Vol. 12, No. 2 Fall 2004

“The resemblances between many animals and humans, not least in their dependency of food and air, has given to animals a special status in all religions.” This is the first sentence from the entry on animals in The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1997). Yet species of wild animals are being driven to extinction at accelerating rates. Farm animals are being increasingly manipulated through factory farms and genetic engineering to enhance production. What do the religions of the world tell us of the purpose of nonhuman animals in the natural order and humans’ moral responsibility to them? This issue presents excerpts from a few chapters in a forthcoming book focused on animals in religion. It also features some paper presentations and describes the activities of the Animals and Religion Consultation of the American Academy of Religion. “others,” human and nonhuman, in our Animals and Religion lives. Throughout A Communion of Sub- by Paul Waldau and Kimberly Patton jects, we see how as living beings, animals have often been “objectified” in some ho are the animals and what do they mean to us? forms of religion, science, ethics–things of aesthetic “value” or conversely, ex- The radical intimacy between human beings and the pendable and abusable. We also see how Wmultiple animal worlds that surround and penetrate in realms as diverse as mythology, the le- our own, an intimacy suggested by Thomas Berry, is both gal sphere, and cognitive zoology, animals have emerged not as passive objects but catalyst and center of meaning for this ate ourselves, our families, and our human, as actors or “subjects” in their own right– wide-ranging volume. Berry’s challenge animal, and ecological communities. “Reli- that is, as autonomous entities with to see the world as a “communion of sub- gion and animals,” then, arises directly from consciousness, agency, or rights, as well jects” rather than as a “collection of deep, daily concerns about who we are, who as moral, emotional, or even devotional ca- objects” moves the ground for our rela- our companions are, the places in which we pabilities. We asked the authors to reflect tionship to animals away from use, away live, and the choices we make about the (continued on page 3) from commodification, and even away from sentimentality. If animals are, in their own right, the subjects of experience, be- A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion and Ethics, Paul Waldau ings with consciousness, emotional and and Kimberley Patton, eds. Columbia University Press, forthcoming. moral range, ontological status, theolog- ical value, or pain comparable to our own, This book arises from an extraordinary event that took place in May 1999 at the rather than the objects of human percep- Harvard-Yenching Institute, where scholars from all over the world converged to tion or usage, then we must approach the discuss the many different ways—good and bad—in which religious traditions and topic of animals with new lenses and new their believers have engaged the nonhuman lives in and around our human questions. communities. As the product of a vision and the financial generosity of the Center for Religious traditions have, in fact, im- Respect of Life and Environment and the Forum in Religion and Ecology, the conference pacted in countless ways how each created a new academic and religious field that now goes by the name “religion and human being now engages the worlds animals.” This volume of edited essays reflects the many ideas discussed at this about us and which we live amidst. And conference, though the papers delivered at the conference have been revised animals, both human and nonhuman, are significantly by each author to reflect all that was learned from the profound exchanges rich worlds unto themselves. The realm that took place among the participating religious believers, scientists, and scholars. of “Religion and Animals,” whether as a The title has been taken from the insight of the “geologian” Thomas Berry that the personal inquiry or as an academic field, world “is not a collection of objects, but a communion of subjects.” The volume has seeks the intersection of these worlds. been further enriched by articles and interviews with additional important voices, Such attempts to engage the surround- such as Jane Goodall and Peter Singer, whose work with nonhuman animals is part of ing world are both ancient and new, contemporary science and ethics. –P.W. reflecting humans’ constant urge to situ- 2 Fall 2004

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Religion and Animals by Paul Waldau and Kimberly Patton...... 1 Earth Ethics examines the basic assumptions, at- titudes and beliefs that underlie our relationship with Hierarchy, Kinship, and Responsibility: The Jewish Relationship to the Animal the natural world and suggests directions for our evolution towards a humane sustainable society. World by Roberta Kalechofsky...... 6 Publisher & Editor Richard M. Clugston, Director Center for Respect of Life and Environment The Case of the Animals versus Man: Towards an Ecology of Being Managing Editor by Zayn Kassam...... 8 Laina G. Clugston The Tradition of Animal Protection in Jaina Religion Publication Designer Tara Miller by Christopher Key Chapple...... 11 Copy Editor The Subjective Lives of Animals Ellen Truong by Marc Bekoff...... 13 Center for Respect of Life and Environment Board of Directors All Animals Matter: Marc Bekoff’s Contribution to Constructive Christian President, Andrew N. Rowan Theology The Humane Society of the United States by Jay McDaniel...... 16 Vice President, Patricia A. Forkan The Humane Society of the United States Ecumenical Ethics for Earth Community Secretary, John A. Hoyt by Dieter Hessel...... 22 The Humane Society of the United States Treasurer, G. Thomas Waite III Animals Re-Enter the Christian (and Interfaith) Sanctuary: Blessings of the The Humane Society of the United States Animals in the U.S. Chair, Mary Evelyn Tucker, Bucknell University by Laura Hobgood-Oster...... 26 Donald W. Cashen Professional Services Associates Religion and Animals Anita W. Coupe, Morgan, Lewis and Bockius by Richard M. Clugston and Heather Tallent...... 26 John Grim, Bucknell University Animals, Religion and the Environment: The Bible’s Teachings on Protecting Jan A. Hartke, EarthVoice Animals and Nature Dieter T. Hessel by Lewis Regenstein...... 35 Program on Ecology, Justice and Faith Stephanie Kaza, University of Vermont Frederick Kirschenmann Kirschenmann Family Farms Randall Lockwood The Humane Society of the United States Jay McDaniel, Hendrix College David Orr, Oberlin College Lewis Regenstein The Interfaith Council for the Protection of Animals and Nature Victoria Stack International Communication Initiatives

Correspondence should be directed to Earth Eth- ics, Center for Respect of Life and Environment, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20037. Con- tributions should be made payable to CRLE.

The viewpoints expressed in Earth Ethics are the viewpoints of the authors and should not be attrib- uted to the Center for Respect of Life and Environment, its officers, or directors. Fall 2004 3

(continued from page 1) have the ability to understand their lived beings, which abound in religious art, writ- upon the word “communion,” with its over- experience well, if at all. Ignorance of these ing, and oral traditions, have been important tones of profound, even sacred differences has often led, both within and in myriad ways for religious believers. An- interrelationship and participation between without religion, to crass oversimplifica- imals are not marginalia in the great animals, between human beings, and be- tions. Indeed, many of our most familiar illuminated manuscripts of religion; they tween these multiple worlds. We asked ways of talking about the nonhuman living lurk not only in the woods beyond the fire, them all, religionists, scientists, and ethi- beings upon the earth turn out to be, upon but at its very burning heart. As so many cists alike, to reflect on the issue of the careful examination, coarse caricatures and essays in this volume suggest, one cannot “constructed” (or “projected”) nature of profoundly inaccurate descriptions: “pro- explore religious traditions adequately, nor animals versus their lived and living reali- jections” that may go well beyond the usual really understand them well, without com- ties. Finally, we asked them to bear in mind charge of anthropomorphizing. Indeed, a ing to terms with the diverse roles played number of our scientific authors demon- out in their ideas about animals. Yet, while strate that the resistance of research some of these ideas are connected in one “In fact, religion has often methodologies to so-called “anthropomor- way or another to the animals portrayed, phizing” really has at its heart a passionate many are only remotely related, if at all, to been the primary source ideological commitment to the difference the animals pictured, named, or allegorical- for answers to questions between species, between humans and oth- ly deployed. Some studies of “religion and er kinds of animals. Once that blinding animals” are confined solely to the study such as, ‘Which living commitment is laid aside, as animal research- of religious images of other animals, in no beings really should matter ers like Jane Goodall and Donald Griffin have way raising the issue of the actual biologi- done in their decades of work with chim- cal beings themselves. This volume is to me and my commu- panzees and other animals, deep affinities different, continually interesting itself in the nity?’” as well as important differences between relationship between Raven and raven–the human beings and animals emerge. The pic- mercurial trickster, and the great black, can- ture is then far more nuanced, and far “truer.” ny predator who still haunts the trees of the multiplicity of views of animals within And still the animals, our nonhuman com- the land where his mythological form particular religious traditions, ethical trajec- panions on the earth, challenge us to try to evolved. tories, social histories, or research methods. imagine their world, and to see how we have In other words, our authors confront the affected it, even as they continue to affect Ethics and Institutions: Treatment of “The fact that variability in ideas about animals us so profoundly. Others” comes not just from different lenses, in that Whatever else may be said of religions Religious traditions characteristically those lenses are not homogeneous–“of a in the matter of nonhuman animals, these foreground ethical concerns for “others.” piece.” ancient and enduring cultural, social, and These others can, of course, include both transcendental systems have unquestion- humans and nonhumans, “the others,” as Complexities, Tensions, and Perspective ably had profound impacts on countless Paul Shepard calls them.1 Some religious Challenges human actions affecting the other living traditions insist that the universe of moral- Any account of religious traditions’ beings in whose midst we live. In fact, reli- ly considerable beings includes all living engagement with other animals will swell gion has often been the primary source for beings. Others on the other hand have had into a multitude of diverse, complex issues. answers to questions such as, “Which liv- a pronounced human-centered bias because Some of the complexities stem from the well- ing beings really should matter to me and they assert that only humans truly matter. known fact that over the millennia of their my community?” The answers to such ques- Note, however, that even if proponents of existence, religious traditions have provid- tions given by, for example, the early Jains these competing claims differ radically as ed an astonishing array of views and and Buddhists and the early Christians have to the extent to which human caring abili- materials on virtually any general subject had, in their respective milieux and beyond, ties should reach outside the human that believers, scholars and other interest- great influence on ed parties might explore. This variety is made how the living be- all the more challenging because even within ings outside the any one religious tradition, such views and human species materials can be in significant tension. have been under- A very different set of complexities aris- stood and treated. es from the fact that the living beings outside our own species can be startlingly Symbolic Thought different from one another. Many are men- and Inherited tally, socially, and individually very simple, Conceptions but others are so complicated and enigmat- Images of ic mentally and socially that we may not nonhuman living 4 Fall 2004 species, they share the conviction that hu- ly be seen enacted in the far vaster realm of mans are characterized by extraordinary individual believers’ actions and perspec- ethical abilities to care for “others.” A cen- tives toward the many lives–the multiple tral question in the study of religion and intelligences and subjectivities–the “paral- animals is, “Who are the others?” lel nations” that surround them. Although there is in many circles a ten- It is widely recognized in contempo- dency to equate religious views with factual rary social sciences that the oppressions propositions about the world, most reli- of humans and other animals are linked. The gious traditions include the insight that acts oppression of one kind of living being seems speak louder about what one really believes to lead to the oppression of other kinds of than do spoken or written words. Accord- living beings. For this reason, the study of ingly, what religious traditions truly “think” religion and animals can be closely tied to about other animals is, at least in part, rep- the powerful concern with social justice resented by believers’ treatment “on the found in most (although admittedly not all) ground,” as it were, of other living beings. religious traditions, even though those tra- A religion which features, say, bull worship ditions seem to be exclusively human- in its temples, but in no way addresses bru- centered. tal treatment of cattle in the daily world As vessels of meaning and educators outside the temple will, quite naturally, seem in matters cultural, intellectual, ethical, so- to some to have a less positive view of cat- cial, and ecological, religious traditions tle than does a religion that unequivocally mediate views of the world around us prohibits harsh treatment or even killing of across time and place. It is natural then that, tories. The place of myth in the recurring bulls and cows even though such animals since nonhuman animals are truly around intersection of religious belief and our en- do not appear in any places of worship or and with us in our ecological communities, gagement with other animals is then traditions of iconography. religious traditions have had a major role in broached, followed by reflections on the In the official pronouncements of some passing along basic ideas about these be- place of the earth’s other living beings in a organized religions, themes may be sound- ings’ place in, or exclusion from, our diverse set of rituals, social thought, and ed that are much more one-dimensional than communities of concern. Understanding arts traditions. the nuanced behavior of believers in their this feature of religion, particularly as it is a Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all in- everyday interactions with nonhuman liv- highly contextualized piece in any religious sist on the ontological and moral gulf ing beings. Thus, even if at times tradition’s larger puzzle, is an essential task between humans and the rest of earth’s liv- in the study of religion and animals. ing beings. This is why some animal rights activists and scholars often dismiss these “...the oppressions of The Scope and Content of this Volume traditions as “bad for animals,” and why, In the essays that follow, the profundi- conversely, animal rights rhetoric often does humans and other animals ty of Thomas Berry’s notions of “loneliness not reach or affect traditional monotheistic are linked. The oppression and presence” are sounded in extraordinar- religious agendas, standing as it does, as ily diverse ways regarding our relations to, David Carlin points out, in the “long tradi- of one kind of living being communities with, and alienations from the tion of trying to narrow the gap between seems to lead to the rich menagerie we commonly call “animals.” humans and lower animals.” Carlin at- Section I, “Animals in Religion, Sci- tributes the motive behind this move to “a oppression of other kinds ence and Ethics: In and Out of Time” strong animosity toward the view of human of living beings.” comprises two essays by the editors, which nature taken both by biblical religions and we hope will offer a broad overview of what by the great classical schools of philoso- is at stake in our volume. phy.... To reduce human nature to nothing Sections II – V offer focused scholarly more than its biological status is to attack anthropocentric biases dominate a modern studies of animals in many of the great reli- this ancient and exalted conception of hu- religious institution’s discourse and con- gious traditions of the world. The place of man nature.”2 A Communion of Subjects ceptual generalities about nonhuman various creatures in the diverse and influ- reveals the problems with Carlin’s critique: animals, the tradition in question may well ential Abrahamic traditions, tensions in the major sources in the biblical and classical honor additional insights regarding which ancient and ethically inclusive South Asian western traditions, like many animal protec- “others” are appropriate subjects for hu- traditions, and aspects of the awesomely tionists, often condemned human mans’ considerable ethical abilities. “The complex Chinese traditions are treated. East arrogance, and many animal protectionists study of religion and animals naturally ac- then meets West in several broad discus- find it abhorrent to “reduce human nature commodates analyses of institutional sions of nonhuman animals in various to nothing more than its biological status.” ideologies, but such views can most clear- philosophical traditions and cultural trajec- But there can be no question that, for bet- Fall 2004 5 ter or for worse, classical monotheistic the- these rich topics are explored by research Oxford, England. He also has a Juris Doc- ologies grow out of hierarchical valuation: scientists, lawyers, philosophers, scholars tor degree from UCLA Law School and an in keeping with the Genesis account of cre- of social thought, and bioethicists who hold additional graduate degree in Religious ation of human beings in the tselem of God central places in the contemporary discus- Studies from Stanford University. He is the (the divine image), these theologies say that sion of our current values, both inclusivist author of The Specter of Speciesism: Early we human beings are infinitely more valu- and exclusivist, regarding life outside our Christian and Buddhist Views of Animals able than animals–just as is true in the species. (Scholars Press, 1999), and his course Buddhist or Jain systems of thought, al- A Communion of Subjects is, then, a “Religion, Science, and Other Animals” is though there, driven by the series of voices that collectively invites be- one of the 1999 award winners in the in- metempsychotic principle, for highly differ- lievers, nonbelievers, ethicists, scientists, ternational competition sponsored by the ent reasons. consumers, and all other humans to meet Center for Theology and Natural Sciences In their various recombinations of the the challenge of asking and answering and the John Templeton Foundation. Paul doctrine of sam-sa–ra, religious traditions how the two important topics of “religion” is also author of numerous articles on eth- which have their origins in South Asia add and “animals” are joined. At the very least, ics, religion, and philosophical issues per- a special dimension to the framing of the meeting this challenge offers the prospect taining to nonhuman animals. As the vice universal moral order as a divine-human- of deepening our questions about the na- president of The Great Ape Project Inter- animal hierarchy: through karmic dictate, the ture of religion, religious claims, and our national and an advisor to many environ- human being can face an animal rebirth; in- sometimes arrogant, sometimes compas- mental and animal protection groups, he deed, as the Ja–takama–las narrate, even sionate, and sometimes ignorant claims lectures regularly around the United the Buddha himself experienced countless about the other biological beings on this States. prior animal lives.3 planet and their worlds out beyond our hu- Animal, human, divine and demonic be- man communities. All of this is, of course, Kimberley C. Patton is Assistant Pro- ings oscillate between bodies in the a venture of a fundamentally ecological na- fessor in the Comparative and Historical Buddhist cosmos, “a vast unsupervised ture, for we cannot know about the lives of Study of Religion at Harvard Divinity recycling plant in which unstable but sen- these fellow living beings without knowing School, where she teaches a course entitled tient entities circulate from one form of about their communities, habitats, and wid- “Realms of Power: Animals in Religion.” existence to the next,” as described by Bud- er ecological webs. Above all, though, She is coeditor of and contributing au- dhologist Ian Harris, and by standard caring, careful answers to questions about thor to A Magic Still Dwells: Comparative Maha–ya–na teaching: “All beings whether and in what ways our world is a Religion in the Postmodern Age (Univer- throughout the six realms can be consid- “communion of subjects” rather than a “col- sity of California, Berkeley, 1999) and ered as our father and mother.” The lection of objects” offer prospects for a the author of two forthcoming books, The implications of this for Buddhist ethics, in deeper understanding of all beings’ place Religion of the Gods: Divine Reflexivity in particular for the practice of metta– loving- within our cosmos. Comparative Context (Oxford, 2000) and kindness–are drawn out and brought into a “The Sea Can Wash Away All Evils”: Mod- discussion of contemporary issues of Bud- ern Marine Pollution and the Ancient Ca- dhist values vis-à-vis animal and Paul Waldau is Director of the Center thartic Ocean (Harvard University Press, environmental protection in Asia; perhaps for Animals and Public Policy and on the 2002). not surprisingly, the tensions between ide- faculty of Tufts University School of Veteri- al and praxis are similar to those described nary Medicine, where he has assumed a by Lance Nelson in Hinduism. central role in the Ethics and Values Sig- 1 See Paul Shepard, The Others: How Ani- In Sections IX- XI we turn our gaze to nature Program. Paul was a Senior Fel- mals Made Us Human (Washington, D.C.: the ethical implications of nonhuman ani- low at Harvard University’s Center for the Island Press, 1996). mals’ undeniable existential complexity for Study of World Religions in 1997 after com- scientific traditions. The implications of pleting his doctoral work at University of 2 David R. Carlin, “Rights, Animal and Hu- man,” First Things 105 (2000), 16-17.

3 Some of the discussion in the preceding four paragraphs represents mutual revision and elaboration by the editors of ideas ini- tially presented in a journal article by Kimberly Patton, “‘He Who Sits in the Heav- ens Laughs: Recovering Animal Theology in the Abrahamic Traditions,” Harvard Theological Review 93:4 (2000), 401-34. 6 Fall 2004

sion in the covenantal statements would Hierarchy, Kinship, and Respon- make mandatory. The covenantal statements not only point to the animals’ legal posi- tion, determining things that are due them sibility: The Jewish Relationship such as proper food and care, but to their position in the divine ethos and reflect the to the Animal World centrality of the animal in God’s concern. by Roberta Kalechofsky ‘As for me,’ says the Lord, ‘I will es- tablish My Covenant with you and nder the biblical perspective, a change took place in the with your seed after you, and with every living creature that is with you, status of animals from that which had prevailed in the fowl, the cattle, and every beast U Babylonian and Egyptian cultures: animals were demy- of the earth with you; all that go out thologized — as were humans. There are no animal deities in of the ark, even every beast of the earth.’ (Gen. 9:9-10) the Bible; there are no human deities in the sions as himself….Consequently he Bible. Animal life was neither elevated nor was admonished to seek its welfare ‘The seventh day is a sabbath of the degraded because of the demythologizing and its comfort as an integral part of Lord your God; you shall not do any process. Animals were no longer wor- his daily routine and instructed that work, neither your son, nor your shipped, singly or collectively, but they the more he considers its well being daughter, nor your male or female were accorded an irreducible value in the and contentment, the more would he slave, nor your cattle, nor your 1 divine pathos, which is expressed in the be exalted in the eyes of his maker…. stranger who is within your settle- covenantal statements, in halachic deci- ments.’ (Ex. 20: 10, and Deut. 5:14) sions or laws, and in aggadic material. These Judaism accepts a hierarchical scheme three branches of Jewish expression deter- to creation, but hierarchy did not exclude Noah Cohen extrapolates from the cov- mine the tradition known in Judaism as feelings of loving kinship. With respect to enantal statements a doctrine of equality tsa’ar ba’alei chaim (remember the sorrow animals the rule might be stated as kinship between humans and animals. “Does not of living creatures). Aggadic material is yes, reverence no. the Bible itself treat them [animals] as hu- made up of stories and legends, sometimes Rabbi Elijah Schochet sees in the cre- mans with whom the Lord can execute called midrashim, such as the story of how ation story, in the biblical terminology in treaties and covenants?”4 Voltaire, who God led Moses to the burning bush because the commandment of biological fruitfulness was no friend of religion, wrote, “…the de- Moses ran to rescue a lamb who had and the blessing of life given equally to the ity does not make a pact with trees and with strayed. Halachic material comprises a animals and to the human race, a “unity of stones which have no feelings, but He makes body of decisions regarding specific issues, man and beast: since ruach hayyim (‘spirit it with animals whom He has endowed with which have the binding effect of law. Like of life’) can refer to both man and beast, as feelings often more exquisite than ours, and any body of law, these decisions rest on can nefesh hayyah (‘living creature’).” He with ideas necessarily attached to it. This precedent and authoritative statements, in points out that in the Book of Jonah the is why He will not allow us the barbarity of this case by rabbis in the Talmud, or by animals are clad in mourning sackcloth, feeding upon their blood, because, in reali- rabbis throughout the centuries whose de- “just like their human counterparts,” and ty blood is the source of life, and 2 cisions are called responsa. However strong take part in the public ritual of mourning. consequently of feeling….”5 Not only are the aggadic tradition might be on any is- Such passages strike a modern reader as the animals included in the Sabbath cove- sue, halachic decisions take precedent in quaint, but they suggest the biblical sense nant, but the well-being of the animal is governing the behavior of the observant of closeness between animal and human, considered more important than the Sab- Jew, though they do not always express the summarized by Dr. Cohen. bath, and many Sabbath laws could be underlying ethos of the tradition. As in any The other side of this relationship, suspended in order to come to the aid of a culture, sentiment is often stronger than law. which is inexplicable to the modern mind, is stricken animal….6 The biblical and talmudic position with that retributive justice could be extended Being also a nomistic religion, Judaism respect to animals is summarized in the state- to animals: “Inherent in ‘covenant’ is ‘re- is rich in laws governing the relationship ment by Dr. Noah Cohen: sponsibility,’ and Scripture does not spare between humans and animals. The Ency- animals from responsibility for their clopedia Judaica provides a good summary …the Hebrew sages considered the deeds….and at times animals would seem of these laws, beginning with the observa- wall of partition between man and to be treated as though they were coequal tion that “moral and legal rules concerning 3 beasts as rather thin…the Jew was with men.” Puzzling as this may seem to the treatment of animals are based on the forever to remember that the beast the modern mind, it suggests that animals principle that animals are part of God’s cre- reflects similar affections and pas- had legal standing, as indeed their inclu- ation toward which man bears Fall 2004 7 responsibility. Laws and other indications tion of “rdh” with an effort to understand kindness to animals for the sake of the imi- in the Pentateuch make it clear not only that the Hebrew for “earth” (the substance tatio Dei leads some Jewish commentators cruelty to animals is forbidden but also that Adam and other earth creatures are made to argue that the motive for concern for compassion and mercy to them are demand- from) and for “image,” (selem/salma) the animals is human moral betterment, even ed of man by God.”7 term used for the Hebrew resemblance to though the covenantal statements reflect These laws make the effort to balance God. With reference to Hebrew, Syrian, Ar- the centrality of the animal in God’s con- human need against what would constitute amaic and Assyrian texts and gleanings cern. The depiction of the creation of the cruelty towards animals, and they consis- from archeology and philology, Arbeitman fish, fowl, and animals in Genesis, each spe- tently reveal the scope of Jewish concern concludes resignedly that the effort does regarding animals. As James Gaffney point- not yield much. “And that is the sum of ed out, “The fullest and most sympathetic what the ancient biblical texts will tell us”: treatment in any comparable religiously ori- that humans and land animals are said to ented encyclopedia in English is that of the have been created from the same substance Encyclopedia Judaica, a reminder that the (adamah or earth), that God breathed a spe- Hebrew Bible laid foundations on which it cial life force (personality? soul?) into was possible and natural to build….”8 humans; that the concept of the human be- Any discussion of laws, however, in- ing was modeled on that of a statue, being evitably involves interpretation, which itself three dimensional, and that the result is “a depends upon which system of hermeneu- benign…patriarchal hegemony of Adam.” tics one uses to interpret passages in the Regardless of what scholars may ulti- Bible. Interpretations with respect to treat- mately decide “rhd” means, biblical and ment of animals oscillate between whether talmudic laws regarding human responsi- human beings have an absolute duty to bility for animals are embedded in the them, or a relative duty depending upon concepts of “dominion” and “hierarchy” human need, such as might be required in which, in their turn, were modeled on the cies with its integrity, substantiates the view medical experiments or in eating meat.9 family; in turn the image of the “good” fa- that animals were regarded as integral sub- Furthermore, in establishing the bibli- ther was modeled on the idea of God, as jects in their own right. God’s delight in cal and Jewish teaching on animals, we have expressed by Jesus in the Sermon on the these creations, stated with blessing or with from the outset the problem of interpreting Mount. God has dominion, a parent has simple majesty, “And it was good,” does the first document, Genesis. We are a long dominion, human beings have dominion. not reflect a God who created animal life to way from knowing what words such as “do- But the dominion granted to humans in be in bondage. Those who believe in the minion” and “subdue” meant two and half Genesis is at once severely limited by the idea of divine creation should know that millennia ago. Yoël Arbeitman, a scholar of dietary injunction to be vegetarian. Even the idea means the whole of creation. Semitic languages, summarizes half a dozen when permission to eat meat is granted af- meanings from other scholars of “rdh,” the ter the flood, that permission has immediate Hebrew verb for “to have dominion,” as “to restraints placed on it. Dominion is always Roberta Kalechofsky is a widely pub- rule or shepherd in a neutral sense,” “to of limited power, and hierarchy need not lished and translated author of both fic- lead about,” “lead, accompany; master, pun- and did not exclude feelings of loving kin- tion and non-fiction works. She graduated ish…,” “to be governed/controlled” as in ship in the Bible. Other stories, such as those from Brooklyn College and received a doc- “to tame.”10 In attempting to understand revolving around the relationship of the torate in English literature in 1970 from with some confidence how the Bible viewed shepherd to his sheep, dictated that it was New York University. In 1975 she founded human beings vis à vis animals, Arbeitman the “unprotected” creature who merited the Micah Publications (www.micahbooks. parallels his effort to retrieve a final denota- deepest sentiment of protectiveness, as com). She created The Echad Series, which expressed by the nineteenth century rabbi, includes five anthologies of Jewish writ- Samson Raphael Hirsch. ing from around the world, and has pub- “Jewish law commands Jewish law commands the righteous lished 40 different titles in poetry, fiction, the righteous Jew to feed Jew to feed his animal(s) before he feeds scholarship, vegetarianism and animal himself because a human being can under- rights. She is active in the animal rights his animal(s) before he stand hunger, but an animal cannot. and vegetarian movements and began the feeds himself because a Hierarchy demanded that the “lesser” be organization, Jews for Animal Rights, in protected against the “stronger,” and beto- 1985. human being can under- kened a pattern of behavior which leads to stand hunger, but an the idea of the “imitatio Dei” with respect to animals. The “imitatio Dei” depends 1 Noah J. Cohen, Tsa’ar Ba’ale Hayyim: animal cannot.” upon the concept of hierarchy; indeed, de- The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals—Its pends from it. However, the precept of Bases, Development, and Legislation in 8 Fall 2004

Hebrew Literature (Nanuet, NY: Feldheim Publishers, 1976), 1. The Case of the Animals versus 2 Elijah Judah Schochet, Animal Life in Jew- ish Tradition: Attitudes and Relationships ManManMan: Towards an Ecology of (New Jersey: Ktav Publishing House, 1984), 1 53-54. BeingBeingBeing 3 Ibid., 54 by Zayn Kassam 4 Cohen, 1. fascinating text that my students and I read in my 5 Voltaire, “Treaté de sur Tolérance,” Oevres Islamic Philosophy course tells of how at first, when Completes de Voltaire, ed. John Renwick the race of Adam were few in number, they lived in (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation Press, 2000), A 56C:193. fear, hiding from the many wild animals and beasts of prey. However, as they grew in number and built 6 Cohen, particularly his chapter, “Tsa’ar cities and settled on the plains, they en- Ba’ale Hayyim and the Sabbath Day,” 58- slaved cattle and beasts and used them for 76. their own purposes such as riding, hauling, plowing and threshing, and “wore them out 7 Zvi Kaplan, “Animals, Cruelty to,” Ency- in service, imposing work beyond their pow- clopedia Judaica, 16 vols. (Jerusalem: Keter ers, and checked them from seeking their Publishing House, 1971), 3:6. Pages 6-22 give own ends.”2 a usefully succinct summary of these laws In presenting their case the spokesman and a description of the biblical human/an- of the animals, the mule, tells us that hu- imal relationship. Also Richard Schwartz, mans “forced us to these things under Judaism and Vegetarianism (New York: duress, with beatings, bludgeoning, and Lantern Books, 2001), 19-29. every kind of torture and chastisement our whole lives long.”3 Some animals such as keenly the impact of our exploitative and 8 James Gaffney, “The Relevance of Animal the wild asses, gazelles, beasts of prey and subjugating relationships upon the self-ful- Experimentation to Roman Catholic Ethical wild creatures and birds were able to es- fillment of all life forms that is in consonance Methodology,” in Animal Sacrifices: Reli- cape enslavement by the race of Adam by (“our proper role”) with what Berry terms gious Perspectives on the Use of Animals fleeing to deserts, forests and glens. An- the “larger purposes of the universe.” To in Science, ed. Tom Regan (Philadelphia: other such place to which the animals retired quote Berry, “We are ourselves only to the Temple University Press, 1986), 61. was an island in the midst of the Green Sea, extent of our unity with the universe to at which the inhabitants of a shipwreck ar- which we belong and in which alone we dis- 9 For an example of such various interpre- rived, and duly set about forcing the animals cover our fulfillment. Intimacy exists only tations, see Rabbi Dr. J. David Bleich, into their service, for they believed that in terms of wonder, admiration, and emo- “Judaism and Animal Experimentation,” animals were their slaves. Upon realizing tional sympathy when beings give Animal Sacrifices: Religious Perspectives that such was the view the humans had of themselves to each other in a single psy- on the Use of Animals in Science, ed. Tom them, the animals appealed to the King of chic embrace, an embrace in which each Regan (Philadelphia: Temple University Jinn to set their complaints against the hu- mode of being experiences its fulfillment.” Press, 1986), 61. mans to his adjudication. The text under consideration here imag- In keeping with the theme of this book, inatively explores how the animals might 10 Yoël Arbeitman, “In All Adam’s Domain,” the text presupposes an epistemological make a case against the human employment Judaism and Animal Rights: Classical and communion of subjects in which, as Tho- of a use model; thus, while a communion of Contemporary Responses, ed. Roberta Ka- mas Berry remarks, we once had an intimacy subjects characterized by intimacy is Ber- lechofsky (Massachusetts: Micah “with the larger community of life” in the ry’s aim, and we might suppose, the aim of Publications, 1992), 34-35. universe. While we have now acculturated the animals in our tenth-century text, the ourselves to a “use” model in our relation- epistemic communion offered by the text ship to non-human living creatures, through which we may come to understand re-envisioning a collaborative and comple- the animals’ point of view is a step in that mentary model of mutual coexistence might direction, however unsatisfying the ultimate entail being able to enter into conversation conclusion may be to modern conscious- with animals in order to understand more ness. Fall 2004 9

This text details the arguments put forth substantiation of his claim, referring to vers- by the animals and the humans regarding es in the Qur’an, the Torah and the Gospels, the maltreatment the former have received “In exploration of the which clearly relate that animals were creat- at the hands of the latter, and the latter’s wisdom of the Creator, ed for the use of humankind, and further, belief that enslavement of animals was one that the animals were the salves of whim of the privileges accorded to them. The text the animals advance the the humans were the masters. was authored sometime during the latter half argument that beauty is At this, the mule, the spokesman for of the tenth century by a group of thinkers the beasts, responds that God, the One, the whose identities are known but whose par- relative to function; each Unique, the Ever-Abiding and the Eternal, ticular Muslim sectarian affiliations, if any, species has the precise created through His divine Word, the Com- are still in dispute.4 The group identifies mandBe! a light which he made shine forth, itself simply as the Ikhwan al-Iafa, or the proportions and limbs it and from this light created the fire and wa- Brethren of Purity, and is famed for an en- requires....” ter and the constellations and the stars, the cyclopedic work divided into four parts firmament, the earth, the mountains, beings which together number 52 epistles, ranging such as the archangels, the cherubim, the in scope from discussions of mathematics, ings. In a somewhat different manner, the jinn, living things such as animals and physics, psychology and intelligible things, same point is made by religious discourses plants, and humans. All these were as a kind- law, theology and religion. The Case of the such as those found in Genesis 1:26: “Then ness and blessing for humankind, for surely Animals versus Man, which is the particu- God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our the sun, the moon, the wind and the clouds, lar text under discussion here and is image, according to our likeness; and let which are also for the benefit of human- henceforth referred to as The Case, is found them have dominion over the fish of the kind, could not be considered slaves to in the eighth epistle of the second section sea, and over the birds of the air, and over humans! Similarly, God intended humans to on Physics under the title “On the Genera- the cattle, and over all the wild animals of live in posterity on earth, “to inhabit it, not tion of Animals and their Kinds”. the earth, and over every creeping thing to lay it waste, to care for the animals and Netton [add preceding sentence for that creeps upon the earth.’” To this domi- profit by them, but not to mistreat or op- Netton’s reference ?] suggests that the nation are coupled fear and dread as in press them”6 and surely, continues the mule, Middle Eastern milieu in which these au- Genesis 9:2: “The fear and dread of you shall verses from scriptural texts say nothing thors from Ba [???] wrote was noted for its rest on every animal of the earth, and on about humans as masters and animals as diversity of thought; a milieu which was every bird of the air, on everything that slaves, for they point only to the kindness multicultural, multireligious, and multilin- creeps on the ground, and on all the fish of and blessings showered by God upon hu- guistic in the manner of our own time, and the sea; into your hand they are delivered.” mans. Indeed, when one examines the full the Ikhwan wrote their work not to advance The Case opens with the King of Jinns Qur’anic text surrounding the quotations any sectarian or particular notion of Islam requesting the spokesman for the humans above, one is able to see that the point be- but rather to advance their own philoso- for evidence and proof to substantiate the ing made in all of these is God’s adaptation phy based on the universal potential of the human claim that all animals are their slaves. of nature in service of human needs as a attainment of purity (hence their name, Ikh- The human in his response identifies both form of divine grace and generosity to hu- wan al-Iafa , the Brethren of Purity) for which religious evidence and rational proofs in manity.7 knowledge from any source could be drawn upon with appropriate modifications as nec- essary in order to realize the goal of eternal subsistence in a beatific state.5 We must note two lines of thought, one stemming from Platonic and Neoplatonic ontological conceptualizations that place the animal world somewhere below the mid- point in the hierarchy or chain of being that comprises ensouled creatures. While hu- mans, although animals, are demarcated from other animals by virtue of their capac- ity for rational discourse, they are also considered to be farther along the ladder of creation and while embodied, much closer to the angels in the hierarchy of being. Thus, animals are conceptualized in the legacy of works left behind by the Greeks as part of the natural world but inferior to human be- 10 Fall 2004

So the humans move to a symbolic un- further substantiated in the Qur’an, that God derstanding of what it means to be upright, guides all things, as reported by Moses in and the justification proffered for human Qur’an 20:52: “Our Lord who gave its na- “And where is the mercy superiority by argument of form is that all ture to every thing and guided all things.” and compassion of humans supralunary or celestial conditions had been The arguments made by the humans in rendered perfect by God on the day that justifying their master-slave relationship to be found in the brutal Adam was created, thus resulting in a form with the animals now moves to another di- beatings, the heavy bur- that was the finest and had the most per- rection: that of property. The humans now fect constitution. The forms of the animals, furnish as evidence of their lordship the fact dens, the separation of on the other hand, are presented by the hu- that they buy and sell animals, feed and kids and lambs from their mans as being full of irregularities, such as water them, shelter them, protect domestic the big ears sprouted by the small-bodied herds from wild beasts, treat their illnesses, mothers almost at birth, rabbit, the tiny eyes of the massive elephant train them, and put them out to pasture when the slaughtering of these and so forth. To this the animals retort that they are old—as this, say the humans, out the humans have missed the beauty and of kindness and compassion, just as mas- for food?” wisdom inherent in the creation of animals ters and owners do for their servants and by a wise Creator who alone knew the rea- property. son and purpose for the forms given to While the kindness and compassion of mitted detailing the evil the human race vis- them. Thus the argument of the finest form masters and owners might be a laudable ide- its not only on animals but on itself, so much advanced by the humans is deftly turned al to strive for, the animals reassure the King so that the best of humans are forced to flee by the animals into an inadmissible human of the Jinn that the record shows otherwise. to the dwelling places of animals, not be- questioning of the wisdom of the Creator Greeks and Persians enslave each other cause they share their form, but because reminiscent of Job 39 and 40 where the Lord when they war; who then is master, and who they are akin to them “in character, probity, said to Job, “Is it by your wisdom that the slave? Is enslavement surely nothing other uprightness, and blamelessness”10 causing than the turn of fortune? And as for all the the humans in the assembly to hang their sustenance, shelter, and ministering that heads in shame. humans undertake on behalf of captured Just when it appears that the humans animals, is not all that motivated by fear of have lost their case and been humbled in loss of profit and the many benefits that the process, a human orator from the Hijaz, accrue to humans from the use of animals, from the sacred Muslim precincts of Mecca rather than by genuine kindness and com- and Medina, announces the promise made passion? And where is the mercy and by the divine Sovereign: that humans alone compassion of humans to be found in the of all the species will be resurrected and brutal beatings, the heavy burdens, the sep- reckoned with on the Day of Judgment. No, aration of kids and lambs from their mothers the animals protest, for you [humans] may almost at birth, the slaughtering of these equally go to hell as you may to paradise! for food? All of these, it is pointed out, are In either case, says the orator, “we…survive in direct contradiction of the Qur’anic in- eternally and immortally.” The case is end- junction to “show compassion and ed. The King of the Jinn delivers his indulgence.”8 judgment: “All the animals were to be sub- A human, identified as a Hebrew from ject to the commands and prohibitions of Iraq, then counters with the statement that the humans and were to be subservient to the superiority of humans lies in the fact the humans and accept their direction con- that humans have been ennobled with tentedly and return in peace and security prophecy and inspiration, divine laws, pu- under God’s protection.”11 rification and prayer. The nightingale points Disappointed as my students—and out that such measures are necessary for we—are with this adjudication, the outcome hawk soars, and spreads its wings toward those in error, those who dispute God’s lord- had been foretold when the council of jinn the south?...Shall a faultfinder contend with ship, those who are oblivious of His could not determine pragmatically how it the Almighty?” In exploration of the wis- goodness and neglectful of remembrance could be that humans could do without the dom of the Creator, the animals advance the of Him, and those who are forgetful of their animals. And it is a surprising conclusion, argument that beauty is relative to func- covenant with Him. The animals, however, given the fact that as Muslims, one would tion; each species has the precise “are free of all these things, for we acknowl- have expected the Ikhwan to be intimately proportions and limbs it requires to make it edge our Lord, believe in Him, submit to familiar with the Qur’anic text that relates in efficiently able to seek the beneficial and Him and proclaim His unity without doubt 6:38: “There is not an animal in the earth, shun the harmful, thereby making the point, or hesitation.”9 Further arguments are sub- nor a flying creature flying on two wings, Fall 2004 11

but they are peoples like unto you. We have Zayn Kassam is Professor of Religion neglected nothing in the Book (of our de- at Pomona College. crees). Then unto their Lord they will be gathered” which suggests that animals will be taken up into their Lord just as humans 1 A draft of this paper was originally pre- will be. Yet, at the same time, the helleniza- sented at a Symposium sponsored by the tion of the Ikhwan brought with it an Claremont Consortium in Medieval and Ear- ontological scheme in which humans were ly Modern Studies. perceived as positioned on the periphery between the angelic orders and the three 2 Ikhwan al-Iafa, The Case of the Animals natural kingdoms comprising the non-hu- versus Man Before the King of the Jinn: A man animal, the vegetal and the mineral. Tenth-century Ecological Fable of the Pure Although at first glance it seems that the Brethren of Basra, transl. with an intro. and purpose of the text is fulfilled when the hu- comm. by Lenn Evan Goodman (Boston: mans come to a heightened understanding Twayne Publishers, 1978) (henceforth, The of their responsibility toward God’s crea- Case), 51. tures, while the animals, mindful of the interdependent relationship between them- 3 The Case, 55. selves and humans come to agree amongst themselves to settle for human promises to 4 See I.R. Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists: treat the animals better, the matter does not An Introduction to the Thought of the Breth- end there. If The Case serves as a forum ren of Purity, through which the Ikhwan communicated their teaching, then in consonance with the 5 See Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 105- Ikhwan’s unified ontology, according to 108. which the domain of Nature is an act of the Universal Soul, and the study of Nature is 6 The Case, 54. in actuality a study of the divine provi- dence, by which the individual soul can 7 The Case, 205-b, n. 15. recollect its true home, then much more has been accomplished. Along the journey of 8 Q. 24:22, revealing, as Goodman remarks understanding, the Ikhwan, through these in his commentary, an unusual reading of proceedings, have addressed the issue of the poor to whom compassion and indul- what it truly means to be human: a state in gence is to be shown as the animal world. which one is on intimate terms with the uni- verse that sustains life, which life is 9 The Case, 156-57. comported with a sense of wonder, grati- tude, compassion and care. 10 The Case, 165.

11 The Case, 202. 12 Fall 2004

separate them from the other birds. The Tradition of Animal When birds die in the hospital, they are taken in procession to the nearby Jumna and are ceremoniously placed Protection in Jaina Religion in the waters of that sacred river.3 by Christopher Key Chapple Many of the pinjrapoles, particularly in the state of Gujarat, include insect rooms n order to enhance one’s spiritual advancement and avoid or jivat khan. These rooms serve as recep- negative karmic consequences, the Jaina religion advocates tacles for dust sweepings brought by Jains. benevolent treatment of animals. The monks and nuns are Knowing that these sweepings will include I small insects, they will bring them to the not allowed even to lift their arms or point their fingers while/or pinjrapole, where they are placed in a wandering from village to village. Accord- In the heart of Old Delhi…opposite the closed room and sometimes given grain for ing to the Jaina, “This is the reason: the Red Fort and close to the bustle of sustenance. When the room is full, it is shut- deer, cattle, birds, snakes, animals living in Chandni Chowk, is a pinjrapole dedi- tered and locked for up to fifteen years. At water, on land, in the air might be disturbed cated entirely to the welfare of birds. the end of this waiting period, it is assumed or frightened.”1 Founded in 1929 as an expression of that “all life will have come to its natural In passage after passage, the Jaina the Jain community’s concern for end” and the contents are sold as fertilizer.4 teachers exhort their students, particularly ahimsa, the Jain Charity Hospital for This reflects the depth of concern that monks and nuns, to avoid all harm to living Birds’ sole function is to treat sick and Jainas feel for preserving life forms. creatures. The speech, walking, eating, and injured birds brought there from all over In one sense, this seems like a work of eliminatory habits of the Jaina monks and the city. Many Jain families have actu- great benevolence. One French observer in nuns all revolve around a pervasive con- ally set up centers in their own homes 1875, Louis Rousselet, paints an almost cern not to harm life in any form. Ultimately, in various parts of Delhi, to which sick Rousseauian tableau in his description of the ideal death for a Jaina, lay or monastic, and injured birds in need of treatment the pinjrapole: is to fast to death, consciously making the are taken and then sent on to the hos- transition to the next birth while not creat- pital by messenger. …aged crows that have committed all ing any harm to living beings. The hospital, located inside the pre- manners of crimes live out their lives Manifestations of this concern for non- mises of a Digambara Jain temple and peacefully in this paradise of beasts, in violence can be found in the institutions of supported entirely by public donations the company of bald vultures and buz- the pinjrapole or animal hospital, and the administered through the temple com- zards that have lost their plumage. At goshala or cow shelter. According to a 1955 mittee, receives some thirty to the end of the court, a heron, proud of survey, there were over 3,000 such animal thirty-five birds daily. Most of these are his wooden leg, struts about in the homes at that time.2 During the 1970s, pigeons with wounds or fractures in- midst of blind ducks and lame fowl. All Deryck Lodrick conducted a study of over curred in the city’s heavy traffic, the domestic animals and those that one hundred of these institutions, many of although diseases ranging from blind- dwell in the vicinity of mankind are rep- which were founded and maintained by ness to cancer are treated by the resented here; rats are seen here in members of the Jaina community. His study hospital’s resident veterinarian. All great numbers and display remarkable illuminates the ongoing tradition of animal birds, both wild and domestic, are ac- tameness; mice, sparrows, peacocks protection in India and also investigates the cepted for treatment by the hospital and jackals have their asylum in this economic support from community used to with the exception of predators, which hospital.5 maintain these facilities. are refused on the grounds that they Lodrick’s description of perhaps the harm other creatures and thus violate However, while seemingly idyllic, this most famous pinjrapole follows: the ahimsa (nonviolence) principle. In- scene also disturbs the Frenchman. Al- coming birds are treated in the though he notes that “Servants wash them, dispensary on the second floor of the rub them down and bring the blind and the hospital (the first contains the staff paralyzed their food,” he also suggests that quarters and grain store) and are placed some of the animals would benefit from eu- in one of the numerous cages with thanasia. “Some of these animals appear to which this level is lined. As birds im- be so sick that I venture to tell my guide it prove they are taken to the third floor, would be more charitable to put an end to where they convalesce in a large en- their suffering. ‘But,’ he replies, ‘is that how closure having access to the open sky. you treat your invalids?’”6 A special cage is provided on this floor In the movie Frontiers of Peace,7 pro- for the weak, maimed, and paralyzed to duced by Paul Kueperferle, one can witness Fall 2004 13 directly the pain and suffering endured by Perhaps more than any other religion in very seriously. The Acaranga Sutra9 states some of the animals housed in Jaina shel- human history, the Jaina faith seeks to up- that as soon as we intend to hurt or kill ters. Some are grotesquely misshapen by hold and respect animals as fundamentally something, we ultimately do harm to our- old injuries and others seem to writhe in and really not different from ourselves. selves by deepening and thickening the anguish. By the standards of western vet- But at the same time, Jainism, with few bonds of karma. According to Jainism, the erinary medicine, these animals should be exceptions, avoids sentimentalizing animals. best life pays attention to animals, not in a “put down,” that is, killed to spare them of Ultimately, the reason one respects animals sentimental way, but in a way that gives their misery. However, for two reasons this is not for the sake of the animal, but for the them the freedom to pursue their own path, would be unacceptable from the perspec- purpose of lightening the karmic burden that to fulfill their self-made destinies, and per- tive of the Jaina theory of karma. obscures the splendor of one’s own soul. haps enter themselves into the path of virtue. First, the person who would perform or Seen positively, every act of kindness to- approve of the killing would incur an influx ward an animal releases a bit of karma. But of black, negative karma. This would bind the approach is more on the lines of a via Christopher Key Chapple is Professor to his or her life force (jiva) and further im- negativa: by avoiding a potentially damag- of Theological Studies and Director of pede progress toward spiritual liberation ing entanglement with an animal, one can Asian and Pacific Studies at Loyola (kevala), the state in which all karma is ex- ward off a potential blot on one’s core be- Marymount University where he teaches pelled. Second, it would do a disservice to ing. Hence, Jainas, as a general rule, do not religions of India and comparative the animal. Each life force earns its status own pets. To keep a cat or dog would en- theology. He has published several books, due to past actions. As cruel as it might gage one in the abetment of violent behavior. including Karma and Creativity; sound, the present predicament according Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self to the karmic view holds that the animal in Asian Traditions; a co-translation of deserves its suffering. It is acceptable and “Jainism sees animals as Patanjali¹s Yoga Sutra, and several edited meritorious for someone to alleviate the collections of essays, including Ecological suffering, which helps counteract negative former or potential human Prospects: Scientific, Aesthetic, and karma on the part of the helper. But if one beings, paying for past Religious Perspectives. has done all that can be done to make an animal comfortable, then one has no fur- sins yet capable of self- ther obligation, and particularly must not redemption.” 1 Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sutras Translated prematurely kill the animal. If so, then the from the Prakrit (Oxford: Clarendon Press, perpetrator of the killing will thicken and 1884), 145. darken his or her karma, as stated above, and the killed animal would necessarily have With rare exception, cats and dogs are car- 2 Deryck O. Lodrick, Sacred Cows, Sacred to endure an eventually torturous further nivores, which is in direct contradiction with Places: Origins and Survivals of Animal life to finish the atonement process. Jaina teachings. Homes in India (Berkeley: University of The stories told of animals in the Jaina California Press, 1981), 13. Conclusion tradition reflect the somewhat ambivalent We have surveyed various aspects of attitude taken toward animals. On the one 3 Ibid., 17. the relationship between humans and ani- hand, we can find inspirational tales of ani- mals in the Jaina religious tradition. Like mals who have acted virtuously and gained 4 Ibid., 22. other traditions of India, Jainism proclaims for themselves the reward of a higher, even a biological and psychological continuity heavenly birth. On the other hand, we can 5 Ibid., 69. between not only the animal and human look at stories that do not valorize animals realm, but sees insects, microorganisms, and but show their shortcomings and follies. 6 Ibid., 69. life dwelling in the elements as part of the The Tattvartha Sutra8 states, “Deceitful- same continuum. The Jaina tradition devel- ness leads to birth in animal realms,” 7 Paul L. Kueperferle, The Frontiers of oped a code of ethics that requires its indicating that animals are born as animals Peace: Jainism in India (Mendham, NJ: The adherents to avoid violence to all these life because of their karmic impulses. Visual Knowledge Corporation, 1986). forms to the degree possible depending In conclusion, Jainism sees animals as upon one’s circumstance. All Jainas are ex- former or potential human beings, paying 8 Nathmal Tatia, translator, Tattvartha Sutra: pected to abstain from animal flesh. Jaina for past sins yet capable of self-redemp- That Which Is. By Umasvati with the com- laypeople are expected to avoid professions tion. Human birth is considered to be the bined commentaries of Umasvati, that harm animals directly or indirectly. Jaina highest birth, as it is the only realm through Pujyapada and Siddhasenaguni (San Fran- monks and nuns strive to minimize violence which might enter final liberation or kevala. cisco: Harper Collins, 1994), 6.27:159. to even one-sensed beings and take vows However, the best possible human life, that to not brush against greenery or drink un- is, a life directed toward the highest spiri- 9 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras Translated from the filtered water or light or extinguish fires. tual ideal, takes the protection of animal life Prakrit, I.5.5. 14 Fall 2004

become penguin (I also become tree, and The Subjective Lives of Animals often I become rock). I name my animal friends and try to step into their sensory by Marc Bekoff and motor worlds to discover what they might be like, how they sense their sur- roundings, and how they move about and onhuman animal beings (hereafter “animals”) are sub- behave in certain situations. The worlds of jects, not objects. They have their own lives and are other animals are laden with magic and won- not to be viewed or treated as backpacks, couches, or der. Just as we exclaim, “Wow,” when we N marvel over the mysterious lives of other bicycles. This, to me, is an undebatable claim. So, learning animals, I would not be surprised if they about the nitty-gritty details of how they related individuals, can be. My approach is say, “Wow,” in their own ways as they ex- spend their time, who they interact with, called the “comparative approach to the perience the ups and downs of their daily where they do what they do and how, their study of behavior” (Allen and Bekoff, 1997) lives and the grandeur and magic of the intellectual and cognitive abilities, and their and if I am to be labeled I am a “cognitive environs in which they live. deep emotional lives is essential not only ethologist.” I have done much interdiscipli- for gaining a full appreciation of their lives, nary work, and I am a pluralist. Animal Emotions: Exploring Passionate but also for gaining a full appreciation of I also work at different levels of analy- Nature human spirituality and what it is to be hu- sis, for I am an interdisciplinary holist at It is hard to watch elephants’ remark- man (Bekoff 2000a). I hope, in this brief heart. I prefer to tackle “big” questions. I able behavior during a family or bond essay, to provide a window–an entry– also do not shy away from conducting de- group greeting ceremony, the birth through which you can view the subjective of a new family member, a playful in- worlds of other animals and come away with teraction, the mating of a relative, the a greater understanding and heightened “Current research...is rescue of a family member, or the ar- feeling for who these wonderful beings are. rival of a musth male, and not imagine Thomas Berry’s prologue to A Com- providing compelling that they feel very strong emotions munion of Subjects speaks this theme when evidence that at least which could be best described by he suggests “we cannot be truly ourselves words such as joy, happiness, love, in any adequate manner without all our com- some animals likely feel a feelings of friendship, exuberance, panion beings throughout the earth. The amusement, pleasure, compassion, larger community constitutes our greater full range of emotions, relief, and respect. (Poole, 1998, 90– self.” It takes only a little familiarity with including fear, 91) modern scientific literature to realize that many of the grounds traditionally cited for joy...despair, and grief.” To me, the major question in the study claims about human uniqueness–tool use, of animal emotions is not “Do some animals language use, self-awareness and self-con- experience a range of deep emotions?” but sciousness, culture, art, and rationality–are tailed statistical analyses, but never do the rather “Why have emotions evolved?” no longer defensible given the enormous animals I am studying get thrown aside as If indeed the experienced researcher is growth in our knowledge of our animal kin numbers, unnamed variables in an equation, right that elephants feel joy, might also chim- with whom we share Earth. or points on a graph. It is important that the panzees feel grief and depression, and dogs “protective membrane of statistics” happiness and dejection? People disagree Minding Animals and Deepening Ethology (Randour, 2000, xvii) not shield us from the about the nature of animal emotions, espe- The study of animals’ minds is ex- worlds of other animals–their joys and cially concerning the question of whether tremely exciting, challenging, and pains, their wisdom, their otherness. any animals other than humans can feel frustrating. There are innumerable dimen- When I study animals I try to “mind” emotions. Joyce Poole, who has studied el- sions to their cognitive and emotional them. Basically, the phrase “minding ani- ephants for more than two decades, capacities (Bekoff, 2002a; Bekoff, Allen, and mals” means two things. First, it refers to believes that elephants have highly Burghardt, 2002). In my own research on caring for other animal beings, respecting evolved emotional lives, and Greeks, long social behavior and behavioral ecology, I them for who they are, appreciating their ago, believed that many animals experience stress evolutionary, ecological, and devel- own worldviews, and wondering what and the same range of emotions as humans. Cur- opmental (ontogenetic) perspectives, and I how they feel and why. Second, it refers to rent research, especially in ethology, try to understand individual differences the fact that many animals have very active neurobiology, endocrinology, psychology, within species and variations among spe- and thoughtful minds. and philosophy, is providing compelling cies. Variation is not noise to be dispensed I also call myself a deep ethologist. I, evidence that at least some animals likely with but rather information that highlights as the “see-er,” try to become the “seen.” feel a full range of emotions, including fear, just how different individuals, even closely When I observe animals I become coyote, I joy, happiness, shame, embarrassment, re- Fall 2004 15 sentment, jealousy, rage, anger, love, plea- my brief tenure on this wondrous planet, I sure, compassion, respect, relief, disgust, am more than happy to open the door of my “By stepping lightly into sadness, despair, and grief (for detailed dis- heart to all beings. I dream of and envision cussions and long lists of references see a unified, peaceable kingdom–a peaceful the lives of other animals, Panksepp, 1998 and Bekoff, 2000c,d, 2002a). kinship–based on respect, compassion, for- In my book, The Smile of a Dolphin: giveness, and love. Animals are truly a humans can enjoy the Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions source of deep wisdom (Bekoff, 2003b). company of other animals (2000c), many world-famous researchers We can love animals more without lov- who have spent their lives with a wide vari- ing people less. We need to be motivated without making them pay ety of animals shared their stories about by love and not by fear of what it will mean for our interest.” the emotional lives of the animals they know if we come to love animals for who they are. best. Their stories, supported by copious They need to be understood in their own amounts of data, leave no doubt as to worlds. As we learn about other animals and individual plays an essential role and that whether many animals experience the deep- how important they are to us, we will learn each individual’s spirit and love are inter- est of emotions ranging from joyful glee more about ourselves. This knowledge and twined with the spirit and love of others. when playing to bereavement, grief, and the intense feelings they bring forth will help These emergent interrelationships, which depression over the loss of a mate, child, or make us better to one another and to the transcend individuals’ embodied selves, other friend. Animals may even fall in love. planet as whole. We need to do this now foster a sense of oneness and can work in So, writes Bernd Heinrich in his book, Mind and be proactive, for we have limited time. harmony to make this a better and more com- of the Raven (1999, 341): “Since ravens have Time is not on our side mainly because we passionate world for all beings. long-term mates, I suspect that they fall in are so powerful and ubiquitous. Coopera- So, as I have argued before and will love like us, simply because some internal tion among representatives from different continue to argue, when animals and other reward is required to maintain a long-term disciplines combined with holism and plu- wild nature lose, we all lose. We must “stroll pair bond.” Heinrich has studied and lived ralism will surely help us learn that science with our kin” and not leave them in our tu- with ravens for many years and knows these and religion are not incompatible. The study multuous wake of rampant destruction wonderful birds well. of animal behavior can help us immensely. (Bekoff, 2000e). Holism and universal com- The study of animal emotions is an im- If we forget that humans and other ani- passion and love need to replace portant endeavor, because not only will it mals are all part of the same interdependent impersonal, objective reductionism that allow us to achieve an understanding and world–the more-than-human world (Abram, alienates and disembodies individuals and appreciation of the lives of many of the ani- 1996)–and if we forget that humans and dispenses with or fragments their hearts, mal beings with whom we share this animals are deeply interconnected at many their spirits, and their souls. splendid planet, it also will help us come to different levels - when things go amiss in By stepping lightly into the lives of terms with how we “mind them”–especially our interactions with animals (as they surely other animals, humans can enjoy the com- how we treat our animal kin. One reason will), and animals are set apart from and in- pany of other animals without making them that many animals can form tight and recip- evitably “below” humans, I feel certain that pay for our interest. I find myself continu- rocal social bonds with one another and we will miss the animals more than the ani- ally exclaiming, “Wow!” when I am immersed mal survivors will miss us. The in Nature (Bekoff, 2003b). But some might interconnectivity and spirit of the world will think that the question “Do animals say, be lost, and these losses will make for a ‘Wow!’ as they experience the ups and severely impoverished universe. downs of their daily lives?” is a frivolous In the end, it boils down to love. The one, one that is not tractable scientifically. I power of love must not be underestimated do not think this is so. They likely have a as we try to reconnect with Nature and other sense of wonder about where they live and animals (Ehrenfeld, 1981; Goodall, 1999; who they are and in the right circumstances Pollock, 1999; Sewall, 1999; Bekoff, 2000a; many animals might look around and say, Goodall and Bekoff, 2002.) We must love “wow!” We know that humans and other the Earth and the universe and all of their animals share the neural apparatus and with humans is because of shared emotions. inhabitants, animate and inanimate. neurochemicals that underlie the expression Emotions are the glue for the development In the grand scheme of things, individu- and experience of a wide variety of emo- and maintenance of these bonds. als receive what they give. If love is poured tions. We know that many animals out in abundance, it will be returned in abun- experience rich and deep emotional lives. Minding Animals, Loving Animals: Do dance, and there is no fear of exhausting We know that they can be happy and sad, Animals Exclaim, “Wow!” the potent self-reinforcing feeling that that they can experience joy and grief. My own spirituality is based on a deep serves as a powerful stimulant for generat- I think that many animals exclaim, drive for a seamless unity that is motivated ing compassion, respect, and more love for “Wow!” in their own ways–when they are by compassion, respect, and love. During all life. It is important to recognize that each experiencing the panoply of joy and happi- 16 Fall 2004 ness associated with delighting in life’s plea- we will choose to make the proactive com- ———. 2003b. “Minding animals, minding sures or when they are experiencing the mitment to making this a better world, a more Earth: Science, nature, kinship, and heart.” agonizing depths of pain and suffering compassionate world in which love is plen- Human Ecology Review 10, 56-76. when their well-being and spirit are com- tiful and shared, before it is too late. It is promised, when we breach the trust they important to move forward and step lightly Bekoff, M., C. Allen, and G. M. Burghardt, have in us. Surely we owe it to all animals to with kindness, compassion, generosity, re- eds. 2002. The Cognitive Animals (Cam- offer them the best life we can. Surely all spect, grace, and love. I believe we have bridge: M.I.T. Press). beings benefit when we treat other animals already embarked on this pilgrimage. My with the dignity, compassion, respect, and optimism leads me in no other direction. Ehrenfeld, D. 1981. The Arrogance of Hu- love they deserve. As we come to live more in harmony manism (New York: Oxford Univ. Press). Animals are at once within us and with- with Nature we can restore, rekindle, and out us. In many ways we need them more recreate ourselves, our psyches that have Goodall, Jane. 1999. Reason for Hope: A than they need us. In our absence most been fragmented because of our alienation Spiritual Journey (New York: Warner animals will go on to live quite contentedly. from animals and other Nature. Books). We need animals, Nature, and wild- ness. We need their spirit. Goodall, Jane, and Marc Bekoff. 2002. The Ten Trusts: What We Must Do to Care for “Animals are at once within the Animals We Love (San Francisco: us and without us. In many Marc Bekoff is Professor in the HarperCollins). Department of Environmental, Population, ways we need them more and Organismic Biology, University of Heinrich, Bernd. 1999. Mind of the Raven: Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. He is a Investigations and Adventures with Wolf- than they need us.” Fellow of the Animal Behavior Society and Birds (New York: Cliff Street Books). a Guggenheim Fellow. Marc’s main areas of research include animal behavior, Panksepp, Jaak. 1998. Affective Neuro- But, our hearts and spirits erode when we cognitive ethology (the study of animal science (New York: Oxford Univ. Press). abuse other animals because they are an minds), and behavioral ecology; he has essential part of who we are. also written extensively on animal rights. Poole, Joyce. 1998. “An Exploration of a We must step lightly with respect, car- He has published over 150 papers and 10 Commonality between Ourselves and El- ing, compassion, humility, generosity, books, the latest being Species of Mind: ephants.” Etica & Animali 9:85–110. kindness, grace, and love when we trespass The Philosophy and Biology of Cognitive into animals’ lives. We owe it to the ani- Ethology (with Colin Allen, MIT Press, Randour, M. L. 2000. Animal Grace: Enter- mals, and we owe it to ourselves and 1997). ing Spiritual Relationship with Our especially to our children and theirs, to stop Fellow Creatures (Novato, CA: New World ravaging Earth. Love must rule. Library). When we pillage Earth we destroy the Abram, D. 1996. The Spell of the Sensuous: deep and reciprocal interconnections that Perception and Language in a More-Than- Sewall, L. 1999. Sight and Sensibility: The define all life, the interrelationships that reso- Human World (New York: Pantheon). Ecopsychology of Perception (New York: nate in all beings and all things. It chills my Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam). heart to imagine being severed from the Allen, C., and M. Bekoff. 1997. Species of Earth community. Surely, we do not want to Mind: The Philosophy and Biology of Cog- be remembered–if there’s anyone around to nitive Ethology (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press). recall–as the generation that killed nature. When we desecrate Earth an eerie cold- Bekoff, Marc, ed. 2000c. The Smile of a Dol- ness prevails for when we slay nature we phin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal kill ourselves, other animals, tree beings, Emotions (New York: Random House, Dis- landscapes, and the ubiquitous universal covery Books). spirit that connects us all. We destroy our and Nature’s integrity. Let us honor other ———. 2000e. Strolling with our Kin: animals for who they are in their words, not Speaking for and Respecting Voiceless for what they are in our own–often narrow– Animals (New York: Lantern Books). minds. Our curiosity about other animals need not harm them. ———. 2002a. Minding Animals: Aware- It is essential that we do better than ness, Emotions, and Heart (New York: Oxford our ancestors, and we surely have the re- Univ. Press). sources to do so. The big question is whether Fall 2004 17

Many contemporary theologians will All Animals Matter: Marc appreciate Bekoff’s point about the “me” or “I” being defined through relationships. Today it is common among theologians and Bekoff’s Contribution to philosophers of religion – Jewish and Mus- lim, Christian and Hindu, Buddhist and Constructive Christian Theology Taoist — to say that we humans are not Constructive Christian Theology skin-encased egos cut off from the world by Jay McDaniel by the boundaries of our skin, but rather social selves who are defined by our felt relationships with others and our creative hen Marc Bekoff is asked who he is, he often tells responses to them. Indeed, many theolo- people that he is a human being first and an etholo- gians emphasize that our religious concepts gist second. We might also say that he is a are themselves outcomes of interaction W with the world, functioning to validate, re- theologian third, inasmuch as his writing for the general public inforce, and sometimes critique the social invites people who are religious, or who are orders from which they emerge. As pro- spiritually interested but not religiously af- cess theologians put the point, we are filiated, to consider the minds of other persons-in-community and not simply per- animals and respect those animals as sub- sons-in-isolation. The phrase “persons- jects of their own lives. My aim in this essay in-community” is meant to suggest that we is to explore the implications of Bekoff’s are partly composed, not only of our felt writings for spiritually-interested seekers relations with others and our responses to who may or may not be religiously affili- them, but also of others themselves, who ated. The essay is divided into six sections: are inside our selves even as outside our (1) Minding Animals, (2) Bekoff’s Spiritual bodies. In every moment of experience, says Outlook, (3) The Threefold Nature of Reli- When he studies coyotes, for example, he the process thinker Alfred Norte White- gious Life, (4) A Theology of Animal tries to understand their lives on their own head, the many of the universe are becoming Minds, (5) An Ethic of Animal Protection, terms and for their own sakes, in their natu- one. and (6) A Spirituality of Animal Connec- ral settings; and as he does so he tries to What Bekoff emphasizes, though, and tion. imagine himself inside their bodies, running what is too often neglected by many theo- and smelling and sleeping and mating. In logians, is that the many include animals. If Minding Animals his words: “When I study coyote I become we are persons-in-community, and if these Bekoff’s parents once told him that, coyote.” communities are inside us as well as out- when he was a young boy in New York, he As Bekoff has undertaken these stud- side us as part of the very fabric of our being, was always minding animals. As he puts it: ies and published the results in science then Bekoff highlights the fact that these “I would invariably ask them what a dog venues, he has also written books for the communities include other animals who was thinking, and my father recalls that on general public, advocating respect and care have creative and thoughtful minds of their a ski trip I once asked what a red fox was for animals and explaining how animals have own. If we are persons-in-community, then feeling as he crossed our path as we tra- helped give him a sense of his own identity. directly or indirectly we are persons-in-com- versed a frozen lake.” It goes without munity-with-other-animals. Moreover, in saying that he has been minding animals All beings are defined as a combina- their own ways, these other animals can also ever since. For more than thirty years he tion of who is ‘in here,’ in their hearts be conceived as persons-in-community. has studied a wide variety of animals — and heads, and who is ‘out there,’ in Here I use the word “person” to name a coyotes, dogs, Adelie penguins, archer fish, the social matrix of the external living being who embodies what Bekoff calls western evening grossbeaks, and Stellar world....Watching a red fox bury an- self-cognizance. In Bekoff’s writings self- Jays — all the while wondering what they other fox, observing the birth of cognizance need not be equated with are thinking and feeling, and all the while coyote pups and the tender care pro- conscious self-awareness, with self-objec- wrestling with questions of neuroethology, vided by parents and helpers, tification, or with a capacity to recognize social development, social communication, watching dogs blissfully lost in play, oneself in a mirror. Rather it lies in the ca- social organization, play, antipredatory be- and nearly stepping on a mountain pacity of an individual animal to know that havior, aggression, parental behavior, and lion make me realize how much of ‘me’ it is similar to, but distinct from, others of morality function. (2003, xix) Moreover, he is defined by my interrelationships the same species, such that it can creatively has brought to his studies a commitment to with others. (2003, 196) adapt to new situations from its own sub- analytic observation and empathic partici- jective point of view. Self-cognizance of pation, neither to the exclusion of the other. this sort is revealed by the fact that indi- 18 Fall 2004

– a blanket of love – which is the divine life sciousness, but also scientific conscious- “...we affect the habitats itself. The idea that human and animal com- ness, and that it can enrich a scientific munities intersect opens up the possibility approach to animals. in which they [animals] that there can be communication between If Bekoff is right — if it is important for species, if not in shared languages, then at humans to mind animals — then theologians live. Either directly or least in shared and mutually understood in the various religious traditions are called indirectly, we humans are feelings. I return to this possibility at the to do three things: to develop a theology of end of this essay. animal minds, an ethic of animal protection, among the many that Of course, theologically speaking, it is and a spirituality of animal connection. A one thing for humans to be in community theology of animal minds will need to pro- become one in their with other animals in a healthy way, and vide a way of thinking about other animals experience.” still another to be in community in un- and understanding how they are subjects healthy ways. We can be persons-in- of their own lives, and not simply objects community-with-animals by exploiting for human use. An ethic of animal protec- them, abusing them, harming them, neglect- tion will need to offer guidelines for treating vidual animals seldom mate with the wrong ing them, and destroying their habitats; and animals that is, in the words of The Hu- species; that they position their body parts we can be persons-in-community- mane Society of the United States, in space so that they do not collide with with-animals by caring about them, respect- “humane” as well as sustainable. And a others of their species as they move; that ing them, learning from them, appreciating spirituality of animal connection will need they travel in coordinated hunting units and them, and giving them space to live. to show how human beings can become flocks; and that they discriminate members When Bekoff speaks of minding ani- more whole, more complete as human be- of their social group from foreign group mals, then, he is speaking of a healthy way ings, by entering into rich relations with members, relatives from non-relatives, and of being in community with other animals. other animals. Shortly I will outline aspects close from distant kin (Bekoff and Sherman, For him minding animals consists of two of each, but for now we best consider more 2003). In saying that other animals are per- activities. It lies in recognizing that other deeply Bekoff’s own theology. sons, I mean that they are self-cognizant in animals also have active and thoughtful these senses. minds of their own, replete with capacities Bekoff’s Spiritual Outlook Given that we are persons-in-commu- for fear, play, embarrassment, anger, irrita- Finally, in keeping with the Earth Char- nity with other animals who are also tion, love, sadness and grief. And it lies in ter, Bekoff knows that respect and care for persons-in-community, it is important to rec- caring for other animals, respecting them animals, important as it is, is part of a larger ognize that the communities to which they for who they are, appreciating their hope in our world, namely that of building belong often include humans, too. This is worldviews, and wondering what and how communities that are just, compassionate, obviously the case when we are in their they are feeling and why. The latter – the participatory, and sustainable for all animals, immediate presence and they know of our caring and respecting and appreciating and humans included. His hope is well ex- existence through direct perception; but it wondering – is what I will mean, later in this pressed by Jane Goodall, who, as coauthor is also the case inasmuch as we affect the essay, by a spirituality of animal connec- of The Ten Trusts, writes that he dreams of a habitats in which they live. Either directly tion. Bekoff shows that this spirituality can time “when scientists and nonscientists or indirectly, we humans are among the many be part and parcel not only of religious con- alike will work toward the same goal – cre- that become one in their experience. And, ating a world in which people respect and of course, their communities also include live in harmony with the natural world, leav- the landscapes and waterways of their habi- ing lighter footsteps as they move through tats, the other living beings upon whom life. A world where the desperation of pov- they feed, and the other members of their erty and hunger is a thing of the past, and own species with whom they mate and play there is equitable distribution of those and enter into various forms of bonds. things necessary for the good life. Above The conclusion to be drawn from this all, a world in which humans live in peace is straightforward. Inter-subjectivity is not with each other, with animals, and with na- restricted to human-human relations. It also ture.” (Bekoff and Goodall, 2002, x) includes animal-animal relations, which in- In short, in Bekoff’s writings for the clude human relations with other animals, general reader we find the following over- the relations of other animals with humans, lapping themes, some moral, some and the relations of other animals among cosmological, some experiential: themselves. From a process perspective, our planet is a network of inter-subjective · It is important to defend the vulner- and often intersecting communities, gath- able, human and more-than-human ered into the horizon of a deep community alike: “After all is said and done, si- Fall 2004 19

lence is betrayal.” (Bekoff and Goodall, Christian life must include what of the World and Ecology,” sponsored by 2002, 172). ecofeminists such as Rosemary Ruether and the Forum on Religion and Ecology. I men- · We defend other animals, in part, be- Catherine Keller call a “conversion to the tion the Forum because it is “the largest cause we are kin to them earth.” At the level of practice, for example, international multi-religious project of its psychologically, physically, and spiri- Ruether and others say (1) that ethical prac- kind [that is] engaged in exploring religious tually, sharing with them many forms tices should include, in the words of the worldviews, texts, and ethics in order to of feeling. Earth Charter, the adoption patterns of pro- broaden understanding of the complex na- · Our kinship with other animals reflects duction, consumption, and reproduction ture of current environmental concerns.” the fact that we live in universe of in- that safeguard Earth’s regenerative capaci- Christian ecological theologies are best ties and that protect biodiversity.1 At the understood in the larger context of the work level of understanding, they add (2) under- now being done by people in many world standing should include a recognition, religions who likewise seek to address en- again in the words of the Earth Charter, that vironmental concerns. The Forum itself has humanity is part of a vast, evolving uni- sponsored anthologies on Islam and Ecol- verse; that earth is alive with a unique ogy, Buddhism and Ecology, Taoism and community of life; and that the divine real- Ecology, Judaism and Ecology. If we ask ity – however understood – embraces the the question “And what might the religious whole of the universe and life on earth, not traditions say about the Earth?,” the good human life alone. And at the level of spiri- news is that there is now an abundance of tual awareness, they say (3) that spiritual scholarly material addressing the question. awareness should include a sense of mys- However, if we ask the question, “And tery and amazement, wonder and what might the religious traditions say about appreciation, at the hills and rivers, trees animals?” this list of available scholarship ter-being, of mutual immanence, amid and stars, all of which can be sacraments is much shorter. This is because scholars which, as Buddhists often say, all through which humans meet the sacred. in the various world religions focused for things are present in all other things. Indeed, while various theologians may em- the most part on environmental concerns– · In response to this interdependence, phasize one or another of these three and thus on the relationship of humans to and as prompted by the call of love it- themes, all three have become fairly com- the broader web of life and its landscapes self, we are beckoned to live with mon in the many kinds of ecological and waterways–than on individual animals. heightened compassion for all living theology: Catholic, Protestant, and Ortho- It is fortunate, then, that in May of 1999 the beings, not because we are better than dox; African, Asian, and North American; Forum on Religion and Ecology sponsored them, but because we are responsible an additional, multi-religious conference at to them. Harvard, dealing specifically with animals. · In order to understand other animals Participants in this conference included and undertake this responsibility, we “If we are to love our scholars from various religions, and also must learn to think like other animals neighbors as ourselves, and animal behaviorists. Among the latter was and also be attentive to them, employ- Bekoff, who rightly encouraged many of the ing all our senses, in a spirit of empathic if...our neighbors include scholars in religion to consider even more connection. In such empathy we our- deeply the relevance of their traditions to selves become more fully human. individual animals...how individual animals, both domesticated and · In some instances — as evidenced in can these animals be loved wild. companion animals — we can some- At the level of practice, for example, times live in mutuality with other in behavioral terms?” Christians and others who are shaped by animals, such that other animals can Bekoff’s work will necessarily ask, “If we be, in their own ways, spiritual guides are to love our neighbors as ourselves, and to humans. if,” as Bekoff proposes, “our neighbors in- · Even as we are rightly concerned with Ecofeminist, Ecowomanist, and clude individual animals both domesticated animals, we best understand this con- Postcolonialist; biblical, liturgical, and mys- and wild, how can these animals be loved cern as part of a more general hope that, tical. An excellent sampling of such in behavioral terms? Should we eat them? in our world, communities can emerge theologies can be found in Christianity and Should we trap them? Should be perform which embody respect and care for the Ecology, Seeking the Well-Being of the tests on them? Should we protect their habi- community of life. Earth, edited by R. Ruether and Dieter T. tats even at human expense? What should Hessel. our practices be with regard to other ani- The Threefold Nature of Religious Life Christianity and Ecology is one of the mals?” Today environmentally sensitive Chris- many books that have emerged from a three- At the level of understanding, Chris- tians recognize these three levels of year series of conferences called “Religions tians and others again ask, “Do animals 20 Fall 2004 have minds of their own?” Indeed, as Bekoff is ‘out there’ in the social matrix of the ex- mal to choose among responses, con- proposes, they do experience emotions ternal world.” (2003, 194) The mind is the sciously or non-consciously. In human life, such as fear, play, embarrassment, anger, in here which includes and is shaped by for example, such self-creativity would take irritation, love, sadness, and grief. What the out there. the form of drinking something that would might this mean for an understanding of Given this notion of mind, process in fact help ease the ache in the stomach. God? If, as Christians claim, God is un- thinkers suggest further that each moment The very act of drinking is a concrete re- bounded love, does God share in the joys of an animal’s psychic life includes the fol- and sufferings of each sparrow, each lowing three activities, which typically occur chicken, each dog, each cat, each mountain simultaneously: one receptive, one cogni- lion? Moreover, at some level, do human tive, and one self-creative. beings do the same? Is the universe itself, in the words of Thomas Berry, “a commun- Receptive Dimension. In a given mo- ion of subjects and not simply a collection ment of an animal’s life, the receptive of objects”? As spiritual kin to other ani- dimension is an act of receiving causal in- mals both biologically and spiritually, are fluences from the body and the surrounding we gathered together into a unity that in- world, and thus being shaped by that world. cludes, but also transcends, our humanity? Process thinkers call this ‘experience in the And, at the level of spiritual awareness, mode of causal efficacy’ and suggest that Christians influenced by Bekoff will further in human life and in the lives of other ani- ask, “As human beings care for other ani- mals, it is typically vague, powerful, dim, mals, respecting them for who they are, and unconscious. In human life, for ex- appreciating their worldviews, and wonder- ample, such receptivity would be the feeling ing what and how they are feeling and why, of having a stomach ache and being imme- sponse and adaptation to the immediate situ- can these internal and subjective activities diately shaped by the aching in one’s ation, and it would then form part of the be experienced as modes of spiritual aware- stomach. In such moments we are partly subsequent history of the mind. If it helped, ness in its own right?” Can what Bekoff determined by the events in our own bod- chances are good that, the next time a stom- calls “minding animals” be understood, at ies even as we have capacities for ach ache emerges, such a decision will be least by Christians but perhaps by others responding to those events. made again. In this way animals (humans as well, as a form of meditative prayer? included) can learn from their successes and, Cognitive Dimension. In a given mo- of course, their mistakes. A Theology of Animal Minds ment of an animal’s life, this is an act of Amid this threefold structure process In process thought, then, a mind is not feeling potentialities, consciously or non- thinkers further propose, along with Bekoff, a single entity that endures unchanged over consciously, for responding to those that animals (humans included) have emo- time, but rather the process of experiencing influences, and thus for adapting to the tions and aims. The emotions are called itself, as lived from a subjective perspec- given situation. Process thinkers speak of subjective forms. These forms are not the tive that simultaneously includes the this as the mental pole of an animal’s mind: objective behavior of the animal as wit- external world. It is a verb rather than a that side of the animal’s subjective experi- nessed by the eye, but rather the inner noun, and it is slightly different at every ence that is attentive to possibilities rather feelings that are often expressed in the be- moment, even as, at any given moment in than actualities, to what “can be” as op- havior: feelings of attraction and repulsion, the history of an animal, it is the animal’s posed to “what is.” In human life, for or, as Bekoff would add, compassion and own inner nature. Bekoff speaks to this example, such cognition might take the fear, hope and embarrassment, playfulness inner nature when he says: “All living be- simple form of feeling the possibility that and terror. With Bekoff, process theologians ing are defined as a combination of who is drinking something might help ease the propose that emotions are a primary form of ‘in here,’ in their hearts and heads, and who stomach ache. energy, and that what we call energy at an inorganic level is itself a primitive form of Self-Creative Dimension. In a given emotion. It is in animal life, though, that moment of an animal’s life, this is an act of emotions become what we most often call “Ultimately, say process cutting off certain possibilities for respond- feelings. thinkers, the indwelling ing to the given situation, and thus In process thought the divine reality is actualizing others. This act of cutting off is within each creature as what might best be lure within each animal, an act of decision, conscious or non-con- named “the indwelling lure to live with sat- scious. The particular form of the decision isfaction, relative to the situation at hand,” humans included, is to live may be largely determined by genetic and or, in the technical terms of process thought, with beauty....” environmental influences, but it is not com- the “initial phase of the subjective aim” of pletely determined. In the moment at hand, each moment of experience. The general there is always the possibility for the ani- idea is that each moment of experience con- Fall 2004 21 tains a potentiality for responding and cells. Process thinkers do not recommend Eco-justice advocates belong to many adapting to the immediate situation, which that we treat amoebae, bacteria, and plants different Christian traditions, and they have is itself the best for the situation at hand, with the same moral regard that we treat, for different racial, ethnic, sexual, economic, given needs to live, to live well, and then to example, coyotes and penguins and cats. and gender identities. but generally empha- live better. The initial aim is itself the way The difference, they say, lies in the fact that, size these four themes in their ethical that God is present in each animal life, and it according to our best evidence, the latter deliberations, their advocacy, and their ac- is itself adjusted to the conditions of the have higher degrees of sentience, includ- tions. animal at issue, including, of course, the ing capacities for suffering and joy, than A process approach to ethics will agree animal’s genetic makeup, environmental the others. with this general eco-justice orientation and conditions, past history, and social setting. Accordingly process thinkers recom- then include within its horizons attention This initial aim changes from moment to mend that, in terms of ethical practices, to individual animals and their suffering. In moment, precisely because the living con- individual animals elicit greater moral sen- The Liberation of Life, Charles Birth and ditions change from moment to moment. In sitivity as individuals than other animals. John Cobb borrow from The Humane Soci- some instances it may be to play, in others They then combine this sensitivity to ani- ety of the United States and recommend the to flee, in others to eat, in others to sleep, mals with a broad commitment to what might following moral principles as guides to ac- and in still others to mate. It may also in- be called eco-justice. tion, each of which can guide individual clude impulses simply to enjoy beauty and behavior and public policy: to create. The Eco-Justice Movement Ultimately, say process thinkers, the in- “Eco-justice” names a moral perspec- · It is wrong to kill animals needlessly or dwelling lure within each animal, humans tive that is part of the worldwide ecumenical for entertainment or to cause animals included, is to live with beauty: that is, with movement within Christianity. It links con- pain or torment. harmony and intensity relative to the situa- cerns for justice and peace with concerns · It is wrong to fail to provide adequate tion at hand. Each animal has its own kind for environmental well-being, such that ecol- food, shelter, and care for animals for of beauty and its own way of living with ogy and justice, not ecology or justice, is which humans have accepted respon- beauty. The task of the cognitive etholo- the norm. Accordingly, as explained by sibility. gist, then, is to discern the particular kinds Dieter Hessel, it “provides a dynamic frame- · It is wrong to use animals for medical, of beauty to which animals are drawn: that work for thought and action that fosters educational, or commercial experimen- is, to identify the kinds of subjective aims ecological integrity and the struggle for tation or research, unless absolute that characterize their lives. In so doing, social and economic justice. It emerges necessity can be found and demon- these ethologists are, in their way, doing through constructive human responses strated, and unless this is done without theology. They are helping others sense that serve environmental health and social causing the animal pain or torment. the way in which God is present in the ani- equity together–for the sake of human be- · It is wrong to maintain animals that are mals’ lives. ings and otherkind.” It has four basic norms: to be used for food in a manner that causes them discomfort or denies them An Ethic of Animal Protection · Solidarity with other people and crea- an opportunity to develop and live in I have explained that process thinkers tures–companions, victims and conditions that are reasonably natural propose that all living beings, by virtue of allies–in each community, reflecting for them. their capacities for inwardness or subjec- deep respect for creation. · It is wrong for those who eat animals to · Ecological sustainability– kill them in any manner that does not environmentally fitting result in instantaneous unconscious- habits of living and work- ness. Methods employed should ing that enable life to cause no more than minimum appre- flourish; and using eco- hension. logically and socially · It is wrong to confine animals for dis- appropriate technology. play, impoundment, or as pets in · Sufficiency as a standard conditions that are not comfortable and of organized sharing, appropriate. which requires basic floors · It is wrong to permit domestic animals tivity have intrinsic value, which means that and definite ceilings for eq- to propagate to an extent that leads to all living beings deserve respect and care uitable of fair consumption. overpopulation or misery. on their own terms and for their own sakes, · Participation in decisions about how not simply for their usefulness to human to obtain sustenance and to manage These mandates answer many of the beings. Of course, all living beings will in- community life for the good in common questions raised by Bekoff pertaining to the clude single-celled organisms, multicellular and the good of the commons.2 (19) treatment of animals. They are the kinds of microorganisms, and plants, which process moral guidelines which, in combination with thinkers propose are colonies of single a theology of animal minds and a spiritual- 22 Fall 2004 ity of attunement to animals, respond to available to non-scientists as well. Bekoff’s Bekoff’s challenge. It is to the latter idea, books such as Minding Animals and the that of attunement that I turn in concluding Ten Trusts can then be understood, not sim- this essay. ply as appeals for caring about animals, but also as invitations to a prayerful way of look- A Spirituality of Animal Connection ing at the world of animals. And the An interesting feature of Bekoff’s anecdotes shared by Bekoff in Minding thought is that he often emphasizes Animals, and those shared by Jane Goodall attunement to animals. By attunement I as well in The Ten Trusts, can be understood mean two activities, both of which are forms as sacred literature: that is, literature aimed of empathy. I mean wondering what an- at helping people attend to the intrinsic value other living being is feeling and why, which of animals. is itself an act of imagination; and I also mean, in some instances, a more direct ap- prehension of the feelings of other animals Jay McDaniel is the author of three in intuitive ways. The first we might call books on eco-theology, including Of God imaginative empathy, and the second direct and Pelicans: A Theology of Reverence for empathy. Process thought provides a way Life. He is also coeditor of Good News for of appreciating both forms of empathy, Animals? Contemporary Christian Ap- should they occur in human life, and of in- proaches to Animal Well-Being (Orbis terpreting them in spiritual ways. I will treat Press). He teaches world religions and con- imaginative empathy first, showing how, temporary religious thought at Hendrix from a process perspective, it can be un- College in Conway, Arkansas, where he is derstood as a form of contemplative prayer. Director of the Steel Center for the Study of Religion and Philosophy. Imaginative Empathy and Prayer To speak of an act of empathic partici- pation as a way of participating in the divine Bekoff, Marc. “Minding Animals, Minding life is to say that it is, in its own way, a form Earth: Old Brains, New Bottlenecks.” Zygon of contemplative prayer. Here I use the 38(4). (Joint Publication Board of Zygon, word contemplative prayer to name a kind 2003). of prayer that is different from, but poten- tially complementary to, prayers of address. Bekoff, Marc, and Paul W. Sherman. “Re- By prayers of address I mean prayers that flections on Animal Selves.” Ecology and seek to communicate with the divine and to see each stone, each leaf, each blade of Evolutionary Biology (Boulder, CO: Uni- listen for responses from the divine. By grass, each frog, each human face, for what versity of Colorado, 2003). contemplative prayer, on the other hand, I it truly is, in all the distinctiveness and in- mean prayers that seek to listen to the world tensity of its specific being.” (119) He Goodall, Jane, and Marc Bekoff. The Ten with the heart of the divine. More specifi- speaks of this seeing as a contemplation of Trusts: What We Must Do to Care for the cally, I mean the kind of prayer that one nature. Animals We Love. (New York, NY: Harpers Christian writer, Kallistos Ware, calls the If Bekoff and process thinkers are Collins Publishing, 2002). “contemplation of nature.” right–if other animals do indeed have minds In his classic introduction to Orthodox of their own–this kind of seeing also in- Ware, Kallistos. The Orthodox Way Christianity called The Orthodox Way, cludes empathic imagination as defined (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Press, 1995). Bishop Kallistos Ware writes: “All things above, and this kind of imagining is itself a are permeated and maintained in being by form of prayer. Interestingly, this would (Endnotes) the uncreated energies of God,” he says, mean that minding animals is a form of prayer. 1 I borrow this language from principles 1, “and so all things are a theophany” that And this would also mean that, when it oc- 5, and 7 of the Earth Charter. mediates divine presence. “The whole uni- curs in the context of the natural sciences, verse is a cosmic burning Bush, filled with including field studies, the scientific study 2 Hessel, “Ecumenical Ethics for Earth Com- the divine Fire not yet consumed.” (118) of other animals is thus a form of prayer. munity,” 19. According to Ware, a recognition of the Here we have not only a connection be- divine fire rightly leads Christians to an tween science and theology, but also appreciation of the sheer uniqueness–Ware science and prayer. Additionally, the in- calls it the thusness or thisness–of particu- sights gained from cognitive ethology can lar things, persons and moments. “We are then be material for prayer which is then Fall 2004 23

Ecumenical Ethics for Earth Community1 by Dieter Hessel he ecumenical movement worldwide and in the US, through deliberations and programs spanning Tmore than three decades, has acquired a norma- tively rich understanding of “just, sustainable, and participatory society,” and the imperatives sustained indefinitely within of “justice, peace, and integrity of creation.” the limits of the earth. A sec- This ethical perspective has theological ond requirement is that it be roots in visions of Creation’s Sabbath, the sustained at a quality that Kingdom of God, and a flourishing Earth makes possible fulfillment of Community. It continues to be shaped in human life for all people. A conversation with movements on behalf of society so organized to social justice and environmental integrity. achieve both these ends we It needs to flourish through the praxis of can call a sustainable global institutions and individuals. It can bear society in contrast to the good fruit in policies that grapple with the present unsustainable global society. For a “greener” faith commitment to interlinked realities of ecological destruc- If the life of the world is to be sus- take hold, sustainable culture to spread, and tion and social oppression—but only if this tained and renewed,…it will have to maldevelopment to be stopped, many more basic value framework is coherently articu- be with a new sort of science and persons and organizations must commit lated and embodied in both religious and technology governed by a new sort themselves to values that are friendly to secular settings, to show its significance of economics and politics. ecology and community. Revitalized theo- for social practice/policy. centric ethics have a crucial role to play in Australian biologist Charles Birch gave The 1975 WCC Assembly encouraged this transformation. The living faiths that an early ecumenical impetus to the process ecumenical dialogue and programming to arose in Jerusalem can contribute signifi- of articulating a normative frame of refer- explore faith, science and technology for a cantly to public discourse and common ence. In his keynote address to the Nairobi just, sustainable, and participatory society. pilgrimage by fostering an eco-justice vi- Assembly (1975) of the World Council of One promising effect was to draw partici- sion and practice. Churches (WCC), he said: pants across disciplinary lines into inquiry This theme has deep biblical roots. The concered with “eco-jusice.” Hebrew Bible’s opening creation saga cul- A prior requirement of any global In this spiritually-grounded moral per- minates in an ecological covenant that God society is that it be so organized that spective called eco-justice, all beings on makes with “all flesh that is on the earth” human life and other living creatures earth make up one household (oikos), which (Genesis 9:12-13). Job 38-41 and a number on which human life depends can be benefits from an economy (oikonomia) that of the Psalms value relational integrity with takes ecological and social stewardship everykind. And the concluding, apocalyp- (oikonomos) seriously. For the sake of both tic book of Revelation peaks with a vision humans and otherkind, our species—which of the garden in the city. All of earth com- does ethics and the unethical—must learn munity matters; its intrinsic value is to welcome diverse cultures and myriad honored by God, who continues to enliv- species, revaluing the natural world while en, sustain, and redeem the whole. In this working for just and sustainable communi- spirit, the biblical Wisdom teachings, Sab- ty. Eco-justice provides a dynamic bath sensitivities, and Covenant law foster framework for thought and action that fos- deep respect for the biodiverse creation and ters ecological integrity and the struggle for interhuman justice. Speaking to Job from for social and economic justice. It emerges the stormwind, God demands reverent awe through constructive human responses for the revelatory power of wild creatures, that serve environmental health and so- natural places, and processes. Woman Wis- cial equity together—for the sake of human dom is the source of creation in Proverbs well-being with otherkind.2 8:22-31. The Gospel of John picks up this 24 Fall 2004 last-mentioned theme when affirming, in a inforcing ways—what is both ecologically into struggles for society’s conscience and neo-Platonic ethos, the power of the Logos fitting and socially just. Solidarity compre- shape by actively resisting policies or prac- to love the cosmos, and to restore its whole- hends the full dimensions of earth tices that destroy earth community. ness through incarnation. community and of inter-human obligation. 2) Sustainability means relating to the The Torah (or covenant law) conveys Sustainability gives high visibility to eco- natural world so that its ecological health an ethic of environmental care with social logical integrity and wise behavior and beauty may be maintained indefinitely. justice—not over against or instead of, but throughout the resource-use cycle. The Sustainability also refers to the stability and together. Key passages such as Exodus 23, third and fourth norms express the distrib- healthy functioning of social systems in Leviticus 19 and 25, and Deuteronomy 15 utive and participatory dimensions of basic their interdependence with natural systems. express the covenant obligation to respond social justice. In other words, the norm of “sustainability to the poor, to give animals Sabbath rest, to The observance of each ethical norm modifies ‘environment’ and ‘society’ to- let the land lie fallow, and to cancel debts reinforces and qualifies the others. All four gether,”3 in frank recognition that often periodically, if not to redistribute land. The- are core values that become corrective cri- humans threaten other human inhabitants ology with this sensitivity poses no either/ teria to guide personal practice, social as much as otherkind. Far from being a stat- or choice between caring for people and analysis, and policy advocacy. They pro- ic or stagnant norm, sustainability is served caring for the earth. The way people treat vide, of course, only the beginning point by careful preservation of the commons, by land and animals is as important a sign of for hard thought and tough choices…. the stewardship and fair distribution of faithfulness as the way people treat each scarce resources, and by ecologically and other. Modern anthropocentric Christiani- A Framework for Earth Ethics to Engage socially smart technological and economic ty forgot this, bowing to ideologies of Current Issues development. economic growth that sacrifice both ecolo- We need to see this set of ethical norms gy and equity. both as a whole (integrally) and in rich nu- The basic norms of eco-justice ethics ances (or varied accents) that come into can be summarized as follows: focus as we respond to pressing and emerg- ing eco-justice issues. · solidarity with other people and crea- 1) Solidarity gives forceful expression tures-companions, victims, and to the value of the created community. It allies—in earth community, reflecting affirms that all human beings are members deep respect for creation; of one household, sharing common needs · ecological sustainability—environ- and aspirations, making equal claims for mentally fitting habits of living and basic sustenance, and belonging to a larger working that enable life to flourish, and natural community in which the animals, using ecologically and socially appro- plants, and eco-systems also make moral priate technology; claims upon us. Solidarity means strong, · sufficiency as a standard of organized vibrant community concerned with individ- sharing, which requires basic floors ual and collective well-being. Those who and definite ceilings for equitable or take this ethical norm seriously will be peo- “fair” consumption; ple- and eco-centered, in light of their · socially just participation in decisions knowledge of nature, society, and God. about how to obtain sustenance and Therefore, they will seek to be a sign of to manage community life for the good solidarity in the world, joining with others in common and the good of the com- to build a renewed sense of common pur- Sustainability attends to the “integri- mons. pose and to serve the larger community ty, stability, and beauty of the biotic good. community,” to use the key words of Aldo These norms illumine an overarching Solidarity motivates acts of communi- Leopold in A Sand County Almanac. Sus- imperative: humans should pursue—in re- ty-building. It is expressed, on the one tainability gives very high priority to hand, in accountability to and alliances with ecosystemic integrity, pollution prevention, disadvantaged groups of humans, and, on and caring use of the natural world. It man- the other hand, in the preservation of natu- dates production and reproduction within “...humans should pursue-- ral integrity. It displays deep appreciation ecological constraints. This involves much in reinforcing ways--what for the intrinsic value of both humans and more than ecoefficiency. The norm of sus- otherkind within a diverse creation, created tainability affirms “bio-responsibility”— is both ecologically fitting in the image of God and loved by the Cre- that is, human responsibility to observe the ator. To show solidarity is difficult, because “biotic rights” of species and their mem- and socially just.” it requires standing with “others” and re- bers4—and it pushes toward the fusing to be indifferent. It entails entering stabilization of both economic and popula- Fall 2004 25 tion growth in ways that enhance the well- possible yields and profits, with little re- being of everykind. Moreover, this ethical gard for biophysical limits or the just norm highlights the importance of preserv- “A major challenge of our distribution of scarce resources. ing special landscapes and waters, both time is to extend democ- 4) Participation highlights a dimension wild and managed. of right relationships. Social systems that If the above is the “yes” of this ethical racy into all aspects of are insufficiently participatory cannot be norm, the sustainable “growth” or “yield” just. Participation means being included in projected by current economic developers economic life through the social process of obtaining, managing, is part of the “no.” In other words, sustain- coaliional action and and enjoying the good things of God’s cre- ability must also be stated in negative ation. All members of the human family have terms—of what to avoid or oppose. For ex- institution-building.” a right and responsibility to participate, as ample, the dynamics of economic able, in this process. Economic arrange- globalization destroy both ecological and ments and environmental policies, human community. And these dynamics presses well the moral demand on the afflu- therefore, should be shaped by and pro- ignore cumulative pollution from multiple ent: vide for inclusive participation. As a part of sources, making very difficult any mean- Sufficiency for all will be achieved and the wise management of the planetary ingful “risk” assessments of impacts on sustained only if the good things of God’s household or oikos (the Greek root of econ- people and habitats,5 or the prompt redress creation are shared according to a keen omy, ecology and ecumenism), participation of environmental injustice. sense of what is needful. The majority of demands democratic decision-making, co- 3) Sufficiency is a norm of distributive the world’s people needs more health and operative relationships, the empowerment justice. It affirms the moral imperative of fulfillment. If sufficiency for them is to be of women and minorities, accountable gov- social equity and insists that all human par- approached in a manner that can be sus- ernment oriented to the general welfare, and ticipants in earth community must be able tainable, sufficiency has to have another caretaking responsibilities fairly shared. to obtain sufficient sustenance. Sufficien- side. The already excessive demands on Participation underscores the impor- cy requires a systematic sharing of nature must be reduced. Those who now tance of democratic social organization and resources to provide enough so that all, in- take too much must learn to live well on inclusive community-building behavior. To cluding future generations, will be able to less.”6 value participation is to affirm the right of achieve a reasonably secure and fulfilling Sufficiency is inextricably linked with people to shape and make decisions, both life. The norm therefore invites us to recon- the use of appropriate technology for hu- political and economic, that affect them. The ceptualize the good life, to stop squandering man development, collective observance of objective is mutuality in community scarce resources self-indulgently or for wise limits to production, social policies of through relationships of freedom, equality, short-term benefit, and to insist on social resource redistribution, and lifestyle pat- and accountability that enable self- and policies with real “floors and ceilings.” Re- terns expressive of frugality. It contradicts other-realization. Such qualitative democ- distribution is necessary to bring the poor prevailing approaches to economic “effi- racy goes well beyond exercising majority up to sufficiency. A Presbyterian report ex- ciency” that continue to extract maximum rule. A major challenge of our time is to ex- tend democracy into all aspects of economic life through coalitional action and institu- tion-building. If the goal is to serve the good of the ecological commons as well as the common social good in each place, then a democratic process must give explicit atten- tion to the rights of silent partners, especially other species and future genera- tions. The unholy idea that democracy is bound exclusively to communally unfettered capitalism must be challenged. Democratic ethics of cooperation, motivated by moral commitment to equity, compassion, and solidarity, clash with the logic of economic globalization that favors competition over cooperation, domination over solidarity, and social indifference over eco-justice.7 Thus, the ethic of eco-justice fosters right relations. It expresses respect for both natural and cultural diversity, and is com- 26 Fall 2004

Shared Themes Kusumita Pedersen, Associate Professor of Religion at St. Francis College, Brooklyn, NY, recently concluded, after completing a comparative study, that the religious traditions of the East, West, South and indigenous peoples agree, to a greater or lesser extent, on the following important points regarding environmental ethics:

· The natural world has value in itself and does not exist solely to serve human needs.

· There is a significant continuity of being between human and non-human living 1 The- beings, even though humans do have a distinctive role. This continuity can be felt ology and and experienced. Public Policy VIII:1&2 (Wash- · Non-human living beings are morally significant, in the eyes of God and/or the ington, DC: Churches’ cosmic order. They have their own unique relations to God, and their own places in Center for Theology the cosmic order. and Public Policy, Summer and Winter, · The dependence of human life on the natural world can and should be acknowledged 1996), 17-19, 22-24. in ritual and other expressions of appreciation and gratitude. 2 For a brief overview see Peter W. Bakken, · Moral norms such as justice, compassion and reciprocity apply (in appropriate “The Eco-Justice Movement in Christian ways) both to human beings and to non-human beings. The well-being of humans Theology: Patterns and Issues,” Theology and the well-being of non-human beings are inseparably connected. and Public Policy VII:1 (Summer, 1995), 14- 19. · There are legitimate and illegitimate uses of nature. 3 Larry L. Rasmussen, Earth Community, · Greed and destructiveness are condemned. Restraint and protection are commended. Earth Ethics (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 171. · Human beings are obliged to be aware and responsible in living in harmony with the natural world, and should follow the specific practices for this prescribed by their 4 See James A. Nash, “Biotic Rights and traditions.1 Human Ecological Responsibilities,” The Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (1993), 154-57. 1 The research supporting this conclusion can be found in Kusumita P. Pedersen, “Environmental Ethics in Interreligious Perspective,” in Explorations in Global Ethics: 5 See two chapters by Kristin Shrader-Fre- Comparative Religious Ethics and Interreligious Dialogue, eds. Sumner B. Twiss and chette, “Environmental Ethics, Uncertainty, Bruce Grelle. Boulder, CO and Oxford, UK: Westview Press, 1998. and Limited Data,” and “Equity, Consent, and Hazardous Waste,” Ethics and Agen- da 21: Moral Implications of a Global mitted to justice in both social and ecolog- Dieter T. Hessel holds a PhD in social Consensus, ed. Noel Brown (New York: ical contexts. A similar frame of reference ethics. He resides in Princeton, NJ, where United Nations Environment Programme, was affirmed by the 1993 Parliament of he is a member of the Center of Theologi- 1994), 77-90. World Religions. It emphasized “a global cal Inquiry, director of the ecumenical Pro- ethic” of interdependence, fostering respect gram on Ecology, Justice and Faith, and 6 Presbyterian Church (USA), Restoring for the earth and its community of living codirector of Theological Education to Creation for Ecology and Justice, 26. beings and respect for others in the world- Meet the Environmental Challenge wide human family. To move in this direction (TEMEC). From 1965-1990, he was the 7 Regarding the ethical clash between eco- requires appropriate reproduction and pro- social education coordinator and social nomic globalization and sustainable duction, individual and collective frugality policy director of the Presbyterian Church community, see Christopher Lind, Some- in consumption, fair patterns of trade, and (USA). His recent books include Theology thing’s Wrong Somewhere: Globalization, popular democratic participation in shap- for Earth Community: A Field Guide Community and the Moral Economy of the ing and implementing economic, (Orbis, 1996) and The Church’s Public Farm Crisis (Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, environmental, and population policies that Role: Retrospect and Prospect (Eerdmans, 1995), esp. ch. 4. are wise, just, and good for all. 1993). Fall 2004 27

ferrets, cats, turtles, and numerous canines, Animals Re-Enter the Christian just to name the most prominent species present, in a line that spread several city blocks. Walking up and down were teenag- (and Interfaith) Sanctuary: ers from the Cathedral School handing out treats as they proclaimed “puppies get hun- Blessings of Animals in the U.S. gry during masses.” Upon entering the sanctuary worship- by Laura Hobgood-Oster ers are surrounded by the Gothic structure large enough to hold the Statue of Liberty (not including her pedestal). Signs reading lessings of the animals have taken place throughout “Reserved For Large Dogs” adorned the Christian history. Though sporadic and varied in their front row of chairs in each section and a purpose, approach and prevalence, these blessings designated area for disabled humans and B their service animals sat next to the altar. consistently secure a small space for animals in Christian ritual. For over an hour animals moved inside, with While a relatively new addition to the litur- The Cathedral of St. John the Divine in little or no incident, and took their places gical year for many U.S. congregations, New York City, while not typical of most for worship. blessings of the animals, primarily in rural such blessings, seems to epitomize the idea Powerful ancient Christian ritual ele- settings, occurred throughout Christian and, some might contend, the ideal of the ments intermingled with quite modern history. Sometimes these blessings focus inclusion of animals in the Christian wor- liturgical pieces. For example, the choir sang on farm animals and the gift of life, literally, ship setting. The liturgical event is officially the “Kyrie” accompanied by instrumentals that they provide. But as the role of animals entitled “The Feast of St. Francis” and in- interspersed with timber wolf howls and in human culture shifted, so did the bless- cludes “The Holy Eucharist & Procession some real dog barking responses. Through- ings. By the early twentieth century, out the service, music, led by Paul Winter blessings combined thanksgivings for (known for his “Earth Mass” and “Winter “pets” and for food/labor animals. Solstice Celebrations”), included voices So, for example, in Rome in the 1930s from various animals: the humpback whale on the feast of St. Anthony of the Desert, joins the “Sanctus”; harp seals comprise the first patron saint of animals, the “four- part of the chorus for the “Agnus Dei”; and, footed congregation” assembled in the as mentioned above, the timber wolf howls piazza in front of the church of St. Eusebius in the “Kyrie.” During the actual distribu- to receive a special blessing.1 Countryside tion of the Eucharistic elements, some blessings that included a generous meal for people moved forward with their animal the animals took place all over Italy. To this companions, participating in the Eucharist day, St. Anthony celebrations occur in lo- together, something not unheard of in Chris- cations as distant as Rome and Mexico City, tian history. Madrid and Los Angeles where the Olvera The final event of the formal liturgy is Street Blessing of the Animals takes place “The Living Earth: Opening of the Great on the Saturday before Easter.2 Bronze Door and the Silent Procession.” At In the United States, blessings of the the entrance to the sanctuary stand two animals reappeared as part of the Christian National Cathedral, Washington DC, Oct. 4, 2004 massive bronze doors. According to the liturgical year in the last two decades of the dean, these doors are only opened three twentieth century. The Feast of St. Francis of Animals,” presided over by the bishop times a year – Christmas, Easter, and the (October 4) replaced that of St. Anthony as of New York.3 Barks echoing in the massive Procession of the Animals. This amazing the day for this celebration. Some occur in gothic cathedral suggest that this is not the liturgical choice suggests that the Proces- sanctuaries and include hundreds, or even “typical” twenty-first century Sunday morn- sion becomes one of the three high holy thousands, of people and animals. Others ing Christian worship service however. moments in the life of this congregation each take place at parks or on the steps of the Hopeful participants arrive as early as year, though that designation was not offi- church while other blessings are held in 7:00 a.m. to wait for the 11:00 a.m. worship cially assigned. A camel, adorned with a conjunction with local animal organizations service to begin since the Cathedral fills to wreath on her hump, an eagle, a beehive, and might be held at their facility. In gener- at least its 3500 person, standing-room only two llamas, and many more animals process al, the blessings of the animals provide an capacity, for this service. Many bring ani- into the sanctuary through the bronze doors alternative form of Christian, Christian-In- mal companions with them. Chuckles (the and gather at the altar. The congregation, terfaith, and Christian-Secular ritual. parrot), Philly and Nicholae (dachshunds), animals and human, remain astonishingly and Jack the bulldog stood among humans, silent as the creatures walk down the cen- 28 Fall 2004 ter aisle. At that point, the bishop calls on Juggler and the Karpa- the entire congregation to pray together: thos), and pet adoption/ advocacy agencies (such We give you thanks, most gracious as Chimp Haven, Grey- God, for the beauty of the earth and hound Rescue, North sky and sea; for the richness of Shore Animal League, An- mountains, plains, and rivers; for the imal Care and Control of songs of birds and the loveliness of New York City) set up ar- flowers, and for the wonder of your eas to distribute animal kingdom. We praise you for information and hope for these good gifts, and pray that we adoptions of some of many safeguard them for our poster- these homeless animals. ity. Grant that we may continue to Human and animal justice grow in our grateful enjoyment of issues intermingle as vot- your abundant creation, to the hon- er registration tables, or and glory of your Name, now and Heifer Project Internation- Cathedral of St. John Divine, New York City, Oct. 3, 2004 for ever. Amen. al, and advocates for homeless humans and animals work togeth- fair that followed. A spokesperson for the Following this prayer the bishop bless- er. office of the dean of the cathedral describes es all of the animals: Animals are most definitely included in it in these words: “The Saint Francis Cele- this major liturgical event. Human cultural bration reaches across cultures and faiths, Live without fear: your Creator loves diversity is celebrated and the diversity of across ages and ideologies. We feel a bond you, made you holy, and has always the world’s species is emphasized. African in our shared responsibility under one sun, protected you. Go in peace to follow dancers worship alongside traditional Eu- breathing the same air, drinking the waters the good road and may God’s bless- ropean incense-bearing priests. Beehives of the earth.”5 ing be with you always. Amen and even algae represent the other than However, one cannot participate in the (attributed to St. Clare) human world as fully as the quite prevalent entire event without offering a certain criti- canine companions. In other words, the cal assessment. First, while the procession At the end of the formal liturgy humans Feast of St. Francis in this particular mani- of animals is impressive and speaks to the and other animals moved outside for indi- festation suggests an image of Christianity centrality of animals through such actions vidual blessings. that goes well beyond inclusion of many as the opening of the bronze doors, there Overall, while there was one slightly species, indeed it suggests that celebrating remains something overly idealistic and re- stressed chihuahua, the 1500 or so animals diversity of human culture must include the moved from reality. So, for instance, a (no official count is taken) and 3500 or more celebration of diverse species. Interconnect- beautiful, small cow processes into the sanc- people fared well during the formal, indoor edness flows throughout the liturgy and the tuary, yet the realities of factory farming in liturgy. An occasional growl could be heard the United States go without mention. Many from the tightly packed dogs, but it was purebred dogs enter the Cathedral, some of amazing how silent so many animals (par- “...while the procession of whom certainly came from rescue groups ticularly humans) gathered in one place but numerous ones also must have come could be – and how loud when singing animals is impressive and from breeders, while the city kills over 28,000 along with the huge choir. As Dr. Kowalski homeless dogs each year.6 One might also stated, referring more specifically to the oth- speaks to the centrality of question whether keeping animals in a large er-than-human animals, “They sense the animals [in the room full of the smells of incense, shouts of spirit and relax. This is the way it’s meant to human voices, and presence of thousands be, together in peace and harmony.”4 church]...there remains of other creatures for over two hours is a In the park outside, animals were indi- good experience for the animals. Then again, vidually blessed at four different stations. something...removed from how would a human being ever really make Priests placed their hands on each animal reality; a beautiful cow that determination? and said something similar to, “Bless you While it cannot or at least has not been now in the name of the Father, Son, and processes into the sanctu- proven as the seminal event in the growth Holy Spirit; God be with you and your fam- of blessings of the animals in the United ily now and always. Amen.” After an hour, ary, yet the realities of States, one cannot deny the impact of the most animals present received a blessing. factory farming...go service at the Cathedral of St. John Divine. In addition, food vendors (such as the In- This particular service has taken place for terfaith Assembly on Homeless and without mention.” over twenty years now and other congre- Housing), performers (including Josh the gations, after reading about it in the Fall 2004 29 newspaper or on the internet, mirror the St. with them. All seemed genuinely affected the inclusion of animals for display or edu- John Divine blessing. Some would suggest and expressed a sincerity about their pur- cational purposes. So, at Shepherd of the that this congregation really started the poses at the blessings. But there are some Desert Lutheran Church, located in the trend, or at least gave impetus and energy significant differences as well. Whereas St. Mojave Desert, “[a] biologist from the local to its growth. John Divine’s blessing literally opened the Army base has a display of live desert Another prominent church, the Nation- doors to all species, the National Cathedral animals…that he takes around to schools. al Cathedral in Washington, D.C., follows maintained the distinction between humans He was there with his collection of live spi- in the footsteps of its sister church in New in the sanctuary and animals on the steps. ders, scorpions, snakes, an owl, and a York City, at least to a certain extent.7 The One could argue that the animals in the sanc- hawk.” At St. John Divine part of the festi- National Cathedral celebrates the Feast of tuary were more stressed, but their inclusion val following the blessing offered a petting St. Francis on the actual feast day, October in the sacred space marks a significant shift zoo and, indeed, while astounding and beau- 4, regardless of the day of the week. The in the understanding of boundaries in Chris- tiful for human spectators, the procession blessing of the animals takes place after the tianity. Then again, the space outside of of animals that included a camel, a hedge- evensong. Interestingly, the cover of the the National Cathedral could also be claimed hog, a reindeer, and myriad other species bulletin for the service explains the life of as sacred, maybe more so than the interior might bring a problematic aspect to this cer- St. Francis and comes to the conclusion space of the sanctuary. emony. that, while he is “one of the most popular The National Cathedral blessing is When asked why they hold blessings and admired saints of Christianity,” he is much more representative of blessings oc- events, answers produced a range of re- also “probably the least imitated.” Unlike sponses. Some focused more specifically the cathedral in New York, the animals in on the animals present and their roles, oth- Washington gather on the front steps, not ers on the humans present and their in the sanctuary. A member of the church responsibilities. So, at St. Paul’s Anglican staff informed me that some members of the Church it “draws attention to the broad congregation do not appreciate having the context of our life in God’s creation, and animals inside the sanctuary, though the honours the role of our pets.” Whereas at bishop does occasionally bring his dog.8 Central Christian Church in Dallas it was But the stairs leading to the main west offered as a way to provide “outreach to entrance are decorated with flowers and those who might not otherwise attend tables prepared with symbols and imple- church,” in other words it was part of an ments for the blessing. Then three priests evangelism program for humans. Other con- assume stations on the steps and invite in- curring across the United States. There are gregations suggested several reasons. San dividual animals forward for this blessing: at least three hundred blessings taking place Ramon Valley United Methodist Church in “N., may you be blessed in the Name of in forty states and the District of Columbia California holds the blessings for three rea- God who created you, and may you and N. and this is just a partial list.9 In some states sons: “One, to honor the place of animals (the owner) enjoy life together in the name there are only two or three blessings, but in in our lives and as a way to recognize and of the God who cares for you.” others there are twenty or more. The most respect all of creation (the St. Francis tie- People and animals waited in line for comprehensive list in one place can be in). Second, it was a way to publicize the their turn to be blessed and some tried to found at www.americancatholic.org. A va- Heifer Project. Thirdly, we hoped it would get a drink from the holy water. As I spoke riety of Christian denominations participate, be an outreach to the larger community, at- with congregants they indicated how sig- from Catholic to Methodist to Disciples of tracting non-church goers from our nificant this service was for them and, they Christ to Lutheran to Episcopalian to Uni- surrounding community.” Another re- sensed, for their animals as well. Close to tarian. sponse mentioned the importance of how one hundred animals and humans attended After surveying a variety of congrega- God’s creatures “minister to us.”10 with canines as the second most prominent tions, some interesting differences and While a blessing of the pets/animals species (to humans). In addition to the similarities emerged. The size and member- becomes a new ritual moment in many Chris- crowd gathered for the blessing, a local ship (species) of the congregations (human tian congregations, and while such a ritual group of young people who run a business and animal) gathered varied from approxi- invites animals to be part of the Christian providing care for dogs during the day was mately twenty to over five thousand community for at least one of the 365 days on hand to help, and to advertise their participants. As Father Carpenter in Mesa, each year, does it simply re-impose the an- wares. Arizona stated, “I’ve also blessed cats, imal as an object of the “dominator’s” These two blessings at prominent, birds, hamsters, gerbils, mice, rats, lizards, (human) gaze? I think that could be the case. large, inner-city cathedrals provide a fasci- snakes, and the occasional rabbit.” Some Berger concludes his essay “About Look- nating comparison and contrast. On the one humans bring the ashes of deceased pets ing” with a description of the “zoo.” Zoos, hand, numerous people (though significant- to have them blessed postmortem. he contends, marginalize animals complete- ly more in New York) attended the service Another interesting question raised in ly. They spend their lives in a less than real and, in most cases, brought their animals the area of “attendance” at these events is world where they can be “seen, observed, 30 Fall 2004 studied” (21). In a zoo, “[h]owever you look again and only the human approaches the other than this; they include those who are at these animals,” even when they are close altar. most often excluded. Of course, the next to you, “you are looking at something that Several things that I’ve noticed thus day they are excluded again, but are they has been rendered absolutely marginal” far and noted throughout – this ritual is func- excluded as fully as they were before the (21). Do the blessings, in their very invita- tioning differently than most “Christian” blessing? tion to animals at only this one time and for rituals in the United States in the early 21st Blessings of the animals also need to only this one purpose, also render animals century. Most obviously, of course, there be analyzed through basic religious stud- absolutely marginal. Blessings of pets/ani- are other-than-human animals actually, ies theories. Most obviously, maybe, Victor mals seem to fit the mold of other displays: physically present. Also, the space is relo- Turner’s ideas from The Ritual Process: cated, which isn’t totally unique of course, Structure and Anti-Structure. This is where Zoos, realistic animal toys and the but the types of spaces might be. While a he raises issues of communitas and its emer- widespread commercial diffusion of few services take place inside the sanctu- gence where “social structure is not.”11 He animal imagery, all began as animals ary, many are in public parks, on the steps also references Buber: “Community is the started to be withdrawn from daily that lead to the entrance of the sanctuary, being no longer side by side (and, one might life. One could suppose that such or in space provided by a secular organiza- add, above and below) but with one anoth- innovations were compensatory. Yet tion, like local humane societies. In addition, er of a multitude of persons. And this in reality the innovations themselves these are not only interfaith experiences in multitude, though it moves towards one belonged to the same remorseless many cases, but broadly interfaith experi- goal, yet experiences everywhere a turning movement as was dispersing the an- ences. So, for example, Wicca is involved to, a dynamic facing of, the others, a flow- imals. The zoos, with their theatrical with the planning, advertisement and im- ing from I to Thou.” Buber’s “I and Thou” décor for display, were in fact dem- plementation of the Interfaith Blessing in applies in some senses, but not in others. onstrations of how animals had been Long Beach – along with the minister at the There is still, regardless of the inclusion of rendered absolutely marginal. The Mind and Spirit Center, the pastor of St. Bar- other species, an “above and below” in- realistic toys increased the demand tholomew Catholic Church, a past with the volved with the blessings, though maybe for the new animal puppet: the urban Universal Life Church, another with Revo- less so than on the other days of the year. pet…Everywhere animals disappear lution Church. In other cases the local But it does seem that Turner’s “spontane- (Berger 24). Jewish and Christian communities have ous communitas” might be apparent at joined together. So faith boundaries, as well blessings – as quoted here: “Communitas Blessings of the pets return animals to as species boundaries, are crossed. breaks in through the interstices of struc- the sanctuary, maybe, or at least to the stairs Whereas rituals are often classified as ture, in liminality; at the edges of structure, leading to the doors of the sanctuary, but marking the inclusion of those who belong in marginality; and from beneath structure, as a display and only for a few moments. and the exclusion of others, blessings of in inferiority.”12 Then, for another year, the space closes the animals seem to do something totally This research into blessings of the an- imals is just beginning. New information, new theories, new ideas about why these blessings are reaching more and more peo- ple and animals each year will emerge as it continues. Suffice it to say, at this early point in the process, that blessings of the ani- mals seem to be part of the U.S. worship culture for the foreseeable future. Maybe the animals will return to the sanctuary as such events spread, touching the lives of humans and the many species with whom we share this planet.

Dr. Laura Hobgood-Oster holds the Elizabeth Root Paden Chair in Religion at Southwestern University. Her teaching and research focus on the History of Chris- tianity, Religion and Ecology, Ecofeminism and Women in the Christian Tradition. She also teaches in the Environmental Studies Program. Dr. Hobgood-Oster is currently Cathedral of St. John Divine, New York City, Oct. 3, 2004. engaged in a long-term project that ad- Fall 2004 31 dresses the place of other-than-human ani- mals in Christianity. Her recent publica- Religion and Animals tions and presentations include Cross- roads Choices: Biblical Wisdom Literature by Richard M. Clugston and Heather Tallent into the 21st Century (2000) and The Sab- bath Journal of Judith Lomax (Atlanta: Before the European Enlightenment Religions, in theory and in practice, are Scholars Press, 1999). and the scientific and industrial revolutions deeply ambivalent. In any religion one can it spawned, it was primarily religious tradi- find both reasons to exploit animals and rea- tions that told us what reality was and how sons not to. This ambivalence, or the 1 Carola McMurrouch, “Blessing of Ani- we were to achieve the good life. Despite presence of contradictory messages in the mals: Roman Rite.” Orate fratres (December secularization, and even in the midst of glo- sacred texts, is the rule rather than excep- 1939). balizing consumer capitalism, most people tion as regards not only animals, but women, still turn to a particular religious institution Earth, and other cultures. Our task is at least 2 Olvera Street is the oldest part of the city as the setting in which they mark life’s great to “right the balance,” which has gone way of Los Angeles, with an historic district and transitions (birth, marriage and death, as overboard in the direction of short-term ex- annual events, such as the blessing, con- well as the changing of the seasons). Most ploitation of animals for the short-term gain nected to both the Mexican and Italian people still seek their basic understanding of the privileged elite of a particular group communities that influenced the area. The of the meaning of life from their spiritual of human beings. Fortunately many schol- blessing of animals used to take place in tradition. It is essential if we want animals ars from various religious traditions are January, but was moved to the Saturday to be respected and cared for, that we draw affirming our moral responsibility to the before Easter to ensure better weather. forth from the world’s major religious tradi- community of life—both to other species tions affirmations of the worth of nonhuman and toward individual animals. 3 All quotations from the liturgy are taken animals for their own sake, and mobilize re- The following describes various re- directly from the bulletin distributed at the ligious communities to behave as some of sources to strengthen our understanding Cathedral. their teachings require, in a humane way and concern for animals within various reli- toward our sentient beings. gious contexts. 4 “Blessed are the Beasts at St. John” Lore- na Mongelli, New York Post, Oct. 7, 2002. Excerpts from the entry on “Animals” from 5 Susan Cannon, email interview, 7/14/2004. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions1

6 “AC&C Newsletter” (Animal Care and The resemblances between many animals and humans, not least in their dependence Control of New York City), September 2004. on food and air, has given to animals a special status in all religions.…Judaism and It should be noted that this is a significant Islam emphasize that they come from the hand of the Creator, and while they are to decrease and AC&C is working towards some extent given to humans for their use and food (e.g. Qur’ān 16. 5-8), this is within making New York a “no-kill” city. limits, and must always be in the context of kindness. Judaism envisages a hierarchy in creation, with the higher levels expected to exercise responsibility (Genesis 2.15, Gen- 7 The official designation of this church is esis 1.28 and Psalm 115.16 were understood as humans being entrusted with responsi- The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and bility as stewards). Domestic animals are included in the Sabbath rest of the Decalogue Saint Paul in the City and Episcopal Dio- (Ten Commandments), and the prohibition on causing distress to animals is contained cese of Washington. in the principle, tsa ‘ar ba ‘alei hayyim. Comparably, in the Qur’ān ‘there is not an animal on earth, nor a bird that flies on its wings which is not a community like you,…and 8 Informal personal interview, Assistant they shall all be gathered to their Lord in the end’ (6.38). Animals may be kept for food, Verger, G. Stanley Utterback, Oct. 4, 2004. transport, etc., but not in any way that involves cruelty: they may not be mutilated while still alive, which forbids much animal experimentation. Among Hindus, there is a 9 These figures come from internet research controlling sense that that which alone is truly real (whether conceived of as Brahman and personal contact with congregations. or as God) underlies and guarantees the subsistence of all appearance: ‘This form is The most comprehensive list in one place the source and indestructible seed of innumerable incarnations within the cosmos, can be found on www.americancatholic.org. and from it the appearances of all different living beings are created, heavenly beings, animals, humans, and all other kinds…. Thus you should regard deer, camels, mon- 10 St. Timothy’s Episcopal Church, Perrys- keys, donkeys, rats, reptiles, birds and flies as though they are your own children’ burg, Ohio). (Śrimad-Bhagavatam)….The fact that people in all religions treat animals badly does not alter what is in theory (and often with considerable threat) required of them. 11 Turner, 273. 1 John Bowker, ed. (Oxford University Press, 1997), 71-72. 12 Ibid, 274. 32 Fall 2004

there. Very few of the animals are in cages; Wheaton College’s Religion and almost all roam around outside in clement weather or cluster together in the barn in cold, snow, or rain. Animals Course Students also view the film The Wit- ness about the great-hearted animal activist by Barbara Darling-Smith Eddie Lama in New York City. And last se- mester they heard a powerful guest speaker y Religion and Animals class begins with a compara- from PETA. Along the way students write several papers on various topics: a first- tive approach in which students read many of the hand encounter they’ve had with an animal, Manimal myths in Family of Earth and Sky: Indig- visual images or mythical symbolism of ani- mals in world religions, and reflection/ enous Tales of Nature from around the World, edited by John synthesis papers on their experiences of the Elder and Hertha Wong. These narratives, According to Noah: Theology as if Ani- zoo and the sanctuary. which include Trickster stories, tales of mals Mattered. Student response to the course is en- human-to-animal or animal-to-human trans- Reading assignments are accompanied thusiastic. Typical comments on exams or formation, and even human-animal by a couple of field trips—to a local zoo, as evaluations are: “I learned a new respect intermarriage, start a process in my students suggested by Paul Waldau—and then to a for animals,” and “The level of respect of breaking down the Western cultural as- local sanctuary for rescued animals of many needs to rise toward animals—please re- sumptions of a vast unbridgeable gulf species. It is always gratifying to watch the member they too are living beings that live between humans and other animals. transformation of students during their visit and breathe, just like you.” This learning process is accelerated by to the zoo. They begin with high spirits at The Religion and Animals class is my fa- the second book students read, Next of Kin an out-of-class experiential learning outing. vorite to teach. It unites my students and by Roger Fouts—the textual centerpiece of Then the reality of the captive, bored, and me in an approach to learning that engages the course. Fouts’ vivid and exquisite ac- depressed animals sinks in. Students usu- not just our minds—to challenge conven- counts of Washoe and her chimpanzee ally react with compassion and empathy, and tional wisdom about the separation between family never fail to captivate students and they think carefully and critically about the humans and other animals—but also our arouse their compassion for and connec- arguments for and against zoos. Especially hearts, our passion, and our capacity for tion with these intelligent, feeling, lively striking is the contrast students observe kindness. beings who are, as Fouts demonstrates so between the zoo and their later field trip to persuasively, our very close relatives in an animal sanctuary. The committed and every way. To conclude the course students caring woman who founded and runs the Barbara Darling-Smith teaches the re- read essays about various world religions sanctuary for abused and abandoned cats, ligion and society courses at Wheaton and their teachings and practices of care geese, goats, rabbits, sheep, pigs, etc., in- College in Norton, Massachusetts. She is for animals and animal-focused activism, in variably astounds and inspires the students a steering committee member of the Ani- Martin Rowe’s edited volume The Way of with her love for the animals and the “Peace- mals and Religion Consultation in the Compassion and Gary Kowalski’s The Bible able Kingdom” atmosphere she fosters American Academy of Religion.

Animals & Society Course Awards Each year, The Humane Society of course is taught. The “Animals and Society Project” the United States (HSUS) recognizes three The sixth annual award winners include of The HSUS maintains an active list of college-level courses that focus on the “Beyond Puppy Love: The Social Interac- courses offered throughout North Amer- theme of “Animals and Society.” The tion of Humans and Animals” (Established ican colleges and universities. The list awards are presented in the following ar- Course), taught by Dr. Antonia J.Z. Hend- provides information to students inter- eas: 1) an established course currently erson at Simon Fraser University; ested in such studies, to faculty being taught at an institution, 2) a new “Animal-Human Connections” (New considering introducing similar courses, course scheduled for instruction and 3) Course), taught by Dr. Christina Risley-Cur- and serves as a resource to administra- an innovative or short course that does tiss at Arizona State University; and tors whose schools do not yet offer such not fully fit the other areas. The estab- “Symbolism and Spirit of the Animal King- classes. The aim of all the courses listed lished and new course awards are $1,500 dom: Cross Curricular Activities for the K-8 is to improve the well-being of animals. each, and the innovative or short course Classroom” (Innovative/Short Course), For more information on the awards and award is $500. Awards are given to the taught by Belinda Recio at Worcester State the course listing, visit The HSUS web- institutional department in which the College. site at www.hsus.org. Fall 2004 33

Animals and Religion Consultation, American Academy of Religion Formed as an official group at the pres- around us. The group has successfully en- For more information, contact Laura tigious American Academy of Religion in gaged many traditional religious scholars Hobgood-Oster (Southwestern University) 2003, the Animals and Religion Consulta- through its seminars on particular religions, at [email protected]. tion holds annual meetings in which practices (such as “blessings of the ani- scholars dealing with the emerging study mals” or sacrifice), themes (such as of “religion and animals” meet to discuss a symbolism, compassion, food production, wide range of issues. Supported by numer- and the role of new science on “animals”), ous scholars since the first informal and teaching materials and techniques. meetings in 1997, including generous finan- cial support from the Center for Respect of Life and Environment, the Religion and Animals Institute, and a wide range of emi- nent scholars (including the extraordinary Harvard-based “Forum on Religion and Ecology”), this academic coalition has now emerged as one of the most relevant and popular sessions at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion. The goal of the Consultation is to provide a fo- rum for discussion of the extraordinary issues that arise from various religious tra- ditions’ views and treatment of the life

“Animals, Religion, and Ethics” Resources Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, Jeffrey Kaplan and Bron Taylor, eds. ?????????? Press, May 2005. On November 1-3, 2002, CRLE and the Sustainability, Humanities, and Environ- In the second half of the twentieth pessimism, or the tendency to oversim- ment Alliance of the Environmental century, as environmental alarm has es- plify the dynamic, rapidly evolving Initiative of the Associated Colleges of the calated, so has concern about the role of relations between humans, their religions, South (ACS) sponsored a workshop for religion in nature and nature’s place in the and the natural world. scholars of religious studies on the subject many world faiths. A great part of this The 1,000 wide-ranging and eclectic of religion and animals. The purpose of the concern invokes hope for a “greening” of entries are comprised of three distinct workshop was threefold: (1) to give schol- religion, namely, the possibility religion types: scholarly encyclopedic entries that ars around the nation the opportunity to might promote environmentally protective introduce and analyze the contribution of learn about one another’s research, (2) to behavior. a topic, region, group, or individual; more give teachers of religious studies an op- The Encyclopedia of Religion and personal and reflective scholarly perspec- portunity for sharing ways of teaching Nature speaks to this intellectual and spiri- tive entries from prominent figures within courses dealing with religion and animals tual climate, centering on the fundamental the academic community; and practitio- to college undergraduates, and (3) to de- inquiry: What are the relationships be- ner entries by respected professionals or velop a national network of scholars tween Homo sapiens, their diverse activists concerned with nature-related interested in religion and animals. religions, and the earth’s living systems? spirituality. Taking part are anthropolo- At this meeting, Consultation member The answers are difficult and com- gists, archaeologists, ethnobotanists, Forrest Clingerman presented a Bibliogra- plex, intertwined with and complicated by historians, natural scientists, philoso- phy on Animals, Religion, and Ethics, a host of social, environmental and reli- phers, political scientists, containing written works of interest to gious variables. The goal of the conservationists, activists, religious stud- scholars studying the relationship between Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature is ies scholars, sociologists, and animals and religion. The bibliography is to explore this question in a way that illu- theologians. available on CRLE’s website at www. minates these relationships without crle.org/animals_and_ecology_ engaging in wishful thinking, irrational 2000 pages. www.religionandnature.com bibliography.pdf. 34 Fall 2004

Center for Animals and Public Policy Founded in 1983 and located on the based on the belief that human and non- campus of Tufts University School for Vet- human animal welfare are linked, and both erinary Medicine in central eastern are improved through enhanced under- Massachusetts, this “think tank” produc- standing of their interactions. The Center’s es and coordinates publications and mission is achieved through issue-driven programs dealing with ethical, scientific, research and analysis, education, and dis- social and legal issues that arise from hu- semination of credible information to policy mans’ diverse interactions with nonhuman makers and to the public. The Center also animals. Through its one-of-a-kind Mas- administers the “Signature Program in Eth- ter of Science program in “Animals and ics and Values,” which is an innovative Public Policy” and its publications and program in veterinary student education other outreach, the Center carries out work at the School of Veterinary Medicine. Fall 2004 35

Religious conservatives often oppose measures to protect animals and the clearly violate God’s commands to “replen- environment. Yet the Bible, whose words they take literally, is full of admonitions and ish the earth,” conserve natural resources, commandments to revere nature, protect the environment, and be kind to animals. This and treat animals with kindness. article cites some of these passages, which may represent an effective way to reach and influence a large and powerful segment of the population that is largely The Ten Commandments: Do Not Over- unaware of these teachings and hostile to their application. work Your Animals The Bible is emphatic in stressing the concept of kindness to animals. The Mosa- Animals, Religion and the ic law laid down in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy clearly teach compassion and kindness towards other creatures, especial- Environment: The Bible’s ly farm animals. Numerous passages forbid the overworking of animals and require that Teachings on Protecting Animals stray and lost creatures be helped. The laws delineated in the Bible make it 1 clear that these injunctions to help animals and NatureNatureand are intended for the sake of these creatures and not that of the owner. One is required by Lewis G. Regenstein to help animals that belong to enemies to whom no obligation is owed, as well as those he Bible and our Judaic-Christian heritage clearly teach of friends; one is forbidden to “pass by” an and command us to treat animals with kindness and animal in distress. Exodus 23 states, “If thou meet thine T respect. The massive abuse and suffering legally enemy’s ox or his ass going astray, thou inflicted on billions of animals every year is a clear violation of shalt surely bring it back to him again. If thou see the ass of him that hateth thee the teachings of our religious faith and can- with admonitions, commandments, and lying under his burden...thou shalt surely not be justified by any person of faith and stories promoting conservation, respect for help with him.” decency. nature and the environment, and kindness Even the most holy of the laws—the The people for and by whom the Bible to animals. These rules and writings have Ten Commandments—specifically men- was written thousands of years ago were traditionally emphasized God’s love for His tions that cattle and donkeys must not be intimately familiar with wildlife and domes- creation and all of its creatures. The obliga- tic animals, especially the practice of raising tion of humans to respect and protect cattle and other animals. The Scriptures animals and the natural environment ap- contain strict rules governing the treatment pears throughout the Bible and the writings A righteous man has regard of farm animals and indeed all of God’s crea- of its prophets and other leaders. tures, designed to prevent any unnecessary The Bible is clear, emphatic, and un- for the life of his beast. pain and suffering. Even the Ten Command- equivocal in praising the Lord’s creation, ments provides protection for animals and and no believer in the words of the Bible -Proverbs 12:10 forbids the working of them on the Sabbath. can deny these passages. Neither can one Many of our modern day practices, such ignore nor violate these teachings without as factory farming, blatantly violate most disobeying the laws of God and His proph- or all of these biblical laws, and is causing ets. worked on the Sabbath. In Exodus and Deu- massive damage to people, animals, the The Scriptures make it clear that God teronomy, several animal-protection environment, and essential natural resourc- expects humans to act as caretakers of His statutes are given by the Lord to Moses, es such as the water we drink and the air we creation, to cherish and protect His crea- including: “The seventh day is the Sabbath breathe. Any truly religious person must tures and the natural environment. These of the Lord thy God: in it, thou shalt not do therefore oppose these forms of blatant cru- teachings were eloquently summarized by any work, nor thy ox, nor thine ass, nor any elty inflicted on the animals under our care. Jesus, who said that no sparrow falls to earth of thy cattle…Six days thou shalt do thy Those who disagree have an argument not without the Lord’s caring (Luke 12:6). work, and on the seventh day thou shalt against animal protectionists but against Our modern-day policies and programs rest: that thine ox and thine ass may rest” the literal words of the Holy Scriptures. that wipe out entire populations and spe- (Exodus 20:10, 23:12; Deuteronomy 5:13). cies of wildlife, and confine huge numbers At the same time, the Lord also com- Protecting God’s Creation of food animals together in miserable con- mands that every seventh year the land, the The literature of the Bible and of the ditions, causing massive pollution and vineyards, and the olive groves not be sown Judaic-Christian religious tradition is filled damage to wildlife and the environment, or harvested but be allowed to “rest and lie 36 Fall 2004 still; that the poor of thy people may eat: A Righteous Man Has Regard for the Life search for a suitable woman. The servant and what they leave the beasts of the field of His Beast chooses Rebekah after she demonstrates a shall eat.” The Bible makes clear that God con- kind disposition by drawing water not just Similarly in Leviticus 25:4-7 and Exodus demns and harshly punishes cruelty to for him but for his camels as well (Genesis 23, the Lord commands that what grows animals. When Jacob called together his 24:19). Similarly in the twelfth chapter of 2 naturally in the fields left fallow in the sev- twelve sons—representing the twelve tribes Samuel, the Lord uses the sad story of the enth year shall be for one’s servants “and of Israel—to say what fate would befall inexcusable killing of a family’s beloved pet for thy cattle, and for the beasts that are in them, Simeon and Levi were castigated and lamb to teach King David a lesson and to thy land.” chastised for crippling oxen, among other show him the error of his ways. things (Genesis 49:6-7). Forbidding Cruelty to Farm Animals Proverbs 6:16-17 tells us that among the The Beasts of the Field Shall Be at Peace The Bible clearly decrees that cruelty “six things which the Lord hates” are “hands with Thee to domestic animals is forbidden. The ox, that shed innocent blood.” Proverbs 12:10 The Book of Psalms makes it clear that we are also told, is entitled to the fruit of its goes on to say that a righteous person cares God’s goodness and compassion are not labor. Deuteronomy 25:4 states, “Thou shalt for his animals: “A righteous man hath re- reserved just for humans but extend to all not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the gard for the life of his beast, but the tender of His creatures. Psalm 36:6 praises the De- corn.” Moreover, Deuteronomy 22:10 tells mercies of the wicked are cruel.” ity, saying that animals as well as humans us, “Thou shalt not plow with an ox and an This important verse suggests a bibli- are subject to His protection: “Thy righ- ass together,” suggesting that pairing ani- cal division of people into two distinct teousness is like the great mountains....0 mals of different sizes and strengths would types: those who are “righteous” and just Lord, thou preservest man and beast. How cause a conflict and would place a strain on and are kind to their animals, and those who excellent is thy loving kindness, 0 God! the weaker of them or perhaps on both. are “wicked” and are cruel to creatures un- Therefore the children of men put their trust Exodus 22:29 and Leviticus 22:27-28 re- der their care. under the shadow of thy wings.” quire that a newborn animal remain with its Hosea 2:18-20 suggests that God would Psalm 145 reiterates this theme of God’s mother for the first week of its life before make a pact with the animals to give them concern for all His creatures: “The Lord is being sacrificed, so that the young crea- safety from being hunted and persecuted good to all, and His tender mercies are over ture can have at least seven days of warmth by abolishing the instruments of their de- all His works...thou satisfiest the desire of and nourishment from its mother. And “ye struction: “And in that day, will I make a every living thing.” shall not kill it and its young both in one covenant for them with the beasts of the day,” presumably to avoid the trauma of field, and with the fowls of heaven, and with Reverence for Life in the New Testament having the mother see her infant slain be- the creeping things of the ground; and I The New Testament contains many fa- fore her. will break the bow and the sword, and the vorable references to protecting animals and Contrast these ancient and remarkably battle out of the earth; and I will make them nature. In Luke 12:6, Jesus stresses that humane laws of a primitive people of three to lie down safely.” even the lowliest of creatures is loved by to four thousand years ago to modern-day The fifth chapter of Job also prophe- God: “Are not five sparrows sold for two factory farming practices. Today, veal calves sies a day when mankind will be at peace pennies? And not one of them is forgotten with nature: “Neither shalt thou be afraid of before God.” the beasts of the earth, For thou shalt be in Matthew 10:29 also reports Jesus’ be- league with the stones of the field: and the lief that God cares for all His creatures, even beasts of the field shall be at peace with those of little monetary value to us. In teach- thee.” ing God’s infinite wisdom and love for Isaiah 11:6-9 eloquently describes how the mankind, Matthew quotes Jesus as saying, animal kingdom will be included in the bless- “Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? ings of peace on earth when it is achieved: And one of them shall not fall on the ground “The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the without your Father.” leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the In Luke 13:15, Jesus uses the biblical calf and the young lion—and the lion shall laws of humane treatment of animals to jus- are usually taken from their mothers at birth, eat straw like the ox....They shall not hurt tify healing a crippled woman on the denied mother’s milk and other nutrition, nor destroy in all My holy mountain: for the Sabbath, saying, “Does not each of you on deliberately undernourished and kept their earth shall be full of the knowledge of the the Sabbath untie his ox or his ass from the entire lives in a small crate in which they Lord.” manger, and lead it away to water it?” cannot move around. These circumstanc- The story of Rebekah at the well stress- Again in Luke 14:5, Jesus similarly jus- es produce an anemic, muscle-free condition es the importance of kindness to animals as tifies healing a man on the Sabbath saying, in the calf that gives the meat its highly- a personal attribute. In this account, the pa- “Which of you shall have an ass or an ox prized tenderness and light appearance. triarch Abraham, seeking a wife for his son fallen into a pit, and will not straightway Isaac, sends his trusted servant out to pull him out on the Sabbath day?” Fall 2004 37

And in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus voice of the cattle; both the fowl of the heav- will give you rains in their season, and the speaks of “the fowls of the air,” saying that ens and the beasts are fled; they are gone.” land shall yield her produce, and the trees “your heavenly father feedeth them.” And Habakkuk condemns “….the destruc- of the field shall yield their fruit....And I will Interestingly, nowhere in the New Tes- tion of the beasts, which made them afraid.” give peace in the land.” tament is Jesus depicted as eating meat of In both cases, the punishment is that the There is even a suggestion that prac- any kind in his lifetime, not even at The land is “laid waste,” just what we are doing ticing conservation and kind treatment of Last Supper, although on two occasions today to much of our farmland and wilder- animals may ensure oneself of a long life. after his death and resurrection he is said ness. Deuteronomy 22:6-7 says that if one chanc- to have eaten fish. es upon a bird’s nest with the mother sitting Many Christians see deep significance upon the eggs or the young, and one takes in the story of Jesus’ beginning his life Are not five sparrows sold the latter, one must let the mother go “that among the animals (Luke 2:7). Denied shel- it may go well with you,” and that you may ter and lodging by the humans of for two pennies? And not live a long life (“prolong thy days”). Bethlehem in Judea, Mary and Joseph were one of them is forgotten Besides the humane ethic enunciated forced to use a manger for Jesus’ birthplace. here, remarkable for a food-gathering soci- There, Jesus was born presumably in the before God. ety, the early Hebrews understood the company of such creatures as donkeys, conservation principle of preserving breed- oxen, cows, and sheep. -Luke 12:6 ing stock, a lesson we would do well to heed Jesus’ appreciation for animals is dem- today. onstrated by the repeated analogies and references to animals that he used in his Trees and forests are accorded a spe- God’s Love for Nature teachings. He referred to his followers, and cial reverence in the Bible, and one of the Throughout the Book of Genesis, God those who worship the Lord, as sheep, and first things the Israelites were commanded looks with special favor on “the swarms of he compared God’s care for Jerusalem with to do when they “came into” the Promised living creatures” He created, blessing them, a hen’s concern for her brood. Often in his Land was to plant trees and allow them to commanding them to “be fruitful and multi- teachings, Jesus compared himself to such mature before eating the fruits thereof (Lev- ply,” and repeatedly characterizing their animals as the lamb and the dove, known iticus 19:23). creation as “good.” for their innocence, meekness, and docility. One of the world’s earliest nature-pro- Some biblical scholars see significance He often represented animals as being un- tection regulations is found in Deuteronomy in the fact that God pronounced each thing der God’s providence; and Jesus’ repeated 20:19, which forbids the destruction of fruit- He created – the whales, birds, cattle, “ev- statements to practice love, mercy, and com- bearing trees even when waging war against erything that creepeth upon the ground,” passion are consistent with, and indeed a city. The verse concludes that “thou shalt and the other “beasts of the earth —as fundamental to, the humane and preserva- not cut them down (for a tree of the field is “good” in itself (Genesis 1:21, 25). But when tion ethic. man’s life) to employ them in the siege.” the Creation was combined and united, the Elsewhere in the Mosaic law, strict Lord declared it “very good” (Genesis 1:31), The Bible’s Conservation Message and detailed rules are set forth on caring for perhaps because He had achieved His will The obligation of humans to respect and trees. For example, Genesis 19:23-25 orders of creating a universe of harmony, or a bal- protect the natural environment is a theme that fruit trees be left wild and unpruned for anced ecosystem as we would call it today. that appears throughout the Bible, often the first few years in order to give them The theme of God’s concern for His Cre- referring to just the kinds of problems we strength and increase their yield. Through- ation is eloquently summed up by Psalm face today: cruelty to farm animals, destruc- out the Bible, in stressing the reverence 104, which praises the Lord for His great- tion of wildlife and habitat, and pollution of humans should have toward the land, the ness in providing for all of His creatures. It our food, air, and water. Scriptures impart a strong conservation notes how dependent we all are on the eco- What is perhaps the world’s first anti- message, warning against overutilizing and logical system that God has established, pollution law is found in Deuteronomy wearing out natural resources. proclaiming, “0 Lord, how manifold are thy 23:13-15, which forbids contaminating the In Leviticus 25:2-4, the Lord commands works! In wisdom hast thou made them all: land with human waste. And in 2 Kings 2:19- that “...the land shall keep a Sabbath unto the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great 22, the prophet Elisha appears to remedy a the Lord ..in the seventh year shall be a and wide sea, wherein are things creeping crisis of water pollution that was causing Sabbath for the Lord; thou shalt neither sow innumerable, both small and great beasts.” miscarriages in the land. thy field, nor prune thy vineyard.” This Psalm goes on to describe how the In Jeremiah 9:9-11 and Habakkuk 2:17, Also in Leviticus 26:3-6, the Lord’s ap- Lord delights in His works and “renewest the Lord warns against destroying nature preciation for the land is made clear when the face of the earth” with His spirit, which and wildlife. In Jeremiah, the Lord says that He promises the Israelites that, if they obey is in every living creature. He “…will take up a weeping and wailing, His commandments, the land will reward In Deuteronomy 8:7-9, Moses describes and for the habitations of the wilderness a them: “If ye walk in My statutes, and keep the Promised Land as an ecological para- lamentation…; neither can men hear the My commandments, and do them; then I dise, noting its rich and beautiful 38 Fall 2004 environment and its “fountains and depths proclaims, “The land is mine; for you are living thing, and all the cattle that were with that spring out of the valleys and hills.” strangers and sojourners with me.” him in the ark” (Genesis 8:1). Moses stresses to the Israelites the sancti- The Twenty-fourth Psalm makes clear Genesis 9:8-10 points out at some length ty of the land: “A land which the Lord thy that the world belongs not to humankind that after the waters of the great flood re- God careth for: the eyes of the Lord thy but to God, observing that “The earth is the ceded, God promised there would never God are always upon it, from the beginning Lord’s, and the fullness thereof; The world, again be a flood to destroy the earth. The of the year even unto the end of the year” and they that dwell therein.” Similarly, Deu- Almighty made this covenant not only with (Deuteronomy 11:11-12). teronomy 10: 14 proclaims, “Behold, unto Noah and his descendants but also with God’s love of the land for its own sake, the Lord thy God belongeth the heaven and “every living creature that is with you, the not just as a servant for humans, is demon- the earth, with all that therein is.” fowl, the cattle, and every beast of the earth strated when the Lord speaks to Job from All living things are also God’s crea- with you; of all that go out of the ark, even the whirlwind telling him how He does... tures and belong to Him, as the Lord clearly every beast of the earth.” Indeed, God “cause it to rain on the earth, where no man points out in Psalm 50: “For every beast of makes no distinction between people and is: on the wilderness, wherein there is no the forest is mine; and the cattle upon a animals in establishing His covenant “be- man; to satisfy the desolate and waste thousand hills. I know all the fowls of the tween me and the earth” (Genesis 9:12-17). ground; and to cause the bud of the tender mountain; and the wild beasts of the field The book of Genesis clearly spells out herb to spring forth” (Job 12:7-11). are mine.” humankind’s stewardship responsibilities A primary thesis of Job is that humans toward the animals delivered into our care must live in harmony with nature and seek Into Your Hand Are They Delivered after the great flood. Chapter nine of Gene- to learn from its wise and mysterious ways: The Bible contains numerous strictures sis begins with the Lord commanding Noah “But ask now the beasts, and they shall against the wanton or cruel killing of wild- and his sons to “replenish the earth,” say- teach thee; and the fowls of the air, and life and domestic animals. The view that ing of the world’s wildlife, “into your hand they shall tell thee; or speak to the earth, mankind’s fate depends on protecting and are they delivered.” and it shall teach thee; and the fishes of the preserving the earth’s life-support sys- sea shall declare unto thee” (Job 12:7-11). tems—the environment—can be found in Religion and Protection of Animals Ecclesiastes 3:19-21. This passage stresses These conservation and humane pre- Human-Stewardship Responsibilities that if wildlife perishes, humans will not long cepts of the Scriptures were well Not only does the Bible stress that na- survive—and even suggests that humans understood by the early leaders of Judaism ture reflects God’s glory and greatness, but and animals will share the same afterlife: and the Christian Church. For the first thou- the Scriptures also make it clear that hu- “For that which befalleth the sons of men sand years or so, the Christian saints are mans have been given a special befalleth beasts, even one thing befalleth depicted as having close and friendly rela- responsibility to protect and care for the them: as the one dieth, so dieth the other, tionships with wild and domestic creatures. natural environment. Yet ironically, this bib- yea, they have all one breath; so that a man There are thousands of stories and legends lical mandate has often been used as a hath no preeminence above a beast.... All concerning such revered saints as Giles, license to despoil and destroy instead of go unto one place; all Jerome, Benedict, Meinrad, Columba, Cuth- an obligation to protect and preserve. are of the dust, and all bert, Patrick, and hundreds of others; the Probably no passage in the Bible has turn to dust again. best known, of course, is the patron saint been so misunderstood and misinterpreted Who knoweth the of animals, Francis of Assisi. as the passage in the first chapter of Gene- spirit of man that go- Similarly, Judaism has a long tradition sis (1:26) wherein God gives mankind eth upward, and the of reverence for animals and nature based “dominion” over nature and animals. This spirit of the beast that on biblical teachings. According to the Jew- has often been mistakenly interpreted as a goeth downward to ish Encyclopedia, “Moral and legal rules synonym for ownership, giving humans the the earth?” concerning the treatment of animals are right to treat nature and animals as they see In numerous plac- based on the principle that animals are part fit. However, the Bible makes it clear that es in the Bible, the of God’s creation toward which man bears human dominion consists of stewardship Lord acts toward hu- responsibility. Laws and other indications over the natural world. This duty carries mans and animals in in the…Bible make it clear not only that cru- the responsibility not to mistreat the earth an equitable way. elty to animals is forbidden but also that and to protect it from abuse, as Genesis 1:26 When God saved compassion and mercy to them are demand- makes clear when God commands mankind Noah and his family ed of man by God....In later rabbinic to “replenish the earth….” from destruction, He literature...great prominence is also given Further evidence of human-steward- treated the ani- to demonstrating God’s mercy to animals, ship obligations is found in the Bible mals in a similar and to the importance of not causing them stressing that mankind is only a “sojourn- manner: “And pain.” er,” a temporary resident of the land the Lord God remembered One of the greatest Christian theolo- loans to him. In Leviticus 25:23, the Lord Noah and every gians of all times, the medical missionary Fall 2004 39 and Nobel prize winner Dr. Albert Sch- spect for natural resources of our planet” This has thus become one of the great weitzer, wrote that humans were “compelled must be a part of everyone’s conscience. political issues of our day—the massive by the commandment of love ... proclaimed He has also said that “To repair...and to and increasing destruction of God’s Cre- by Jesus” to respect all forms of life. He prevent...damage inflicted on nature” is a ation, our natural environment. But our taught that one should avoid “carelessly “grave moral obligation.” environmental crisis has also become a cutting off the head of a single flower grow- In the final analysis, perhaps the stron- moral and spiritual issue, since it is over- ing on the edge of the road, for in doing so gest argument for kindness to animals can whelming the earth’s ability to repair itself, (would be to) injure life without being forced be made on the grounds of equity. How, and to support not just wildlife but human to do so by necessity.” Schweitzer wrote some have asked, can a truly religious per- life as well. What greater sin could there be eloquently of the need to show reverence son ask for mercy from what is above him than to destroy future generations’ ability for all forms of life: “ man’s religion is of unless he is merciful to what is below him? to live on our planet? little value unless even seemingly insignif- Fortunately, the solution to many of icant creatures benefit from it. A truly The Devastation Caused by Factory Farm- these problems may be found in the doc- religious man does not ask how far this or ing trines of our ancient Judaic-Christian faith, that deserves sympathy...to him, life as such The authors of the Bible could hardly especially the holiest of our sacred scrip- is sacred.” have foreseen the suffering and devasta- tures, the Bible. If adhered to, these Another leading Christian theologian, tion of animals caused by modern-day teachings, promoting a reverence for the Reverend Norman Vincent Peale, has writ- society, which clearly violate the spirit and earth and its creatures, could prevent many ten, “I do not believe a person can be a true letter of the biblical laws. of the threats to our biological life support Christian and at the same time deliberately In factory farming, for example, where systems, and ensure a secure future for engage in cruel or inconsiderate treatment most of our meat is produced, crowding to- humanity on this planet. of animals.” gether billions of animals in thousands of Only by obeying the commandment to The Reverend Dr. Billy Graham has writ- such facilities is causing massive damage “replenish the earth” can we hope to save it. ten, “The Bible teaches that we are not to to the environment. Manure, chemical pes- abuse or punish animals in a cruel way. God ticides, and fertilizers are polluting our rivers, has created them, and while mankind is giv- lakes, streams, aquifers, and other drinking Lewis G. Regenstein is president of The en dominion over the animals, we are not to water sources, killing off fish and wildlife, Interfaith Council for the Protection of treat them cruelly.” and causing tragic human health problems Animals and Nature, an affiliate of The Reverend Lloyd Putman has warned such as cancer, miscarriages, and birth de- Humane Society of the United States. He against practicing “religious myopia,” say- fects. is the author of the book Replenish the ing that “we have a small religion if it has Huge amounts of water, energy, and Earth: The Teachings of the World’s Reli- no room for the rest of God’s creatures.” grain are being used, and largely wasted, gions on Protecting Animals and Nature. The famous English theologian Cardinal raising cattle, pigs, chickens and other ani- Copyright 2004 The Interfaith Council for John Henry Newman (1801- 1890) once wrote mals, which emit enormous amounts of the Protection of Animals and Nature, Inc. that “cruelty to animals is as if a man did gases that cause or exacerbate the civiliza- not love God.” tion-threatening problems of Global Pope John Paul II has stated that Chris- Warming and depletion of the planet’s pro- 1 Scriptures within this text are quoted as tians have a moral obligation to protect the tective Ozone Layer that makes life on earth they appear in the Authorized [King James] environment, saying in a homily that “re- possible. Version (AV).

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“Teilhard 2005: Commemorating the Forum on Religion and Ecology Thomas Berry Award and Lecture 50th Anniversary of Teilhard’s Death” “Revisioning Human-Earth Relations” Genesis Farm, ?, NJ October 1, 2005 The American Teilhard Association, in The Forum on Religion and Ecology (FORE) conjunction with the Cathedral of St. John is the largest international multireligious The Center for Respect of Life and Environ- the Divine, Chestnut Hill College, Earth project of its kind. With its conferences, ment (CRLE) and the Forum on Religion and Values Caucus, Fordham University, publications, and website it is engaged in Ecology sponsor an annual Thomas Berry Georgetown University, the Forum on exploring religious worldviews, texts, and Award and Lecture. This event celebrates Religion and Ecology, Marist College, the ethics in order to broaden understanding the life and work of Thomas Berry, one of Metanexus Institute for Religion and of the complex nature of current the foremost thinkers in revisioning human- Science, and the United Nations environmental concerns. earth relations for a more humane and sus- Environment Programme, are collectively tainable future for all life on the planet. sponsoring various events in the “Teilhard The Forum recognizes that religions 2005: Commemorating the 50th Aniversary need to be in dialogue with other of Teilhard’s Death” series. disciplines (e.g., science, ethics, economics, education, public policy, Fordham University’s Lincoln gender) in seeking comprehensive Center Campus solutions to both global and local New York City environmental problems. April 7–10, 2005.

Georgetown University Forum Coordinators Washington, D.C. Mary Evelyn Tucker and John April 11–12, 2005. Grim, Bucknell University

Marist College Forum Website Project Director/ Hyde Park, NY Research Associate May 14, 2005. Anne Custer, Harvard University

Chestnut Hill College Visit FORE’s website at http:// Philadelphia, PA environment.harvard.edu/religion/ November 17–19, 2005

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