sanam Naraghi Anderlini, Civil Wars, Civil Peace: An Introduction to Conflict Resolution (London: Pluto Press, 1998), p. 142. 50. David Garland, Peculiar Institution: America’s Death Penalty in an Age of Abolition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010). 51. M. Cherif Bassiouni, “Searching for Peace and Achieving Justice: The Need for Accountability,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 59, no. 4, available at: www. law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?59+Law+&+Contemp.+Probs.+9+(Fall+1996) (accessed 26 December 2010). 52. Press release No. 05/39 of the ICRC. 53. Ibid. 54. UN Document EC/2763, pp. 6–7. 55. Asma Jahangir, UN Document E/CN.4/2001/9 (11 January 2001), p. 33. 56. Hamish McDonald, Suharto’s Indonesia (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1981). 57. Benedict R. O’G Anderson, Violence and the State in Suharto’s Indonesia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 2001). 58. Cynthia J. Arnson (ed.), The Peace Process in Colombia with the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Report on the Americas, #13, 2005), p. 2. 59. Hina Jilani, UN Document E/CN.4/2002/106/Add.2, p. 57. 60. Ibid. 61. ICTY Judgment, Prosecutor v. Mitar Vasilejević, (25 February 2004), available at: http://www.icty.org/x/cases/vasiljevic/acjug/en/val-aj040225e.pdf (accessed 26 December 2010). 62. Alissa J. Rubin “Ending Impasse, Iraq Parliament Backs Measures,” The New York Times (14 February 2008), pp. A1, A12. 63. According to John MacBeth and Robert Tiglao of the Far Eastern Economic Review. (Author Interview, May 1991, Manila). 64. Deborah Avant, “The Privatization of Security and Change in the Control of Force,” International Studies Perspectives, Vol. 5, no. 2 (May 2004), pp. 153–157; see S. Fidler and T. Catan, “Private Military Companies Pursue the Peace Dividend,” Financial Times (2 Ju ly 2 0 03); Dav id Shea rer, Private Armies and Military Intervention (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). See also the bibliography, available at: http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/bibs/pmc08.htm (accessed 30 November 2009). 246 Notes

65. Editorial, “Mr. Gates Makes a Start,” The New York Times (14 August 2010), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/opinion/15sun1.html?_ r=1&scp=1&sq=Gates%20contractors&st=cse; Thom Shanker, “Pentagon Plans Steps to Reduce Budget and Jobs,” The New York Times (9 August 2010), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/10/us/10gates.html?scp=3&sq=Gates%20 contractors&st=cse. 66. Dexter Filkins and Scott Shane, “Afghan Leader Sees Plan to Ban Private Guards,” The New York Times (17 August 2010), p. A10. 67. Pavka, “Private Military Companies in Peacebuilding,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 68. Ibid. 69. Mark Mazzetti, “Gates Begins Inquiry on Spy Network in Pakistan and Afghanistan,” The New York Times (28 April 2010), p. A9. 70. Jeremy Scahill, “Contractors Watching Contractors,” The Nation (10 December 2009), online edition available at: http://www.thenation.com/article/contractors-watching-contractors (accessed 10 December 2009). 71. See USAID budget data, available at: http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/money/ (accessed 27 December 2010). 72. James Risen and Mark Mazzetti, “CIA Outsources Work on Drones to Blackwater,” The New York Times (21 August 2009), p. A9. 73. Memorandum, U.S. House Subcommittee on Contract Oversight (16 December 2009), available at: http://mccaskill.senate.gov/pdf/121709/2009-12- 16StaffMemo.pdf (accessed 20 December 2009). 74. Matthew Rosenberg and Yochi J. Dreasen, The Wall Street Journal, Interviewed on the Brian Lehrer Show (4 September 2009), available at: www.wnyc.org. 75. Jeremy Scahill, “Stunning Statistics Every American Should Know” (17 December 2009), available at: http://rebelreports.com/ (accessed 20 December 2009). See also Michael O’Hanlon, Ian Livingston, Heather Messera, Michael E. O’Hanlon and Amy Unikewicz, “State of Conflict: An Update,” The New York Times (26 December 2010), Section 4, p. A12, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/27/ opinion/27ohanlon.html?scp=1&sq=Michael%20O’Hanlon&st=cse (accessed 27 December 2010). 76. Sheryle WuDunn and Nicholas Kristof, Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009).

4 Liberal Dilemmas of Human Rights Monitoring

1. Richard A. Falk, Human Rights Horizons (London: Routledge, 2000); Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Katherine Sikkink (eds.), The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 2. Henry F. Carey, “NGO Monitoring of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,” in Katherine R. Hite and Mark Ungar (eds.), New Challenges of Human Rights: Essays in Honor of Margaret Crahan (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center/ Baltimore: the Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012. 3. David Rieff, “The Precarious Triumph of Human Rights,” The New York Times Magazine (8 August 1999), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/08/ magazine/the-precarious-triumph-of-human-rights.html (accessed 30 November 2009). Notes 247

4. The human right to peace was said to be contained in the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, the International Covenants on Human Rights, the 2000 United Nations Millennium Declaration, the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, the Declaration on the development of societies to live in peace, the Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace, the Charter of the OAS, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the Asian Human Rights Charter, the African Charter on Human Rights and Peoples’ Rights, the Arab League Human Rights Charter and the Charter of the Organization of Islamic Conference, UN Document HRI/ ICM/2009/6. 5. Torture was defined as “physical injury, such as organ failure, impairment of bod- ily function, or even death.” This standard was written in John Yoo’s first draft of the second torture memo, signed by the Department of Justice’s Office of Legal Counsel Director Jay Bybee and sent to White House Counsel Alberto Gonzalez. Memorandum from Office of the Assistant Attorney Gen. to Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President (1 August 2002). The memo also asserted that the Geneva Conventions do not apply to non-state actors like Al-Qaeda detainees. 6. Darius Rejali, Demomcracy and Torture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007). 7. International Committee of the Red Cross, Report of the Treatment of Fourteen “High Value Detainees in CIA Custody” (February 2007); Mark Danner, “US Torture: Voices from the Black Sites,” The New York Review of Books (9 April 2009), pp. 69–77. 8. David P. Forsythe, Human Rights in International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 9. See Edward L. Cleary, The Struggle for Human Rights in Latin America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997); Ivelaw L. Griffith and Betty N. Sedoc-Dahlberg (eds.), Democracy and Human Rights in the Caribbean (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998); Yet, it is significant that one of the most important political scientists studying human rights, Jack Donnelly, gave NGOs very little play in his textbook, International Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998). 10. John W. Foster and Anita Anand (eds.), Whose World Is It Anyway? Civil Society, the United Nations and the Multilateral Future (Ottawa: The United Nations Association of Canada, 1999). 11. UN Document A/HRC/1/SR.21 at paragraph 2 (2006). 12. Genocide was banned by the 1948 Genocide Convention. However, states like Israel and Canada, which have case law and statutes claiming universal jurisdiction, have not always used it. Both states refused to prosecute Pol Pot of Cambodia for genocide. Adolph Eichman, in his Israeli trial, was acquitted for genocide prior for acts prior to 1941, though not after then. 13. Thomas Risse and Stephen C. Ropp, “International Human Rights Norms and Domestic Change: Conclusion,” in Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink (eds.), The Power of Principles: Human Rights Norms and Domestic Political Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 234–278. 14. Alison des Forges, “US Human Rights Policy in Rwanda,” in Debra Liang- Fenton (ed.), Implementing US Human Rights Policy: Agendas, Policies, and Practices (Washington, DC, 2004), p. 46. 15. Merle Goldman, “Monitoring Human Rights in China,” in Liang-Fenton, (ed.), Implementing US Human Rights Policy: Agendas, Policies, and Practices, p. 136. 248 Notes

16. Laurie S. Wiseberg, “The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations,” in Claude, Richard P. and Burns H. Weston (eds.), Human Rights in the World Community (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), p. 372. 17. Kathryn A. Sikkink, “Nongovernmental Organizations, Democracy, and Human Rights in Latin America,” in Tom Farer (ed.), Beyond Sovereignty: Collectively Defending Democracy in the Americas (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 151. 18. Amnesty International, “Torture as Policy,” in Richard Pierre Claude and Burns H. Weston (eds.), Human Rights in the World Community (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), pp. 79–90. 19. Transcript of Shultz interview on Fox News Sunday television (5 June 2005), available at: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,158542,00.html; see William F. Schulz, In Our Own Best Interest: How Defending Human Rights Benefits US (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002). 20. Kenneth Roth, Amy D. Bernstein and Minky Worden (eds.), Torture: A Human Rights Perspective (New York: The New Press, 2005); Kenneth Roth, Human Rights in the Haitian Transition to Democracy,” in Carla Hesse and Robert Post (eds), Human Rights in Political Transitions: Gettysburg to Bosnia (New York: Zone Books; distributed by MIT Press, Cambridge, 1999). 21. Aryeh Neier is the author of six books, Dossier: The Secret Files They Keep on You (Lanham, MD: Scarborough House, 1975), Crime and Punishment: A Radical Solution (New York: Stein and Day, 1976), Defending My Enemy: American Nazis in Skokie, Illinois, and the Risks of Freedom (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1979), Only Judgment: The Limits of Litigation on Social Change (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1982), War Crimes, Brutality, Genocide, Terror and the Struggle for Justice (New York: Times Books, 1998), and Taking Liberties: Four Decades in the Struggle for Rights (New York: Public Affairs, 2003). 22. Juan E. Mendez, “Accountability for Past Abuses,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 19, no. 2 (1997), pp. 255–282; Juan E. Mendez, “National Reconciliation, Transnational Justice, and the International Criminal Court,” Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 15, no. 1 (March 2001), pp. 25–44. 23. Timothy W. Crawford and Alan J. Kuperman (eds.), Gambling on Humanitarian Intervention: Moral Hazard, Rebellion, and Civil War (New York: Routledge, 2006). 24. Ramesh Thakur and Mary Ellen O’Connell, “The R2P Controversy,” Global Policy Forum (March 2008), available at: http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/154/26068.html. 25. Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003). 26. Steven C. Poe and C. Neal Tate, “Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 88 (1994), pp. 853–872; Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate, and Linda Camp Keith, “Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Cross-National Study Covering the Years 1976–1993,” International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 43 (1999), pp. 291–313; Patrick M. Regan and Errol A. Henderson, “Democracy, Threats, and Political Repression: Are Democracies Internally Less Violent?” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 23 (2002), pp. 119–136. 27. David L. Richards, “The Civilizational Geography of Government Respect for Human Rights, 1981–1999,” in David P. Forsythe and Patrice C. McMahon (eds.), Human Rights and Diversity: Area Studies Revisited (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2003). Notes 249

28. Christian Davenport, “Human Rights and the Democratic Proposition,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 43 (1999), pp. 92–116; Emilie Hafner-Burton and Kiyoteru Tsutsui, “Human Rights in a Globalizing World: the Paradox of Empty Promises,” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 110 (2005), pp. 1373–1411; Sabine C. Zanger, “A Global Analysis of the Effect of Political Regime Changes on Life Integrity Violations, 1977–1993,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37 (2000), pp. 213–233. 29. Neil J. Mitchell and James M. McCormick, “Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations,” World Politics, Vol. 40 (1988), pp. 476–498. 30. On modernization, see Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. For a critique, see Guillermo O’Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973). 31. Edward Cleary, Human Rights in Latin America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997). 32. Oona Hathaway, “Why Do Countries Commit to Human Rights Treaties?” The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 51, no. 4 (2007), pp. 588–621. 33. Oona Hathaway, “The Promise and Limits of the International Law of Torture,” in Sanford Levinson (ed.), Torture: A Collection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 206. 34. Emile M. Hafner-Burton and Kiyoteru Tsutsui, “Justice Lost! The Failure of International Human Rights Law to Matter Where It’s Needed Most,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 44, no. 4 (2007), pp. 407–425. 35. James R. Hollyer and B. Peter Rosendorff, “Why Do Authoritarian Regimes Sign the Convention Against Torture? Signaling, Domestic Politics and Non- Compliance,” Draft (10 April 2010), available at: http://iserp.columbia.edu/files/ iserp/Rosendorff--CUIPS%20Paper.pdf. 36. Beth A. Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009). 37. Thomas M. Franck, “The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance,” American Journal of International Law, Vol. 86 (1992), pp. 46–47. 38. See, for example, Chester A. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall (eds.) Managing Global Chaos: Sources and Responses to International Conflict (Washington: U.S. Institute of Peace Press, 1996); Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela R. Aall, Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 2001); and Chester Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela R. Aall (eds.), Leashing the Dogs of War (Washington, DC, 2007). 39. Alexander George, Forceful Persuasion: Coercive Diplomacy As an Alternative to War (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. 1991). 40. Pauline H. Baker, “Getting It Right: US Policy in South Africa,” in Liang-Fenton (ed.), Implementing US Human Rights Policy: Agendas, Policies, and Practices, p. 85. 41. Mertus and Helsing (eds.), Human Rights and Conflict. 42. Pauline H. Baker, “Conflict Resolution versus Democratic Governance: Divergent Paths to Peace?” in Crocker, Hampson and Aall (eds.) Managing Global Chaos: Sources and Responses to International Conflict, pp. 563–572. 43. Jack Snyder and Karen Ballentine, “Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas,” International Security, Vol. 21, no. 2 (Fall 1996). 44. See, for example, Human Rights Watch’s report on executing the mentally retarded, available at http://www.HRCHRC.org/reports/2001/ustat/. 45. The U.S. fears that senior officials might be indicted for war crimes, such as col- lateral civilian damage being called intentional crimes against humanity. The 250 Notes

U.S. relies on Article 16 of the Statute, which reads: “No investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with under this Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security Council, in a resolution adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, has requested the Court to that effect; that request may be renewed by the Council under the same conditions.” While Article 16 might prove useful if U.S. personnel were actually prosecuted, it was never intended to provide blanket future immunity. 46. Genocide, as defined by the 1948 Genocide Convention, is a crime of intent: “Genocide means any of the following acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: (a) Killing members of the group...” UN Document 78 U.N.T.S. 277. Note that a political group, such as in Cambodia, technically would not qualify as genocide. 47. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984). 48. Audie Klotz, Norms in International Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995). 49. Katherine Sikkink, “Nongovernmental Organizations, Democracy and Human Rights in Latin America,” in Tom Farer (ed.), Beyond Sovereignty: Collectively Defending Democracy in Latin America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 150–168. 50. Finnemore and Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,”, pp. 900–904. 51. Falk, Law in an Emerging Global Village: A Post-Westphalian Perspective, ch. 2, p. 33. 52. Margaret E. Keck and Katherine Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. x. 53. For example, Peter Novick noted, “...the repeated invocation of the failure to bomb Auschwitz in discussions of the intervention in Kosovo” in a letter, “America’s Holocaust,” to The New York Times Book Review, 18 July 1999, p. 4. 54. David Rieff, “Wars without End?” The New York Times (September 23, 1999), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/23/opinion/wars-without-end. html?pagewanted=all&src=pm (Accessed 2 November 2011). 55. Julie A. Mertus, Bait and Switch: Human Rights and US Foreign Policy (London: Routledge, 2008), p. 1. 56. Laurie S. Wiseberg, “The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations,” in Put Our World to Rights: Toward a Commonwealth Human Rights Policy (Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, 1991), p. 150. 57. Johan Galtung and Anders Helge Wirak, “Human Needs, Human Rights and Theories of Development,” Indicators of Social and Economic Change and Their Applications (Paris: UNESCO, 1976), pp. 7–34; and Galtung and Wirak, “Human Needs and Human Rights – A Theoretical Approach,” Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 8 (1977), pp. 251–258. 58. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983). 59. Christian Bay, “Human Rights on the Periphery: No Room in the Ark for the Yanamani,” Development Dialogue, Vol. 1, no. 2 (1984), pp. 23–41. 60. Obviously, this was not the case with the U.S. UN, Yearbook on Human Rights for 1979 (New York: United Nations, 1986). 61. UN Press Release, GA/PAL/883 (16 April 1996). Notes 251

62. See, for example, the conceptual dispute between the Government and Israeli NGOs on freedom of expression, which can be legally abridged in an emergency and the rights to thought, conscience, and religion, which cannot be derogated in emergencies, according to General Comment Number Ten of the Human Rights Committee: Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue, on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in his second annual report, UN Document, A/HRC/14/23. At pages 207–208 disputes between the Israeli Government and 13 Israeli NGOs on these related human rights are described. 63. Israel’s 137-page third periodic report under articles 16 and 17 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Document E/C.12/ISR/3, p. 6, para. 15. 64. Interview with Jessica Montell, Executive Director of B’Tselem (11 August 2010), published as a podcast on www.HRCHRC.org. 65. Interviews with David Rosen, Rabbis for Human Rights, and Ed Rettig, American Jewish Committee (Jerusalem, 25 June 2010). They were describing to me skep- tical, complex views of NGOs in Israel of some observers, and not necessarily their own views. For an important study of Israeli human rights NGOs by my colleague at Georgia State University, see Michael Galchinsky, Jews and Human Rights: Dancing at Three Weddings (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008). 66. “Take the Lead on Darfur,” Editorial, The New York Times (19 September 2006), p. A22. See the periodic op-eds by Nicholas Kristof in the same newspaper on Darfur, largely for which he earned the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for opinion writing (e.g., his column on 10 September 2006, Section 4, p. 13. 67. Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). In addition, paramilitary forces are employed as repressive NGOs. See Diane E. Davis and Anthony W. Pereira (eds.), Irregular Armed Forces and Their Role in Politics and State Formation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 68. Rieff, “The Precarious Triumph of Human Rights.” 69. Falk, Human Rights Horizons, p. 8. 70. Claude E. Welch, Jr., “Human Rights NGOs and the Rule of Law in Africa,” in Henry F. Carey (ed.), Journal of Human Rights, Special Issue, Vol. 2, no. 3, (September 2003). 71. Michael Gordon Jackson, “A Necessary Collaboration: NGOs, Peacekeepers and Credible Military Force – The Case of Sierra Leone and East Timor,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, p. 111; UN Department of Public Information. “Major Peacekeeping Operations – Sierra Leone: A Success Story in Peacekeeping” (2006), available at: www.un.org/Depts/ dpko/pub/year_review05/sierra_leone.htm. 72. Rachel Collis, Georgia State University (Graduate student paper, 2004); Freedom House, “Freedom in the World – Sudan (2006),” available at: www.freedomhouse. org. 73. Jeffrey Herbst, “African Peacekeepers and State Failures,” in Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement in Africa: Methods of Conflict Prevention (Cambridge: The World Peace Foundation, 2000), p. 17. 74. Jackson, A Necessary Collaboration: NGOs, Peacekeepers and Credible Military Force – The Case of Sierra Leone and East Timor, in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, p. 109. 75. Ibid. p. 110 76. Ibid. 252 Notes

77. Irma Dedić Foley, “Can Perpetrators Really Suffer from Denial Syndrome?” in William Dunlap, John Pritchard and John Carey (eds.), Humanitarian Law and Violence in Armed Conflict (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2005), pp. 201–211; See Israel W. Charny, “Innocent Denials of Known Genocides,” Human Rights Review, Vol. 1, no. 3 (April–June 2000), pp. 15–39 and Henry F. Carey, “Genocide Denial and Antonescu As Democratic Role-Model: 1984 in the Twenty-First Century,” Romanian Journal of Politics and Society, Vol. 1, no. 1 (May 2001), pp. 33–69. 78. These NGOs, in the Coalition for the International Criminal Court, originally and allegedly advocated reducing the legal defenses of duress and necessity, as well as placing some of the burden of proof on the defendant. See Jeoffrey Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (London: Penguin 2000), pp. 236; AI Report, “International Criminal Court, Part I: Making the Right Choices” (1997), p. 88, et seq. 79. Benedict Kingsbury, “The Concept of Compliance as a Function of Competing Conceptions of International Law,” University of Michigan Law Review, Vol. 19 (Winter 1998), p. 345 et seq. 80. Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Values (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995), Ch. 10, p. 174. 81. “Q & A with Michael Posner, Executive Director,” Lawyers Committee for Human Rights Advisor , Vol. 5, no. 1(Spring 2001), p. 1.

5 Dilemmas on Promoting the Rule of Law

1. Thomas Carothers (ed.), Promoting the Rule of Law Abroad: In Search of Knowledge (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2006). 2. Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad. 3. James R. Hollyer and B. Peter Rosendorff, “Domestic Politics and the Accession of Authoritarian Regimes to the Convention against Torture,” available at: http:// peio.vweb10-test.gwdg.de/papers2010/Hollyer,%20Rosendorff%2015.10.2009. pdf (accessed 9 January 2011). 4. Emilie M. Hafner-Burton and Kiyoteru Tsutsui. “Justice Lost! The Failure of International Human Rights Law to Matter Where It’s Needed Most,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 44, no. 4 (2007), pp. 407–425. Hathaway, “Why Do Countries Commit to Human Rights Treaties?” pp. 588–621. 5. Simmons, Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics. 6. Eugen Ehrlich, Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), p. 12. 7. Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Kenneth N. Waltz, A Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley, 1979). 8. Waltz, A Theory of International Politics, p. 91. 9. Keohane, After Hegemony, p. 237. 10. Anthony D’Amato, “The Concept of Human Rights in International Law,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 82 (October 1982), pp. 1082 et seq. 11. Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security, Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 12. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Notes 253

13. Ibid. 14. Anne-Marie Slaughter, “International Law in a World of Liberal States,” European Journal of International Law, Vol. 6 (1995), pp. 503 et seq. 15. Frederich Kratochwill, Rule, Norms and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Domestic Affairs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 16. José E Alvarez, “Do Liberal States Behave Better? A Critique of Slaughter’s Liberal Theory,” European Journal of International Law, Vol. 12, no. 2 (2001), pp. 183–246, available at: http://207.57.19.226/journal/Vol12/No2/120183.pdf (accessed 8 January 2011). 17. Falk, Human Rights Horizons. 18. Falk defines a Grotian moment as “a time of deep transition from the statist framework of Westphalia (the Peace of 1648 in Germany) to some differently constituted, emergent, and normatively enhanced world order. If so, we await a Grotius to convey that special juridical aura of inbetweenness, as we seemingly have not crossed the type of bright line that Westphalia provided, at least in retrospect.” He then cites several non-Grotiuses, including Francis Fukuyama, Samuel P. Huntington, and Robert Kaplan. More to his liking is Professor Anthony D’Amato and former ICJ Judge Christopher G. Weeramantry, Law in an Emerging Global Village (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 1998), pp. 3–31. 19. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1994). 20. Johann Galtung, “What Kind of Development and What Kind of Law,” in International Commission of Jurists (ed.), Development, Human Rights and the Rule of Law (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981), p. 121, pp. 121–141. 21. Richard Rorty “Justice As a Larger Loyalty,” in Bontekoe, Ron and Marietta Stepaniants (eds.), Justice and Democracy: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997), pp. 10–20. 22. Louis Henkin, “Introduction,” in Louis Henkin and John Lawrence Hargrove (eds.), Rights: An Agenda for the Next Century (Washington, D.C.: American Society of International Law, 1994). 23. Celina Romany, “Interrupting the Dinner Table Conversation: Critical Perspectives, Identity and Politics,” in James Lawrence Hargrove (ed.), On Violence, Money, Power and Culture: Reviewing the Internationalist Legacy (Washington: American Society of International Law, 2000), p. 191, pp. 190–199. 24. Stephen Holmes, “Can Foreign Aid Promote the Rule of Law?” East European Constitutional Review, Vol. 8, no. 4 (Fall 1999) pp. 68, 74. 25. Krishna Kumar, “The Nature and Focus of International Assistance for War-Torn Societies,” in Krishna Kumar (ed.), Rebuilding Societies after Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997), p. 11; Walter Stolz, “Donor Experiences in Support for Human Rights: Some Lessons Learned,” Report submitted to the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1995). 26. Stanley Hoffman, “The Uses and Limits of International Law” in Robert Art and Robert Jervis (eds.), International Politics: Enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues (New York: Harper Collins, 1996), pp. 127–131, originally published in 1968. 27. Jessica Matthews Tuchman, “Power Shift,” Foreign Affairs (January/February 1997), pp. 50–66. 28. A report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (24 April 2002), UN Document E/CN.4/ 2002/184. 29. Richard J. Goldstone, “Remarks on Historical Justice and Reconciliation” (Conference of the International Bar Association, Prague, 27 September 2005), available 254 Notes

at: http://www.historyandreconciliation.org/media/articles/Goldstone200509. pdf (accessed 9 January 2011). 30. M. Cherif Bassiouni (ed.), Postconflict Justice (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2002). 31. Van Zyl appears to reverse an earlier critical position taken against prosecutions, which he made in light of his own experience as Executive Director of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. More recently, he commented that prosecution of high-ranking defendants is preferable, in light of the experience extraditing Charles Taylor for trial. Paul van Zyl, “Defining Transitional Justice,” available at: https://its.law.nyu.edu/faculty/coursepages/data/DEFINING%20 TRANSITIONAL%20JUSTICE%20March%202005.pdf (accessed 29 December 2009). 32. Mark Drumbl, Atrocity, Punishment and International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 33. Ruti Teitel, “Transitional Justice Genealogy,” Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 16 (2003), pp. 69–94. 34. See Jo-Marie Burt, “Guilty as Charged: The Trial of Former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori for Human Rights Violations,” International Journal of Transitional Justice, Vol. 3, no. 3 (2009), pp. 384–405; Jose Zalaquett, “Balancing Ethical Imperatives and Political Constraints: The Dilemma of New Democracies Confronting Past Human Rights Violations,” Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 43, no. 6 (1992), pp. 5–16; Juan Mendez, “Accountability for Past Abuses,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 19, no. 2 (1997), pp. 255–282; Mark J. Osiel, “Why Prosecute? Critics of Punishment for Mass Atrocity,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 22, no. 1 (2000), pp. 118–147; and Laurel Fletcher and Harvey Weinstein, “Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 24, no. 3 (2002), pp. 573–639. 35. Report of the Secretary-General, “Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict Societies,” UN Document S/2004/616 (23 August 2004). 36. “Judging Genocide,” The Economist (16 June 2001), pp. 23–25. 37. Theodor Meron, “The Humanization of Humanitarian Law,” American Journal of International Law, Vol. 94, no. 2 (April 2000), pp. 239–278. 38. Only 24 states ratified the court’s statue and therefore accept binding jurisdiction after communications from another member state of the AU, but 22 of those will not take cases from individuals or NGOs. George Mukundi Wachir, African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights: Ten Years on and Still No Justice (Minority Rights Group International, 2008), available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ pdfid/48e4763c2.pdf (accessed 10 January 2011). 39. Henry F. Carey, “Women and Peace and Security: The Politics of Mainstreaming Gender in UN Peacekeeping,” Journal of International Peacekeeping (Summer 2001), pp. 49–68. 40. Rosalyn Higgins, “The Reformation of International Law,” in Richard Rawlings (ed.), Law, Society, and Economy: Centenary Essays for the London School of Economics and Political Science, 1895–1995 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 207–224. 41. Dag Hammarskjold, Do We Need the United Nations? (2 May 1959), available at: http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/dag/docs/needun.pdf (accessed 30 November 2009). 42. See Falk’s critique of what he alternatively calls the geopolitical, statist or Westphalian paradigm in Law in an Emerging Global Village. He sees global Notes 255

capitalism undermine the positive role of states in protecting humanity, as well as empowering global social movements, creating an opportunity for a global civil society to counteract both Westphalian statism and post-Westphalian economic globalization. 43. For example, at the 2001 UN Human Rights Subcommission meeting, Françoise Hampson, the UK independent expert, adduced the evidence of UNPKO violations of international humanitarian law. 44. Philip Alston, Non-State Actors and Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Patrick James Flood, The Effectiveness of UN Human Rights Institutions (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998). 45. Because of American exceptionalism, the human rights movement is called the civil liberties movement because the former would confront U.S. power and sovereignty with external, universal norms. 46. Juan J. Linz, “An Authoritarian Regime: the case of Spain,” in Erik Allard and Stein Rokkan (eds.), Mass Politics: Studies in Political Sociology (New York: The Free Press, 1970), p. 255. 47. Rachel Neild, “Human Rights NGOs, Police and Citizen Security in Transitional Democracies,” in Henry F. Carey (special editor), Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 2, no. 3 (2003). 48. Feil, “Building Better Foundations: Security in Post-conflict Reconstruction,”, p. 98, pp. 97–109. 49. Robert Orr, “Governing When Chaos Rules: Enhancing Governance and Participation,” The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, no. 4 (2002), p. 141, pp. 139–152. 50. Ibid. 51. Sir Nigel Rodley, “Concluding Observations on Follow-Up,” Human Rights Committee, UN Document, CCPR/C/95/3 (2010). 52. Please refer ‘A Charter of Partnership among the United States of America and the Republic of Estonia, Republic of Latvia, Republic of Lithuania (16 January 1998)’ Available at: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=31234 (accessed 13 November 2011). 53. UN Document S/2000/809, p. 9. 54. Philippe Sands (ed.), From Nuremberg to Rome: the Role of International Criminal Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), ch. 1. 55. Frances Pilch, “The Contributions of NGOs in Protecting Women in Armed Conflict,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs. 56. Zoe Pearson, “NGOs and International Prosecution,” manuscript. See her Ph.D. Dissertation, Australian National University, 2002. 57. Richard P. Claude, “The Case of Joelito Filártiga and the ‘Clinic of Hope,’ ” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 5 (1983), pp. 275–295. 58. See, for example, the fourteen Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, developed by thirty legal experts. Barbara Crossette, Guide Proposed for Trials of Rogue Leaders, The New York Times (23 July 2001), p. A2. 59. Henry A. Kissinger, “The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80, no. 4 (July/August 2001), pp. 86–96. 60. Hilary Charlesworth, “The Unbearable Lightness of Customary International Law,” in John Lawrence Hargove and Renee S. Brown (eds.), The Challenge of Nonstate Actors (Washington: American Society of International Law, 1998), pp. 44–47. 61. The jury in Ford v. Garcia found the defendants not guilty. The judge’s instruc- tion of “effective command” might mean that jurors believed the generals when they repeatedly asserted that they had done everything possible to control their 256 Notes

troops. Email message from Susan Benesch of the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights (4 November 2000). A new case charges the two generals with “command responsibility” for the abduction and torture of three Salvadoran clients by security forces in El Salvador between 1979 and 1983. 62. Mehinović v. Vucković, 198 F. Supp. 2d 1322 (Ga. 2002,; available at: http://www. cja.org/section.php?id’293). 63. In 1999, President Clinton refused to meet with Mary Robinson, the HCHR, to discuss U.S. violations. 64. In addition, the U.S. has not ratified the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Rights of the Child Convention, or the International Criminal Court statute, among others. 65. UN Document CAT/C/SR.431 at paragraph 3. Regarding de jure violations of the Torture Convention, the CAT concluded: (a) the U.S. failed to enact a federal law banning torture in terms consistent with article 1 of the Convention; (b) had made a reservation on article 16, which violates the Convention; (c) had considerable numbers of cases of police ill-treatment of civilians and of ill-treatment in prisons (including instances of inter-prisoner violence), especially on a discriminatory basis; (d) engaged in sexual assault on female detainees and prisoners by law enforcement officers and prison personnel; (e) used electro-shock devices and restraint chairs as methods of constraint that may violate the provisions of article 16 of the Convention; (f) engaged in excessively harsh treatments in ‘super-maximum’ prisons; (g) used “chain-gangs in public.” Regarding de facto violations, which would clearly violate both the Convention and the U.S. Constitution, the CAT found, that the U.S.; (h) limited legal actions by prisoners seeking redress to physical injury under the Prison Litigation Reform Act; (i) and holds minors (juve- niles) with adults in the regular prison population. The Prison Litigation Reform Act (110 STAT. 1321–1371, Public law 104–134-26 April 1996) requires prisoners to exhaust administrative remedies at prisons before approaching the courts. This would allegedly require tortured and physically abused prisoners to wait years before obtaining a court-ordered restraining order, if administrative procedures were deficient. Also, arguable for de jure violations, which would result from the U.S. courts’ interpretation of the differences in the U.S. Constitution and the torture Convention, is the CAT’s finding that the U.S.” 66. The U.S. did not address the allegation in its 1999 states party report about opportunities for prisoners to litigate a remedy to their situation. In all situa- tions, all victims of torture in the U.S. have the right to bring a complaint and to have their case promptly and impartially examined by competent authorities. When a victim alleges that he or she was abused by an official, the avenues of redress include the right to complain to competent officials to initiate an impar- tial investigation. There are no restrictions on who can bring such a complaint (e.g., citizens, nationals, foreigners, illegal aliens). Such complaints do not need to await a criminal verdict, nor a verdict of acquittal in the case of a person charged with a crime. The alleged failure of a correctional institution to provide inmates with an adequate administrative remedial mechanism for dealing with complaints was the subject of federal litigation. http://www.state.gov/www/ global/human_rights/torture_articles.html. 67. James Risen, “US Inaction Seen after Taliban POWs Died,” The New York Times (10 July 2009), http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/11/world/asia/11afghan. html?_r=2&pagewanted=all (accessed 10 January 2011). Notes 257

68. Steven Sampson, “Corruption and anti-Corruption in Southeast Europe: Landscapes and Sites,” in Luis de Sousa, Peter Larmour and Barry Hindness (eds.), Governments, NGOS and Anti-Corruption, (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 168–185; “The Anti-Corruption Industry: From Movement to Institution,” Global Crime, Vol. 11, no. 2 (2010), pp. 261–278. See other papers, available at: http://www. lunduniversity.lu.se/o.o.i.s?id=12683&search=link&author=soc-ssa (accessed 10 January 2010). 69. Steven Sampson, “From Forms to Norms: Global Projects and Local Practices in the Balkan NGO Scene,” Journal of Human Rights (Special Issue, Henry F. Carey, guest editor), Vol. 2 (September 2003), available at: http://www.wellesley.edu/ JournalofHumanRights/toc_2_3.html. 70. Guillermo O’Donnell, “Illusions about Consolidation,” in Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu, and Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), p. 50. 71. Ibid. 72. Clifford Zinnes and Sarah Bell, “NGO Growth in Transition Economies: A Cause or Effect of Legal Reform and Donor Aid?” Journal of Human Rights (Special Issue, Henry F. Carey, guest editor), Vol. 2, no. 3 (September 2003), available at: http:// www.wellesley.edu/JournalofHumanRights/. 73. David Backer, “Civil Society and Transitional Justice: Possibilities, Patterns, and Prospects,” Journal of Human Rights (Special Issue, Henry F. Carey, guest editor), Vol. 2 (September 2003), available at: http://www.wellesley.edu/ JournalofHumanRights/.

6 Foreign Aid Dependency Dilemmas

1. Charles MacCormack, Presentation, “The Role of NGOs in Achieving the Millennium Development Goals,” (Middlebury College, 4 April 2008), available at: http://uc.princeton.edu/main/index.php?option’com_content&task’view &id’3359 (accessed 12 February 2010). 2. Jonathan Goodhand, Aiding Peace: The Role of NGOs in Armed Conflict (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006). 3. Larry Minear and Hazel Smith (eds.), Humanitarian Diplomacy: Practitioners and Their Craft (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2007). 4. See the report of Human Rights Watch, “Kenya Recruits Somali Refugees to Fight Back Home in Somalia,” available at: http://www.HRCHRC.org/en/ news/2009/11/16/kenya-recruits-somali-refugees-fight-islamists-back-home- somalia (accessed 30 November 2009). 5. Nicholas Kristof, “A Most Meaningful Gift Idea,” The New York Times (24 December 2009), p. A23. 6. www.acumenfund.org. 7. www.creatinghope.org. 8. www.brac.net. 9. www.dil.org. 10. www.dewormtheworld.org. 11. www.oursoil.org. 12. www.sheinnovates.com. 13. www.fistulafoundation.org. 258 Notes

14. Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, “Conflict and Crisis in the Greater Horn of Africa,” Current History (May 1999), p. 215, pp. 213–217. 15. Monshipouri, “NGOs and Peacebuilding in Afghanistan,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), pp. 138–155. 16. Marc-Antoine Perouse De Montclos, “A Crisis of Humanitarianism,” Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, Vol. 16, no. 2 (2001), p. 99, pp. 95–100. 17. Ann Kelleher and James Larry Taulbee, “Building Peace Norwegian Style: Studies in Track I ½ Diplomacy,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding, pp. 77–78. 18. Ibid. 19. Peter Gelling, “Indonesia Tries to Recast Rebels as Forest Rangers,” The New York Times (7 March 2010), p. 6. 20. Monica Kathina Juma and Astri Suhrke (eds.), Eroding Local Capacity: International Humanitarian Action in Africa (Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, 2003); Ian Fisher, “Can International Relief Do More Harm Than Good? The New York Times (11 February, 2001), available at: www.nytimes.com/.../can-international-relief-do- more-good-than-harm.html. 21. See United Nations ICT Task Force and ICT4Peace project, Information and Communication Technology for Peace (2005), available at: http://old.ict4peace.org/ articles/ict4peace_ebook1.pdf (accessed 12 January 2011). 22. President Bush came to foreign aid and nation-building reluctantly and selec- tively, favoring countries with security threats or those that practice “good governance.” Jeffrey D. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (New York: Penguin Press, 2005); Peter Singer, The Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty (New York: Random House, 2009). 23. Collier sees a strong role for a responsible state, if foreign aid is used for public goods like security and to fight corruption. Moyo comes closest to abandon- ing foreign aid. Ferguson favors responsible policies of by enlightened empires, including promoting markets and integrating finance. Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can be Done about It (2007); William Easterly, The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good (New York: Penguin, 2007); Dambisa Moyo, Dead Aid: Why Aid Is not Working and How there Is a Better Way for Africa (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2009); Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York: Penguin Press, 2004). 24. Jeffrey D. Sachs, “How Aid Can Work,” The New York Review of Books (21 December 2006), p. 97. 25. Mark Duffield, “NGO Relief in War Zones: Toward an Analysis of the New Aid Paradigm,” in Thomas G. Weiss, Beyond UN Subcontracting: Task Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), pp. 139–159. 26. Thomas G. Weiss and Leon Gordenker, “Pluralizing Global Governance: Analytical Approaches and Dimensions,” in Weiss and Gordenker (eds.), NGOs, the UN and Global Governance, pp. 31, 68, 77. 27. Stephen J. Golub, “Less Law and Reform, More Politics and Enforcement: A Civil Society Approach to Integrating Rights and Development,” in Philip Alston and Mary Robinson (eds.), Human Rights and Development: Toward Mutual Reinforcement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); “NGO Accountability and the Philippine Council for NGO Certification: Evolving Roles and Issues,” in Lisa Jordan and Peter van Tuijl (eds.), NGO Accountability: Politics Principles and Innovations (London: Earthscan, 2006). Notes 259

28. http://artreachfoundation.org/ (Accessed 13 November 2011). 29. Wafula Okumu, “Humanitarian International NGOs and African Conflicts,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs, p. 125. 30. African Rights, Humanitarianism Unbound? Current Dilemmas Facing Multi- Mandate Relief Operations in Political Emergencies (London: African Rights, 1994). 31. Antonio Donini, “Asserting Humanitarianism in Peace-Maintenance,” in Jarat Chopra (ed.), The Politics of Peace Maintenance, p. 85; De Montclos, “A Crisis of Humanitarianism,” p. 99, pp. 95–100; Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, “Conflict and Crisis in the Greater Horn of Africa,” Current History (May 1999), p. 215, pp. 213–217; Hugo Slim, “To the Rescue: Radicals or Poodles?” The World Today, Vol. 53, no. 8–9 (1997), p. 210, pp. 209–212. 32. Wafula Okumu, “Humanitarian International NGOs and African Conflicts,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs, p. 125; De Montclos, “A Crisis of Humanitarianism,”, p. 99, pp. 95–100; Slim, “To the Rescue: Radicals or Poodles?”, p. 210, pp. 209–212. 33. Freedom House, “Freedom in the World – Sudan (2006),” available at: www. freedomhouse.org; Freedom House, “Freedom in the World – Sierra Leone (2006),” Available at: http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&ye ar=2006&country=7054. 34. De Montclos, “A Crisis of Humanitarianism,” p. 99, pp. 95–100. 35. Sarah E. Mendelsohn and John K. Glenn (eds.), The Power and Limits of NGOs: A Critical Look at Building Democracy in Eastern Europe and Eurasia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Mary B. Anderson and Lara Olson, Confronting War: Critical Lessons for Peace Practitioners (Cambridge, MA: Collaborative for Development Action, 2003). 36. Jane Lampman, “Disaster Aid Furthers Fears of Proselytizing,” The Christian Science Monitor (31 January 2005), available at: http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0131/ p11s01-lire.html (accessed 14 February 2010). 37. Interview by Margaret Warner with Andrew Kirkwood, Country Director of Save the Children, Rangoon, on Newshour, PBS (August 2007). 38. 2002 Human Development Report, UNDP, available at: http://www.undp.org/ hdr2002/complete.pdf. 39. Food production per capita declined about 35 percent from 1984 to 1992 alone, according to the World Bank. Appendix II-B, Table on Social Indicators, in Georges Fauriol (ed.), Haitian Frustrations: Dilemmas for U.S. Policy (Washington, DC: The Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1995), p. 199. 40. 120 heads of state were also in attendance in Copenhagen and also involved in deliberations. 41. http://www.cacim.net/bareader/pages/Reactions%20to%20the%20Bamako%20 Appeal14.html (accessed 7 February 2010). 42. Francis Kofi Abiew, “From Civil Strife to Civic Society: NGO–Military Relations in Peace Operations,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs, pp. 24–39. 43. International Peace Academy, “Refashioning the Dialogue: Regional Perspectives on the Brahimi Report on UN Peace Operations,” Available at: www.ipaacademy. org/Publications/Reports/Research/PublRepoReseBrahimi_body.htm. 44. Interview, Obrad Kesić (Boston, 12 November 2009). 45. Mary Anderson, First Do No Harm: How Humanitarian Aid Can Support Peace or War (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999). 46. Wafula Okumu, “Humanitarian International NGOs and African Conflicts,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs. 260 Notes

7 Democratic Dilemmas of Election Monitoring

1. The huge “democratic peace” debate that emerged in the 1990s is summarized by James Lee Ray, “Does Democracy Cause Peace?” Annual Review of Political Science (1998). An example of the arguments that democracies do not go to war is Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). 2. Statement of Owen Bennett-Jones as the guest host on BBC World Service’s Newhour Program, 18 January 2006. 3. Fabrice Lehoucq, “Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types, and Consequences,” Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 6 (June 2003), pp. 233–256; Daniel Ziblatt, “Shaping Democratic Practice and the Causes of Electoral Fraud: the Case of Nineteenth Century Germany,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 103 (2009), pp. 1–21. 4. Franck, “The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance,” pp. 46–47. 5. Kenneth W. Abbott and Duncan Snidal, “Hard and Soft Law in International Governance,” International Organization, Vol. 54, no. 3 (Summer 2000), pp. 421–456. 6. Mertus, Bait and Switch: Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Policy. 7. Sharon Lean “Civic Mobilization and Electoral Accountability: An Assessment of the Acuerdo de Lima,” Paper Presented to the 2010 LASA Congress (Toronto, October 2010), available at: http://www.acuerdodelima.org/. 8. Henry F. Carey and Oliver P. Richmond (eds.), Mitigating Conflict: The Role of NGOs; Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: the Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 9. Henry F. Carey, “Irregularities or Rigging: the 1992 Romanian Parliamentary Elections,” East European Quarterly, Vol. XXIX, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 43–66. 10. Walt Bogdanich and Jenny Nordbert, “Mixed US Signals Helped Tilt Haiti toward Chaos,” The New York Times (29 January 2006), p. 1, pp. 8–10. The original alle- gations were reported by Max Blumenthal in July 1994, “The Other Regime Change,” available at: http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2004/07/16/haiti_ coup/index_np.html. 11. Charles Taylor won the presidency with 72 percent and his party all other election results. One observer concluded that the elections were not free, but that Taylor did not steal the vote, see David Harris, “From ‘Warlord’ to ‘Democratic’ President: How Charles Taylor Won the 1997 Liberian Elections,” The Journal of Modern African Studies Vol. 37, no. 3 (September 1999), pp. 431–455. 12. David Carroll of the Carter Center noted that in East Jerusalem, with about 120,000 eligible voters in the January 2005 presidential elections, “Voters did not know where to go. Many were turned away because they weren’t on the voter lists ... Something like seven to nine of the first 10 voters we saw in several post offices were turned away because they weren’t on the correct voting lists at that location. There was a problem with clearly publicizing who was allowed to vote at which polling stations. There was resentment and frustration and angry crowds.” Mark Bixler, “Carter’s Team to Eye Vote,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution (25 January 2006). 13. 1990 Elections in the Dominican Republic: Report of the Observer Delegation (Washington and Atlanta), p. 8. 14. National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, Reforming the Philippine Electoral Process: Developments 1986–1988, p. 11. Notes 261

15. On the specific issue of COMELEC and NAMFREL’s vote-counting of the 1986 and 1987 elections, my attributed interviews were with Alfredo Abueg, Jr., Remegio Acgpalo, Manuel A. “Mano” Alcuaz, Gregorio Atienza, Manny Bulatao, Maria Victoria Alba-Estoesta, Magdara Dimaampao, Vicente de Lima, Juan Ponce Enrile, Ramon H. Felipe, Jr., Robert Felipe, Jose Feria, Andres Flores, Reynaldo G. (Gerry) Geronimo, Gil V. Guanio, Frank Holz, Augusto “Gus” Lagman, Erick Laviña, Albert Lacasa, Regalado Maambong, Quirino “Chino” A. Marquinez, Christian Monsod, Carmen Nakpil, Antonio A. “Totis” Pardo, Jr., Charito L. Planas, Mariano S. “Mars” Quesada, Darius Rama, Beth Day Romulo, Luis F. Sison, Luz Tangancgo, William J. “Bill” Torres, and Haydee Yorac. None of them is necessarily identified with my conclusions. The man who worked directly with Pedro Baroidan in the side room at the PICC refused to be interviewed, stating, “History will never know the truth.” I have not yet located Baroidan in the U.S. He left the Philippines several months after the election. I take under advisement the words of NAMFREL Legal Counsel Reynaldo “Gerry” Geronimo: “You have to understand that we have many levels of speech. In speaking, we may invoke ideals, but actually what we are talking about is personal interests. This is an aspect that is missed by many foreign observers...In the Philippines, what is said may only be a veneer of what is meant. But everybody knows that. It behooves a person who wants to understand properly to go beyond the rhetoric and the language...You have to understand what is said textually and what is said non-textually” (Interview, Manila, 15 December 1989). 16. Carolina G. Hernandez, “Reconstituting Political Order,” John Bresnan (ed.), Crisis in the Philippines: The Marcos Era and Beyond (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 188. 17. Interviews, April and July 1991, September 1992. 18. Interview, 17 July 1991. He said, “Marcos’s great mistake was to alienate all of the ‘trapos.’ ”(translated as “traditional politicians” in English, but also “dirty rag” in the Tagalog language). 19. Willem Wollters, “New Beginning or Return to the Past in Nueva Ecija Politics?”in Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (eds.), From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1991), p. 206. It is doubtful that interviewees would have easily admitted to having voted for Marcos, during the post-EDSA euphoria. 20. Coronel, Irma C., Forecasting Report: 1986 Presidential Election (Research Center, De La Salle University, Manila, March 1986). 21. Op. Cit., p. 110. 22. “NAMFREL believes, based on statistical and field studies, that this tabulation is a fairer representation of the real vote. It may even be an underestimation of the lead of Mrs. Aquino because it includes precincts with questionable results.” NAMFREL Statement on the Philippine Presidential Elections, advertisement in The Manila Times, 25 February 1986. This count included many of the irregularities. NAMFREL showed Aquino ahead by about 600,000 votes, while the official count in the parliament showed Marcos winning by about 600,000 votes. NAMFREL also counted statistically improbable reports that showed Aquino or Marcos with 99 percent of the vote in certain precincts, according to Antonio Pardo and Augusto Lagman on the advice NAMFREL lawyer Ricardo Romulo: Interviews, Makati, July 1991. 23. The NAMFREL Report on the 7 February 1986, elections, ANNEX E. 262 Notes

24. When I interviewed him in July 1991, he denied stealing the votes, conceding only that Marcos asked him to steal them. 25. Larry Garber and Glenn Cowan, “The Virtues of Parallel Vote Tabulations,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4, no. 2 (April 1993), pp. 95–107. 26. Op. Cit., p. 34. 27. Many other top NAMFREL people took key positions in the Aquino government, like Concepcion, the Monsods, and Romulo, among others. This gave the impression that NAMFREL was interested in helping Aquino. In more recent years, NAMFREL volunteers have pledged not to accept government appointments. 28. Interviews, Pir Pactasil, May 1991, September 1992. 29. Luzminda G. Tangancgo, The Anatomy of Electoral Fraud: Concrete Bases for Electoral Reforms (Manila: MJAGM, 1992), pp. 104, 142. 30. Interview, Intramuros, 27 April, 1991. 31. Gerochi was killed after the 1988 elections in Mindinao, allegedly for not deliv- ering a mayoral election for which he was supposedly paid, according to various accounts. I believe that Tangancgo’s suspicions of fraud were fanned by conver- sations with Gerochi and his cousin, Remigio T. Octavio, both of whom worked for several decades at COMELEC. The latter was interviewed on 14 September 1992, in Manila. My impression is that their story reflects the Philippine penchant for suspicion. 32. Interview, Quezon City, 11 July 1991. 33. Op. Cit., p. 112. 34. The Washington Post also reported that NDI concluded the result would not have been changed by rigging: Steve Coll, “Observers Accept Pakistani Vote, Group Found No Evidence of Enough Fraud to Swing Outcome,” 27 October 1990. Eric Bjornlund, who was part of the NDI staff in Pakistan later said, “I do not think that the staff thought a preliminary judgment would be made, but that is what the delegation wanted to do.” interview, 11 October 1991. To corroborate this and other points, I tried several times to contact the lead staff on the project, Mahnaz Ispahani and Larry Garber, but they are often overseas. It is noteworthy that in NDI’s next project in Haiti, the terms of reference stated, “The delegation statement issued following the December 16 elections should avoid any comment that could influence the outcome of the second-round elections, should they be scheduled in January.” The 1990 General Elections in Haiti, p. 88. 35. See, for example, the op-ed by Barnett Rubin in The New York Times (30 October 1990); the interview of Rubin and others in Newsline (November 1990); and Henry F. Carey, “A Fair Election in Pakistan?” The Christian Science Monitor (15 November 1990). 36. National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, The October 1990 Elections in Pakistan, Washington (March 1991), p. 206. 37. Op. Cit., p. v. 38. Op. Cit., The executive summary is on pp. iv–ix. The statistical test is discussed on pp. 98–100, 198–229. 39. Interview (Karachi, 25 June 1991). 40. Interview with Terry Gross, “Fresh Air” (National Public Radio, 2 July 2009). 41. Jonathan Hartlyn and Jennifer McCoy, “Observer Paradoxes: How to Assess Electoral Manipulation,” in Andreas Schedler (ed.), Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Press, 2006), pp. 41–56. Notes 263

42. Evgeny Morozov, “Iran: Downside to the Twitter Revolution,” Dissent, Vol. 56, no. 4 (Fall 2009), pp. 10–14. 43. This was the documented allegation of KONAKOM leader Victor Benoit. Press Release, 10 August 1995, reprinted in Haiti-Observateur, 16–23 August 1995, p. 3. 44. Articles 57 to 65 of the electoral law cover Senate elections. The electoral law is ambiguous on electing senators. Article 59 of the electoral law states, “If this majority is not obtained by one or several candidates, there will be a second round of that election in the following fashion: (a) if no one is elected in the first round, the number of candidates in the second round will not exceed six, who have received the most votes; (b) if only one is elected, the number of candidates in the second round will be four at the most; (c) if two are elected, the number in the second round will be two at most.” The law was written in a way to encour- age three or more rounds, instead of limiting the second round to a choice that would yield an absolute majority. 45. Most IFES staff were under gag orders not to speak to anyone about the 2000 elections, quite unlike the situation in previous years, when I was able to conduct interviews freely. 46. Aristide was unreasonably forced by the U.S., under pressure from Senator Jesse Helms, to step down at the scheduled expiration of his term, despite his 1,111- day exile. 47. This rumor was circulated by Smarck Michel, among others present at the meeting, who was to become President René Préval’s first Prime Minister. 48. Anyone seeking documentation of the fraud may contact the author. 49. For a distinction in the different roles of the UN in Namibia, Nicaragua and Haiti, see the excellent project paper by Reinhart Helmke, “Observation and Verification of Elections: The Haitian Formula,” UNDP (Port-au-Prince, 1990). 50. Statement to the International Socialista (24 February 1990). 51. Interview, Mario Gonzales Vargas (15 October 1991). 52. Alan Riding, “Cambodia Treaty to be Signed Soon,” The New York Times (20 October 1991), p. 9. 53. Robert A. Pastor, “Comment: Mediating Elections,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 9 (January 1998), pp. 154–163. 54. BBC (5 November 2003). 55. Jimmy Carter, Beyond the White House: Wage Peace, Fighting Disease, Building Hope (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007). 56. David L. Stern and C. J. Chivers, “Kazakh Web Sites Blocked in Leader’s Family Feud,” The New York Times (28 October 2007). 57. I was told that the final OAS reports for Haiti 1990 and El Salvador 1991 were never released because the under-staffed OAS Democracy Unit was too busy with Haiti’s post-coup crisis. 58. Though the UN wrote six interim reports in Nicaragua, its final 1990 report was not issued because several key managers (Maria Grossi, Horacio Boneo) were in Haiti advising the provisional government and the electoral commission. The draft of the UN’s final report for Haiti in 1990–1991 indicated that 300,000 bal- lots were lost, about 20 percent of those cast, a fact reported in the final report of the Washington Office on Haiti. 59. Taped press conference of Lakdar Brahimi (United Nations, 2 October 1995.) 60. Larry Garber and Glenn Cowan, “The Virtues of Parallel Vote Tabulations,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4, no. 2 (April 1993), pp. 95–107. This article does not analyze the helpful intensity from unofficial partisanship by “neutral” volunteers. 264 Notes

61. “The participating states consider that the presence of observers, both foreign and domestic, can enhance the electoral process for states in which elections are taking place,” in Jennifer McCoy, Larry Garber, and Robert Pastor, “Pollwatching and Peacemaking,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2, no. 4 (Fall 1991), p. 114. 62. International Human Rights Law Group, Guidelines for International Election Observing, Washington: 1984. Similar materials were developed by IFES in Washington, DC and CAPEL in San José, Costa Rica. See Rafael Lopez-Pintor, “Reconciliation Elections: A Post-Cold War Experience,” in Krishna Kumar, Rebuilding Societies after Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997), pp. 43–61. 63. Collier, War, Guns and Votes: Democracy in Dangerous Places.

8 Conclusion: Policy Impacts of NGOs

1. Dick Marty, Rapporteur, Report of the Legal Affairs and Human Rights Committee, Council of Europe, “Alleged Secret Detentions and unlawful inter- state transfers of detainees involving Council of Europe member-states (12 June 2006) Reference no. 3153, Document no. 10957, p. 48. 2. Mertus, Bait and Switch: Human Rights and US Foreign Policy, ch. 2, pp. 145–192. 3. Julie Mertus and Tazreena Sajjad, “When Civil Society Promotion Fails State Building: The Inevitable Fault Lines in Postconflict Reconstruction,” Oliver P. Richmond and Henry F. Carey (eds.) Subcontracting Peace (UK: Ashgate, 2005), pp. 119–130. 4. Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, Peacebuilding: A Field Guide (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001). 5. Monshipouri, “NGOs and Peacebuilding in Afghanistan,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), pp. 138–155. 6. Pavka, “Private Military Companies in Peacebuilding,” in Richmond and Carey (eds.), Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. 7. Monshipouri, “NGOs and Peacebuilding in Afghanistan,” in Carey and Richmond (eds.), pp. 138–155. 8. Interview with Reda Mansour, the Consul-General of Israel, Atlanta (21 March 2007). 9. Sarah E. Mendelson and John K. Glenn (eds.), The Power and Limits of NGOs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Michael Bond, “The Backlash against NGOs,” Prospect Magazine (April 2000); Sam Vaknin, “The Self-Appointed Altruists,” United Press International (UPI) 9 October 2002; Lisa Jordan and Peter Van Tuijl, “Political Responsibility in Transnational NGO Advocacy,” World Development, Vol. 28 (December 2000); Thomas W. Dichter, “Globalization and Its Effects on NGOs: Efflorescence or Blurring of Roles and Relevance?” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Vol. 28 (Supplement 1999), pp. 55–56. 10. See, for example, Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Taisier M. Ali and Robert O. Matthews (eds.), Durable Peace: Challenges for Peacebuildng in Africa (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004). 11. While Nietzsche may be more known for his nihilism, his studies of Greek tragedy were also among his most significant contributions, along with his compiled dicta of various thoughts. Notes 265

12. The quote is from Alexander M. Haig, Jr. former U.S. Secretary of State in the Reagan administration. Quoted in Tim Weiner, “Alexander M. Haig, Jr. Dies at 85; Was Forceful Aid to 2 Presidents,” The New York Times (21 February 2010), p. 24. 13. James A. Caporaso suggests that paradoxes are suggested by conservatives, dilemmas or tradeoffs by liberals, and contradictions by radicals in The European Union: Dilemmas of Regional Integration (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), p. 2. 14. See the various ACLU positions on immigrant detention, available at: http:// www.aclu.org/immigrants-rights/detention (accessed 10 December 2009). See also Terry Gross, “Fresh Air” (10 December 2009), available at: http://www.npr. org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId’13 (accessed 10 December 2009). See also two videos by my student, Jimena Ruiz (1) 287(G), which deputizes countries to pick up and detain immigrants, even though they are not crimi- nals, available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v’sFXJPbvgiZE and immigrant detention by a private contractor, Corrections Corporation of America, which also warehouses prisoners for profits, as well as non-criminal immigrants, including here in Stewart, GA. My student changed the URL on YouTube, in case anyone else would like to watch them, available at: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v’IIqeqDIpfs (accessed 9 December 2009). 15. Jeremy Scahill depicts Blackwater’s secret operations in Pakistan, including unacknowledged drone attacks against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, about which shades of the Bush administration, even senior Defense and White House officials, are unaware. Jeremy Scahill, “The Secret US War in Pakistan,” The Nation (21/28 December 2009), pp. 11–18, available at: http://www.thenation.com/ doc/20091207/scahill (accessed 10 December 2009). 16. Other unofficial actors would include individuals. Aall, “The Power of Nonofficial Actors in Conflict Management,” in Chester Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall (eds.), Leashing the Dogs of War, p. 477. 17. For an elaborate decision-making explanation of democracy’s superiority, see Giovanni Sartori, Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers, 1987). 18. “Report of the Panel on UN Peace Operations,” UN Document A/55/305- S/2000/809 (21 August 2000), available at: http://www.un.org/peace/reports/ peace_operations/ (accessed 15 January 2011). 19. On transnational advocacy networks, c.f., Keck and Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics; on government networks and networked networks, c.f., Anne-Marie Slaughter, “Governing the Global Economy through Government Networks,” in Michael Byers (ed.), The Role of Law in International Politics: Essays in International Relations and International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 177–205. For a critique, c.f., Annelise Riles, The Network Inside Out 9 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000). 20. Donini, “Asserting Humanitarianism in Peace-Maintenance,” in Jarat Chopra (ed.), The Politics of Peace Maintenance, p. 81; Plunkett, “Reestablishing Law and Order in Peace-Maintenance,” in Jarat Chopra (ed.), The Politics of Peace- Maintenance, p. 62. 21. Amir Pasic and Thomas G. Weiss, “The Politics of Rescue: Yugoslavia’s Wars and the Humanitarian Impulse,” Joel H. Rosenthal (ed.), Ethics and International Affairs: A Reader (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1999), p. 296. Select Bibliography

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Abacha, Sani 175 Apartheid 52 Abbas, Mahmoud 176 Aquino, Corazon 82, 176, 177, 178, 179 Abiew, F.K. 75 Arafat, Yasser 1, 51 Aceh 219 Arbour, Louise 98, 139 Acgpalo, Remegio 177 Argentina 50, 72, 104 Adams, Gerry 48 Catholic Church terrorism 77 Afghanistan xi, 5, 6, 9, 14, 27, 54, 66, military dictatorship 97 67, 68, 69, 70, 76, 77, 79, 157, 171, reaction to protests 79 174, 200, 219 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand 16, 65, 69, 109, intelligence network 85 110, 136, 151, 169, 175, 186, 187, invasion 105 188, 189, 190, 199, 200 militarization 84 Arusha peace agreement 22, 66, 139 military contractors 86 Association of Former Political NATO presence in 142 Prisoners 78 new justice system 136 Australia 66, 114 African National Congress (ANC) viii Aviel, Jo Ann 33 Agenda for Peace xi, 1, 24 Aggestam, Karin 37 Backer 155, 216 Albania 155, 171 Baghdad 66, 67 al-Bashir, Omar 140, 150, 153 Baker, Eric 94 Albright, Madeline 152 Baker, James 153 Alger, Chadwick 223 Balaguer 176 Algeria 52, 65, 69, 70, 71, 219 Ballentine, Karen 103 corrupt election 72 Baltazar Garzon v. Pinochet 210 Almond, Mark 196 Bangladesh 86, 158 al-Qaeda 14, 69, 70, 77, 142 Baptise, Fenel Jean 69 in Mesopotamia 82 Barak, Ehud 217 al-Ramani, Abdul Rachman 58 Barker 103 al-Sadiq, Abdullah 70 Barnes, Catherine 26, 28, 46, 77 al-Sadr, Moktada 51 Bassiouni, Cherif 136 Alston, Philip 141 Baudel, Claude 187 Altisaahri, Maarti 53 Bazin, Marc 187, 190, 199 Alvarez, Jose 129 Belarus 67, 201 Amanidinjad, Mahmoud 185 Belgium 138, 147 American Civil Liberties Union Bell, Sarah 154, 257 (ACLU) 16, 104 Benenson, Peter 94 Americas Watch 95, 96, 97, 121 Bennet-Jones, Owen 173 Amnesty International viii, 10, 94, 95, Berman, Sheri 26 96, 97, 105, 111, 117, 122, 148, Bernard, Jean Clausel 69 152, 174, 188 Bhatti, Razia 182 A More Secure World: Our Shared Bhutto family 191, 194 Responsibility xii bin-Laden, Osama 14 Angola xii, 33, 52, 198 Black Hawk Down 16 Annan, Kofi xii, xiii, 16, 29, 110, 227 Blackwater USA 84

273 274 Index

Blieker, Roland 217 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 15, Bolivia 72 16, 76, 119, 145, 193, 210, 214 Bolton, John 95 torture 94 Bosch, Juan 176 Chad 66, 76 Bosnia xi, 1, 33, 66, 67, 68, 80, 99, Charlesworth, Hilary 148 111, 151, 153, 157, 165, 171, 200, Chechnya 105 204, 208 Cheney, Richard (Dick) 84 distortion dilemma 228 Children’s Movement for Peace 13 genocide 82 Chile 50, 100, 194, 201 humanitarian intervention 105, China 103, 104, 106, 108, 116, 164 107, 108 Chiquita Banana 80 issue network 109 Churchill, Winston 213 safe zones 112 civil and political rights (CPR) 10, 27, UN mission 106 95, 113, 114, 115, 121, 223 Botswana 164 Civilian Home Defense Forces Boumediene case 92 (CHDFs) viii, 82 Boustros-Ghali, Boutros xi, 34, 110 Civil Society 22 Bouteflika, Abdelaziz 71 civil society 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, Brahimi report 227 17,18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, Bratton, Michael 12 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 37, 40, 42, 44, Breard case 152 46, 48, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, Bulgaria 201 73, 74, 78, 83, 87, 90, 93, 98, 102, Burgerman, Susan 48 103, 120, 122, 123, 129, 130, 132, Burkina Faso 22, 139 133, 134, 135, 140, 144, 145, 146, Burma (Myanmar) 26, 168, 174 155, 172, 183, 184, 185, 199, 206, Burundi xii, xiii, 50, 106, 222 207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 218, Bush, George H.W. xi, 103 219, 222, 225, 226, 229, 230, 235, Bush, George W. (administration) 1, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 16, 73, 79, 84, 92, 119, 127, 245, 247, 255, 257, 258, 264, 266, 153, 163, 175 267, 270 justifications for invasion of civil society organizations (CSO) viii, Iraq 105 24, 25, 28 Buss, Claude A. 178 Clausewitz 12 Byers, Michael 148 Clinton, Bill (administration) 16, 36, 53, 106, 108, 111, 112, 121, Cambodia xi, 33, 151, 164, 195, 196 175, 186 Extraordinary Chambers 155 Coetsee, Kobie 52 Canada 22, 114, 190 Cojuangco, Jose 179 CARE 31, 66, 157 Cold War xi, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 14, 16, 29, 33, Carothers, Thomas 11, 26 74, 85, 90, 91, 121, 136, 139, 140, Carr, E.H. 227 156, 170, 173, 213, 224, 232, 233 Carter, Jimmy 45, 55, 90, 189, 190, 192, Collier, Paul 6, 163 193, 194, 195, 196, 199 Colombia 13, 72, 80, 84, 219 Casanova, Carlos Eugenio Vides 148 autodefensas unidas de Colombia 81 Catholic Relief Services 31, 67, 157 paramilitary sanctioning 81 Celestin, Jude 188 Commission on Election Center for Constitutional Rights 16 (COMELEC) 177, 178, 180 Center for Justice and Accountability The Common Anarchy 5 (CJA) viii, 148 Communal Administrative Section Central Asia Institute 76 (CASEC) viii, 69 Index 275

Concepcion, Jose 179 Dominican Republic 176, 192 constructivism 6, 7, 8, 18, 20, 27, 50, Donini 230 52, 74, 83, 84, 88, 89, 106, 128, Donnelly, Jack 99 129, 140, 209, 211, 232 Dow (chemicals) 149 Conteh-Morgan, Earl 73 Downing Street memo 55 Convention Against Torture (CAT) viii, Doyle, Michael W. 37 100, 147, 152 Duffield, Mark 20, 73, 163, 221 cosmopolitanism 7, 8, 21, 129, 130, 133, 142, 151 East Congo see Democratic Republic of Costa Rica 98, 188 Congo Council of Europe (CoE) viii, 64, 94, Easterly, William 163 109, 140, 210 East Timor xii, xiii, 66, 67, 68, 80, 104, Legal and Human Rights 106, 151, 169 Committee 67 invasion 81 Counselor Administrative Section economic, social, and cultural rights Community 69 (ESCR) viii, 58, 96, 100, 102, 113, Cousens, Elizabeth M. 33 114, 115, 116, 220 Croatia 10, 59, 99, 108 Economic Community of West African Crocker, Chester 102, 103 States (ECOWAS) 73 Cuba 95, 107 Edhi Foundation 10 Cuny, Fred 61 Edwards, Michael 22 Cyprus 114 Efaw, Clark 33 Egeland, Jan 81 Dagestan 64 Egypt 27, 55, 70, 97, 149, 175, 217, 219 D’Amato, Anthony 129 Einstein, Albert 166 Darfur xiii, 159 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 219 African Muslims 81 El Salvador xi, 33, 95, 96, 97, 117, 121, camps in 82 191, 192, 195, 196, 199, 219 genocides 80, 98, 166 UN monitoring 102 and HINGOS 119, 171 Encinas, Luis 68 humanitarian aid camps 120, 140 Endara, Guillermo 193 mass murders 67, 68 Enrile, Juan Ponce 178, 179 NGO failure 219 Eritrea 219 peace agreements 65, 158 Ethiopia 158, 167, 219 and the Red Cross 77 European Commission 166, 169 refugee camps 66, 76 European Court of Human Rights Dasht-i-Leihi massacre 153 (ECHR) viii, 94, 139, 140, 210 Dayton Peace Agreement 108, 157 European Union (EU) viii, 24, 64, 67, Del Ponte, Carla 139 73, 109, 171, 173, 222 Democratic Republic of Congo xii, xiii, Lisbon treaty 94 1, 48, 60, 67, 68, 72, 99, 208, 219 Evans-Kent 217 massacre 106 private military forces 85 Falk, Richard 21, 74, 106, 121, 130, 167 Dewey, John 166 Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Diamond, Larry 24, 25 National (FMLN) 15 Dickey, Christopher 183 FARC guerilla 80 Dilemmas in Peacebuilding 21 Farer, Tom 97 Dinijad, Aminana 183 Farmers’ Organization of the People of Doctors without Borders ix, 68, 122, Regnier viii, 69 153, 209 The Federalist Papers (no. 10) 25, 56 276 Index

Feil, Scott 77 IPOA 85 Feldman, Lee 181 terrorism against 124 Ferguson, Neil 163 Greenberg-Lake 192 Figaro, Michelin 188 Greenpeace 9 Filartiga case 147 Group for Action in the Protection of Fine, Ralph I. 192 the South (GRAPES) viii, 69 Flamini, Roland 67 Group for the Support and Development Flood, Patrick James 141 of the Environment Ford 193 (GRADE) viii, 69 Ford, Gerald 90, 149 Guantanamo Bay 54 Ford Foundation 100 Guatemala 33, 48, 95, 96 de Forges, Allison 93 mass murder 81 (former) Soviet Union viii, 1, 85, 90, 96, Guinea-Bissau xii, 106 154, 196 France 22, 48, 55, 168 Habyarimana 66 Franklin 62 Hafner-Burton, Emilie 126 Freedom House 10 Hagopian 44, 45 FRELIMO 80 Hague Criminal Tribunal 52, 141 Frost, David 92 Haider, Iqbal 191 Frost, Robert xiv Haiti xi, xii, xiii, 16, 30, 31, 33, 35, 48, Furlong, Michael D. 85 51, 65, 69, 72, 95, 96, 168, 169, 175, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192, 195, Gaddafi, Muammar 69, 71 196, 199, 200, 219 Galbraith, Peter W. 200 coup government 109 Galtung, Johan 21, 130 earthquake 161, 171 Gandhi, Mohandas 41 humanitarian intervention 105, Garber, Larry 177, 181, 191 106, 107 Garcaia, Jose Guillermo 148 invasion 108 Gaza 79, 80, 167 NGOs 151 Operation Cast Lead 118 organizations 111 Geneva Conventions 39, 54, 72, 80, 92, police force 144 112, 118, 141, 152, 153 Haitian Front for Progress and committee against torture 95 Democracy (FRAPH) viii, 61 Genocide Convention 171 Hamas 51, 70, 118, 176 George, Alexander 39, 103 Hamdan case 92 Georgia 15, 184, 201, 219 Hart, H.L.A. 130, 207 Germany 48, 50, 55, 67, 114, 152, 174 Hathaway, Oona 100, 101 Nazi 90 Havel, Vaclav 19 Gerochi, Vicente 180 Hegel, Georg 128 Gettleman 68 Hegelian dialectic 43 Goldstone, Richard 136, 139, 167 Helms, Jesse 128 Golub, Stephen 164 Henkin, Louis 124, 133 Gorbachev, Mikhail 53, 74 Herby, Peter 79 Gordenker, Leon 23 Hernandez, Carolina G. 177 Governor’s Island Peace Plan 107 Hernandez, Lino 121 Grameen bank 5 Hezbollah 70 Grand Alliance for Democracy Higgins, Roslyn 140 (GAD) viii, 179 Hobbes, Thomas 21, 147 Great Britain (UK) 41, 54, 55, 77, 138, Holmes, John 168 166, 175 Holmes, Stephen 133 British Special Forces 86 Honduras 72 Index 277

Hong Kong 209 International Covenant on Economic, Honig, Arthur 51 Social and Cultural Rights Ho-Won, Jeong 61 (ICESCR) viii, 115, 116 Human Rights Committee (HRC) 96, International Criminal Court 115, 118, 121, 133 (ICC) viii, 22, 30, 91, 95, 98, 105, Human Rights First (HRF) viii, 95, 106, 109, 124, 138, 139, 140, 141, 96, 97 150, 153, 210 Human Rights Watch (HRW) viii, 9, International Criminal Tribunal for 95, 97, 105, 111, 117, 122, Rwanda (ICTR) viii, 147, 210 152, 174 International Criminal Tribunal for the Hume, John 48 Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ix, 52, Hungary 59 139, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152 Huntington 50 International Federation of Red Cross Hussein, Saddam 49, 50, 54, 71, 97, 98, (IFRC) ix, 11, 66, 76, 164, 168 161, 229 International Foundation for Hussein, Zaid 182 Electoral Systems (IFES) ix, 186, 187, 188, 189 India 41, 156, 164 international humanitarian Indonesia 97, 159, 219 law (IHL) ix, 39, 61, 139, 141, 142, Ingushetia 64 153, 157, 167 “Initiatives of Change” 48 International Mission for the Evaluation Institute for Politics, Sociology, and of elections in Haiti (MIEEH) ix, Economics (IPSE) ix, 194 188, 190 Inter-Agency Standing Committee International Republican Institute (IASC) ix, 164 (IRI) ix, 16 intergovernmental organizations International Rescue Committee (IGOs) ix, xi, 2, 4, 11, 14, 21, 27, (IRC) ix, 76, 158, 166 29, 36, 39, 47, 64, 83, 123, 134, Iran 13, 23, 98, 102, 145, 183, 184, 226 173, 174, 186, 193, 196, 200, 202, hostage situation 45 209, 212, 215, 222 Iraq 5, 6, 14, 27, 34, 49, 50, 54, 66, 67, demobilizing paramilitaries 81 68, 70, 71, 77, 79, 98, 153, 171, human rights review 94, 102 219, 226 mediation 99 Baathist paramilitary 82 monitoring 117 Hussein trials 97 and NGOs 92 invasion 105 openness 231 militarization 84 state-dominated 83 military contractors 86 internally displaced persons (IDPs) ix, new justice system 136 119, 157, 158, 164, 166 Oil-for-Food scandal 161 International Atomic Energy terrorist bombings 78 Administration/Agency viii, 54 U.S. war 88, 229 International Centre for Transitional Irish Republic Army (IRA) ix, 51, 65 Justice (ICTJ) viii, 98 Iron Curtain 74 International Commission of Jurists Islamic Relief 11 (ICJ) viii, 122 Israel 13, 48, 49, 51, 55, 97, 118, 119, International Committee of the Red 136, 146, 167, 217, 219 Cross (ICRC) viii, 76, 90, 93, 95, Defense Forces (IDF) ix, 117, 136 116, 163 NGOs 117 Mines-Arms Unit 79 violations of rights to life 94 International Court of Justice 130, Italy 114, 229 140, 152 Ivory Coast xiii, 173 278 Index

Jahangir, Asma Jilani 80 LaGrand, Karl 152 Jamaat Islaami 166 Lake, Antohny 53, 109 Japan 50, 114, 209 Latin America 6, 24, 27, 28, 71, 72 Jatoi, Ghulam Mustafa 182 Lavalas 69 Jatoi, Murtaza 182 Lebanon xiii, 70, 175 Jean-Juste, Gerard 188, 191 LeChevalier, Gerardo 190 Jilani, Hina 81 Lee, Miji xv Jordan 27, 55, 165, 217, 219 Lefever, Ernest 96 Journal of Democracy 25 The Leviathan 21 liberalism 5, 7, 8, 18, 20, 60, 74, Kadyrov, Ramzan 20 83, 84, 128 Kaldor, Mary 74 Liberia xii, xiii, 33, 73, 85, 106, 150, Kant, Emmanuel 129, 226, 227 199, 219 Kaplan, Robert 5 Libya 69, 70, 71, 137, 167 Karadzic, Radovan 148, 150 Libyan Islamic Fighting Group ix, 70 Karl 44, 45 Lockerbie bombing 137 Karzai 85, 200 Lindley 216 Kashmir 76, 106, 157 Linz, Juan J. 7, 25, 44, 142, 241, 255, 268 Katzenstein, Peter 129 Locke, John 128 Kaul, Avtar 33 longue duree 19, 134, 210 Kaunda, Kenneth 193, 194, 195 Lonrho 80 Kazakhstan 197 Louima, Abner 152 Keck, Margaret E. 107 Lucas, Stanley 16 Kenya 1, 158 Lukashenko, Alexander 201 Keohane, Robert 129 Luttwak, Edward 45 KGB 15 Khamenei, Ali 184 Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria 174 Khatemi, Mohammed 185 Macedonia 171 Khomeini, Ruhollah 184 Madagascar 174 Kingsbury, Benedict 124 Madison, James 25, 56, 222 Kinsley, Michael 213 Mahe, Eddie 189 Kissinger, Henry 53, 147, 148, 153 Mali 139 Kony, Joseph 150, 153 Mandela, Nelson 52, 53 Korean War 219 Manichean struggles xiv, 50, 117 Kosovo 49, 52, 67, 68, 99, 102, Mann, Simon 85 104, 105, 106, 121, 164, 169, Manus, Leon 187 171, 208 Marcos, Ferdinand 82, 148, 176, 177, ethnic cleansing 112 178, 179 humanitarian intervention 105, Martelly, Michel 188 107, 141 Martinez, Miguel Alfonso 89 international police force 144 Martins, Ismael Gaspar xii invasion 108, 110 Marty, Dick 210 issue network 109 Matthews, Jessica 5 war 113, 136 McCain, John 92 Krasner, Stephen 73 McChrystal, Stanley 9 Kratochwil, Fridrich V. 129 McCoy, Jennifer 177, 181 Kristof, Nicholas D. 52, 158 Mehinovic, Kemal 148, 149 Kucinich, Dennis 110 Mehinovic v. Vuckovic 148 Kustinica, Vojislav 171 de Mello, Sergio 66 Kuwait 71 Mendez, Juan E. 97, 98 Index 279

Meron, Theodor 139 neoconservativism 5, 7, 8 Mersheimer, John 6 Nepal 1, 86 Mertus, Julie 212, 216 Netherlands 114, 160 Mexico 200 New Human Rights Commission xii Middle Eastern Partnership Initiative newly industrialized countries (MEPI) ix, 175 (NICs) ix, 103, 209 Milosevic, Slobodan 49, 52, 111, 139, New Zealand 114 150, 152 Nicaragua 33, 95, 121, 145, 170, 191, Minear, Larry 157 192, 194, 195, 199, 219 Mitchell, George 53 Contras 53, 62 Mladic, Ratko 82 Niebuhr, Reinhold 22, 45, 166 Mohajir National Movement Nietzsche, Friedrich 218 (MQM) ix, 57 Nigeria 72, 73, 174, 175, 199 Sindhi-Mohajir conflict 76 Nixon, Richard 92 Monsanto (chemicals) 149 Non-governmental organization Monshipouri, Mahmood 77, 158, 216, (NGO) ix, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 15, 18, 245, 258, 264 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 45, de Montclos, Marc Antoine 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 56, 69, 76 Perouse 166, 258, 259 activism 19, 54, 140 Moral Rearmament (MRA) ix, 48 approach 77 Moravcsik, Andrew 103 armed NGOs 12, 69, 71 Morgenthau, Hans 128 backfire 223 Moro National Liberation Front 80 big NGOs (BINGOS) 11 Mortenson, Greg 5, 76 coalition 138 Moussavi 184 coordination 75 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick 102 corruption 11 Moyo, Dambisa 163 criticism 14, 34, 62, 81, 99, 108, 127, Mozambique 33, 80 137, 197, 226 Mubarak, Hosni 175 damaging 59, 60, 83 Mugabe, Robert 48, 122, 124, defects 61, 88, 114, 196 148, 184 definition 106 multinational corporations (MNCs) ix, dilemmas 52, 67, 75,79, 135, 155, 163, 84, 96, 134 212, 223, 225, 227, 228 Munich Pact 49 divisions 105 Murray, Santiago 53 domestic 10 Musavei, Mir-Hussein 183 donor-created (DONGOS) viii, 10, Musharraf 57, 197 16, 21, 122, 171, 174, 175, 186, Muslim Brotherhood 70 190, 199 effects of 20, 40, 50, 57, 60, 65, 84, Namibia 33, 169, 191, 195, 196 90, 98, 131 Nasreen 212 faith-based 14 National Citizen’s Movement for Free grassroots 17 Elections (NAMFREL) ix, 176, humanitarian international NGOs 177, 178, 179, 180 (HINGOS) viii, 26, 61, 66, 77, 79, National Democratic 80, 119, 140, 156, 157, 158, 159, Institute (NDI) ix, 10 160, 161, 164, 166, 167, 168, 170, National Rifla Association 171, 172, 209 (NRA) ix, 79 illiberal 12, 24, 26, 56, 72, 77, 78, 80, Nazi regime 90, 108, 229 111, 228 Neier, Ayeh 96, 121 interests 113, 117 280 Index

Non-governmental organization – O’Connell, Mary Ellen 99 continued O’Donnell, Guillermo 154 international NGOS (INGOS) ix, 11, Office for the coordination of Human 14, 31, 36, 39, 53, 66, 67, 76, 92, Affairs (OCHA) ix, 156, 157, 93, 104, 115, 121, 122, 133, 139, 161, 171 150, 159, 167, 208, 221, 225 oficialismo 55 intervention 43, 44, 55, 58 Okumu, Wafula 165 mediation 41, 42, 46 Olaleye 216 monitoring 87, 102, 115, 116, 121, Operation Lifeline Sudan 123, 128, 129, 145, 146, 152, 173 (OLS) ix, 158, 159 Moral Rearment 48 Optor movement 13 networks 107, 112 Organization of American States non-profit 15 (OAS) ix, 53, 188, 190, 191, 192, observers 204 195, 196, 199, 203 partnerships 172 Orr, Robert 145, 244, 255 peacebuilding 12, 16, 22, 33, 38, 53 Oscar, Evelyne 69 pressure 126 Oxfam 9, 31 quasi-NGOs (QUANGOS) ix, 10, 16, 21, 84, 85, 122, 157, 170, 171, 174, Paglas Corporation 80 186, 189, 190, 231 Paisley, Ian 48 reporting 93, 94, 103, 120 Pakistan 10, 14, 70, 95, 115, 123, 142, restrictions 142 157, 158, 166, 181, 182, 183, 191, roles 63, 73, 74, 78, 91, 104, 111, 133, 194, 195, 197, 199, 219 165, 207, 230, 233 ethnic conflict 56 social movement 26 intelligence network 85 spoilers 226 Pashtunistan incident 76 strengthening 101 U.S. involvement 86 subcontractors 17, 21 Palestine 13, 27, 48, 49, 51, 55, 70, 166, types/examples 9, 34, 214 176, 216, 217 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Palestine Liberation Organization (NATO) xi, 24, 73, 104, 107, 108, (PLO) 51 109, 110, 111, 119, 136, 139, 141, Red Crescent Society 118 144, 150, 153, 171, 173 violations of rights to life 94 Northern Ireland 24, 53, 219 Palgrave Macmillan xv Good Friday agreement 65 Panama 193, 195 North Korea 98 Papua New Guinea (PNG) ix, 1, 65 North Vietnam 49 Paris, Roland 37 Norway 216, 217 Pastor, Robert 177, 181, 196 Norway Peace Plan 22, 49 Patraeus, David 54 Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) ix, 159 Paul the converter 218 Norwegian Institute of Human Pavka, Marek 85, 216 Rights 28 peace-building 7, 8, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, Norwegian People’s Aid 26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 62, 63, 64, 66, (NPA) ix, 117, 159 71, 72, 74 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 23 complexity 232 Nye, Joseph 6 definitions 77 evolution 107 Obama, Barack (Administration) 16, 17, goals 162 58, 92, 119, 142, 153, 183, 185 importance 207 Obasanjo, Matthew 73, 175 NGO promotion 102 Index 281 peace-building – continued RENAMO 80 only when UN involved 221 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) ix, 99 positive peace 100 revanchism 44 strategies 145 Rhodesia 48 success 121 Rice, Condaleeza 153 theories 98 Richmond, Oliver xv, 20, 30, 63 Pearson, Zoe 147 Rivera, Brooklyn 193 Pelosi, Nancy 119 Robinson, Randall 108 Peres, Shimon 1 Rock, Brenor 69 Perez-Bravo, Julio xv Rodley, Nigel 97 Pew Trust poll 55 Roland, Tiny 80 Pharaon, Luciano 187 Romania 55, 59, 78, 79, 171, 175, 192, Philippine International Convention 197, 198, 199, 201, 210 Center (PICC) ix, 176, 177 Romanian Academic Society (SAR) ix, Philippines 28, 80, 86, 95, 97, 117, 159, 197 174, 176, 179, 180, 184, 191, 193, Romany, Celina 133 196, 199, 204 Root, Elihu 153 Pierre, Lescot 69 Ropp, Stephen C. 92, 246, 247 Pinochet, Augusto 50, 100, 141, 147, Rorty, Richard 132 148, 194, 195 Roth, Kenneth 95, 121 Plattner, Marc F. 25 Rugova, Ibrahim 52 Poirier, Jean Paul 188 Rumsfeld, Donald 86 Poland 210 Rupesinghe, Kumar 78 Politkovskaya, Anna 67 Russia 116 Portugal 139 accept UN missions 104, 106 Posner, Michael 96, 97, 124 attack on Chechnya 61, 64, 105 postconflict reconstruction 17, 29, 33, authoritarian state 102, 145 35, 36, 40, 61, 113, 156 cooperation 110 Powell, Collin 110, 119, 153 exclusionary system 27 Powell, Enoch 48 fail democracy test 204 “power shift” 5, 19, 134 genocide accusations 15 Preval, Rene 30, 176, 187, 188 “people power” revolutions 184 PRIME Sharing History Project 13 postconflict society 28 Provisional Electoral Council (CEP) viii, reporters 67 189 restricted missions 196, 197 Prudence, Bushnell 66 suspicious 13 Putin, Vladimir 184 veto 108 wars with countries 105 Rabin, Yitzhak 1 Russian Committee for State Security, Rafsanjani, Akbar 185 see KGB Rahnavard, Zahra 184 Rwanda 1, 22, 33, 48, 50, 57, 66, 67, 68, Ramos, Fidel 181 80, 97, 106, 120, 123, 136, 138, Rawls, John 128 165, 208, 219 Reagan, Ronald (administration) 36, genocide 93, 121 96, 177 International Military Tribunal 147 Reagan-Thatcher critique 12 peace failures xi realism 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 18, 60, 75, 83, 84, 89, 101 Sachs, Jeffrey 163 Recompas 53 Sacirbey, Muhamed 110 Reiff, David 121 Samac, Bosanski 148 282 Index

Sambanis, Nicholas 37 National Party 51 Sampson, Stephen 154 Truth and Reconciliation Sanchez, Augusto 179 Commission 70 Sandinistas 53, 62, 170, 185, 192, 193, South Korea 28, 97, 160, 161, 184, 191, 194, 199 209 Sankoh, Foday 73 South Sudan 65 Santiago, Miriam Defensor 180 Spain v. Pinochet 138 Sarajevo 66 Spinoza, Baruch 218 Sartori, Giovanni 25 Sri Lanka 48, 167 Saudi Arabia 55 Steele, David 33, 42 Save the Children 31, 67, 77, 157, 168 Stepan, Alfred 25, 44 Savimbi, Jonas 52, 85, 199 Subasic, Hassan 148 Sayef, Abu 80 Sudan xiii, 65, 119, 120, 123, 138, 140, Scandinavia 160 150, 153, 158, 166, 219 Schatschneider, E.E. 211 attacks on Chad 76 Schevadnadze, Edouard 196 due process trials 98 Schulz, William F. 94 Janjaweed in 81 Securicor 80 massacre 106 Sen, Amartya 114 Suharto 81 Serbia 10, 13, 52, 59, 66, 77, 111, 121, Sukarno 81 150, 151, 171, 184, 199 Sweden 114 attack upon 104, 108 Swigert, James 190 genocide 107, 127 war crimes 110 Tadic case 148, 149 Seung-Hui, Cho 223 Taiwan 209 Shamir 1 Tajikistan 33, 106 Sharif, Nawaz 197 Taliban 54, 67, 70, 76, 153 Sharon, Ariel 147 Tangancgo, Luzminda 179, 180 Sharpe, Kenneth 192 Kandahar presence 76 Shultz, George 153 Task Force Detainees (TFD) ix, 117 Sierra Leone xiii, 33, 73, 98, 106, 123, Taylor, Charles 85, 150, 175, 199 151, 175 Taynghirang, Enrico 177 Special Court 155 Teresi, Holly xv Sikkink 92, 107 Thailand 70, 196 Simmons, Beth 101, 126 Third Wave of Democratization 25 Sindh 57, 65, 183 Three Cups of Tea 4 Sindhi-Mohajir conflict 76 Tismaneanu, Vladimir 79 Singapore 209 Tito 229 Singer, Pete 163 Tocqueville, Alexis de 25, 130 Sison, Jose 177 Torture Convention 16 Slaughter, Ann-Marie 129 track diplomacy 2, 42, 48, 80, 199, 216 Slovenia 59 TransAfrica 108 Smiley, Tavis 55 transnational advocacy networks Smith, Ian 48 (TANs) ix, 7, 11, 15, 87, 107, 112, Snyder, Jack 103 129, 228 Somalia xi, 35, 67, 68, 158, 166, Tsutsui, Kiyoteru 126 171, 219 Turkey 105, 209 Somoza, Anastasio 121 Turnbull, Wallace 190 South Africa 57, 102, 103, 120, 128, 139, 164, 196, 219 Uganda 65, 150, 153, 174 African National Congress 52 United Kingdom see Great Britain Index 283

United Nations x, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 14, 16, supervision xiii 22, 23, 24, 28, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37, UNAMSIL (Sierra Leone) x, 123 48, 52, 54, 55, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, U.S. ambassador 95 73, 74, 101, 140, 195 weaknesses 221 Bosnian mission 106 United States 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 22, 30, Charter 88, 90, 92, 104, 105, 108, 49, 53, 54, 55, 66, 68, 70, 71, 80, 129, 130, 141, 148, 232 166, 186, 197 Children’s Fund x, 156, 158 Air Force 85 commissioning xiv CIA see Central Intelligence Agency Committee Against Torture 146 contractors 86 competence 199 control over Haiti 111 Development Program x, 19, 114, 156, Department of Justice 147 159, 168, 221 Department of State 114 in East Timor 81 foreign aid 97, 111 Economic and Social Council xii foreign elections 205 effectiveness internationally 68 foreign policy 168 fact-finding team 118 gun law metaphor 78 focus 144 human rights groups 109 foreign elections 205 impunity 105, 116, 138, 152 founding 100 Institute of Peace 102, 103 General Assembly xii, 89, 106, 114 invasion of Haiti 108 High Commissioner for Refugees x, Iranian elections 183 91, 122, 156, 164 in Iraq 1 Human Development Report 19 Justice Dept. 95 Human Rights Council x, 89, 94, 95, lawyers 136 97, 115 marines 73 human rights law 143 mass media 112 illegal mercenaries 85 military spending 163 intervention 198 National Endowment for Joint Inspection Unit 24 Democracy ix, 13, 145, 175 military action 107 National Intelligence Estimate 23 Mission to the Democratic Republic of national involvement 67 Congo (MONUC) ix, 68 National Rifle Association multilateral approach 232 (NRA) 79 Peacebuilding Commission xii, xiii, National Security Council 54 2, 3, 21, 29, 91, 104, 106, 221, peacebuilding 28 222 precedent 104 Program against small arms 79 ratification 101 Secretary-General xii, xiii, 1, 16, 29, secret prisons 94 34, 35, 118, 137, 195, 199, 221, stopping abuses 93 227, 233 support for UN 113 Security Council (UNSC) xii, xiii, 8, Supreme Court 54, 151 29, 66, 73, 90, 101, 104, 105, 106, torture 90 107, 108, 109, 110, 114, 130, 137, veto of Bosnia 106 140, 148, 168, 173, 179, 186, 196, Vietnam War 149 213, 221 Universal Declaration of security regime 113 Human Rights (UDHR) ix, 115, Special Commission x, 54 116, 124 specified conditions 230 Stabilization mission in Haiti Vance, Stephen D. 123 (MINUSTAH) ix, 35 Van Tongeren, paul 43 284 Index

Van Tuijl, Peter 61, 240, 242, 258, 264, Wollters, Willem 177 270 World Bank 159, 166, 169 Vasiljevic, Mitar 82 World Food Program (WFP) x, 156 Venezuela 72 World Health Organization (WHO) 124 Vietnam 6, 14, 113, 149 World Trade Organization (WTO) Vuckovic 148, 149 protests 169 World Vision 9, 31, 157, 167 Walker, R.B.J. 21 Wallace, Chris 94 Yemen 58, 70 Waltz, Kenneth 128 Yergin, Daniel 73 War against Rape x, 115 Yoo, John 95 warlike politics 25, 216, 226, 228 Yorac, Haydee 177, 179 Washburn, John 138 Young, Harry xv Watch Committees 96 Yugoslavia 10, 59, 77, 97, 109, 123, 138, Weber, Max 149 150, 171 Weinstein, Allan 177 Yunus, Muhammed 5 Weiss, Thomas G. 23 Welch, Claude E. 122 Zambia 193, 195, 201 Wendt, Alexander 129 Zimbabwe 122, 124, 148, 184, 199, 219 Wibowo, Sarwo Edhi 81 Blackbeach Prison 85 Wieseltier, Leon 58 Zinnes, Clifford 154 Wollach, Kenneth 191 Ziv, Hadas 117