Notes 1 Introduction 1. UN initially used the term ‘peace-building’ in Secretary General Boutros-Ghali’s Agenda for Peace, but not for its ‘Peacebuilding’ Commission. 2. Oliver P. Richmond, Maintaining Order, Making Peace (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); The Transformation of Peace: Peace As Governance in Contemporary Conflict Endings (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 3. Such as the role of prominent personalities, such as Graca Machel, the wife of former South African President Nelson Mandela, in Burundi and Kenya; Jimmy Carter in North Korea, Nicaragua, Liberia, and elsewhere, and many special rep- resentatives of the UN, such as the former Finish President and 2008 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Martti Ahtisaari in Namibia and Kosovo, to mediate in particular conflicts. See Ann Kelleher and James Larry Taulbee, “Building Peace Norwegian Style: Studies in Track I ½ Diplomacy,” in Oliver P. Richmond and Henry F. Carey (eds.) Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005), pp. 77–78. 4. The distinction between Track I and II was originally developed by Joseph Montville, 1982, followed by the first book on Track II Diplomacy by John W. McDonald. For a summary of a dozen relevant definitions, see, for example, “Commonly Used Terms,” Search for Common Ground, available at: www.sfcg. org/resources/resources_terms.html 5. Louise Diamond and John W. McDonald developed the concept of multitrack diplomacy and established the Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy. See their Multi-Track Diplomacy: A Systems Approach to Peace (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1996, third ed.). For a website on one of the first modern examples of multitrack diplomacy, the case of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty of 1905 between Russia and Japan, mediated by Theodore Roosevelt, with involvement of the citi- zens and organizations of Portsmouth, see: www.portsmouthpeacetreaty.org 6. Roy Lidlicker, “Ethical Advice, Conflict Management vs. Human Rights in Ending Civil Wars,” Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 7, no. 4 (2008), pp. 376–387. 7. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith, The Dictator’s Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is almost always Good Politics (New York: 2011). 8. Sabrina P. Ramet, “The Collapse of East European Communism,” chapter 2 in Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 35–53. 9. Greg Mortenson and Greg Oliver Relin, Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace – One School at a Time (New York: Penguin, 2007). 10. Richard A. Falk, Law in an Emerging Global Village (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 1998). Jessica T. Matthews may exaggerate when she writes, “The Nation-State May be Obsolete in an Interneted World,” in “Power Shift”, Foreign Affairs (January–February 1997), p. 11, pp. 50–67. 11. “The Coming Anarchy,” The Atlantic (February 1994), available at: http://www. theatlantic.com/doc/199402/anarchy (accessed 2 December 2009). 234 Notes 235 12. John J. Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 13. Paul Collier, War, Guns and Votes: Democracy in Dangerous Places (New York: Harper, 2009). 14. Roland Paris and Timothy D. Sisk (eds.), The Dilemmas of State Building: Confronting the Contradictions (London: Routledge, 2009). 15. Joseph S. Nye, Understanding International Conflicts: An Introduction to Theory and History (New York: Longman, 2008). 16. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998). 17. Oliver P. Richmond (ed.), Palgrave Advances in Peacebuilding: Critical Developments and Approaches (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh (ed.), Rethinking the Liberal Peace: External Models and Local Alternatives (London: Routledge, 2011). 18. The most extreme version of this view is offensive realism, which finds little basis for cooperation in a world of unbalanced multi-polarity, per Mersheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. 19. Catherine Barnes distinguishes between three types of NGOs (a) sectoral, (b) general structural reform, and (c) specific conflict resolution. Catherine Barnes, “Weaving the Web: Civil-Society Roles in Working with Conflict and Building Peace,” in Paul van Tongeran, Malin Brenk, Marte Hellema and Juliette Verhoeven (eds.), People Building Peace II (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner, 2005), pp. 12–13. 20. One estimate counts the number of international NGOs at 38,000, available at: www.uia.org/homeorg.htm. 21. Common abbreviations are NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), INGOs (international nongovernmental organizations), and IGOs (intergovernmental organizations). 22. See the book of a chief whistleblower, the former chief spokesman for Cigna and previously Humana, Wendell Potter, Dangerous Spin: An Insurance Company Insider Speaks Out on How Corporate PR is Killing Health Care and Deceiving Americans (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010). Such fake “Astro Turf” NGOs, set up by public rela- tions firms with millions of dollars, are created to lobby and make political attacks, such as Health Care America, which consisted of just two people, a role, Sarah Burke and a media spokesman, Bill Pierce. Abco Worldwide was the NGO cre- ated by the Washington, DC, “super law firm” Arnold and Porter, which defended tobacco companies. The NGO Health Care America, which claimed to represent consumers, was never exposed by the press as a previously non-existent front for the insurance industry with just a few members. No press account exposed the true nature of the NGO, which was particularly effective creation of a public-re- lations firm, which also employed a pollster to track reactions to the movie Sicko. A June 2007 article in The New York Times, describing the movie’s premier release, quoted Pierce as stating that the movie represented a move toward socialism. Bill Macinturf, the pollster for this campaign and later for John McCain, convinced the U.S. public to move away from its preference for greater government regulation of health care. Health Care America also hired a private investigator to obtain per- sonally embarrassing details on the film’s director, Michael Moore, which proved unnecessary because Health Care America’s advertisements and statement con- vinced the U.S. public that a single-payer option or universal care amounted to socialism and that Michael Moore was a socialist. The single-payer option was not part of the health insurance reforms enacted in 2010. A similar PR campaign, 236 Notes featuring television advertisements with Harry and Louise, helped to terminate the Clinton Administration’s 1993 universal health care proposal. 23. For examples of studies based on subjective analyses, such as the AI reports, see Robert H. Howard and Henry F. Carey, “Courts and Political Freedom: A Measure of Judicial Independence,” Judicature, Vol. 87, no. 6 (May–June 2004), pp. 1–10; Steven C. Poe and C. Neal Tate, “Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 88 (1994), pp. 853–900. For the actual database used in the latter, see http://www.psci.unt.edu/ihrsc/poetate. htm (accessed 18 January 2010). I also used Freedom House data in Henry F. Carey and Rafal Raciborski, “Postcolonialism: A Valid Paradigm for the Former Sovietized States and Yugoslavia?” East European Politics and Societies, Vol. 18, no. 2 (Spring 2004), pp. 191–235. 24. Thomas G. Weiss and Leon Gordenker (eds.) NGOs, the UN and Global Governance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1996); Henry F. Carey, “NGOs and the Rule of Law,” Journal of Human Rights, special issue on “NGOs and the Rule of Law”, Vol. 2, no. 3 (September 2003). 25. Weiss and Gordenker (eds.) NGOs, the UN and Global Governance, p. 28. 26. Thomas Carothers, “How Democracies Emerge: the ‘Sequencing Fallacy,’ ” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 18, no. 1 (January 2007), pp. 12–27. 27. Michael Bratton, “The Politics of Government-NGO Relations in Africa,” World Development, Vol. 17, no. 4 (1989), pp. 569–587. 28. Roger Cohen, “The Hidden Revolution: the Serbian Students Who Brought Down Milošević,” The New York Times Magazine (26 November, 2000), pp. 43–47, 118, 148. 29. Sara Cameron, “The Role of Children as Peace-makers in Colombia,” Development Vol. 43, no.1, pp. 40–45. 30. Jaco Cilliers, “Transforming Post-Accord Education Systems: Local Reflections from Bosnia-Herzegovina,” in Siobhán McEvoy-Levy, Troublemakers or Peacemakers?: Youth and Post-Accord Peacebuilding (University of Notre Dame Press, 2006), pp. 173–194. 31. Hans Holmén, Snakes in Paradise: NGOs and the Aid Industry in Africa (Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, 2010), p. viii. 32. Shawn Teresa Flanigan, For the Love of God: NGOs and Religious Identity in a Violent World (Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, 2010), p. 5. 33. Walt Bogdanich and Jenny Nordberg, “Mixed U.S. Signals Helped Tilt Haiti toward Chaos,” The New York Times (29 January 2006), available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/29/international/americas/29haiti. html?_r’1&scp’1&sq’Stanley%20Lucas%20Haiti&st’cse; Joshua Kurlantzick, “The Coup Connection: How an Organization Financed by the U.S. Government has been Planning the Overthrow of Elected Leaders Abroad,” Mother Jones (November/ December 2004), available at: http://motherjones.com/politics/2004/11/coup- connection. 34. For a cynical view, see Jim Rogers, Adventure Capitalist: The Ultimate Road Trip (New York: Random House, 2004). 35. Nye, Understanding International Conflicts, p. 36. 36. Testimony of U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill, before the hearing before the Senate Homeland Security Subcommittee on Contracting (21 April 2009), available at: http://www.cspan.org/Watch/Media/2009/04/21/Terr/A/17649/Senate+Homela nd+Security+Subcmte+Hearing+on+Detecting+Contract+Fraud.aspx 37. Under General Service Administration regulations on contract terms of the U.S. government, contractors cannot be reviewed once the contract is signed, Notes 237 if their pricing information was not accurate prior to contracting. There are no post-award audit rights for defective pricing.