Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Design: Grafisches Atelier Rudolf J

Impressum © Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Design: Grafisches Atelier Rudolf J. Schmitt, Berlin Realization: Jürgen Baumgarten, Renate Hoffmann, Madeline Hoyt, Ulrich Kuhnert, Yvonne Misun, Dagmar Stenzel, Christiane Tozman, Peter Wittek of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Printed 2001 by Druckhaus Dresden GmbH, Germany Board of Directors Paul B. Baltes Jürgen Baumert (Managing Director until December 1999) Gerd Gigerenzer (Managing Director, January 2000–December 2001) Karl Ulrich Mayer

Board of External Scientific Advisers Leda Cosmides Jacquelynne S. Eccles David L. Featherman (Chair) Helmut Fend Klaus Fiedler John H. Goldthorpe Andreas Krapp Walter Müller Helga Nowotny Jürgen Oelkers Anik de Ribaupierre-Bobillier Henry M. Wellman

Ad hoc Advisory Board Members 2001 Marlis Buchmann Laura Carstensen Robert S. Siegler Contents Introduction 6 Highlights 14 Cooperation with Universities 18 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 22 Center for Educational Research 58 Center for Lifespan Psychology 120 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 168 Independent Research Group 208 Service Units 220 Appendix 230 Introduction

Introduction

8 Introduction

Introduction

The Max Planck Institute for Human Development is a multidisciplinary research establishment dedicated to the study of human development and education. Its inquiries are broadly defined, but concentrate on the evolutionary, social, historical, and institutional contexts of human development, as well as examining it from life-span and life- course perspectives. The disciplines of education, psychology, and sociology reflect the current directors’ backgrounds, but the Institute’s scholarly spectrum is enriched by the work of colleagues from such fields as mathematics, economics, computer science, evolutionary biology, and the humanities. The Institute is one of about 80 research facilities fi- nanced by the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wis- senschaften e.V.), the core support for which is provided by the Federal Republic of Germany and its 16 states. The total permanent staff at the Institute is 115, including 37 researchers, supplemented by a varying number of predoctoral, postdoctoral, and affiliate researchers and visiting fellows.

9 Introduction

Research Centers Research into processes of human de- and knowledge, (2) social intelligence in velopment is conducted primarily from cooperation and competition and (3) the theoretical vantage points offered risk understanding and uncertainty by models of life-span psychology, management in everyday life, including bounded rationality and adaptive be- applications in medicine, law, and edu- havior, life-course sociology, and con- cation. Each of these research areas ceptions of social-historical change. emphasizes the evolutionary founda- The Institute is organized into four tions of behavior and cognition, in par- research centers: ticular their domain specificity and The Center for Adaptive Behavior functional adaptiveness. and Cognition (Director: Gerd Gigeren- The Center for Educational Re- zer) investigates human rationality, in search (Director: Jürgen Baumert) ex- particular decision-making and risk per- amines learning and development from ception in an uncertain world. Current an institutional point of view. Educa- research focuses on (1) bounded ration- tional settings such as schools offer a ality, that is, the simple heuristics—cog- variety of developmental opportunities, nitive, emotional, and behavioral—that but at the same time exclude others. laypeople and experts use to make deci- The impact of such settings is investi- sions under constraints of limited time gated from three perspectives: (1) the long-term consequences of schools’ opportunity structures on individual development in terms of cognitive competencies as well as motivational and social resources, (2) interna- The Max Planck tional comparison of Institute for the outcomes of Human schooling in the fields Development, built 1971–73 of reading comprehen- by Hermann sion, mathematics and Fehling and science literacy, and Daniel Gogel. Main entrance. cross-curricular competencies, and (3) improvement of learning and instruction in terms of the cognitive activation of students, mainly in science and mathematics. The Center for Lifespan Psychology (Director: Paul B. Baltes) is characterized by a lifespan perspective and a concern with

10 Introduction the optimization of human potential. level, historical and comparative per- The studies of children, adolescents, spective. Currently, this research is or- adults, and the elderly concentrate pri- ganized around four major foci: (1) Edu- marily on the development of personal- cation, Training, and Employment; (2) ity, motivation, selfhood, intelligence, East German Life Courses after Unifica- memory, and information processing, as tion (LV-Ost); (3) Welfare State, Life well as on various aspects of lifelong Courses, and Social Inequalities; and (4) socialization including the family. In Life-Course Research and Analysis: The- each of these areas, plasticity of human ory, Methods, and Synthesis. The re- functioning and the conditions for suc- search centers on the degree of interde- cessful development play an important pendence among the processes of fami- role in the conceptual and methodologi- ly formation, educational careers, and cal design of the studies. Theory, occupational trajectories in the life his- methodology and history of develop- tories of members of various birth co- mental psychology define an additional horts that differ in their historical situa- area of interest. tion as well as in their sociopolitical In the Center for Sociology and the contexts (e.g., former East vs. West Ger- Study of the Life Course (Director: Karl many). The methodology of sociostruc- Ulrich Mayer), empirical research is tural analysis and the analysis of dy- oriented toward the analysis of social namic processes provide additional foci structure and institutions in a multi- of activity.

Part of the interior. Spiral staircase connecting project floors.

11 Introduction

Governance of the Institute ters of scientific research and policy. The Institute is governed by a Board of One of the major institute-wide com- Directors, currently consisting of the mittees is the scientific staff committee four members of the Institute who are (Mitarbeiterausschuss) which is elected fellows (Wissenschaftliche Mitglieder) by all scientists. of the Max Planck Society (Jürgen The International Board of Scien- Baumert, Paul B. Baltes, Gerd Gigeren- tific Advisers offers an important zer, Karl Ulrich Mayer). The board is source of external review and advice to augmented by one member from the both the directors and the scientific Institute’s research staff (Olaf Köller) staff on matters of research at the In- and the head of administration (Nina stitute. Members are selected from an Körner). Each of the directors is elected international circle of distinguished re- to serve as managing director for a searchers and appointed by the Presi- two-year period on a rotating basis. dent of the Max Planck Society to four- Several in-house committees com- year terms. They meet biannually to posed of representatives elected by the discuss completed, ongoing, and future entire scientific staff or by appointment research projects at the Institute. A list advise the Board of Directors on mat- of the current members can be found

Rear view of the Institute.

12 Introduction

The Institute sponsors an ecological garden.

on the frontmatter of this report. Organization of the Annual Report the research colloquia held at the In- This research report is organized in the stitute, the visiting scholars, and the following manner: cooperation of the Institute’s scien- – The presentation of each research tific staff with projects outside the center begins with an introductory Institute. It also includes an index of overview summarizing its program. the scientific staff and their research – The introduction is followed by de- interests. scriptions of the center’s research Inquiries about publications should be areas and selected projects along addressed to the author(s) involved in with a list of scientific publications. the individual projects. Copies of the – The supportive activities of the serv- annual reports are available from the ice units—library and computing Publications Unit (Redaktion) of the In- services—are described in a special stitute upon request. section at the end of the report. – The appendix provides information on

Berlin, March 2001 For the Board of Directors: Gerd Gigerenzer

13 Highlights Highlights

Honors and Awards Corinne Alfeld-Liro Wilson C. Olson Award, Sciences and Deutsche Akademie der Natur- School of Education, University of Michigan forscher Leopoldina) Paul B. Baltes Member of the order Pour le Gerd Gigerenzer Fellow, Berlin-Brandenburg mérite for sciences and arts Academy of Sciences Paul B. Baltes Novartis Prize for Geronto- Gerd Gigerenzer John M. Olin Distinguished logical Research, International Association of Visiting Professor, School of Law, University Gerontology of Virginia, Charlottsville Paul B. Baltes Longevity Prize, Fondation Jutta Heckhausen Max Planck Research IPSEN, Paris Prize for International Cooperation by the Paul B. Baltes Honorary Doctor, University Max Planck Society and the Alexander von of Geneva Humboldt Foundation Jürgen Baumert European Latsis Prize, Ulrich Hoffrage Schloeßmann Prize, Max European Science Foundation (ESF) Planck Society Felix Büchel DIW prize for best publication Lothar Krappmann Fellowship, Japanese drawing on the data of the German Socio- Society for the Promotion of Science economic Panel Elke M. Kurz Schloeßmann Fellowship, Max Seth Bullock Leverhulme Study Abroad Planck Society Studentship 1999 Samuel Lindsey Schloeßmann Fellowship, Mandeep K. Dhami Brunswik-Hammond Max Planck Society Young Investigator Award of the Brunswik Ineke Maas Fellowship, Royal Netherlands Society 1998 Academy of Arts and Sciences Mandeep K. Dhami Student Poster Award Karl Ulrich Mayer Corresponding Fellow of of the Society for Judgment and Decision the British Academy, London Making 1998 Karl Ulrich Mayer Distinguished Scholar Mandeep K. Dhami De Finetti PhD Student Award, American Sociological Association, Prize, European Association for Decision Section on Aging and the Life Course Making 1999 Karl Ulrich Mayer Fellow, European Mandeep K. Dhami Jane Beattie Scholar- Academy of Sociology ship, Society for Judgment and Decision Heike Solga Member, Young Academy Making 2000 (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sci- Alexandra M. Freund Member, Young ences and Deutsche Akademie der Academy (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Naturforscher Leopoldina)

Independent Research Group “Lack of Training: Employ- ment and Life Chances of the Less Educated” established by appointment of Heike Solga by the President of the Max Planck Society

15 Highlights

Where Have Our Researchers Gone? New Positions 1998–2000 Note. For simplicity’s sake, job descriptions have been Research Scientists standardized according to Wilfried Bos, 2000, University of Hamburg, Professor, Dept. of Education American usage. Martin Diewald, 2000, University of Duisburg, Professor, Dept. of Sociology Henriette Engelhardt, 2000, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock Peter A. Frensch, 1999, Humboldt University of Berlin, Professor, Dept. of Psychology Daniel Goldstein, 2000, Vice-President, Fatwire Corp., New York Sabine Gruehn, 1998, Humboldt University of Berlin, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education Jutta Heckhausen, 2001, University of California, Irvine, Full Professor, Dept. of Psychology and Social Behavior Susanne Heyn, 1998, Forsa Institute, Berlin Ulman Lindenberger, 1999, University of Saarland, Professor, Dept. of Psychology Todd D. Little, 1998, Yale University, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Gabriele Oettingen, 2001, University of Hamburg, Professor, Dept. of Psychology Kai Schnabel, 2000, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Knut Schwippert, 2000, IEA Data Processing Center, Hamburg Ursula M. Staudinger, 1999, Technical University of Dresden, Professor, Dept. of Psychology Postdoctoral Research Fellows Corinne Alfeld-Liro, 2000, National Science Foundation, Arlington Susan Bluck, 2000, University of Florida, Assistant Professor, Institute of Aging Seth Bullock, 1999, University of Leeds, Lecturer, School of Computer Studies Tak Wing Chan, 1998, University of Surrey, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Sociology Jennifer Davis, 1999, Humboldt University of Berlin, Assistant Professor, Theoretical Biology John C. Dencker, 1999, University of Illinois, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Business Administration Laurence Fiddick, 2000, Max Planck Project Group "Recht der Gemeinschaftsgüter," Bonn Susana Garcia Diez, 1999, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Madrid Adam S. Goodie, 1998, University of Georgia, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Patricia Hawley, 1998, Yale University, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Fabien Jobard, 2000, Centre Marc Bloch, Berlin Elke M. Kurz, 1999, Schloeßmann Scholarship, University of Tübingen, Dept. of Psychology Martin Lages, 1999, University of Glasgow, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Karen Z. H. Li, 2000, Concordia University, Montreal, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Bogdan Mach, 2000, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw Heiner Maier, 1998, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock Jason Noble, 2000, University of Leeds, Lecturer, Informatics Research Institute Monisha Pasupathi, 1999, University of Utah, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Catrin Rode, 2000, University of Oregon, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Elwin Savelsbergh, 1999, University of Utrecht, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physics Education Bettina S. Wiese, 1999, Technical University of Darmstadt, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Carsten Wrosch, 1999, Carnegie-Mellon University, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Zhu Liqi, 1999, Chinese Academy of Science, Peking Predoctoral Research Fellows Aleksej Bukov, 1999, Deutsche Post Direct GmbH, Bonn Valerie M. Chase, 2000, Manpower Demonstration Research Corp., New York Marten Clausen, 2000, University of Mannheim, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education Mandeep K. Dhami, 1999, City University, London; 2001, University of Maryland, Postdoctoral Fellow, Dept. of Psychology Reiner Gilberg, 1998, infas Institute, Bonn Ingmar Hosenfeld, 2000, University of Koblenz-Landau, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Steffen Knoll, 1999, IEA Data Processing Center, Hamburg Susanne Koerber, 2000, Institute of Science Education at the University of Kiel Jutta Kray, 1999, Humboldt University of Berlin; 2000, University of Saarland, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Thomas Lampert, 1999, Institute for Health Sciences, Berlin Samuel Lindsey, 1999, Schloeßmann Scholarship, University of Freiburg, Dept. of Psychology Manuela Ullrich, 2000, Humboldt University of Berlin, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Brigitte Wanner, 2001, University of Montreal, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology Sylvia Zühlke, 1999, State Authority for Data Processing and Statistics, Düsseldorf

16 Highlights

Conferences Organized by Institute Researchers Annual Conference of the Working Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Group "Stochastik in der Schule" of Toolbox (Dahlem Conference), March the German Society for Didactics of 1999 Mathematics," November 2000 (Organizers: Gerd Gigerenzer & Rein- (Organizers: Laura Martignon, Stefan hard Selten) Krauss, & Christoph Wassner) Political Economy and the Life Course The Future of Education and Work: in Advanced Societies (POLIS Work- Challenges for Vocational Training shop), March 1999 (Jacobs Foundation Conference), (Organizers: Gosta Esping-Andersen, November 2000 Trento, Karl Ulrich Mayer, and John (Organizers: Marlis Buchmann & Karl Myles, Tallahassee) Ulrich Mayer, together with Michael German-American Frontiers of the Corsten) Social and Behavioral Sciences 16th Meeting of the Brunswik Socie- (GAFOSS Symposium), March 1999 ty, July 2000 (Organizing Committee Members: (Organizers: Ulrich Hoffrage, Ralph Ulman Lindenberger, Heike Solga, & Hertwig, & Gerd Gigerenzer) Julia Delius) Low-Skilled = Low-Paid? Opportuni- The Expert in Modern Societies: His- ties and Risks of a Low-Wage Sector torical and Contemporary Perspec- in Germany (Conference of the Inde- tives (Schloeßmann Seminar), Novem- pendent Research Group “Lack of Train- ber 1998 ing” in collaboration with the LWBB), (Organizing Committee Member: Gerd May 2000 Gigerenzer) (Organizers: Heike Solga, together with The Polarization of Occupational and Jürgen Schupp, DIW) Life Chances: Is Germany Establishing Advances in Life Course Research an Underclass? (LWBB Conference), (Ringberg Conference), April 2000 October 1998 (Organizer: Karl Ulrich Mayer) (Organizers: Felix Büchel, Martin Diewald, Antje Mertens, & Heike Solga, The Incomplete Unification: Social together with Peter Krause, DIW) Inequalities and Occupational Trajec- tories in East Germany, November Motivational Psychology of Onto- 1999 genesis, May 1998 (Organizers: Karl Ulrich Mayer, Martin (Organizer: Jutta Heckhausen) Diewald, & Heike Solga) Fall Academy Graduate Program, October 1999 (Organizers: Paul B. Baltes & Jacqui Smith)

Cooperation with Universities Cooperation with Universities

The Institute has always considered its cooperation with universities as very important, especially by participating in teaching activities. Researchers from our Institute teach courses at three universities in Berlin and at the University of Potsdam as well as at many other universities in Germany and abroad. In the years 1998–2000, a total of 171 courses were taught by scientific staff members—directors, research scientists, postdoctoral as well as predoctoral fellows—of the Institute. In addition, Institute members were supported in completing their academic degrees in cooperation with the universities in Berlin and elsewhere. In the years 1998–2000, 9 habilitations and 29 doctoral dissertations were completed by scientific staff members of the Institute. 19 student as- sistants associated with projects at the Institute completed Master’s and diploma theses. All degrees are listed in the Appendix.

Institute researchers who taught at universities Artelt, Cordula Hertwig, Ralph Maas, Ineke Assmann, Wolfgang Hess, Jürgen Martignon, Laura Baltes, Paul B. Hillmert, Steffen Mayer, Karl Ulrich Baumert, Jürgen Hoerning, Erika M. Oettingen, Gabriele Büchel, Felix Hoffrage, Ulrich Rieskamp, Jörg Clausen, Marten Hosenfeld, Ingmar Rode, Catrin Corsten, Michael Jobard, Fabien Rusch-Feja, Diann Daniels, Zoe Keller, Monika Schnabel, Kai Demmrich, Anke Klieme, Eckhard Seibert, Holger Diewald, Martin Köller, Olaf Smith, Jacqui Engelhardt, Henriette Koerber, Susanne Solga, Heike Frensch, Peter Krappmann, Lothar Stanat, Petra Freund, Alexandra M. Krauss, Stefan Staudinger, Ursula M. Ghisletta, Paolo Kreppner, Kurt Stern, Elsbeth Gigerenzer, Gerd Kurz, Elke M. Thußbas, Claudia Glück, Judith Kurzenhäuser, Stephanie Trappe, Heike Goedicke, Anne Lages, Martin Trautwein, Ulrich Händle, Christa Lenhardt, Gero Watermann, Rainer Hardy, Ilonca Li, Shu-Chen Wrosch, Carsten Heckhausen, Jutta Lindenberger, Ulman

Universities where these courses were taught Berlin Frankfurt a.M. Rostock Freie Universität Fribourg São Paulo/Ribeirao Preto Humboldt-Universität Geneva Tartu Technische Universität Leipzig Utrecht Berne Mannheim Vienna Brasilia Michigan, Ann Arbor Virginia, Charlottesville Bremen Oldenburg Zurich Duisburg Padova Florence Potsdam

20 Cooperation with Universities

The Graduate Program (Graduiertenkolleg) on the Psychiatry and Psychology of Aging This special program for doctoral train- In addition, the graduate program www. fu-berlin.de/age ing in psychological and psychiatric seeks to integrate gerontological re- gerontology located at the Free Univer- search and themes with studies and sity of Berlin, was established in Octo- theoretical frameworks from health ber 1998 by the late Margret M. Baltes psychology. and Hanfried Helmchen with funding During 1998-2000, 7 doctoral fel- from the German Research Council lows and 2 postdoctoral fellows from (DFG). Since March 1999, the program the Center for Lifespan Psychology have has been co-chaired by Hanfried Helm- worked together with 10 fellows (of chen (Psychiatry, Free University) and medicine and psychology) from the Free Paul B. Baltes (Psychology, Max Planck University to further their studies in Institute for Human Development). This gerontology. The Berlin Aging Study program represents a cross-discipline (BASE) serves as a context for these collaboration between psychology and graduates to learn about the different medicine and illustrates an important theoretical and practice-related per- link between our Institute and the Free spectives associated with the general University of Berlin in fostering junior field of gerontology (e.g., biology, public researchers. Four research groups are health, sociology, demography, history, involved in the program: The Free Uni- adult education, economics). The gradu- versity of Berlin, Psychology, the Uni- ate program involves regular seminars, versity Hospital Benjamin Franklin, Psy- workshops, and Fall academies in which chiatry and ENT, together with the Max international researchers and doctoral Planck Institute for Human Develop- fellows from other universities partici- ment, Center for Lifespan Psychology. pate. Their goals are (1) to integrate medical- psychiatric and psychological questions in research on aging and (2) to focus on issues of very old age.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Contents

Introductory Overview ……………………………………………………………………………………… 25 Bounded Rationality ………………………………………………………………………………………… 27 Ecological Rationality………………………………………………………………………………………… 36 Social Rationality ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 39 Evolutionary Psychology …………………………………………………………………………………… 45 Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction …………………………………………………… 47

Publications 1998–2000 …………………………………………………………………………………… 51

Scientific Staff 1998–2000

Gerd Gigerenzer, Daniel Goldstein (as of 2000: Fatwire Corp., New York), Ralph Hertwig, Ulrich Hoffrage, John M. C. Hutchinson, Monika Keller, Lothar Krappmann, Laura Martignon, Peter M. Todd, Oliver Vitouch

Postdoctoral Research Fellows H. Clark Barrett, Seth Bullock (as of 1999: University of Leeds), Jennifer N. Davis (as of 1999: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), Laurence Fiddick (as of 2000: MPG- Projektgruppe “Recht der Gemeinschaftsgüter,” Bonn), Adam S. Goodie (as of 1998: University of Georgia), Elke M. Kurz (Schloeßmann Scholarship, Universität Tübingen), Martin Lages (as of 1999: University of Glasgow), Barnaby Marsh, Jason Noble (as of 2000: University of Leeds), Masanori Takezawa Predoctoral Research Fellows Valerie M. Chase (as of 2000: Manpower Demonstration Research Corp., New York), Mandeep K. Dhami (as of 1999: City University, London; as of 2001: University of Maryland), Thomas Dudey, Carola Fanselow, Stefan Krauss, Stephanie Kurzenhäuser, Samuel Lindsey (Schloeßmann Scholarship, Universität Freiburg), Jörg Rieskamp, Christoph Wassner Long-Term Visitors Andreas Ortmann, Jorge Simao, Elio Tuci, Szymon Wichary

24 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Truth is ever to be found in Introductory Overview simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things. The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cogni- Isaac Newton tion (ABC) investigates reasoning and decision In this world making under uncertainty, at the levels of both nothing is certain individuals and social groups. The research but death and taxes. group consists of psychologists, mathema- Benjamin Franklin ticians, computer scientists, evolutionary biol- ogists, economists, and researchers from other fields. With different methodological abilities—such as experimental methods, computer simulation, and mathematical analysis— they cooperate on the same problems. The ABC program combines a strong theoretical focus with practical applications. The research group works on the metatheory, on specific models, and on applications. The applications range from teaching statistical thinking to using heuristics to invest in the stock market, from improving statistical reasoning by particular representations of numerical information in AIDS counseling to improving statistical intuitions of expert witnesses in law courts. The theoretical focus can be—albeit artificially—divided into three aspects.

Bounded rationality Models of Laplacean superintelligences and other bounded rationality try to answer the heavenly beings would behave. We question of how real people with limit- study the proximal mechanisms of ed time, knowledge, money, and other bounded rationality, that is, the adap- scarce resources make decisions. This tive heuristics that enable decisions un- program is an alternative to the domi- der uncertainty quickly and frugally. nant optimization paradigm in cognitive This collection of heuristics and their science, economics, and behavioral biol- building blocks is what we call the ogy that poses the question of how adaptive toolbox.

25 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Ecological rationality Models of Social rationality Social rationality ecological rationality describe the struc- is a variant of ecological rationality—one ture and representation of information for which the environment is social ra- in actual environments and their match ther than physical or technical. Models with mental strategies, such as bound- of social rationality describe the struc- edly rational heuristics. To the degree ture of social environments and their such a match exists, heuristics need not match with boundedly rational strate- trade accuracy for being fast and fru- gies people use. Social environments in- gal—they can have it both ways. The si- crease the variety of goals in decision multaneous focus on the mind and its making and those of the heuristics. In environment, past and present, puts re- addition to the goals that define ecolog- search on decision making under uncer- ical rationality—to make fast, frugal, and tainty into an evolutionary and ecologi- fairly accurate decisions—social rational- cal framework, a framework that is ity is concerned with more specific missing in most theories of reasoning, goals, such as choosing an option that both descriptive and normative. In short, one can defend with argument or we study the adaptation of mental and morally justify, or that can create a con- social strategies to real-world environ- sensus. Unlike the purely cognitive focus ments rather than compare strategies to of most research on bounded rationality, the laws of logic and probability theory. socially adaptive heuristics include emotions and social norms that can act as heuristic principles for decision making. These three notions of rationality converge on the same central issue: to understand human behavior and cognition as it is adapted to specific environments (ecological and social), and to discover the heuristics that guide adaptive behavior. Based on the findings of evolutionary psychology, researchers can suggest alternatives to tool-laden theories that tend to picture the mind as a computer equipped with the latest software. Finally, research on methodological, historical, and theoretical questions, in particular the influence of methodological preferences—such as linear models—on theories of cognition, constitutes a source of ideas that is of central importance to modeling visions of rationality.

These collected papers by Gerd Gigerenzer helped to build the theoretical and empirical foundations of the ABC research program. Here, the old view of the mind as an all-powerful statistician is overthrown, and rationality is reformulated instead as adaptive thinking: O XFORD U NIVERSITY PRESS 2000 the way minds cope with their environments, both ecological and social.

26 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

The ABC program is an invitation to we set out to explore is, in contrast, participate in a journey into largely un- shrouded in a mist of uncertainty. Peo- known territory. The journey ventures ple in this world have only limited time, into a land of rationality that is differ- knowledge, and computational capaci- ent from the familiar one we know from ties with which to make inferences the many stories in cognitive science about what happens in their world. The and economics—tales in which humans notions of bounded, ecological, and so- with unlimited time and knowledge live cial rationality are our guides to under- in a world where the sun of enlighten- standing how humble humans survive ment shines down in beams of logic and without following the heavenly rules of probability. The new land of rationality rational choice theory.

Bounded rationality is Bounded Rationality what cognitive psychology is all about. And the study of Humans and animals do make inferences about un- bounded rationality is known features of their world under constraints of not the study of opti- limited time, knowledge, and computational capaci- mization in relation to task environments. ties. Many models of rational decision making in Herbert Simon cognitive science, economics, biology, and other fields, in contrast, tend to ignore these constraints. We, however, do not conceive of bounded rationality as optimization under constraints, nor do we think of bounded rationality as the study of how people fail to meet normative ideals. Rather, bounded rationality is the key to understanding how actual people make decisions without utilities and probabilities. Bounded rationality consists of simple step-by-step rules that function well under the constraints of limited search, knowledge, and time—whether or not an optimal procedure is available. Just as a mechanic will pull out specific wrenches, pliers, and spark-plug gap gauges to maintain an engine rather than just hit everything with a hammer, different domains of thought require different specialized tools. The notion of a toolbox full of unique one-function devices lacks the beauty of Leibniz's dream of a single all-purpose inferential power tool. Instead, it evokes the abilities of a craftsman or a used-parts dealer who can provide serviceable solutions to almost any problem with just the things at hand.

27 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

The Adaptive Toolbox This repertoire of specialized cognitive mechanisms that evolution has built into humans' minds for specific domains of inference and reasoning, including fast and frugal heuristics, is called the "adaptive toolbox.” We clarify the concept of an adaptive toolbox as follows: • It refers to a specific group of rules or heuristics rather than to a general-purpose decision-making algorithm. • These heuristics are fast, frugal, and computationally cheap rather than consistent, coherent, and general. • These heuristics are adapted to particular environments, past or present, physical or social. • The heuristics in the adaptive toolbox are orchestrated by some mechanism reflecting the importance of conflicting motivations and goals.

Key References Why Fast and Frugal mon equipped with unlimited time, in- Hertwig, R., & Heuristics Work formation, and computational capaci- Hoffrage, U. (2001). ties with his notion of "bounded ration- Eingeschränkte und • Fast and frugal heuristics exploit the ökologische Rationalität: structures of information in the envi- ality,” often misinterpreted as optimiza- Ein Forschungspro- ronment. That means their rationality tion under constraints or human gramm. Psychologische Rundschau, 52, 11–19. is a form of "ecological rationality,” irrationality. The conception of bounded Martignon, L., & Hoff- rather than one of consistency and rationality is neither optimization under rage, U. (1999). Why coherence (Hertwig & Hoffrage, constraints (such as limited time or does one-reason decision making work? A 2001; Martignon & Hoffrage, 1999). other limited resources) nor is it the case study in ecological Simple strategies are robust com- study of how people fail to meet nor- rationality. In G. Gige- • renzer, P. M. Todd, & the pared to models with large numbers mative ideals. ABC Research Group, of parameters (Martignon & Schmitt, Simple heuristics that make us smart (pp. 1999). Examples for Fast and Frugal 119–140). New York: Heuristics Oxford University Press. The Multiple Meanings of Fast and frugal heuristics consist of Martignon, L., & three building blocks: simple rules for Schmitt, M. (1999). Sim- “Bounded Rationality” plicity and robustness of Some 40 years ago, the economist Her- guiding search (in memory or external fast and frugal heuris- search), for stopping search, and for de- tics. Minds and Ma- bert Simon challenged the models of chines, 9, 565–593. rational decision making in cognitive cision making. To illustrate, we present science, economics, biology, and other a few examples of fast and frugal fields that tend to treat the mind as a heuristics: supercomputer or as a Laplacean De-

28 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

In the past few years, the theory of rational ( sensible ) h behavior has broken loose from the illusory and empirically- unsup ported notion that deciding rationally means maximizing expected utility. Research has learned to take seriously and study empiric how real human being actually address the vast complexities of the world they inhibit.SimpleHeuristicsoffers a fascinating in- SIMPLE troduction to this revolution in cognitive science, striking a blow for sanity in the approach to human rationality. Herbert A. Simon, Nobel Laureate in Economics and Professor of HEURISTICS ›Computer ›Science and Psychology at Carnegie Mellon Universit This book is a major contribution to the theory of bounded- ratio ality. It illustrates that the surprising efficiency of fast an procedures is due to their fit with the structure of the environm in which they are used. The emphasis on the ecological rationali THAT MAKE US is an advance in a promising and already fruitful new ›directio research. Reinhard Selten, Nobel Laureate in Economics and Professor of SMART Economics at the University of Bonn Gigerenzer &Todd s volume represents a major advance in- our un derstanding of human reasoning, with many genuinely new ideas on how people think and an impressive body of data to back them up. Simple Heuristics is indispensable for cognitive psychologists, economis and anyone else interested in reason and ›rationality Steven Pinker, Professor of Psychology at MIT andHow author of the Mind WorksandWords and Rules GERD GIGERENZER,PETER M. TODD, How do people cope in the real, complex world of confusing and AND THE ABC RESEARCH GROUP overwhelming information and rapidly approaching deadlines? This important book starts a new quest for answers. Here, Gigerenzer Todd, and their lively research group show that simple heuristi are powerful tools that do surprisingly well. The field of ›dec

A body of results concerning fast and frugal heuristics has appeared in the book Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart collectively written by the ABC research group. It mirrors the study of adaptive behavior and cognition within the constraints imposed by limited time and resources—one of the main goals of our research unit. The book reports the progress we have made in enhancing our understanding of how the mind can operate within these limitations. The individual chapters are all multi-authored, reflecting the interdisciplinary collaboration among the researchers. The book exemplifies the fruitful interaction among • computer scientists, who simulate how effective a heuristic is in real-world environments; • mathematicians, who prove which environmental structures simple heuristics can exploit in order to be as accurate as complex "rational” strategies are; • experimenters, who test whether a heuristic is actually used by people and when. Most of the new results in this book would not have been obtained without the simultaneous input of and a healthy competition between these different methodological approaches.

Ignorance-based decision making: the German students made correct in- Key Reference The recognition heuristic Which city ferences about population size. The Goldstein, D. G., & has a larger population, San Diego or Gigerenzer, G. (1999). recognition heuristic can produce the The recognition heuris- San Antonio? If you are not American, counter intuitive "less-is-more” effect. tic. How ignorance you will probably guess San Diego. For instance, American students made makes us smart. In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & Why? Because you have heard of it, and more correct inferences about the rela- the ABC Research Group, chances are that you have never heard tive size of the largest German cities Simple heuristics that make us smart (pp. 37–- of San Antonio. If you are American, than about the largest American cities 58). New York: Oxford however, you probably recognize the (they had heard of all University Press. names of both cities, and thus, cannot the American cities and Recognition heuristic: rely on the recognition heuristic to thus could not use the If you recognize one object and not the make your choice. In a study of Gold- simple recognition other, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value on a criterion. This stein and Gigerenzer (1999) only 62% heuristic). heuristic is ecologically rational when of the American students, but 100% of recognition correlates with the criterion.

29 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

In 1999, a Dahlem Konferenz organized by Gerd Gigerenzer and Reinhard Selten focused around Bounded Rationality. A number of internationaly well-known social scientists discussed issues such as the adaptive toolbox , fast and frugal heuristics, fiction of optimization, self-esteem, risk taking, Prisoner's Dilemma, social learning, emotions, and norms. The collected background papers and group reports, written by all participants, document the overall goal of the conference: (a) to provide a framework of bounded rationality in terms of the metaphor of the adaptive toolbox, (b) to provide an understanding about why and when the simple heuristics in the adaptive toolbox work, (c) to extend the notion of bounded rationality from cognitive tools to emotions, and (d) to extend the notion of bounded rationality to include social norms, imitation, and other cultural tools. The Dahlem Konferenzen promote interdisciplinary exchange of scientific ideas and stimulate cooperation in research among international scientists. Dahlem Konferenzen proved themselves to be an invaluable tool for communication in science. Dahlem Konferenzen created a special type of forum for communication, now internationally recognized as the Dahlem Workshop Model. These workshops are the framework in which coherent discussions between the disciplines take place und are focused around a topic of high priority interest to the disciplines concerned.

Key Reference Can ignorance beat the stock recognition-based portfolios substanti- Borges, B., Goldstein, D. market? Will the recognition heuris- ate evidence that the recognition G., Ortmann, A., & tic also lead to good decisions in a do- heuristic can make accurate inferences Gigerenzer, G. (1999). Can ignorance beat the main where the stakes are high, as is in real-world domains. In a portfolio stock market? In G. the case in the stock market? Borges, competition organized by Capital, a Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the ABC Research Goldstein, Ortmann, and Gigerenzer popular German magazine, the portfolio Group, Simple heuristics (1999) constructed investment port- we selected based on recognition values that make us smart (pp. 59–72). New York: Ox- folios consisting of firms highly recog- was ranked in the top 15% out of all ford University Press. nized by American and German experts participating portfolios. It is noteworthy and American and German laypeople. that it substantially outperformed the Six of the eight portfolios beat profes- portfolio selected by the editor-in-chief sional funds as well as the Dax and the based on his professional expertise. Dow. The striking returns generated by

30 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

60 Recognition heuristic Market index 50 Mutual fund 40 Chance portfolio 30 Returns (%) 20 10 0 US laypeople US experts German laypeople German experts (German (German (US companies) (US companies) companies) companies) Performance of the recognition heuristic for the recognition of domestic and foreign stocks. Results are for the 6 months following the date of the recognition test, December 1996 to June 1997. For comparison, the performance of unrecognized stocks (0% to 10% recognition rates), market indices (Dow 30 or Dax 30), mutual funds (Fidelity Growth Fund or Hypobank Equity Fund), and chance portfolios (average returns of 5,000 randomly drawn portfolios) are shown (Borges et al., 1999, p. 65).

The stock market may be a complex Imagine that we have a set of ob- real-world environment in which lack jects, all Chicago public high schools, of recognition is not completely ran- and we want to predict which of two dom, but rather systematic and inform- schools has the higher drop-out rate. ative. In investments there could be Each school can be characterized by a wisdom in ignorance. number of binary (or dichotomized) cues, each of which predicts the drop- Take The Best: One-reason decision making: Take out rate to varying degrees, such as av- If you recognize The Best If you have to make a erage SAT scores, teachers’ salaries, and more than one object, take the one choice between two objects when both the percentage of non-white students. with the most valid are recognized, recognition heuristics In Take The Best, the objects are com- cue that discrimi- cannot be applied and you have to re- pared on the most valid cue, the second nates, and ignore trieve information about the objects most valid cue, and so on until a cue on the rest. from your memory to make an infer- which the objects differ is found. All ence. Take The Best, a simple lexico- that Take The Best needs to know is the graphic heuristic for pair comparison rank order of cues by validity. Moreover, tasks, has simple structural features its stopping rule for information search Key Reference and "bets” that the environment will fit is very simple: Take The Best cue (i.e., Gigerenzer, G., & Gold- them. It is a non-compensatory strategy the most valid one that discriminates) stein, D. G. (1996). Rea- soning the fast and fru- that is surprisingly fit when information and ignore the rest. gal way: Models of is scarce and also when information is Czerlinski, Gigerenzer, and Goldstein bounded rationality. Psychological Review, itself non-compensatory (Gigerenzer & (1999) have shown that Take The Best 103, 650–669. Goldstein, 1996). is comparable in accuracy to the com-

Performance Across 20 Data Sets (Czerlinski et al., 1999)

Accuracy (% correct) Strategy Frugality Fitting Generalization

Minimalist 2.2 69 65 Take The Best 2.4 75 71 Dawes’s rule 7.7 73 69 Multiple Regression 7.7 77 68

31 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Key Reference plex models of classical rationality. It cerned, Rieskamp and Hoffrage (1999) Martignon, L. (2001). can outperform multiple regression, the showed that under time pressure hu- Comparing fast and fru- normative benchmark in the class of mans use heuristics like Take The Best. gal heuristics and optimal models. In G. Gige- linear models, and even compared to Independent research by Bröder (2000) renzer & R. Selten (Eds.), good Bayesian models, Take The Best is showed that in situations where search Bounded rationality: The adaptive toolbox (pp. remarkably accurate (Martignon, for information is costly, some two- 147–171). Cambridge, 2001a). thirds of participants’ judgments fol- MA: MIT Press. As far as the empirical evidence for lowed Take The Best. people’s use of simple strategies is con-

Key Reference QuickEst The QuickEst heuristic is stops searching for any further infor- Hertwig, R., Hoffrage, a fast and frugal heuristic for numerical mation. QuickEst then gives the mean U., & Martignon, L. estimation (Hertwig, Hoffrage, & Mar- criterion value of all objects that do not (1999). Quick estimation: Letting the envi- tignon, 1999). As does Take The Best, it possess this particular feature as its fi- ronment do the work. In has a simple search and stopping rule nal estimate. No cue combination is G. Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the ABC Re- and it also has a simple rule for esti- necessary, and no adjustment from fur- search Group, Simple mating the criterion value based on the ther cues is possible. QuickEst proves to heuristics that make us smart (pp. 209–234). retrieved information. To estimate the be fast and frugal, as well as accurate, New York: Oxford Uni- criterion value of a particular object, in environments characterized by a dis- versity Press. QuickEst looks through the cues or fea- tribution of criterion values for which tures that are ordered according to the small values are common and large val- average criterion value of the objects ues are rare (a so-called J-shaped dis- with which they are not associated un- tribution). Such distributions character- til it comes to the first one that the ob- ize a variety of naturally occurring phe- ject does not possess. At this point, it nomena, including many formed by

600

500 QuickEst Multiple Regression Estimation Tree 400

300

200 Absolute error (in thousands)

100

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Size of training set (%) Mean absolute error (i.e., absolute deviation between predicted and actual size) as a function of size of training set (Hertwig et al., 1999, p. 230).

32 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition accretionary growth. This growth pat- els, and yet it uses only about a quarter tern applies to cities, and indeed big of the information that these other cities are much less common than small models employ. ones, allowing QuickEst to rapidly esti- In situations in which categorization mate the small size of most cities. must be performed quickly and search- In particular, when knowledge is scarce ing for cues takes time, this fast and as it typically is the case in natural de- frugal approach has clear advantages. cision-making settings—QuickEst out- performs or at least matches the performance of more expensive methods 100 such as Multiple Regression and a 90 80 (Bayesian) Estimation Tree. Predictive 70 accuracy (in %) Iris Wine Mushroom Categorization by elimination The tree building blocks of simple heuris- Categorization Exemplar Neural tics—fast and frugal search rules, stop- by elimination model network ping rules, and decision rules—were also used to specify a fast and frugal heuris- Satisficing Satisficing is a method tic for Categorization. In a categoriza- for making a choice from a set of alter- tion task, one has to choose the one natives encountered sequentially when category from several possible ones that one does not know much about the a given object falls into, for instance, as possibilities ahead of time. Here, alter- Dr. Seuss (the famous author of chil- natives themselves (as opposed to cue Key Reference dren’s books) might ask: Is this particu- values) appear sequentially over an ex- Berretty, P. M., Todd, P. lar fish we have caught a black fish, tended period or spatial region. In this M., & Martignon, L. (1999). Categorization blue fish, old fish, or new fish? The sim- type of choice task, a fast and frugal by elimination. Using ple Categorization by Elimination decision-maker needs not (only) limit few cues to choose. In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. heuristic (Berretty, Todd, & Martignon, information search but (also) a stopping Todd, & the ABC Re- 1999) makes accurate category judg- rule for ending the search for alterna- search Group, Simple heuristics that make us ments by using each successive cue to tives themselves. In such situations smart (pp. 235–254). whittle away the set of possible cate- there may be no optimal solution for New York: Oxford Uni- gories to which the object in question when to stop searching for further al- versity Press. could belong until only a single possible ternatives. Satisficing takes the shortcut category remains. Its performance of setting an adjustable aspiration level comes within a few percentage points and ending the search for alternatives of the accuracy and frugality of tradi- as soon as one is encountered that ex- tional categorization algorithms includ- ceeds the aspiration level. ing exemplar and neural network mod-

33 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Hindsight Bias—A Price Worth Paying for Fast and Frugal Memory Recently the work on fast and frugal she currently knows is the updated ver- heuristics has been extended to model sion of what she used to know. So a well-known phenomena of memory while feedback does not directly affect research, the hindsight bias. Hindsight a person's memory of the original re- bias can occur when people make a sponse, it does indirectly affect memory judgment or choice and are later asked by updating the knowledge used to re- to recall what their judgment had been. construct the response. The RAFT model If, in the interim, they are told what the assumes that the mechanism underlying correct judgment would have been, the original judgment, as well as the their memory of their own judgment mechanism of the reconstruction tends to become biased toward the new process, is the same fast and frugal information. To explain this phenomena heuristic: Take The Best. Key Reference Hoffrage, Hertwig, and Gigerenzer Hoffrage, Hertwig, and Gigerenzer Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, (2000) developed RAFT (Reconstruction (2000) tested the model in two studies R., & Gigerenzer, G. After Feedback with Take The Best). and found that knowledge of cue values (2000). Hindsight bias: A by-product of knowl- The basic idea of the RAFT model is was in fact updated in a way making it edge updating? Journal that any feedback or correct informa- more consistent with the feedback, of Experimental Psychol- ogy: Learning, Memory, tion a person receives after she has giv- whereas this knowledge remained un- and Cognition, 26, en her initial judgment automatically changed when no feedback was given. 566–581. updates the knowledge base underlying Using this (updated) knowledge, the the initial judgment. If a person cannot RAFT model was able to make precise remember this initial judgment, she will predictions about when hindsight bias reconstruct it from what she currently occurs. Moreover, assisting participants knows about the situation, and what in recalling the cue values they had

“Did you predict that the Berlin Wall would come down and that one day you could stroll through the Brandenburg Gate? With the benefit of hindsight you might have. Drs. Ulrich Hoff- rage, Ralph Hertwig and Gerd Gigerenzer argue that knowledge updating explains hindsight bias.”

The photo and the cap- tion have been taken from the APA Monitor, May 2000, in which the article by Hoffrage, Hertwig, and Gigeren- zer (2000)—on the photo from left to right—has been featured in the Science Watch column.

34 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

used to make their original decision, fa- uct of an adaptive mechanism, that cilitated reconstruction and, as a conse- makes human memory more efficient. It quence, reduced the hindsight bias. is a cheap price we have to pay for a Hindsight bias is not seen as a flaw much larger gain: a well-functioning in human cognition, but as a result of a memory that is able to forget what we cognitive mechanism that allows us to do not need—such as outdated knowl- unclutter our minds by tossing out inac- edge—and that constantly updates our curate information and embracing the knowledge, thereby increasing the accu- right answers. According to the RAFT racy of our inferences. model, the hindsight bias is a by-prod-

Fast and Frugal Heuristics in Emotional and Cultural Contexts Key Reference Fast and frugal heuristics are not re- gal behavioral mechanisms that dis- Ketelaar, T., & Todd, P. M. (in press). Framing stricted to cognition. Emotions such as pense with individual cost-benefit com- our thoughts: Evolution- disgust or parental love can provide ef- putations and decision making. For in- ary psychology’s answer to the computational fective stopping rules for search and stance, culture (as a system of values mind’s dilemma. In P. S. the means for limiting search spaces. and beliefs) can help actual humans di- Davies & H. R. Holcomb III (Eds.), The evolution Similarly, in social species, imitation minish the problem of combinatorial of minds: Psychological and social learning can be seen as explosion as well as the related problem and philosophical per- mechanisms that enable fast learning of how to make an infinite number of spectives. Norwell, MA: Kluwer. and obviate the need for individual cal- possible decisions in real time, which culations of expected utilities. Social torment attempts at building intelligent norms, too, can be seen as fast and fru- machines and robots.

35 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Ecological Rationality Perhaps the organism could be seen as playing In the research on bounded rationality we found that the role of the husband and the environment the performance of several fast and frugal heuristics, that of the wife, or the by and large, matches that of algorithms that involve reverse may be argued as well. complex computations. Even if humans had the men- Egon Brunswik tal computational power to use such complex algorithms, they would not gain much—if anything at all. The astonishing- ly high accuracy of these heuristics indicates their ecological rationality; fast and frugal heuristics exploit the statistical structure of the environment and they are adapted to this structure. In a new book project the group recently started, a follow-up of Simple heuristics that make us smart, we will focus on this link between bounded and ecological rationality, that is, on the match between heuristics and environments. We have pursued the issue of eco- Whereas the Bayesian answer is logical rationality in still another way, 7.5%, typically most laypeople (and Human rational namely, by studying the question of doctors as well) estimate this probabili- behavior (…) is representation. Representational for- ty at about 80%. This result has been shaped by a scissors mats constitute environments for cog- interpreted as "base-rate neglect.” whose two blades are nition. This research has practical rele- To evaluate and understand the per- the structure of task vance in many domains such as diag- formance of the human mind, one environments and nostic inference or risk assessment in needs to look at its environment and, in the computational legal cases, where the external repre- particular, at the external representa- sentation of diagnostic information in- tion of information. Probabilities and capabilities of the fluences physicians', counselors' and percentages are representations of un- actor. lawyers' performances. certainty that were devised only a few Herbert Simon hundred years ago. For most of the time Information Needs Representation during which the human mind has Consider a situation in which a physi- evolved, information was encountered cian needs to infer the probability that in the form of natural frequencies, that an asymptomatic woman has breast is, absolute frequencies as they result cancer (C) after she received a positive from observing cases that have been test result (T+) in a routine screening. representatively sampled from a popu- The relevant information (concerning a lation. The same information represent- population of women aged 40) can be ed in terms of natural frequencies is: summarized as follows:

The probability of breast cancer is 1%; the proba- Ten of every 1,000 women have breast cancer; bility of a positive test given breast cancer is 8 of those 10 women with breast cancer will test 80%; and the probability of a positive test given positive, and 99 of the 990 women without no breast cancer is 10%. breast cancer will also test positive. Question: What is the probability that a woman Question: How many of those who test positive who tests positive actually has breast cancer? actually have breast cancer?

36 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Key References Natural frequencies simplify aged across the four diagnostic tasks, Gigerenzer, G., & Bayesian computations and, as a conse- the proportion of Bayesian responses in- Hoffrage, U. (1995). How to improve quence, help people gain insight into creased from 10% to 46%. These results Bayesian reasoning Bayesian reasoning. This was demon- can be generalized to cases where more without instruction: Fre- quency formats. Psycho- strated both with laypeople (Gigerenzer than one piece of information, say logical Review, 102, & Hoffrage, 1995) and recently also in mammography and ultrasound test in 684–704. different fields of professional decision- the breast cancer inference task, are Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, making and educational contexts (Hof- provided. The facilitating effect of na- S., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). frage, Lindsey, Hertwig, & Gigerenzer, tural frequencies persists (Krauss, Mar- Communicating statisti- 2000). tignon, & Hoffrage, 1999). cal information. Science, 290, 2261–2262. Hoffrage, U., & Applications in medical diagnostics Applications in AIDS counseling Gigerenzer, G. (1998). Would presenting statistical information Gigerenzer, Hoffrage, and Ebert (1998) Using natural frequen- in natural frequencies rather than prob- cies to improve diagnos- investigated how information is com- tic inferences. Academic abilities be effective with experts who municated, and how good Bayesian rea- Medicine, 73, 538–540. make diagnostic inferences in daily soning is in real counseling sessions Gigerenzer, G., practice? Hoffrage and Gigerenzer Hoffrage, U., & Ebert, when the stakes are high, as in HIV A. (1998). AIDS coun- (1998) studied 48 physicians with an testing. One of the authors went to 20 selling for low-risk average of 14 years of professional ex- public health centers in Germany to clients. Aids Care, 10, 197–211. perience. They were tested on four diag- take 20 HIV tests and use the mandato- nostic tasks that the physicians perform ry pretest counseling sessions to ask the on a regular basis (e.g., the diagnosis of counselor questions about base rates, colorectal cancer given a positive he- sensitivity, specificity, and his chances moccult test). In two problems, the in- of having HIV were he to test positive. formation was presented in probabili- None of the 20 counselors communicat- ties, and in two in natural frequencies. ed the information in natural frequen- Results showed that the effect of na- cies; all used probabilities and percent- tural frequencies on physicians was ages, and almost all got confused and about as strong as for laypeople. Aver- were inconsistent. Fifteen of the 20 counselors estimated the chances that the client has HIV should he Probabilities Natural frequencies test positive as 99.9% or higher, three as higher than 90%, and two 1000 refused to answer this question. Note that a more realistic esti- p(C) = .01 mate of this probability is around p(T+| C) = .80 10 990 50%. Natural frequencies could p(T+| ¬ C) = .10 have helped these counselors be both more consistent and more 8 2 99 891 accurate.

Applications in law Judges, p (Cancer | Test positive) p (Cancer | Test positive) too, must make decisions based on (.01) (.80) 8 probabilities. Does the representa- = = (.01) (.80) + (.99) (.10) 8 + 99 tion of numerical information in natural frequencies foster Bayesian reasoning in court? Pro- fessionals and law students in Germany evaluated two criminal-

37 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

court case files involving rape and these same participants made the cor- forensic evidence of a DNA match. Ex- rect inference. Perhaps more signifi- pert testimony reported the statistical cantly, the different ways of expressing information of DNA-profiles and the the same statistical information altered rates of technical and human mishaps the verdicts in each case. When the in- leading to false-positive results. This information was presented as probabili- formation was presented in two differ- ties, 45% of the professionals and 55% ent formats; one stated it as probabili- of the students rendered a verdict of ties and the other as natural frequen- guilty, but only 32% and 33% did so cies. When these statistics were when the same statistics were ex- expressed as probabilities, only 13% of pressed as natural frequencies (Hoff- the professionals and under 1% of the rage, Lindsey, Hertwig, & Gigerenzer, law students correctly inferred the 2000). When verdicts hinge on statisti- probability that the defendant was ac- cal evidence, understanding that evi- tually the source of the trace. But when dence is crucial, and pursuing such sim- the identical statistics were stated as ple methods of fostering statistical in- natural frequencies, 68% and 44% of sight could contribute to that goal.

Implicatons for teaching Bayesian cies could solve 90% of the new prob- reasoning The beneficial effects of lems, whereas those who were taught natural frequencies on statistical rea- rules could only solve about 20% soning in the studies reported above (Sedlmeier & Gigerenzer, in press). Most occurred without training or instruc- of them probably had just forgotten the tion. More importantly, systematic rules. Teaching representations rather training in the use of natural frequen- than rules—and expressing statistical cies can even help people to reason information in natural frequencies with probabilities. The key is to teach where appropriate—can help to foster representations rather than rules—that the statistical reasoning needed to is to teach people how to translate make sound decisions. probabilities into natural frequencies. Base-rate neglect is just an example Traditionally, however, students are in- of so-called biases that can be demon- stead taught how to plug probabilities strated under conditions different from into mathematical formulae such as people’s daily environments. By chang- Bayes’s rule. We evaluated both teaching the experimental situation so that it ing methods using a computerized tu- better reflects essential features of this Key Reference torial (Sedlmeier & Gigerenzer, in press) environment, the reasoning becomes Sedlmeier, P., & Gige- and in a traditional classroom setting not only more accurate but also more renzer, G. (in press). and found that teaching representa- consistent with statistical or probability Teaching Bayesian reasoning in less than two tions was more effective. Unlike in the norms, such as Bayes’s rule. Thus, if hours. Journal of Experi- studies reported earlier, all test prob- Brunswik’s Mr. Cognition is brought to- mental Psychology: Gen- eral. lems were stated in probabilities. When gether (again) with his wife, Mrs. tested five weeks after training, stu- Environment, they are able to produce dents who were taught how to trans- sound reasoning. late probabilities into natural frequen-

38 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Social Rationality

Some of the most ambitious decisions faced by social species are those arising from an environment comprised of the decisions of conspecifics. Social environments are characterized by the speed with which they can change and by the need to consider the decisions being made by others. These two features make social rationality an important and distinct form of ecological rationality.

Social Cognition course of their playing computer medi- Particular features of social environ- ated interaction games for pursuing, ments can be exploited by fast and fru- evading, courting, being courted, fight- gal heuristics that make rapid decisions ing, and playing. With this information rather than gathering and processing (or evidence), we succeeded in uncover- information over a long period during ing a set of motion cues (including ve- which a fleeter-minded competitor locity, heading, and curvature of path) could leap forward and gain an edge. people can use along with the Catego- Key Reference We assessed the obvious advantages of rization by Elimination heuristic to infer Blythe, P. W., Todd, P. these heuristics in reproduction and some major categories of adaptively M., & Miller, G. F. (1999). How motion re- survival tasks with simulation experi- important intentions (Blythe, Todd, & veals intention: Catego- ments. This is a first step in examining Miller, 1999). Categorization by Elimi- rizing social interactions. In G. Gigerenzer, how the basic building blocks of social nation uses only half of these cues and P. M. Todd, & the ABC cognition can be studied through a still correctly predicts two-thirds of the Research Group, Simple heuristics that make us combination of evolutionary principles, intentions, which is a better perform- smart (pp. 257–285). ecologically representative stimuli, hu- ance than human observers typically New York: Oxford Uni- man experimentation, and computer achieve. versity Press. simulation. Parental investment More impor- Intention detection To ascertain tant than survival is reproduction. How the intentions of other animals (includ- can simple heuristics, particularly one- ing humans) we happen to encounter, reason decision making, be employed in fast heuristics can be advantageous. If the domain of parental investment. we can decide quickly and with few Specifically: How can a parent decide cues whether an approaching person or which of several offspring it should give animal is interested in fighting or play- resources to first? Parent birds, for in- ing, we will have more time to prepare stance, returning to their nest with a and react accordingly—and perhaps juicy bug, typically face a number of save our lives. Some of the most obvi- gaping mouths among which they must ous cues of intention that can be as- decide. The parent can use the weight, sessed at a distance (as opposed to fa- hunger, age, or fixed position of each cial expression, e.g., which requires chick in the nest when picking one to closer scrutiny) are contained in an or- feed. Decision-making approaches ganism’s motion. Human subjects' mo- based on traditional notions of ration- tion trajectories were generated in the ality would dictate that the parent

39 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Prototypical trajectory for pursuit/evasion Prototypical trajectory for courtship

Evader Courtee Pursuer Courter

90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40 Time (seconds) Time (seconds) 30 30

20 20

10 10 1000 1000 0 500 0 500 500 y 500 y 1000 0 x 1000 0 x

Prototypical trajectory for fighting Prototypical trajectory for play

Fighter A Player A Fighter B Player B

90 90

80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40 Time (seconds) Time (seconds) 30 30

20 20

10 10 1000 1000 0 0 500 500 500 y 500 y 1000 0 1000 0 x x

Sample trajectories generated by two participants who had to move an arrowhead on the computer screen, following various intentions (e.g., in the upper left panel, one had to evade, and one had to pursue the other). In each panel, 90 seconds of the interaction is represented, with time proceeding upwards and the on-screen position of each arrowhead plotted on the x-y plane.

40 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition assess and combine all of these cues to come up with the choice that will lead to the greatest growth of the nestlings. But because each of these cues provides a full ordering of all the chicks (e.g., one is heaviest, one is next heaviest, and so on), only one cue is necessary for an unambiguous decision. Davis, Todd, and Bullock (1999) found that one-cue feeding rules are not only possible, but also advantageous—they perform significantly better than rules that combine all the available information in an attempt to look forward in time and predict the optimal course of action. Humans, too, have multiple offspring to raise simultaneously. The equity heuristic is a boundedly rational decision rule specifying that parents should attempt to split resources equally among their children. But, whereas an equity motive produces a fair distribution at any given point in time, it yields a cumulative distribution of investments that is unequal (Hertwig, Davis, & Sulloway). Which birth rank suffers most from a resource handicap depends on which growth period, and thus, for when alternatives themselves (as which kind of resource is considered opposed to cue values) take time to Key References most important. If the total amount of find, appearing sequentially over an ex- Davis, J. N., Todd, P. M., & Bullock, S. resource is crucial, then the equity tended period or spatial region. In this (1999). Environment heuristic creates a middle-child re- type of choice task, a fast and frugal quality predicts parental provisioning decisions. source handicap. If, however, the first reasoner needs not (only) limit informa- Proceedings of the Royal period is most important, this heuristic tion search, but (also) must have a Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 266, creates a later-born resource handicap. stopping rule for ending the search for 1791–1797. If one focuses on resources specific to alternatives themselves. One instance of Todd, P. M., & Miller, G. the last period, then an earlier-born re- this type of problem is the challenge F. (1999). From pride source handicap occurs. Across all and prejudice to persua- that faces individuals searching for a sion. Satisficing in mate handicaps, middle-born children are mate from a stream of potential candi- search. In G. Gigerenzer, never best off. dates met at different points in time. P. M. Todd, & the ABC Research Group, Simple Thus, as Hertwig, Davis, and Sul- Todd and Miller (1999) began their heuristics that make us loway concluded, the equity heuristic study of satisficing heuristics for mate smart (pp. 287–308). New York: Oxford Uni- can provide an explanation of why the search by simulating their performance versity Press. birth-order literature reports notoriously in different mating environments, fo- conflicting results and conclusions. cusing on simple methods for setting the aspiration level. The goal was to Mate choice A different strategy find satisficing heuristics that would of socially rational heuristics is called limit both the time needed to determine

41 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Key References a good aspiration level and the average of their friendships. Although children Brendgen, M., Little, T. number of potential mates who had to establish their friendships relatively in- D., & Krappmann, L. be considered before one exceeding the dependently of parental control, some (2000). Rejected children and their friends: A aspiration level was found. They have features of their relationship networks shared evaluation of identified a class of simple learning are shaped by qualities of their parents' friendship quality? Mer- rill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, heuristics that do indeed determine social relationships (Krappmann & Uh- 45–70. such adaptive aspiration levels, while lendorff, 1999), by educational attitudes Little, T. D., Brendgen, still coming close to the criterion-selec- of their parents (Uhlendorff, 2000) and M., Wanner, B., & Krappmann, L. (1999). tion performance of more optimal (and by the sociocultural context in which Children's reciprocal much slower) search rules. the family is living (Little, Brendgen, perceptions of friendship quality in the sociocul- Wanner, & Krappmann, 1999). tural contexts of East Social Networks and West Berlin. Inter- Contradicting orientations in national Journal of Be- How is the human mind influenced by havioral Development, individuals' involvement in interactions children's interactions Classroom ob- 23, 63-89. and relationships with peers? It is as- servations in the 1980s and 1990s dem- sumed that processes of coordinating onstrate that children are affected by diverging expectations and intentions contradicting orientations when they try are shaped by structural and qualitative to coordinate differing expectations and differences in interactions and relation- intentions in their social interactions. ships. On the one hand, they claim to respect each other as equals who must find ac- Friendships in primary schools In- ceptable solutions to conflicts. On the terviews with primary school children in other hand, they use power and prestige Berlin revealed that most children have in order to influence negotiation a network of several "best friends" processes to their advantage. rather than just a unique best friend. In their reciprocal perceptions, Brendgen, Emergence of inequality In this Little, and Krappmann (2000) found sur- project, funded by the German Research prisingly little agreement among chil- Foundation (DFG), Krappmann, Gürtler, dren in the assessment of many aspects and Schrenk in collaboration with Os- wald (University of Potsdam) are testing the hypothesis that conceptions of in- Report to the German parliament on the equality and competencies for dealing conditions of growing-up in Germany with inequality are acquired in interac- The committee, headed by Lothar Krappmann analyzed many as- tions in which children long for the op- pects of children's lives in daycare institutions, cultural and posite, namely for mutual respect of leisure programs, and community projects for the young, drawing attention to aspects of children's lives, that may influence the each other's expectations and interac- development of their capacities and orientations, not adequately tions and for egalitarian contributions taken into account by researchers in development or socializa- to the process and the outcome of their tion. In reply to controversies about the extent and the quality of interactions. poverty among children in Germany, Krappmann explained in an additional expert statement how economic restrictions become Overall, peer relationships present relevant to children's development and learning. new challenges to children with regard to the reciprocal nature of relationships Krappmann, L. (1999a). Die Rolle der Soziologie im "Kinder- bericht" der Bundesregierung (Zehnter Kinder- und Jugend- and the content of interactions. This is bericht). Berliner Journal für Soziologie, 9, 455–465. the place where the life of the au- – (1999b). Der Zehnte Kinder- und Jugendbericht—der erste tonomous as well as the socially re- Kinderbericht. Neue Sammlung, 39, 331–342. – (2000). Kinderarmut. Expertise für das Bundesministerium für sponsible individual actually begins. Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend. Vervielf. Manuskript.

42 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Social Contracts Moral rules and emotions Our Another important feature of human's studies followed up on the so-called social life and the constitution of its "happy victimizer" phenomenon accord- culture are moral norms. How do chil- ing to which young children attribute dren, adolescents, and young adults positive feelings to a person violating a from different Western and Asian cul- moral rule while older children attribute tures reason about morally relevant negative (guilt) feelings to such a per- conflict situations in familiy and close son. Previous studies had produced in- friendship? consistent findings concerning this at- tributional shift. Our studies supported Intercultural differences in moral the happy victimizer phenomenon in Key References reasoning In their longitudinal cross- young Chinese children. Older children, Keller, M., Edelstein, cultural studies Keller, Edelstein, Krette- however, revealed a self-other differen- W., Krettenauer, T., Fang, F., & Fang, G. nauer, Fang, and Fang (2000) found in- tiation in emotion attribution. They at- (2000). Denken über teresting interaction effects among in- tributed positive feelings to a hypothet- moralische Verpflichtung und interpersonale Ver- dividual development, ecology, and ical rule violator and guilt feelings to antwortung im Zusam- culture. In moral reasoning about a par- themselves as violator. This effect was menhang unterschiedlicher Kulturen. In W. ent-child dilemma intra-society differ- replicated with German and Portuguese Edelstein & G. Nunner- ences in adolescents were greater than children. The self-other differentiation Winkler (Eds.), Moral im inter-society differences: Rural Icelandic may be an explanation for inconsistent sozialen Kontext (pp. 375–406). Frankfurt subjects achieved an equally high level previous research findings. a.M.: Suhrkamp. of sociomoral reasoning as Chinese urban subjects. Similarly, in moral decision Contracts, perspectives, and emo- making, the Chinese and rural Icelandic tions Two studies interconnect evolu- subjects were oriented towards parental tionary cognitive psychology of deontic authority, while Icelandic urban subjects reasoning with theory of mind and were oriented towards autonomy and moral development research. Keller, peer-solidarity. Lindsey, and Wang (2000), assessed

Contract between friends irrelevant

p/q ¬ p/¬ q contract violations

How do young children understand contract violation when relevant informa- ¬ p/q p/¬q tion is presented If you help me in the garden, you may use my bike: Which pictures show a contract in pictures? violation? (Keller et al., 2000)

43 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

children's understanding of a bilateral mother as violator. The child as violator contract between a mother and her felt good about receiving a benefit child and between two friends (see fig- without having paid the cost. As far as ure p. 43). All children attributed nega- cheating detection from different per- tive feelings to the victim of the con- spectives goes, the results revealed tract violation. However, emotions at- clear-cut developmental trends. tributed to a violator depend on age Social-moral reasoning about choic- and perspective. In the peer relation- es and consequences of contracts and ship, older children attributed guilt feel- its violation is influenced by individual ings from both perspectives of violators. development, ecological conditions, and In the parent-child relationship, guilt cultural processes like modernization. feelings were attributed only to the

The ABC Research Group 2001

Left to right: (front row) H. Clark Barrett, Stephanie Kurzenhäuser, Laura Martignon, Monika Keller, Masanori Takezawa, Stefan Krauss; (middle row) Philipp Otto, Peter M. Todd, Szymon Wichary, Christian Gröschner, Barnaby Marsh, Ralph Hertwig, Gerd Gigerenzer, Thomas Dudey, Marianne Müller-Brettel, Jörg Rieskamp, Laurence Fiddick, Andreas Wilke; (back row) Oliver Vitouch, Ulrich Hoffrage, Carola Fanselow, Silke Atmaca; not pictured: Lothar Krappmann.

44 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychology lies at the heart of many of the research projects undertaken by the ABC research group, providing a motivation for bounded rationality, supporting the significance of the environment in ecological rationality, and emphasizing the importance of the social interactions that lead to evolutionary change in social rationality. At the same time, evolutionary psychology is grounded in ecological rationality (Todd, Fiddick, & Krauss, 2000): It assumes that our minds were designed by natural selection to solve practical problems in an efficient and effective manner. However, evolutionary psychology focuses specifically on ancestral environments and practical problems with fitness consequences, while ecological rationality additionally encompasses decision making in present environments without privileging problems with fitness consequences.

Key References Evolutionary psychology is the search by evolution, specialized to process nat- Todd, P. M., Fiddick, L., for the evolved “mental adaptations” urally occurring information about bio- & Krauss, S. (2000). that fill our behavioral repertoire. These logically important situations in ways Ecological rationality and its contents. Think- psychological mechanisms were shaped that guide adaptive behavior. Thus, evo- ing and Reasoning, 6, over millennia of natural and sexual se- lutionary psychologists tend to analyze 375–384. lection to solve the survival and repro- adaptive problems such as mate choice, Todd, P. M. (2000). The ecological rationality of duction problems that faced our foraging, habitat selection, and the like mechanisms evolved to hunter-gatherer hominid ancestors in in terms of the structure of the envi- make up minds. Ameri- can Behavioral Scientist, Pleistocene Africa, and they continue to ronment outside the decision maker, 43, 940–956. guide our decisions and preferences to- and the types of perception, computa- day. This does not mean that everything tion, inference, strategies, and signals an individual does has been selected that the decision maker uses. Again, be- for, or even that those traits that have cause of cognitive science (and particu- been selected for will necessarily confer larly the influence of computer models), some advantage on an individual ex- analyzing the environment often gets pressing it in a modern environment. short shrift, while the computations as- What it does mean is that the behaviors sumed to be going on inside a person’s expressed by modern individuals are ex- head are typically intricate and in- pected to be a result of the interaction volved. between their evolved psychology and But individuals in challenging situa- the environment in which they live. tions must often make up their minds— Through the influence of cognitive make inferences, choices, and deci- science, mental adaptations are typical- sions—rapidly and efficiently, using only ly viewed as software modules designed the information currently available and

45 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Key References not spending much time deliberating. If number of choices considered, and how (cont’d) they do not, they may lose their dinner emotions can focus information gather- Miller, G. F., & Todd, P. M. (1998). Mate choice to a competitor, their mate to a rival, or ing on just those cues that will be most turns cognitive. Trends their life to a predator. Decision making useful to the decision maker. in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 190–198. had better be quick and easy in such One of the most evolutionarily im- Bullock, S. (1998). A situations (Todd, 2001), and evolution portant decisions facing sexually repro- continuous evolutionary has acted to ensure that this is the ducing animals, including humans, is simulation model of the case: Those organisms that had a rather mate choice. By definition, sexual repro- attainability of honest signalling equilibria. In difficult time of making up their minds duction entails combining one’s own C. Adami, R. K. Belew, H. would have been left behind, genetically genes with another individual’s genes to Kitano, & C. E. Taylor (Eds.), Artificial life VI: speaking, by their more fleet-witted produce offspring. Through mate choice, Proceedings of the Sixth conspecifics. individuals can influence the quality of International Conference on Artificial Life (pp. Simple fast and frugal heuristics can the genes passed on to their offspring 339–348). Cambridge, help individuals make decisions quickly from their sexual partner, and the quali- MA: MIT Press. both by limiting the amount of infor- ty of the parental care those offspring Noble, J. (in press). Mammalian social mation they use to select a course of will receive. Miller and Todd (1998) de- learning. Animal Behav- action or choose an available option scribe how evolutionary psychology has iour. (Todd, 2000), and by focusing attention revolutionized research on human mate on just that information that will be choice and sexual attraction in recent most useful in making the choice. Thus, years, combining a rigorous Darwinian these simple evolved inference mecha- framework based on sexual selection nisms can help organisms overcome one theory with a loosely cognitivist orien- form of the classic frame problem tation to task analysis and mechanism plaguing any information-processing modeling. This approach has revealed decision maker: How to avoid having to the adaptive logic behind physical consider the infinite number of possible beauty, demonstrating that many sexual real-world options and their unlimited cues computed from face and body future consequences when choosing a shape are not arbitrary but functioned course of action. Ketelaar and Todd (in in the past as reliable indicators of re- press) demonstrate how simple satis- productive success. ficing mechanisms that stop search us- A striking example of cues sent ac- ing an aspiration level can limit the tively from one individual to another

are the melodies of songbirds. Some Bullock & Noble, 2000). male songbirds attract female mates In all of these domains, we have through the variety and length of songs sought evidence for heuristics that can that they produce. The same may be be used to make rapid choices in chal- true in humans: Cultural displays, in- lenging situations. But jumping to a de- cluding musical ability, may serve to at- cision quickly does not do an individual tract members of the opposite sex. Todd much good if it is the wrong choice. (1999) describes ways that such signals Simplicity is well and good, but won’t for mate attraction can evolve, while taking more information into account Bullock (1998) and Noble (in press) and doing more sophisticated analysis studies the evolution of signalling and of it yield better decisions? If so, won’t communication more generally, and all evolution balance the need for speed three explore how computer simula- against the requirements of accuracy tions can be used to study the evolu- (i.e., the importance of ensuring adap- tionary processes involved (see also tive choices such as consuming edible

46 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

fruits rather than poisonous ones) and in the environment will have profound Key References end up building brains of some interme- effects on the kind (and accuracy) of (cont’d) Fiddick, L., Cosmides, L., diate reasoning complexity? We have decision making an individual can per- & Tooby, J. (2000). No found intriguing hints that this trade- form in that environment (see Barrett & interpretation without representation: The role off often does not exist. Some com- Fiddick, 2000, and Fiddick, Cosmides, & of domain-specific rep- plexity and structure in decision-making Tooby, 2000, for examples of the range resentations and infer- mechanisms can certainly be beneficial, of issues involved in considering envi- ences in the Wason selection task. Cognition, in terms of increasing the inferential ronment structure). Hence, one of the 77, 1–79. accuracy of those mechanisms. How- most important aspects of the perspec- ever, that structure need not lie entirely tive of evolutionary psychology is that it within the decision maker. Instead, evo- serves to remind us of the psychological lution can rely on the structure inherent impact of the environment in which we in the decision environment itself and live and act. build organisms whose very psychological simplicity takes advantage of that structure. Just what structure is present

… if the history of Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction human achievement in knowledge proves anything, it is that In spite of the fact that most scientists search for the all-decisive dis- universal truths, scientific "truths” are contingent in covery is that of an important ways on the statistical and experimental effective and fruitful method. tools used to discover and test them. From different John Dewey starting points and based on different case studies, we converge on the same general issue in this project area, namely, the detection and understanding of the limitations and powers of scientists’ tools.

Key References Experimentation in psychology and fined "script” to experiments and ask Ortmann, A., & Hert- economics The core method in psy- participants to enact it using repeated wig, R. (1998). The chological research is experimentation. question remains: Is de- experimental trials, allow participants ception acceptable? Ortmann and Hertwig (1998) observed, to learn in the task environment, and American Psychologist, that the experimental practices in psy- generally pay participants on the basis 53, 806–807. chology and experimental economics of clearly defined performance criteria Hertwig, R., & Ort- mann, A. (in press). Ex- differ. In particular, a frequently used (Hertwig & Ortmann, in press). Do these perimental practices in methodological tool in psychological methodological differences matter? economics—A methodological challenge for experiments, the deception of partici- Based on a review of empirical evi- psychologists? Behav- pants, is generally taboo in experimen- dence, Hertwig and Ortmann argue that ioral and Brain Sciences. tal economics. Further investigations the practices in experimental psycholo- revealed that, in contrast to psychology of not providing a precisely defined gists, economists bring a precisely de- script for participants to enact, not re-

47 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Key References peating experimental trials, and paying Mellers, Hertwig, and Kahneman (in Mellers, B. A., Hertwig, participants either a flat fee or nothing press) began their collaboration with R., & Kahneman, D. (in leaves the social situation "experiment” Hertwig's claims that frequencies elimi- press). Do frequency representations elimi- open to a variety of interpretations. The nate conjunction effects and that Kah- nate conjunction ef- fact that psychologists are (in)famous neman and Tversky’s (1996) results with fects? An exercise in adversarial collaboration. for deceiving participants is likely only frequencies were an artifact of some Psychological Science. to magnify participants’ uncertainty and participants interpreting ’and‘ as a Gigerenzer, G. (1991). second-guessing. The typical experimen- union operator. Hertwig proposed two From tools to theories: A heuristic of discovery in tal practices in psychology increase conjunction phrases that were less am- cognitive psychology. rather than decrease the background of biguous, and Kahneman predicted that Psychological Review, 98, 254–267. variation against which effects are ap- conjunction effects would occur with praised and thus reduce the replicability one of them. Mellers served as arbiter. of results. Frequencies by themselves did not elim- Hertwig and Ortmann conclude that inate conjunction effects, but, with filler by improving research designs (e.g., rep- items present, a comparative context is etition of trials, performance-based created in which the understanding of payment), psychologists can increase the item set and the choice of filler their control of these sources of varia- items are likely to determine whether tion, thus increasing effect sizes and conjunction effects occur. Although the power of statistical tests. theoretical disagreements remain, the joint experiments have yielded theoreti- Adversarial collaboration A fa- cal progress and advanced the under- mous example that has often been used standing of conjunction effects that to illustrate human irrationality is the would not have been achieved by work- conjunction fallacy, that is, violations of ing separately. the conjunction rule (if A includes B then the probability of B cannot exceed Tools-to-theories Where do new the probability of A). To debate contro- ideas come from? In his earlier work versial interpretations of the conjunc- Gigerenzer (1991) spoke of scientific tion fallacy, a new approach called ad- discovery in terms of heuristics of dis- versarial collaboration was adopted. It covery and proposed that scientists of- requires both parties to agree on a pro- ten employ a tools-to-theories heuristic. cedure for resolving a dispute and, with This thesis predicted that new scientific the help of an arbiter, conduct empirical tools, once entrenched in a scientist’s tests. daily practice, suggest new theoretical

Linda Problem Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Rank the following statements by their probability: Linda is a bank teller. (T) Linda is active in the feminist movement. (F) Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement. (T&F) The typical result is that 80% to 90% of participants judged T&F to be more probable than T, a judgment inconsistent with the conjunction rule.

48 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition metaphors and concepts. It also predicted that once proposed by an indi- 16th Meeting of the Brunswik Society vidual scientist (or a group), the new 20—22 July 2000 theoretical metaphors and concepts are more likely to be accepted by the scien- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, tific community if the members of the Berlin, Germany community are also users of the new tools. Ulrich Hoffrage, Ralph Hertwig, Gerd Gigerenzer The employment of the tools-to- The Brunswik Society is an informal association of researchers concerned theories heuristic was applied to Re- with understanding and improving human judgment and decision making. gression Analysis, a statistical tool that The Millenium Meeting of this Society was the first meeting held outside is widely used in psychological research. the U.S. In the pleasant setting at our institute, the 50 participants heard and discussed 20 research papers, including keynote addresses by Mitchell Kurz and Martignon (in press) argue Ash, Gerd Gigerenzer, and Klaus Fiedler. that owing to the institutionalization of regression analysis in the mid-twentieth century within and beyond psychology, the outcome of the computational pro- tistical tools, Gigerenzer (1998) predict- cedure, that is, the regression equation, ed that future historians of psychology has been emphasized at the expense of will be puzzled by an odd ritual: null- the "performative components” of linear hypothesis testing. Although this ritual modeling, that is, weighting and sum- is camouflaged as the sine qua non of ming. Analysis in light of the tools-to- scientific method, Gigerenzer argued theories heuristic can also be used to that it undermines theoretical progress detect new lines of development in cur- in psychology by giving researchers no rent cognitive theories. Thus, recent incentive to specify their hypotheses Key References challenges to the two performance and by replacing statistical thinking Gigerenzer, G. (1998). components of linear modeling, weight- with the application of a mindless sta- Surrogates for theories. tistical procedure. Theory and Psychology, ing and summing, have led to new 8, 195–204. Statistical rituals have been a char- models of human judgment. According Martignon, L., Deco, G., to their analysis, Robyn Dawes chal- acteristic of scientific methodology not Laskey, K., Diamond, M., only in psychology, but also in biology, Freiwald, W., & Vaadia, lenged the weighting component of re- E. (2000). Neural coding: gression analysis by demonstrating that and especially in the field of neuro- Higher order correla- biology. Synchronization of neural acti- tions in the neurostatis- unit weighting (rather than calculating tics of cell assemblies. weights that minimize the error in the vation, postulated as the neural realiza- Neural Computation, 12, "least-squares” sense) yielded models tion of feature binding in the brain, 156–188. that correlate highly with linear regres- cannot be established by rejecting the sion models. This finding can be used to null hypothesis of independence be- model judgment and decision making in tween neurons. Rejecting the null hy- terms of a strategy like Dawes’s rule, pothesis of "chance” can lead to serious that simply adds up the number of posi- mistakes. The work of Martignon, Deco, tive cues and the number of negative Laskey, Diamond, Freiwald, and Vaadia cues and then subtracts the latter from (2000) proved how serious these mis- the former. This strategy is fast (i.e., takes can be and proposed efficient sta- does not involve much computation) tistical methods for a parameterization but not frugal (i.e., looks up all informa- of synchronization in terms of log-linear tion). models. Understanding and choosing among Null-hypothesis testing In a dis- scientific tools requires thoughtful anal- cussion of the limitations of (some) sta- ysis, not methodological rituals.

49 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Schloeßmann Seminar

The study of scientific practice impli- cates accounts of the larger historical and societal context. The same holds for the study of expertise. “The expert in modern societies: Historical and contemporary perspectives” was the topic of the Schloeßmann Semi- nar held in Berlin in November 1998. Papers presented by the invited young scientists (up to 40 years old) concerned the institutionalization and legitimation of experts, exter advisers in political contexts, and experts and science in the courtroom, as well as cognitive aspects of expertise. Kurz and Gigerenzer are currently working on the edition of a selected set of these papers.

The Schloeßmann Seminar was a collaboration among 8 Max Planck Institutes.

Scientific Committee H.-J. Albrecht H. Lehmann MPI for Foreign International Criminal Law, MPI for History, Göttingen Freiburg i. Br. G. Schrincker J. Baumert, G. Gigerenzer MPI for Foreign and International Patent, Copy- MPI for Human Development, Berlin right, and Competition Law, Munich L. Daston, H.-J. Rheinberger M. E. Streit MPI for the History of Science, Berlin MPI for Research Into Economic Systems, Jena R. Mayntz J. W. Vaupel MPI for the Study of Societies, Cologne MPI for Demographic Research, Rostock

50 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Publications 1998–2000

Barrett, H. C. (in press). On the national Conference on Artificial Deco, G., Martignon, L., & Fiedler, K., & Kurzenhäuser, S. functional origins of essential- Life (pp. 339–348). Cambridge, Laskey, K. (1998). Neural coding: (2000). Das linguistische Kate- ism. Mind and Society. MA: MIT Press. Measures for syn-fire detection. gorienmodell und die sprach- In W. Gestner (Ed.), Advances in liche Vermittlung von Einstel- Barrett, H. C., & Fiddick, L. Bullock, S., Davis, J. N., & artificial neural networks (pp. lungen. In S. Deminger, T. Fögen, (2000). Evolution and risky deci- Todd, P. M. (1999). Simplicity 78–83). Heidelberg: Springer. J. Scharloth, & S. Zwickl (Eds.), sions. Trends in Cognitive Scien- rules the roost. Exploring bird- Einstellungsforschung in der So- ces, 4, 251–252. brain parental investment heu- Del Prete, V., & Martignon, L. ziolinguistik und Nachbardiszi- ristics. In D. Floreano, J.-D. (in press). Bayesian estimates of plinen (pp. 161–177). Frankfurt Bassok, M., Chase, V. M., & Nicoud, & F. Mondada (Eds.), neural couplings. Neural Com- a.M.: Lang. Martin, S. A. (1998). Adding ap- Proceedings of the AISB ’99 putation. ples and oranges: Semantic Symposium on Imitation in Ani- – (1999). Bayesian estimates of Fiedler, K., Schmid, J., Kurzen- constraints on application of mals and Artifacts (pp. 535–- neural couplings. Society for häuser, S., & Schröter, V. formal rules. Cognitive Psychol- 544). Heidelberg: Springer. Neuroscience, 25, p. 1415. (2000). Lie detection as an attri- ogy, 35, 99–134. bution process: The anchoring Bullock, S., & Noble, J. (2000). Dhami, M. K. (1999). Psychol- effect revisited. Hypnosis Inter- Berretty, P. M., Todd, P. M., & Evolutionary simulation model- ogy on the bench. Psychologist, national Monographs, 4, 1–25. Martignon, L. (1999). Categori- ling clarifies interactions be- 12, 328–329. zation by elimination. Using few tween parallel adaptive process- Forsyth, R. G., Hutchinson, J. cues to choose. In G. Gigerenzer, es: Commentary. Behavorial and Dhami, M. K., & Ayton, P. (in M. C., & Reise, H. (in press). P. M. Todd, & the ABC Research Brain Sciences, 23, 150–151. press). Bailing and jailing the Aegopinella nitidula (Drapar- Group, Simple heuristics that fast and frugal way. Journal of naud, 1805) (Gastropoda: Zoni- make us smart (pp. 235–254). Bullock, S., & Todd, P. M. Behavioral Decision Making. tidae) in British Columbia—first New York: Oxford University (1999). Made to measure: eco- confirmed North American re- Press. logical rationality in structured Dhami, M. K., & Harries, C. cord. American Malacological environments. Minds and Ma- (2001). Fast and frugal versus Bulletin, 16. Blythe, P. W., Todd, P. M., & chines, 9, 497–541. regression models of human Miller, G. F. (1999). How motion judgement. Thinking and Rea- Gigerenzer, G. (in press-a). The soning, 7, 5–27. reveals intention. Categorizing Chase, V. M., Hertwig, R., & adaptive toolbox and life span social interactions. In G. Gigerenzer, G. (1998). Visions development: Common ques- Di Paolo, E. A., Bullock, S., & Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the of rationality. Trends in Cogni- tions? In U. M. Staudinger & U. Noble, J. (2000). Artificial life: ABC Research Group, Simple tive Sciences, 2, 206–214. Lindenberger (Eds.), Understand- heuristics that make us smart Discipline or method? Report on ing human development: Life (pp. 257–285). New York: Ox- a debate held at ECAl '99. Arti- span psychology in exchange Czerlinski, J., Gigerenzer, G., & ford University Press. ficial Life, 6, 145–148. with other disciplines. Dor- Goldstein, D. G. (1999). How drecht: Kluwer. good are simple heuristics? In Borges, B., Goldstein, D. G., Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, – (in press-b). Content-blind G. Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the Ortmann, A., & Gigerenzer, G. H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., norms, no norms, or good ABC Research Group, Simple (in press). The recognition heu- Schiller, L., Gigerenzer, G., & norms? A reply to Vranas. Cog- heuristics that make us smart ristic: A fast and frugal way to Hoehe, M. R. (1999). Specific nition. (pp. 97–118). New York: Oxford investment choice? In C. R. Plott attentional dysfunctions in – (in press-c). Digital computer: University Press. & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook adults following early start of Impact on the social sciences. In of experimental economics re- cannabis use. Psychopharmacol- N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes sults. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Davis, J. N. (in press). A few ogy, 142, 295–315. (Eds.), International encyclope- – (1999). Can ignorance beat tips on hypothesis testing: Gan- dia of the social and behavioral the stock market? In G. Gigeren- gestad & Simpson: The evolu- Fiddick, L. (2000). The content sciences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier zer, P. M. Todd, & the ABC Re- tion of human mating. Trade- of their discontent: How do the Science. search Group, Simple heuristics offs and strategic pluralism. Be- folk interpret evolutionary psy- – (in press-d). Ecological ration- that make us smart (pp. 59–72). havorial and Brain Sciences. chology? Psychological Inquiry, ality: The adaptive toolbox. In J. New York: Oxford University 11, 26–29. A. French, A. C. Kamil, & D. W. Press. Davis, J. N., & Todd, P. M. Leger (Eds.), Nebraska Sympo- (1999). Parental investment by Fiddick, L., & Barrett, H. C. (in sium on Motivation: Vol. 48. Brendgen, M., Little, T. D., & simple decision rules. In G. press). Evolution of cognition. In Evolutionary psychology and Krappmann, L. (2000). Rejected Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes motivation. Lincoln: University children and their friends: A ABC Research Group, Simple (Eds.), International encyclope- of Nebraska Press. shared evaluation of friendship heuristics that make us smart dia of the social and behavioral – (in press-e). Ideas in exile: The quality? Merrill-Palmer Quarter- (pp. 309–324). New York: sciences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier struggles of an upright man. In ly, 46, 45–70. Oxford University Press. Science. K. R. Hammond & T. R. Stewart (Eds.), The essential Brunswik: Bullock, S. (1998). A continuous Davis, J. N., Todd, P. M., & Fiddick, L., Cosmides, L., & Beginnings, explications, appli- evolutionary simulation model Bullock, S. (1999). Environment Tooby, J. (2000). No interpreta- cations. New York: Oxford Uni- of the attainability of honest quality predicts parental provi- tion without representation: The versity Press. signalling equilibria. In C. Ada- sioning decisions. Proceedings of role of domain-specific repre- – (in press-f). Nonrational theo- mi, R. K. Belew, H. Kitano, & C. the Royal Society of London B, sentations and inferences in the ries of decision making. In N. J. E. Taylor (Eds.), Artificial life VI: Biological Sciences, 266, 1791–- Wason selection task. Cognition, Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), In- Proceedings of the Sixth Inter- 1797. 77, 1–79. ternational encyclopedia of the

51 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

social and behavioral sciences. Gigerenzer, G., Czerlinski, J., & Gigerenzer, G., & Selten, R. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Martignon, L. (1999). How (Eds.). (2001a). Bounded ration- – (2001). The adaptive toolbox. good are fast and frugal heuris- ality: The adaptive toolbox. In G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten tics? In J. Shanteau, B. Mellers, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Eds.), Bounded rationality: The & D. Schum (Eds.), Decision re- (377 p.). adaptive toolbox (pp. 37–50). search from Bayesian approach- – (2001b). Rethinking rationali- Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. es to normative systems: Reflec- ty. In G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten – (2000). Adaptive thinking: Ra- tions on the contributions of (Eds.), Bounded rationality: The tionality in the real world. New Ward Edwards (pp. 81–103). adaptive toolbox (pp. 1–12). York: Oxford University Press Norwell, MA: Kluwer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (344 p.). Gigerenzer, G., & Goldstein, D. Gigerenzer, G., Swijtink, Z., G. (1999). Betting on one good Porter, T., Daston, L., Beatty, J., reason. The Take the Best heu- & Krüger, L. (1999). Das Reich ristic. In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. des Zufalls. Wissen zwischen Todd, & the ABC Research Wahrscheinlichkeiten, Häufig- Group, Simple heuristics that keiten und Unschärfen. Heidel- make us smart (pp. 75–95). New berg: Spektrum akademischer ognition heuristic. In M. A. York: Oxford University Press. Verlag (374 p.). Gernsbacher & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Proceedings of the Twentieth Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, R., Annual Conference of the Cog- Hoffrage, U., & Sedlmeier, P. nitive Science Society (pp. (in press). Cognitive illusions re- 407–411). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- considered. In C. R. Plott & V. L. baum. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of experimental economics results. Goldstein, D. G., Blythe, P. W., Amsterdam: North Holland/- & Sharpe, W. F. (1999). Assess- ing the risk preferences of indi- O XFORD U NIVERSITY PRESS 2000 Elsevier. vidual investors. In Proceedings Gigerenzer, G., & Hoffrage, U. of the International Association – (1999a). Einfluß statt Anpas- (1999). Overcoming difficulties for Research in Economic Psy- sung: Ein Kommentar zur Inter- in Bayesian reasoning: A reply chology XXIVth Annual Collo- nationalisierung der APA-Zeit- to Lewis and Keren (1999) and quium. Belgirate (pp. 11–21). schriften. Psychologische Rund- Mellers and McGraw (1999). Milan: ICER. schau, 50, 111–113. Psychological Review, 106, – (1999b). Mentale Fakultäten, 425–430. Goldstein, D. G., & Gigerenzer, methodische Rituale und andere Gigerenzer, G., & Todd, P. M. G. (in press-a). Ignorance-based Stolpersteine. Zeitschrift für Gigerenzer, G., Hoffrage, U., & (in press-a). Bounded rationality decision making and the less- Psychologie mit Zeitschrift für Ebert, A. (1998). AIDS counsel- the fast and frugal way: Intro- is-more paradox. In C. R. Plott angewandte Psychologie, 207, ing for low-risk clients. Aids duction. In C. R. Plott & V. L. & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook 287–297. Care, 10, 197–211. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- of experimental economics re- – (1998a). Ecological intelli- perimental economics results. sults. Amsterdam: Elsevier. gence: An adaptation for fre- Gigerenzer, G., & Krauss, S. Amsterdam: Elsevier. – (in press-b). The recognition quencies. In D. D. Cummins & C. (2001). Statistisches Denken – (in press-b). Ecological ration- heuristic and the less-is-more Allen (Eds.), The evolution of oder statistische Rituale: Was ality: Introduction. In C. R. Plott effect. In C. R. Plott & V. L. mind (pp. 9–29). New York: Ox- sollte man unterrichten? In M. & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- ford University Press. Borovcnik, J. Engel, & D. Wick- of experimental economics re- perimental economics results. – (1998b). Psychological chal- mann (Eds.), Anregungen zum sults. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Amsterdam: Elsevier. lenges for normative models. In Stochastikunterricht: Die NCTM- – (in press-c). Fast and frugal – (1999). The recognition heu- D. M. Gabbay & P. Smets (Eds.), Standards 2000. Klassische und heuristics for decision-making: ristic. How ignorance makes us Handbook of defeasible reason- Bayessche Sichtweise im Ver- A new view of ecological ra- smart. In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. ing and uncertainty manage- gleich (pp. 53–62). Hildesheim: tionality. In C. R. Plott & V. L. Todd, & the ABC Research ment systems: Vol. 1. Quantified Franzbecker. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- Group, Simple heuristics that representation of uncertainty perimental economics results. make us smart (pp. 37–58). New and imprecision (pp. 441–467). Gigerenzer, G., & Kurz, E. M. Amsterdam: Elsevier. York: Oxford University Press. Dordrecht: Kluwer. (in press). A fast and frugal lens – (1999). Fast and frugal heu- – (1998c). Surrogates for theo- model: Vicarious functioning ristics. The adaptive toolbox. In ries. Theory and Psychology, 8, reconsidered. In K. R. Hammond G. Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the 195–204. & T. R. Stewart (Eds.), The es- ABC Research Group, Simple SIMPLE – (1998d). We need statistical sential Brunswik: Beginnings, heuristics that make us smart thinking, not statistical rituals. explications, applications. New (pp. 3–34). New York: Oxford HEURISTICS Behavioral and Brain Sciences, York: Oxford University Press. University Press. 21, 199–200. THAT MAKE US Gigerenzer, G., Martignon, L., Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. et al. (1999). In- Hoffrage, U., Rieskamp, J., the ABC Research Group SMART ternationalisierung der psycho- Czerlinski, J., & Goldstein, (1999). Simple heuristics that logischen Forschung in D. G. (in press). One reason de- make us smart. New York: Ox- Deutschland, Österreich und der cision making. In C. R. Plott & ford University Press (416 p.). GERD GIGERENZER,PETER M. TODD, Schweiz: Sieben Empfehlungen. V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of AND THE ABC RESEARCH GROUP Psychologische Rundschau, 50, experimental economics results. Goldstein, D. G. (1998). Infer- 101–105. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ence from ignorance: The rec-

52 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Goldstein, D. G., Gigerenzer, Childhood personality influences Research Group, Simple heuris- (Ed.), Max-Planck-Institut für G., Hogarth, R. M., Kacelnik, A., on social-cognitive develop- tics that make us smart (pp. psychologische Forschung (pp. Kareev, Y., Klein, G., Martignon, ment: A longitudinal study. 209–234). New York: Oxford 73–89). München: Max-Planck- L., Payne, J. W., & Schlag, K. Journal of Personality and Social University Press. Gesellschaft (Berichte und Mit- (2001). Why and when do sim- Psychology, 74, 1278–1289. teilungen 1998/4). ple heuristics work? In G. Gige- Hertwig, R., & Ortmann, A. (in – (1998b). Using natural fre- renzer & R. Selten, Bounded ra- Henrich, J., Albers, W., Boyd, R., press-a). Experimental practices quencies to improve diagnostic tionality: The adaptive toolbox Gigerenzer, G., McCabe, K. A. S., in economics—A methodological inferences. Academic Medicine, (pp. 173–190). Cambridge, MA: Ockenfels, A., & Young, H. P. challenge for psychologists? Be- 73, 538–540. MIT Press. (2001). What is the role of cul- havioral and Brain Sciences. ture in bounded rationality? In – (in press-b). "You got it Hoffrage, U., & Hertwig, R. Goldstein, D. G., Sharpe, W. F., G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.), wrong, I got it right”—The con- (1999). Hindsight bias. A price & Blythe, P. W. (1999). The dis- Bounded rationality: The adap- tentious debate about proper worth paying for fast and frugal tribution builder: An interactive tive toolbox (pp. 343–359). experimentation. In I. Brocas & memory. In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. tool for assessing investor risk Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. J. D. Carillo (Eds.), Economics Todd, & the ABC Research preference. In Proceedings of the and psychology. New York: Ox- Group, Simple heuristics that Third International Stockholm Hertwig, R. (2000). The ques- ford University Press. make us smart (pp. 191–208). Seminar on Risk Behavior and tionable utility of "cognitive New York: Oxford University Risk Management (pp. 320–- ability" in explaining cognitive Hertwig, R., & Todd, P. M. (in Press. 331). Stockholm: Bo Gren. illusions. Behavioral and Brain press-a). Heuristics. In V. S. Ra- Sciences, 23, 678–679. machandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & Goodie, A. S., & Fantino, E. – (1998). Psychologie, experi- of the human brain. New York: Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Die (1999). What does and does not mentelle Ökonomie und die Fra- Academic Press. ökologische Rationalität ein- alleviate base-rate neglect un- ge, was gutes Experimentieren – (in press-b). More is not al- facher Entscheidungs- und Ur- der direct experience. Journal of ist. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle ways better: The benefits of teilsheuristiken. In H. Siegen- Behavioral Decision Making, 12, Psychologie, 45, 2–19. cognitive limits. In L. Macchi & thaler (Ed.), Evolution, Tradition 307–335. D. Hardman (Eds.), The psychol- und Rationalität. ogy of reasoning and decision – (2000). Hindsight bias: A by- Goodie, A. S., Ortmann, A., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. making: A handbook. Chichester, (1999). The "conjunction falla- product of knowledge updating? Davis, J. N., Bullock, S., & UK: Wiley. Journal of Experimental Psychol- Werner, G. M. (1999). Demons cy" revisited: How intelligent in- – (2000). Biases to the left, fal- ferences look like reasoning er- ogy: Learning, Memory, and Cog- versus heuristics in artificial in- lacies to the right: Stuck in the nition, 26, 566–581. telligence, behavioral ecology, rors. Journal of Behavioral Deci- middle with null hypothesis sig- and economics. G. Gigerenzer, sion Making, 12, 275–305. nificance testing. Commentary Hoffrage, U., Kurzenhäuser, S., P. M. Todd, & the ABC Research on Krueger on social-bias. Psy- & Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Po- Group, Simple heuristics that coloquy, 11. sitive Mammografie = Brust- make us smart (pp. 327–355). krebs? Von den Schwierigkeiten New York: Oxford University Hoffrage, U. (in press). Does im Umgang mit statistischen In- Press. knowing “who is rational” tell formationen. Mangaged Care. us why and when people are ir- – (2000). Wie kann man die Be- Griffith, N., & Todd, P. M. (Eds.). rational? Book review of deutung medizinischer Testbe- (1999). Musical networks. Paral- "K. Stanovitch: Who is ration- funde besser verstehen und lel distributed perception and al?" Theory and Psychology. kommunizieren? Zeitschrift für performance. Cambridge, MA: – (2001). Risikokommunikation ärztliche Fortbildung und Qua- MIT Press (385 p.). in der Medizin: Zum Wohle des litätssicherung, 94, 713–719. Patientien? Berliner Ärzte, 38 Grundmann, M., & Keller, M. (4), 12–15. (1999a). Familiale Beziehungen – (2000). Why the analysis of Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., und soziomoralische Entwick- cognitive processes matters. Be- Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. lung. In H. R. Leu & L. Krapp- havioral and Brain Sciences, 23, (2000). Communicating statisti- mann, Zwischen Autonomie und 679–680. cal information. Science, 290, Verbundenheit (pp. 330–356). – (1999a). Irren ist wahrschein- 2261–2262. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. lich: Medizinische Experten und – (1999b). Perspektivität, soziale Hertwig, R., & Hoffrage, U. (in Laien bewerten Risiken oft Hoffrage, U., & Martignon, L. Kognition und die (Re-)Kon- press). Technology needs psy- falsch. einblick, 13, 6–9. (in press). Fast, frugal and fit: struktion sozialisationsrelevan- chology: How natural frequen- – (1999b). Statistiken machen Lexicographic heuristics for ter Handlungsstrukturen. In M. cies foster insight in medical das Leben schwer: Was bedeu- paired comparison. Theory and Grundmann (Ed.), Konstruktivis- and legal experts. In P. Sedlmei- ten Befunde wirklich? Landärzt- Decision. tische Sozialisationsforschung er & T. Betsch (Eds.), Frequency liche Nachrichten, 5, p. 6. (pp. 118–148). Frankfurt a.M.: processing and cognition. New Hutchinson, J. M. C. (2000a). Suhrkamp. York: Oxford University Press. Hoffrage, U., & Gigerenzer, G. More on the meanderings of – (2001). Eingeschränkte und (in press). A simple method to mangabeys; How to test hether Harries, C., & Dhami, M. K. ökologische Rationalität: Ein foster insight in medical ex- bounded walks are random. (2000). On the descriptive valid- Forschungsprogramm. Psycholo- perts. In E. M. Kurz & G. Gige- Functional Ecology, 14, 267–271. ity and prescriptive utility of gische Rundschau, 52, 11–19. renzer (Eds.), The expert in mod- – (2000b). Sampling and statis- fast and frugal models. Behav- ern societies: Historical and con- tical methods for behavioral ioral and Brain Sciences, 23, Hertwig, R., Hoffrage, U., & temporary perspectives. ecologists [book review]. Journal 753–754. Martignon, L. (1999). Quick es- – (1998a). Arbeitsbereich Adap- of Fish Biology, 56, 233–234. timation. Letting the environ- tives Verhalten und Kognition. – (2000c). Three into two Hart, D., Keller, M., Edelstein, ment do the work. In G. Gige- In Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur doesn’t go; Bird eggs, snail W., & Hofmann, V. (1998). renzer, P. M. Todd, & the ABC Förderung der Wissenschaften shells, & plant roots. Biological

53 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Journal of the Linnean Society, In H. Merkens & J. Zinnecker Untergang—Übergang: Leben in in late childhood. In M. Hofer, J. 70, 161–187. (Eds.), Jahrbuch Jugendfor- der Zeitwende (pp. 185–188). Youniss, & P. Noack (Eds.), Ver- schung. Opladen: Leske + Salzburg: Müller. bal interaction and development Hutchinson, J. M. C., & McNa- Budrich. – (1999c). Für eine Kultur des in families with adolescents (pp. mara, J. M. (2000). Ways to test – (in press-c). Die Sozialwelt der Aufwachsens: Die Lebenssitua- 11–29). Stamford, CT: Ablex. stochastic dynamic program- Kinder und ihre Moralentwick- tion von Kindern. Welt des Kin- ming models empirically. Animal lung. In W. Edelstein, F. Oser, & des, 77, 28–31. Krappmann, L., & Uhlendorff, Behaviour, 59, 665–676. P. Schuster (Eds.), Moralerzie- – (1999d). Aus der Perspektive H. (1999). Soziometrische Ak- hung in der Schule. Weinheim: der Kinder. Berichte über die Le- zeptanz in der Schulklasse und Keller, M. (in press-a). Moral in Beltz. benssituationen der Kinder. In Kinderfreundschaften. In E. Ren- Beziehungen: Die Entwicklung – (2000a). Chancen und Risiken C. Lost & P. Oberhuemer (Eds.), ner, S. Riemann & I. K. Schnei- des moralischen Denkens in der Kinder im 21. Jahrhundert. Auch Kinder sind Bürger (pp. der (Eds.), Kindsein in der Schule Kindheit und Jugend. In W. In A. Lange & W. Lauterbach 52–56). Baltmannsweiler: (pp. 94–104). Weinheim: Deut- Edelstein, F. Oser, & P. Schuster (Eds.), Kinder in Familie und Schneider-Verlag Hohengehren. scher Studien Verlag. (Eds.), Moralische Erziehung in Gesellschaft zu Beginn des – (1999e). Die Reproduktion des der Schule. Weinheim: Beltz. 21. Jahrhunderts (pp. 345-356). Systems gesellschaftlicher Un- Krappmann, L., Uhlendorff, H., – (in press-b). Moralische Ent- Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius. gleichheit in der Kinderwelt. In & Oswald, H. (1999). Qualities wicklung als Voraussetzung für – (2000b). Kinderleben in M. Grundmann (Ed.), Konstruk- of children’s friendships in mid- prosoziales Handeln und Verant- Deutschland: Wichtige Ergeb- tivistische Sozialisationsfor- dle childhood in East and West wortungsübernahme. In D. nisse des Zehnten Kinder- und schung (pp. 228–239). Frankfurt Berlin. In R. K. Silbereisen & A. Sturzbecher & H. Grossmann Jugendberichts. In Kinder in a.M.: Suhrkamp. von Eye (Eds.), Growing up in (Eds.), Soziale Partizipation in Tageseinrichtungen, Lfg. 10 (pp. – (1999f). Risiko und Krise, Her- times of social change (pp. 91–- der Kindertagesbetreuung. Neu- 493–498). Seelze-Velber: Kall- ausforderung und Entwicklung. 106). Berlin: de Gruyter. wied: Luchterhand. meyer. In W. Althof (Ed.), Fehlerwelten. – (1998). Entwicklung sozio- – (2000c). Politische Sozialisa- Vom Fehlermachen und Lernen Krauss, S. (2001). Wahrschein- moralischer Kognitionen im Kul- tion in Kindheit und Jugend aus Fehlern (pp. 259–267). Op- lichkeit und Intuition—Zwei turvergleich. In Jahrbuch der durch Partizipation an alltäg- laden: Leske + Budrich. Seiten einer Medaille? In M. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft 1998 lichen Entscheidungen—Ein For- – (1999g). Die Rolle der Soziolo- Borovcnik, J. Engel, & D. Wick- (pp. 724–731). Göttingen: Van- schungskonzept. In H.-P. Kuhn, gie im "Kinderbericht" der Bun- mann (Eds.), Anregungen zum denhoeck & Ruprecht. H. Uhlendorff & L. Krappmann desregierung (Zehnter Kinder- Stochastikunterricht: Die NCTM- (Eds.), Sozialisation zur Mitbürg- und Jugendbericht). Berliner Standards 2000. Klassische und Keller, M., Edelstein, W., erlichkeit (pp. 77–92). Lever- Journal für Soziologie, 9, 455–- Bayessche Sichtweise im Ver- Krettenauer, T., Fang, F., & kusen: Leske + Budrich. 465. gleich (pp. 139–146). Hildes- Fang, G. (2000). Denken über – (2000d). Schule ist mehr als – (1999h). Soziale Arbeit in heim: Franzbecker. moralische Verpflichtung und Unterricht: Soziales Leben ist schwierigen Zeiten. Jugendwohl, – (1999). Die Entdeckungsge- interpersonale Verantwortung im ohne Moral, Ethik und Religion 80, 100–107. schichte und die Ausnahmestel- Zusammenhang unterschiedli- nicht denkbar. Praxis Schule 5–- – (1999i). Spielen, Lernen und lung einer besonderen Zahl: e = cher Kulturen. In W. Edelstein & 10, 11, 17–19. Bildung. In H. Petillon & R. Val- 2,71828182845904523536. The G. Nunner-Winkler (Eds.), Moral – (2000e). Soziologische Dimen- tin (Eds.), Spielen in der Grund- Teaching of Mathematics, 2, im sozialen Kontext (pp. 375–- sionen der Identität: Strukturelle schule (pp. 54–66). Frankfurt 105–118. 406). Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. Bedingungen für die Teilnahme a.M.: Grundschulverband—Ar- an Interaktionsprozessen (9th beitskreis Grundschule e.V. Keller, M., Edelstein, W., ed.). Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta – (1999j). Der zehnte Kinder- Krauss, S., & Hertwig, R. Schmid, C., Fang, F., & Fang, G. (321 p.). und Jugendbericht: Der erste (2000). Muss DNA-Evidenz (1998). Reasoning about respon- – (2000f). Über die wechselsei- Kinderbericht. Befunde und schwer verständlich sein? Der sibilities and obligations in close tige Anregung von Sozialisa- Empfehlungen. Neue Sammlung, Ausweg aus einem Kommunika- relationships: A comparison tionsforschung und Entwick- 39, 331–342. tionsproblem. Monatsschrift für across two cultures. Develop- lungspsychologie. In M. Grund- – (Vorsitzender). (1998). Bericht Kriminologie und Strafrechtsre- mental Psychology, 34, 731–741. mann & K. Lüscher (Eds.), über die Lebenssituation von form, 83, 155–162. Sozialökologische Sozialisa- Kindern und die Leistungen der Ketelaar, T., & Todd, P. M. (in tionsforschung (pp. 121–135). Kinderhilfen in Deutschland. Krauss, S., Martignon, L., & press). Framing our thoughts: Konstanz: Universitätsverlag. Zehnter Kinder- und Jugend- Hoffrage, U. (1999). Simplifying Evolutionary psychology’s an- – (2000g). Zur Verschiedenheit bericht. Bonn: Bundestagsdruck- Bayesian inference. The general swer to the computational der Moral in unterschiedlichen sache 13/11368 v. 25.8.1998. case. In L. Magnani, N. J. Ner- mind’s dilemma. In P. S. Davies Kulturen: Ein Kommentar zu sessian, & P. Thagard (Eds.), & H. R. Holcomb III (Eds.), The Joan Millers Untersuchungen Krappmann, L., & V. Kleineidam Model-based reasoning in scien- evolution of minds: Psychologi- des Helfens in den USA und In- (1999). Interaktionspragmati- tific discovery (pp. 165–179). cal and philosophical perspec- dien. In W. Edelstein & G. Nun- sche Herausforderung des Sub- New York: Plenum Press. tives. Norwell, MA: Kluwer. ner-Winkler (Eds.), Moral im jekts. Beobachtungen der Inter- sozialen Kontext (pp. 363–374). aktionen zehnjähriger Kinder. In Krauss, S., & Wassner, C. Krappmann, L. (in press-a). Is Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. H. R. Leu & L. Krappmann (Eds.), (2001). Wie man das Testen von community compatible with au- – (1999a). Growing up in Ger- Zwischen Autonomie und Ver- Hypothesen einführen sollte. tonomy? Some comments to many: A national report. Inter- bundenheit: Bedingungen und Stochastik in der Schule, 21, Joan Miller's research on differ- national Journal of Early Years Formen der Behauptung von 29–34. ing moralities in India and the Education, 7, 223–228. Subjektivität (pp. 241–265). – (2000). Probleme bei der In- United States. In W. Edelstein & – (1999b). Kultur des Aufwach- Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. terpretation signifikanter Test- G. Nunner-Winkler (Eds.), sens. Die Geburtsjahrgänge ergebnisse. In M. Neubrand & T. Morality in context. Boston, MA: 1919–1961 auf dem Weg von Krappmann, L., Schuster, B., & Jahnke (Eds.), Beiträge zum Ma- MIT Press. der Schule in das Erwerbsleben. Youniss, J. (1998). Can mothers thematikunterricht 2000 (pp. – (in press-b). Soziales Leben In A. A. Bucher, R. Seitz, & R. win? The transformation of 370–373). Hildesheim: Franz- und Lernen im Klassenzimmer. Donnenberg (Eds.), Aufgang— mother-daughter relationships becker.

54 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

Kurz, E. M. (1998). Representa- Leu, H. R., & Krappmann, L. Bayesianism and bounded ration, agency, and disciplinarity: (1999a). Subjektorientierte So- tionality. In S. Shneider & J. Calculus experts at work. In M. zialisationsforschung im Wan- Shanteau (Eds.), Emerging per- A. Gernsbacher & S. J. Derry del. In H. R. Leu & L. Krappmann spectives on decision research. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Twen- (Eds.), Zwischen Autonomie und Oxford, UK: Oxford University tieth Annual Meeting of the Verbundenheit: Bedingungen Press. Cognitive Science Society (pp. und Formen der Behauptung von 585–590). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- Subjektivität (pp. 11–18). Frank- Martignon, L., & Schmitt, M. baum. furt a.M.: Suhrkamp. (1999). Simplicity and robust- – (Eds.). (1999b). Zwischen Au- ness of fast and frugal heuris- Kurz, E. M., Gigerenzer, G., & tonomie und Verbundenheit: Be- tics. Minds and Machines, 9, Hoffrage, U. (in press). Repre- dingungen und Formen der Be- 565–593. sentations of uncertainty and hauptung von Subjektivität. change: Three case studies with Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. Martignon, L., & Wassner, C. experts. In J. Shanteau, P. John- – (1999c). Zwischen Autonomie (2001). Repräsentation von In- son, & K. Smith (Eds.), Psy- und Verbundenheit: Vorwort. In Biermann Stolle. Essen: Die formation in der Wahrschein- chological investigations of H. R. Leu & L. Krappmann (Eds.), blaue Eule. lichkeitstheorie. In M. Borovcnik, competent decision making. Zwischen Autonomie und Ver- – (2000a). Repräsentation von J. Engel, & D. Wickmann (Eds.), Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- bundenheit: Bedingungen und Information in mathematischen Anregungen zum Stochastik- versity Press. Formen der Behauptung von Kontexten: Eine kognitionspsy- unterricht: Die NCTM-Standards Subjektivität (pp. 7–10). Frank- chologische Vision. Beiträge 2000. Klassische und Bayessche Kurz, E. M., & Hertwig, R. (in furt a.M.: Suhrkamp. zum Mathematikunterricht, 34, Sichtweise im Vergleich (pp. press). Demonstrations for per- 434–437. 163–169). Hildesheim: Franz- ception psychologists. In K. R. Little, T. D., Brendgen, M., – (2000b). Repräsentation von becker. Hammond & T. R. Stewart (Eds.), Wanner, B., & Krappmann, L. Information in mathematischen The essential Brunswik: Begin- (1999). Children’s reciprocal Kontexten: Eine kognitionspsy- Matter-Walstra, K., & Hoffrage, nings, explications, applications. perceptions of friendship quality chologische Vision. In M. Neu- U. (in press). Individuelle Ent- Oxford, UK: Oxford University in the sociocultural contexts of brand & T. Jahnke (Eds.), Bei- scheidungsfindung am Beispiel Press. East and West Berlin. Interna- träge zum Mathematikunterricht der Brustkrebs-Früherkennung— tional Journal of Behavioral De- Erfahrungen aus Fokusgruppen Kurz, E. M., & Martignon, L. 2000 (pp. 134–139). Hildes- velopment, 23, 63–89. in der Schweiz. Managed Care. (1999). Weighing, then sum- heim: Franzbecker. ming: The triumph and tumbling Maurer, R., & Hoffrage, U. Martignon, L. (in press-a). Al- Martignon, L., Atmaca, S., & of a modeling practice in psy- (1999). An expected utility ap- gorithm. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Krauss, S. (2001). Wie kann chology. In L. Magnani, N. J. proach to probabilistic insur- Baltes (Eds.), International ency- man Wahlergebnisse und AIDS- Nersessian, & P. Thagard (Eds.), ance: A comment on Wakker, clopedia of the social and be- Risiken intuitiv darstellen? Ein Model-based reasoning in scien- Thaler and Tversky (1997). havioral sciences. Oxford, UK: Kommentar zu den Beiträgen tific discovery (pp. 26–31). Mannheim: Universität Mann- Elsevier Science. von Hildebrand und Quermann. Pavia: Cariplo. heim, Sonderforschungsbereich – (in press-b). A Bayesian view Stochastik in der Schule, 21, Rationalitätskonzepte, Entschei- Kurz, E. M., & Tweney, R. D. on fast and frugal decision 11–12. schemes. International Journal dungsverhalten und ökono- (1998). The practice of mathe- mische Modellierung (Working of Artificial Intelligence. Martignon, L., Deco, G., Laskey, matics and science: From calcu- Paper No. 31). lus to the clothesline problem. – (in press-c). The debate over K., Diamond, M., Freiwald, W., & cognitive illusions. Synthese. In M. Oaksford & N. Chater Vaadia, E. (2000). Neural coding: Mellers, B. A., Erev, I., Fessler, D. – (in press-d). Fast, frugal, and (Eds.), Rational models of cogni- Higher order correlations in the M. T., Hemelrijk, C. K., Hertwig, enlightened. In L. Macchi & tion (pp. 415–438). New York: neurostatistics of cell assem- R., Laland, K. N., Scherer, K. R., H. Hardmann (Eds.), Handbook Oxford University Press. blies. Neural Computation, 12, Seeley, T. D., & Selten, R. (2001). for decision making. New York: 156–188. Effects of emotions and social Wiley. Kurzenhäuser, S. (in press). processes on bounded rationali- – (in press-e). Information theo- Risikokommunikation in der Martignon, L., & Hoffrage, U. ty. In G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten ry. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes BSE-Krise: Illusorische Sicher- (1999). Why does one-reason (Eds.) Bounded rationality: The (Eds.), International encyclope- heit und Transparenz. Bundes- decision making work? A case adaptive toolbox (pp. 263–279). dia of the social and behavioral gesundheitsblatt. study in ecological rationality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. sciences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & Science. Lages, M. (1999). Algebraic de- the ABC Research Group, Simple Mellers, B. A., Hertwig, R., & – (in press-f). Principles of composition of individual choice heuristics that make us smart Kahneman, D. (in press). Do fre- adaptive decision-making. In N. behavior. Berlin: Max Planck In- (pp. 119–140). New York: Oxford quency representations elimi- Baer (Ed.), Adaptive decision stitute for Human Development University Press. nate conjunction effects? An making: Rational decision-mak- (Materialien aus der Bildungs- exercise in adversarial collabo- ing in the preservation of cultur- forschung, Vol. 63). Martignon, L., & Laskey, K. B. ration. Psychological Science. al property. New York: Wiley. (1999). Bayesian benchmarks for Lages, M., & Treisman, M. – (2001a). Comparing fast and fast and frugal heuristics. In G. Miller, G. F., & Todd, P. M. (1998a). Contributions of visual frugal heuristics and optimal Gigerenzer, P. M. Todd, & the (1998). Mate choice turns cog- information and vestibular and models. In G. Gigerenzer & R. ABC Research Group, Simple nitive. Trends in Cognitive Sci- somesthetic information in ori- Selten (Eds.), Bounded rationali- heuristics that make us smart ences, 2, 190–198. entation discrimination. Percep- ty: The adaptive toolbox (pp. (pp. 169–188). New York: Ox- tion, 27, p. 48. 147–171). Cambridge, MA: MIT ford University Press. Noble, J. (in press-a). Co-opera- – (1998b). Spatial frequency Press. tion, competition and the evolu- discrimination: Visual long-term – (Ed.). (2001b). Fern und fremd. Martignon, L., & Krauss, S. (in tion of pre-linguistic communi- memory or criterion-setting? Vi- Die deutsche Emigration in press). Can l’homme eclairé be cation. In C. Knight, M. Stud- sion Research, 38, 557–572. Kolumbien 1939–1945: Enrique fast and frugal? Reconciling dert-Kennedy, & J. Hurford

55 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

(Eds.), The emergence of lan- rats. In D. Floreano, J.-D. of the terrestrial slug Boettger- dia of the social and behavioral guage. New York: Cambridge Nicoud, & F. Mondada (Eds.), illa pallens in Europe with refer- sciences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier University Press. Advances in artificial life. Euro- ence to its recent discovery in Science. –(in press-b). Mammalian social pean Conference, 5 (pp. 514–- North America. Veliger, 43, – (in press-b). Simulating the learning. Animal Behaviour. 523). Berlin: Springer. 313–318. evolution of musical behavior. In –(in press-c). The mathematics N. Wallin (Ed.), The origins of of nepotism: A review of Foun- Ortmann, A. (2000). Comment Rieskamp, J. (2000). Will we music. Cambridge, MA: MIT dations of social evolution by on Bruno S. Frey and Iris ever stop studying one-shot Press. Steven A. Frank. Adaptive Be- Bohnet. In M. E. Streit, U. Mum- games? Fairness as an equilibri- – (2001). Fast and frugal heuris- havior. mert, & D. Kiwit (Eds.), Cogni- um selection device in an indef- tics for environmentally bound- – (1999a). Cooperation, conflict tion, rationality, and institutions inite repeated bargaining exper- ed minds. In G. Gigerenzer & R. and the evolution of communi- (pp. 121–129). Berlin: Springer. iment. In Proceedings of the Selten (Eds.), Bounded rational- cation. Adaptive Behavior, 7, – (1999a). Game theory and Twenty-fifth Annual Conference ity: The adaptive toolbox (pp. 349–369. economic behaviour: introduc- of the International Association 51–70). Cambridge, MA: MIT – (1999b). Sexual signalling in tion. In R. Selten, Game theory for Research in Economic Psy- Press. an artificial population. When and economic behaviour. Select- chology, Vienna, Austria (pp. – (2000). The ecological ration- does the handicap principle ed essays, 1 (pp. XI-XXI). Chel- 375–381). Wien: WUV Facultas. ality of mechanisms evolved to work? In D. Floreano, J.-D. tenham: Elgar. make up minds. American Be- Nicoud, & F. Mondada (Eds.), – (1999b). The nature and caus- Rieskamp, J., & Hoffrage, U. havioral Scientist, 43, 940–956. Advances in artificial life (pp. es of corporate negligence, (1999). When do people use – (1999a). Evolving musical di- 644–653). Berlin: Springer. sham lectures, and ecclesiastical simple heuristics, and how can versity. In Proceedings of the – (1998a). Evolved signals: Ex- indolence: Adam Smith on we tell? In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. AISB ’99 Symposium on Creative pensive hype vs. conspiratorial joint-stock companies, teachers, Todd, & the ABC Research Evolutionary Systems (pp. 40–- whispers. In C. Adami, R. K. and preachers. History of Politi- Group, Simple heuristics that 48). Sussex, UK: Society for the Belew, H. Kitano, & C. E. Taylor cal Economy, 31, 297–315. make us smart (pp. 141–167). Study of Artificial Intelligence (Eds.), Artificial life VI: Proceed- New York: Oxford University and Simulation of Behavior. ings of the Sixth International Ortmann, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Press. – (1999b). Simple inference Conference on Artificial Life (pp. Boeing, C. (2000). Trust, reci- heuristics versus complex deci- 358–367). Cambridge, MA: MIT procity, and social history: A re- Sadrieh, A., Güth, W., Hammer- sion machines. Introduction to Press. examination. Experimental Eco- stein, P., Harnad, S., Hoffrage, special issue. Minds and Ma- – (1998b). Tough guys don’t nomics, 3, 81–100. U., Kuon, B., Munier, B. R., Todd, chines, 9, 461–477. dance: Intention movements P. M., Warglien, M., & Weber, –(1999c). Simulating the evolu- and the evolution of signalling Ortmann, A., & Gigerenzer, G. M. (in press). Is there evidence tion of musical behavior. In N. L. in animal contests. In R. Pfeifer, (2000). Reasoning in economics for the adaptive toolbox? In G. Wallin, B. Merker, & S. Brown B. Blumberg, J.-A. Meyer, & S. and psychology: Why social Gigerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.), (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. W. Wilson (Eds.), From animals context matters. In M. E. Streit, Bounded rationality: The adap- 361–388). Cambridge, MA: MIT to animats 5: Proceedings of the U. Mummert, & D. Kiwit (Eds.), tive toolbox (pp. 83–102). Cam- Press. Fifth International Conference Cognition, rationality, and insti- bridge, MA: MIT Press. on Simulation of Adaptive Be- tutions (pp. 131–145). Berlin: Todd, P. M., Fiddick, L., & havior (pp. 471–476). Cam- Springer. Schmid, C., & Keller, M. (1998). Krauss, S. (2000). Ecological ra- bridge, MA: MIT Press. Der Einfluß von Geschwistern tionality and its contents. Ortmann, A., & Hertwig, R. auf die kognitive und soziomo- Thinking and Reasoning, 6, Noble, J., & Todd, P. M. (in (1998). The question remains: Is ralische Entwicklung während 375–384. press). Imitation or something deception acceptable? American der Kindheit und Adoleszenz. simpler? Modelling simple Psychologist, 53, 806–807. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungs- Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. mechanisms for social informa- und Pädagogische Psychologie, (in press-a). Putting naturalistic tion processing. In K. Dauten- Ortmann, A., & Squire, R. C. 30, 101–110. decision making into the adap- hahn & C. Nehaniv (Eds.), Imita- (2000). A game-theoretic expla- tive toolbox. (Comment on Lip- tion in animals and artifacts. nation of the administrative lat- Sedlmeier, P., & Gigerenzer, G. shitz et al., "Taking stock of nat- – (1999). Is it really imitation? A tice in institutions of higher (in press). Teaching Bayesian uralistic decision making.”) review of simple mechanisms in learning. Journal of Economic reasoning in less than two Journal of Behavioral Decision social information gathering. In Behavior and Organization, 43, hours. Journal of Experimental Making. K. Dautenhahn & C. Nehaniv 377–391. Psychology: General. – (in press-b). Simple heuristics (Eds.), Proceedings of the AISB – (2000). Was Bernoulli wrong? that make us smart. Behavioral ’99 Symposium on Imitation in Ortmann, A., & Tichy, L. K. On intuitions about sample size. and Brain Sciences, 23, 727–- Animals and Artifacts (pp. 65–- (1999). Gender differences in Journal of Behavioral Decision 742. 73). Sussex, UK: Society for the the laboratory: Evidence from Making, 13, 133–139. – (in press-c). Social heuristics. Study of Artificial Intelligence prisoner’s dilemma games. Jour- In C. R. Plott & V. L. Smith and Simulation of Behavior. nal of Economic Behavior and Sedlmeier, P., Hertwig, R., & (Eds.), Handbook of experimen- Organisation, 39, 327–339. Gigerenzer, G. (1998). Are judg- tal economics results. Amster- Noble, J., Todd, P. M., & Tuci, ments of the positional frequen- dam: Elsevier. E. (in press). Explaining social Oswald, H., & Krappmann, L. cies of letters systematically bi- – (in press-d). Social rationality. learning of food preferences (2000). Phänomenologische und ased due to availability? Journal In C. R. Plott & V. L. Smith without aversions: An evolu- funktionale Vielfalt von Gewalt of Experimental Psychology: (Eds.), Handbook of experimen- tionary simulation model of unter Kindern. Praxis der Kinder- Learning, Memory, and Cogni- tal economics results. Amster- Norway rats. Animal Behavior. psychologie und Kinderpsychia- tion, 24, 754–770. dam: Elsevier. trie, 49, 3–15. – (2000). Precis of "Simple Noble, J., Tuci, E., & Todd, P. Todd, P. M. (in press-a). Heuris- heuristics that make us smart.” M. (1999). An evolutionary Reise, H., Hutchinson, J. M. C., tics for decision and choice. In Behavioral and Brain Sciences, simulation model of social Forsyth, N. R. G., & Forsyth, T. N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes 23, 727–741. learning about food by Norway (2000). The ecology and spread (Eds.), International encyclope- – (1999). What we have learned

56 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition

(so far). In G. Gigerenzer, P. M. composition. In N. Griffith & P. und Freundschaftskonzept. Wang, X. T., & Hertwig, R. Todd, & the ABC Research M. Todd (Eds.), Musical net- Jahrbuch Grundschulforschung, (1999). How is maternal survi- Group, Simple heuristics that works: Parallel distributed per- 2, 149–162. val related to reproductive suc- make us smart (pp. 357–365). ception and performance (pp. cess? Behavioral and Brain Sci- New York: Oxford University 313–339). Cambridge, MA: MIT Villa, A. E., Del Prete, V., Tetko, I. ences, 22, 236–237. Press. Press. V., & Martignon, L. (1999). Syntony of neuronal discharges Wassner, C., Krauss, S., & Todd, P. M., Gigerenzer, G., & Tuci, E., Noble, J., & Todd, P. revealed by binarization of Martignon, L. (in press-a). the ABC Research Group M. (1999). “I'll have what she's spike counts in multiple single Häufigkeitsrepräsentationen im (2000). How can we open up having.” A simulation analysis units recordings. Society for Stochastikunterricht—Zählen the adaptive toolbox? (Reply to of the copying of food prefer- Neuroscience, 25, p. 1416. und Verstehen. In Beiträge zum commentaries.) Behavioral and ences in Norway rats. In K. Mathematikunterricht 2001. Brain Sciences, 23, 767–780. Dautenhahn & C. Nehariv (Eds.), Vitouch, O. (in press). Erwerb Hildesheim: Franzbecker. Proceedings of the AISB ’99 musikalischer Expertise. In T. H. – (in press-b). Muss der Satz Todd, P. M., & López, A. (1998). Symposium on Imitation in Ani- Stoffer & R. Oerter (Eds.), En- von Bayes schwer verständlich Pulling the trigger on the living mals and Artifacts (pp. 74–79). zyklopädie der Psychologie. Vol. sein? Praxis der Mathematik. kind module. Behavioral and Sussex, UK: Society for the D/VII/1: Allgemeine Musikpsy- Brain Sciences, 21, p. 592. Study of Artificial Intelligence chologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe. and Simulation of Behaviour. – (2000). "Erleben—cui bono?” Todd, P. M., & Miller, G. F. Zum evolutionären Nutzen von (1999). From pride and preju- Uhlendorff, H. (in press). Bewußtsein. Psychologische dice to persuasion. Satisficing Diskussionen und Aushandlun- Rundschau, 51, 213–215. in mate search. In G. Gigerenz- gen innerhalb von Kinder- er, P. M. Todd, & the ABC Re- freundschaften. In L.-M. Alisch Waldmann, M., & Martignon, search Group, Simple heuristics & J. Wagner (Eds.), Freund- L. (1998). Bayesian network that make us smart (pp. 287–- schaften. Weinheim: Juventa. models of causal learning. In M. 308). New York: Oxford Univer- – (2000). Parents' and children's A. Gernsbacher & S. J. Derry sity Press. friendship networks. Journal of (Eds.), Proceedings of the Twen- Family Issues, 21, 191–204. tieth Annual Conference of the Todd, P. M., & Werner, G. M. Cognitive Science Society (pp. (1999). Frankensteinian ap- Uhlendorff, H., & Krappmann, 1102–1107). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- proaches to evolutionary music L. (1999). Kinderfreundschaften baum.

Center for Educational Research Center for Educational Research

Contents

Introductory Overview …………………………………………………………………………… 61 Research Area I Opportunity Structures of School and Individual Development in Adolescence and Young Adulthood ……… 64 Research Area II Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Performance: Foundational Studies ……………………………… 73 Research Area III Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools …………………………………………………………… 89 Research Projects of the Director Emeritus Wolfgang Edelstein ………………… 106

Publications 1998–2000 ………………………………………………………………………… 110

Scientific Staff 1998–2000

Cordula Artelt, Jürgen Baumert, Wilfried Bos (as of 2000: Universität Hamburg), Sabine Gruehn (as of 1998: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), Christa Händle, Ilonca Hardy, Susanne Heyn (as of 1998: Forsa Institut, Berlin), Eckhard Klieme, Helmut Köhler, Olaf Köller, Detlef Oesterreich, Kai Schnabel (as of 2000: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor), Gundel Schümer, Knut Schwippert (as of 2000: IEA Data Processing Center, Hamburg), Petra Stanat, Elsbeth Stern, Claudia Thußbas, Luitgard Trommer, Ulrike Wehrhahn Postdoctoral Research Fellows Corinne Alfeld-Liro (as of 2000: National Science Foundation, Arlington), Patricia Hawley (as of 1998: Yale University), Catrin Rode (as of 2000: University of Oregon), Elwin Savelsbergh (as of 1999: University of Utrecht), Zhu Liqi (as of 1999: Chinese Academy of Science, Peking) Predoctoral Research Fellows Marten Clausen (as of 2000: Universität Mannheim), Zoe Daniels, Anke Demmrich, Anja Felbrich, Ingmar Hosenfeld (as of 2000: Universität Koblenz-Landau), Steffen Knoll (as of 1999: IEA Data Processing Center, Hamburg), Susanne Koerber (as of 2000: Institute for Science Education at the University of Kiel), Mareike Kunter, Oliver Lüdtke, Ulrich Trautwein, Rainer Watermann, Joachim Wirth, Regina Wolf

60 Center for Educational Research

Introductory Overview

The Center for Educational Research was restructured in 1996 when Jürgen Baumert was appointed director. The Center's specific concern is research on development and learning from the perspective of institutionalized education. Educational settings such as schools are conceived as providing a specific structure of opportunities and constraints for learning and development. This structure offers a variety of developmental opportunities, but at the same time excludes others. How do aspects of schooling affect learning within and across subject domains, impact on the intra- and interindividual differentiation of personality traits, and guide career-forming processes? Such questions are explored by a multidisciplinary team which includes educational scientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and sociologists. A strong theoretical focus is combined with an applied approach in the fields of system monitoring, professionalization of teaching, and improvement of learning and instruction. Conceptual Orientation: Schooling across subject domains. as a Cultural Artifact and an 3. From an individual point of view, Authentic Part of Life learning development can be conceptu- The Center's research program is insti- alized as a process of inter- and in- tutional as well as developmental in traindividual differentiation. orientation. This calls for a multilevel The Center's research agenda is shaped research perspective: by each of these perspectives. 1. With regard to the social struc- It is a structural paradox of formal ture of societies, formal education can education that the experiences made be conceived as a career-forming available within institutions of formal- process, even in its initial stages. ized education are always vicarious— 2. From an institutional perspective, selected and prepared with the aim of the focus is on facilitating and foster- facilitating learning processes which ing cumulative learning within and the learner must nevertheless perceive

61 Center for Educational Research

as personal and authentic. The more ed- of research. Special emphasis is placed ucational institutions try to integrate on the question of how cognitive acti- authentic everyday experiences into vation and self-regulation can be stim- their programs, the more obvious the ulated and supported by instructional paradox becomes. The acquisition of environments. knowledge in educational institutions is In all our research on the interaction confined by the structural properties of between the individual learner and the the institution, regardless of whether or institutional educational setting, the not authentic learning is emphasized. learner is perceived as the producer of This constitutes the difference between his or her own development—not only in learning inside and outside of school- the constructivist sense of active and like institutions. idiosyncratic acquisition of knowledge, At the same time, however, school is but also in the sense that he or she a central part of the student's life, and proactively selects and shapes the de- impacts strongly on cognitive activities, velopmental environment. beliefs, and behavior outside of school. Educational institutions command a Summary Outline large part of the time of children, ado- The following summary of the Center's lescents, and young adults, and thus research program is not comprehensive. constitute social environments in their Rather, research projects have been se- own right. The social rules and regula- lected to illustrate the major lines of in- tions of educational institutions not quiry pursued in the Center and provide only create the conditions for systemat- a representative overview of the three ic instruction and learning, but provide areas of our current research. the setting for immediate everyday ex- Research Area I focuses on the rela- periences. In our research program, this tionship between the opportunity struc- effect of schooling is taken into partic- ture of schools and the optimization of ular consideration in a longitudinal individual development in terms of cog- study exploring individual development nitive competencies, motivational and in terms of cognitive competencies, mo- social resources, and value commitment. tivational and social resources, and val- The basis for this research program is ue commitment. provided by a multiple-cohort longitudi- The way in which educational insti- nal study which was initiated in 1991 tutions have structured content areas with a sample of 13-year-olds. These into different academic subjects deter- main cohort participants, who are now mines the high domain-specificity of aged 23, are currently taking part in a knowledge acquisition. This is taken sixth wave of measurement (Learning into account in our research on the Processes, Educational Careers, and structure of knowledge—including do- Psychosocial Development in Adoles- main-specific epistemological beliefs— cence and Young Adulthood [BIJU]). acquired in school. In large-scale as- As far as the transition from school to sessment studies, classroom studies, and work is concerned, Research Area I is experimental training studies, we focus smoothly interlinked with the project on domains of knowledge which rep- Regulating Development by Controlling resent basic cultural tools and, as the Environment and the Self of the such, are critical for individual develop- Center for Lifespan Psychology. ment in modern societies. Mathematics Research Area II comprises studies and science education and reading which can be seen as representing the comprehension constitute main areas first steps in the establishment of a na-

62 Center for Educational Research tional monitoring system to gauge the Study of the Life Course. The report performance of the German school sys- appears on a regular basis and has be- tem. These foundational studies com- come established as a standard work. bine basic research and system monitor- Research Area III consists of proj- ing in an international comparative per- ects on learning and instruction with an spective. The most important projects in experimental or quasi-experimental ap- this research area are the Third Inter- proach. Most of these studies address national Mathematics and Science research questions that have emerged Study (TIMSS), and the OECD's Pro- directly from the first and second areas gramme for International Student As- of research. They are conducted either sessment (PISA). These studies are in the laboratory (ENTERPRISE) or as complemented by the second CIVIC Ed- video-based studies in school environ- ucation Study initiated by the Interna- ments (TIMSS-Video and Pythagoras). tional Association for the Evaluation of In the field of mathematics education Educational Achievement (IEA). Together the Center closely collaborates with the with a project on state schooling in the Center for Adaptive Behavior and former GDR funded by the German Re- Cognition. Building on a strong theo- search Foundation (DFG), these studies retical background, these studies have provide a firm basis for the Center's Re- practical implications for the optimiza- port on Education (Bildungsbericht), tion of classroom instruction and which is published in collaboration with teacher training. the Center for Sociology and the

The Center for Educational Research 2001

Left to right: (front row) Rainer Watermann, Cordula Artelt, Ilonca Hardy, Ulrich Trautwein, Zoe Daniels, Luitgard Trommer, Mareike Kunter, Anja Felbrich, Anke Demmrich, Gundel Schümer; (back row) Jürgen Baumert, Helmut Köhler, Claudia Thußbas, Eckhard Klieme, Petra Stanat, Olaf Köller, Elsbeth Stern, Joachim Wirth, Oliver Lüdtke, Christa Händle.

63 Center for Educational Research

Research Area I The BIJU Team Opportunity Structures of School and Individual Jürgen Baumert Sabine Gruehn Development in Adolescence and Young Adulthood (until 1998) Susanne Heyn (until 1998) Educational Institutions as Developmental Environ- Olaf Köller ments The successful development of human beings Kai Schnabel across the entire life span is dependent both on their in- (until 2000) Corinne Alfeld-Liro dividual, internal characteristics and on external sociali- (postdoctoral fel- zers such as significant others and social institutions. The low, until 2000) relative importance of internal and external promoters Zoe Daniels Ingmar Hosenfeld varies across the life span and between the areas of indi- (until 2000) vidual functioning. While parents, for example, play a Ulrich Trautwein Rainer Watermann dominant role for their children’s development during in- (predoctoral fancy, childhood, and early adolescence, their influence fellows) decreases during adolescence and often ceases entirely in adulthood. Particularly in the domain of academic learning and, more generally, cognitive development, the social institution of school plays an important role during childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, schools www.biju.mpg.de have an impact on the formation or development of motivation, emotions, attitudes, and other personal characteristics. Inasmuch as the theoretical per- and 8 (see Research Area II). The na- spective of the Center for Educational tional longitudinal project Learning Research highlights the institutional in- Processes, Educational Careers, and Psy- fluence on human development, it re- chosocial Development in Adolescence quires longitudinal multilevel studies and Young Adulthood (BIJU) does even that collect data at school, class, and more to fulfill the requirements of a individual levels, cover more than one multilevel longitudinal design in its in- knowledge domain, and allow the investigation of the effects of school and vestigation of intraindividual change class environments on human develop- across domains and of interindividual ment. The BIJU study has four guiding differences in the patterns of intraindi- components, each with specific tasks vidual change. For TIMSS population II and addressing specific issues: (7th and 8th graders), for example, a (1) provision of institutional and in- repeated measurement design was im- dividual baseline data on the integra- plemented with additional measure- tion of the East and West German edu- ment points at the end of grades 7 cational systems; description and analy-

64 Center for Educational Research

sis of the transformation of the East Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 German educational system and the Education Grade 7 subsequent impact on system perform- 21 3 L 1: Longitudinal cohort 1 ance; L 2: Longitudinal cohort 2 Grade 8 (2) analysis of domain-specific C 1: Cross-sectional cohort 1 learning as dependent on social and Grade 9 L 1 cognitive resources, prior knowledge, motivational orientation, learning and Grade 10 1 4 C 1 1 processing strategies, quantity and Grade 11/vocational quality of instruction, and general insti- education L 2 tutional conditions; Grade 12/vocational 2 5 education (3) analysis of long-term trajectories Grade 13/vocational 5a of psychosocial development in adoles- education cence as shaped by varying conditions University/vocational 3 of schooling and instruction; education/job 6 (4) analysis of ways of coping with Figure 1. Research design the transition from school to vocational of the BIJU project. training and working life, taking into Thus far, research has focused mainly account the interplay of personal re- on the first three guiding components sources and the conditions of the voca- of the BIJU project. Because all the stu- tional training system and the labor dents in the sample have now left market. school, the theoretical focus is currently The BIJU design—a two-cohort longi- shifting to the fourth BIJU component, tudinal study supplemented by a cross- that is, more emphasis is being placed sectional survey—makes it possible to on students’ ways of coping with the simultaneously analyze aspects of indi- transition from school to work or uni- vidual development, the particular situ- versity. In the following, two of the cur- ation of different birth cohorts, and the rent research projects will be described impact of social change. in more detail.

The BIJU Study Data Collection The longitudinal study began with a survey of the main cohort during the 1991/92 school year (see Fig. 1). Data was gathered from these 7th graders at three measurement points. The first point of measurement coincided with the transformation of the unitary school system of the former GDR to the tracked system adopted from West Germany. Thus, the first survey provides baseline data for the analysis of the situation at the end of the unitary system and the outset of the transformation process. The fourth wave of data collection was conducted in spring 1995, when the main cohort students were in the final grade of lower secondary school. The next follow-up survey took place in spring 1997, when the participants were either in the vocational education system or the academic track of upper secondary level. A new wave of data collection is currently in progress, focusing on how students have mastered the transition from school to university or from vocational education to the labor market. The sample of school classes, disproportionately stratified according to state and type of school, comprises some 8,000 students from 212 schools of all secondary school types in the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, North Rhine- Westphalia, and Saxony-Anhalt. In order to separate school and classroom effects, two classes per school were included in the sample. In spring 1993, the sample was supplemented by a second longitudinal cohort of 1,330 students in the final grade of lower secondary level. In order to provide a baseline for an East-West comparison at the end of lower secondary school, a separate cross-sectional study of the 10th grade (involving approximately 1,600 students) was also carried out. This study concentrated on issues of political socialization and the transition to vocational training and working life.

65 Center for Educational Research

Key References Opportunity Structures, Academic Achievement, and Cognitive Develop- Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Schnabel, K. (1999). ment in German Secondary Schools Wege zur Hochschul- One of the basic assumptions of our research program is that schools represent reife: Offenheit des Sys- tems und Sicherung ver- learning environments in which cognitive development during adolescence may be gleichbarer Standards. promoted more or less successfully. Due to its long-term character, with five Analysen am Beispiel der measurement points over a period of six years, the BIJU project enables us to Mathematikleistungen von Oberstufenschülern compare the learning trajectories of students in different types of secondary an Integrierten Gesamt- schools from grade 7 to grade 12. The findings show quite clearly that the tran- schulen und Gymnasien in Nordrhein-Westfalen. sition from elementary school to different types of secondary school has remark- Zeitschrift für Erzie- able effects on domain-specific learning processes. The highest achievement gains hungswissenschaft, 2, 385-422. are reached at the Gymnasium, followed by the Realschule, the Gesamtschule Köller, O., & Baumert, (comprehensive school), and finally the Hauptschule. Additional analyses show J. (in press). Leistungs- that learning differences across the school types are not only a consequence of re- gruppierungen in der Sekundarstufe I und ihre ducing the achievement heterogeneity between students within classes, but are Konsequenzen für die mainly effects of different learning and teaching cultures in the different Mathematikleistung und school types. Interestingly, the different types of secondary school do not only in- das mathematische Selbstkonzept der Be- fluence learning trajectories in curriculum-based knowledge, as measured with gabung. Zeitschrift für standardized achievement tests, but also impact on nonverbal psychometric intelli- Pädagogische Psycho- logie. gence. Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., One guiding idea behind the early cognitive stimulation and higher gains & Baumert, J. (in press). Reunification of East assignment to different school types in in achievement. The different types of and West German Germany is that learning and instruc- secondary school are thus assumed to school systems: Longitu- tion are more effective in relatively ho- provide specific learning environments dinal multilevel modeling study of the big- mogeneous groups of students, in that differ with respect to how much fish-little-pond effect which teachers can adapt their instruc- they promote the cognitive functioning on academic self-concept. American Educa- tional strategies according to the entry of their students. However, recent stud- tional Research Journal. achievement levels of their students. It ies from highly selective school systems, is, therefore, assumed that school types for example Hong Kong (see Marsh, differ with respect to the demands Kong, & Hau, 2000), suggest that dif- made by instruction: The higher the ferences in knowledge acquisition track, the more demanding the classes. across school types are not a conse- Being exposed to higher demands in quence of different learning environ- class should lead to higher levels of ments, but can be explained entirely by

Tracked and Comprehensive System in German Secondary School Two different approaches have been implemented in the German secondary school system: a tracked and a comprehensive system. The former allocates students completing grade 4 (in most Länder, grade 6 in two Län- der) to three different types of school on the basis of previous achievement: Hauptschule is the academically least demanding track, Realschule an intermediate track, and Gymnasium the highest track. Education at the Hauptschule ends after grade 9 or 10, when its graduates enter the dual system, which combines general and vocational education in school with vocational training in companies. Students at the Realschule graduate after grade 10, and also enter the dual system, but usually aspire to more highly skilled occupations than Hauptschule graduates. Students at the Gymnasium graduate after grade 13 (or grade 12 in most of the East German Länder). A successful final examination at Gymnasium level (Abitur) is required for university admission, and some of the more attractive jobs in the dual system (e.g., bank clerk) also ask for this certificate. The other system consists of the comprehensive school (Gesamtschule). Within this type of school, students are generally tracked from grade 7 onward, being allocated to classes according to their subject-specific achievement levels. However, this tracking system is usually only applied in major subjects like mathematics, German (as the mother tongue), English (as a foreign language), and sometimes physics (starting in grade 9). Students can gain the same qualifications as in the tracked system, leaving school at the corresponding grade levels.

66 Center for Educational Research

Figure 2. Learning trajectories for 250 mathematics according to type of secondary school. Hauptschule Realschule 200 Gymnasium Gesamtschule

150 Mean

100

50 Achievement in grade 7 Achievement in grade 10 individual achievement differences at subjects like English and mathematics, the time of secondary school entry. but that they are smaller in other sub- Marsh et al. found that, after control- jects such as physics, biology, and ling for individual entry achievement, civics. Figure 2 displays mathematics no additional effect of school-average achievement trajectories for the differ- ability on mathematics learning was ent school types. The achievement observable. Similar findings were re- scores in grade 7 are standardized with ported by Goldstein and colleagues for a mean of 100 and a standard deviation the English secondary system. In the of 30. The largest mean difference (be- BIJU study we tested whether these tween Gymnasium and Hauptschule) is conclusions also hold for the German 42 points in grade 7, increasing to 87 school system. points in grade 10, thus suggesting that The BIJU project not only allows in- the school-type variable is a very im- dividual and institutional effects on portant predictor for learning rates in learning to be disentangled, it also al- mathematics. lows institutional effects in different In order to disentangle the effects of subjects, that is, mathematics, biology, prior individual achievement, school- physics, English, and civics, to be inves- average achievement, and type of sec- tigated. Findings show that institutional ondary school on later achievement, effects are particularly apparent in core multilevel analyses of the BIJU data

Gymnasium

.60

School-average Individual achievement in .10 achievement grade 7 in grade 10

.50 Figure 3. Effects of prior individual achievement, school-average achievement, and Individual type of secondary school (1 = Gymnasium achievement in grade 7 vs. 0 = others) on grade 10 mathematics achievement.

67 Center for Educational Research

Figure 4. Quality of mathematics exercises 3,5 according to type of secondary school (find- Hauptschule Realschule Gymnasium Others ings from TIMSS-Video). 3,0

2,5

Mean 2,0

1,5

1,0 Simple repetition Cognitively demanding exercises

were carried out. The findings of these sumption that different school types analyses are presented in Figure 3 (note in Germany represent different learn- that there are usually large achievement ing environments, in which the given differences between individual schools opportunity structures have a substan- within one school type). tial influence on the development of Obviously, the school type matters. achievement. This effect is not restrict- That is, even after controlling for prior ed to curriculum-based tests, but also knowledge on the individual level and emerges from the psychometric intelli- school-average achievement, the type gence tests administered in BIJU in of secondary school has a substantial grades 7 and 10. Here, longitudinal effect on later achievement. Note that multilevel analyses show that the type the effect of school type on achieve- of secondary school (1 = Gymnasium vs. ment in grade 10 can be interpreted as 0 = others) has a substantial impact on an effect on change in achievement, nonverbal intelligence (standardized because achievement in grade 7 is con- regression coefficient β = .43, p < .001), trolled. The nonsignificant effect of even after controlling for individual and school-average achievement suggests class-average intelligence in grade 7. that it is not the ability-grouping per se, This last result is of paramount impor- but the learning climate of the Gymna- tance as it shows that the substantial sium that leads to higher learning rates. effect of schools or school types on This assumption is supported by the cognitive development reaches beyond findings of TIMSS-Video (see Research the confines of curriculum-based Area III), in which mathematics lessons knowledge. Possible pedagogical impli- in German schools were rated by ex- cations of these findings include the perts on various instruction variables. provision of more favorable opportunity Figure 4, showing the quality of exercis- structures in schools other than the es on two different dimensions, gives a Gymnasium in order to optimize the cog- good insight into why the Gymnasium is nitive development of the students in more effective at enhancing learning in these schools. mathematics. Relative to students’ prior knowledge, the exercises used at the Gymnasium are cognitively more demanding than in other school types, thus helping students to learn in a more effective manner. These results thus provide empirical support for the as-

68 Center for Educational Research

Opportunity Structures and the Formation of Academic Interests in Key References Schools Baumert, J., & Köller, O. (1998). Interest re- Previous research on students’ academic interests, particularly in science, has search concerning sec- shown a dramatic decrease in mean interest over adolescence. Explanations for this ondary level I: An overview. In L. Hoff- phenomenon have usually referred to the predominantly scientific orientation of mann, A. Krapp, K. A. science instruction, which ignores the everyday experiences of students. Special in- Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and structional programs were, therefore, developed to encourage science teachers to learning: Proceedings of build on student experiences, assuming that students will be more interested in the Seeon Conference on and learn best from their own experiences. More psychologically-driven models, for Interest and Gender (pp. 241–256). Kiel: Institut example, the stage-environment-fit model proposed by Eccles and colleagues, sug- für die Pädagogik der gest that the decline in interests could reflect a mismatch between individual Naturwissenschaften. needs in early adolescence and the opportunity structures typically provided by Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Schnabel, K. (2000). secondary schools. Our theoretical approach to interest development offers ad- Zum Zusammenspiel von ditional explanations for decreasing interests. Instead of stressing the negative role schulischem Interesse und Lernen im Fach of class and school environments, our assumptions turn to individual developmen- Mathematik. Längs- tal processes in adolescence. schnittanalysen in den Sekundarstufen I und II. Although traditional research on ularly in science. This development was In U. Schiefele & K. Wild school effects on individual develop- replicated in the BIJU project. Figure 5 (Eds.), Interesse und Lernmotivation—Unter- ment has primarily focused on cognitive shows the development of interest in suchungen zu Entwick- outcomes, especially language, mathe- mathematics and physics during lower lung, Förderung und Wirkung (pp. 163–183). matics, and science achievement, non- secondary school (from grade 7 to 10). Münster: Waxmann. cognitive outcomes have also been in- Interest values greater than 50 at Köller, O., Schnabel, K., vestigated. These outcomes (e.g., self- grade 7 indicate positive interest, & Baumert, J. (in press). Does interest matter? esteem, academic self-concepts, and whereas values less than 50 indicate a The relationship be- interests) are often seen as educational lack of interest in the subject. There is a tween academic interest and achievement in aims in themselves, and modern schools substantial decline for both girls and mathematics. Journal for always strive to enhance students’ de- boys in both subjects suggesting that Research in Mathemat- velopment in these areas. Research on the developmental process is quite sim- ics Education. the development of academic interests, ilar for both genders. however, often suggests that schools This general decline in academic in- are very ineffective in achieving non- terest, particularly in science and math- cognitive goals in terms of increasing ematics, has often been shown (for an interests over time. In fact, previous re- overview see Baumert & Köller, 1998). search has shown a dramatic decrease One attempt to explain this trend as- in mean interest in adolescence, partic- sumes a mismatch between instruction-

60 Boys Girls

50 Interest

Figure 5. Development of academic interest in 45 mathematics (bold lines) and physics (broken lines) in lower secondary schools. 40 678910 Grade

69 Center for Educational Research

al practice in classrooms and the gener- der effect were statistically significant, al interests of adolescents. More specif- with girls displaying more interest in ically, it has been argued that teaching biology than boys. In sum, these find- often fails to tie into students’ everyday ings do not support the frequent claims experiences. In fact, Schoenfeld (1988) that lack of interest stems only from shows that direct instruction in mathe- poor instruction. matics, which is usually regarded to be An alternative explanation for the a quite successful approach, leads stu- unfavorable interest trajectories ob- dents to believe that mathematics has served during lower secondary school— nothing to do with their everyday expe- and not only in the sciences—has been riences and, as a consequence, they lose put forward by Eccles and colleagues. interest. Travers (1978) argues that "the They point out that the field of experi- school is more likely to be a killer of in- ence outside of school broadens consid- terest than the developer.” erably during adolescence, providing Viewing schools or traditional in- competing opportunities for interest struction as killers of academic interest development. At the same time, the au- suggests that no instruction would thors identify an institutionalized mis- probably be a better way of promoting match between the students' increasing students’ interests. The BIJU project al- desire for self-determination and the lows for an analysis of the development sometimes restrictive learning environ- of interest with instruction and without ments of schools. According to this instruction. Following a resolution view, the restrictive learning environ- passed by the state government, no 7th ments of lower secondary schools cause graders in Mecklenburg-West Pomera- the typical decrease in interest over nia were taught biology during the time. 1991/1992 school year. This "natural A further explanation for the de- experiment” allows us to compare cline in academic interest during ado- changes in students’ interest in biology lescence has been proposed by our re- under conditions in which biology was search group (e.g., Köller, Schnabel, & taught or not taught. Figure 6 presents Baumert, 1998), both supporting and the findings of this analysis. Here, the expanding upon the argument made by groups are additionally broken down Eccles and colleagues. Instead of stress- according to gender. There is clearly no ing the role of curriculum and instruc- Figure 6. The development of empirical evidence for any differences tion, we turn to basic developmental interest in biology in classes with and without biology in- between the two instructional condi- processes occurring in adolescence. Fol- struction. tions. Only the time effect and the gen- lowing Deci and Ryan (1985), we start from the basic idea that students have 60 an innate need to autonomously explore new fields of knowledge and ac- 58 tion where they can develop a feeling of self-determination and experience 56 competence and personal control. In adolescence, students develop more Boys with instruction realistic self-concepts of their own

Interest in biology 54 Girls with instruction and become more and more Boys without instruction abilities Girls without instruction aware of their specific strengths and 52 weaknesses in various fields of knowl- Beginning Middle End edge and action. This intraindividual Grade 7 comparison is a central mechanism in

70 Center for Educational Research

the construction of personal identity 64 and the development of personal inter- German ests. Coping with developmental tasks English such as the transition from school to 62 vocational education and the labor market exerts pressure on students to select and reinforce specific fields of interest, 60 while giving up others. This process of Mean interest selection and optimization technically results in decreasing mean values of interest across students during lower sec- 58 ondary grades. The logical consequence 7 7.5 8 of this argument would be that a de- Grade crease in interest would not only be ex- Figure 7. Development of pected in mathematics and science, but three lessons per week. From our theo- academic interest in German in other key subjects such as German retical perspective, we predicted that (as the mother tongue) and English during grade 7; find- (as the mother tongue) and English (as students who later choose a basic ings from the BIJU project. a foreign language) as well. Empirical course in mathematics would show de- support for this assumption is presented creasing interest in the subject during in Figure 7 showing data from the BIJU lower secondary school, while students project. As expected, the average inter- later choosing an advanced course est in German and English decreased would show consistently high levels of during grade 7. interest. In order to gather further empirical The findings displayed in Figure 8 support for our assumption that interest show that the one-third of the sample development is affected by perceived who opted for an advanced course in competence in personally important do- grade 11 indeed expressed high aca- mains, we investigated the relations be- demic interest during lower secondary tween academic self-concepts and in- school. In contrast, the two-thirds of terest, hypothesizing that self-concepts the students who opted for a basic would influence change in interest. Lon- course displayed a decrease in interest, gitudinal structural equation modeling resulting in a total decline for the indeed provided evidence for the as- whole sample. Therefore, the data por- sumption that self-concepts are im- trayed in Figure 8 provide strong evi- portant antecedents of academic in- dence for our assumption that the fre- terests. quently reported decline in academic In order to investigate the role inter- interest reflects a process of differen- est development plays in the processes tiation with students reinforcing specif- of selection and optimization in specific ic fields of interest while giving up academic fields, we explored the rela- others and trying to optimize domains tion between academic interest and of high interest. course selection in German upper sec- In our framework we propose that ondary schools. At grade 11, German competing interests are not only to be Gymnasium students have to choose expected in the academic field, but also advanced courses in two or three do- between academic and nonacademic mains and basic courses in the remain- domains. Particularly in early adoles- ing domains. Advanced courses usually cence, students have a strong tendency comprise five to six lessons per week, to prefer nonacademic contexts. At this whereas basic courses involve two to time, children experience dramatic bio-

71 Center for Educational Research

55 Figure 8. Development of interest in mathematics of students opting for an advanced or a basic mathematics course at grade 11.

Advanced course (33%) Basic course (67%) Interest in mathematics Total (100%) 45 710 Grade

logical and social changes associated search. For German students at least, it with puberty. Peer groups become more seems that the academic world (school) and more important, while the parents’ and the nonacademic world (home, influence decreases and school often friends, clubs, teams, etc.) form two becomes a context which does not cor- more or less independent domains that respond to students’ interests. Of par- do not substantially influence one an- ticular interest are nonschool domains other. As a result, out-of-school vari- that compete with school in terms of ables and experiences have barely any attitudes, interests, and time invest- impact on the development of academ- ment. We thus hypothesized that the ic interests. decline in academic interests during secondary school might also be a consequence of the increase in nonacademic interests and activities during adolescence. Contrary to expectations, however, none of the longitudinal analyses carried out so far have provided evidence for this hypothesis, thus indicating that the school context is less influenced by students’ out-of-school experiences than suggested by prior re-

72 Center for Educational Research

Research Area II Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Performance: Foundational Studies

Despite the complex system of governance and federal cooperation which has been developed in the German educational system, Germany is one of the few industrial states which long had no national system of quality control to monitor the outcomes of educational processes and provide a framework for international comparison. With its participation in TIMSS, reliable data on the levels of performance of selected cohorts of students in mathematics and science have become available for the first time. The Organization for Economic Co- cation system on a regular basis. All 16 operation and Development (OECD) uses of the German Länder are participating the results of the TIMSS 7th- and 8th- in this Programme for International Stu- grade assessment as performance indi- dent Assessment (PISA), which builds on cators for the comparison of the educa- the experiences of TIMSS, but seeks to tional systems in its member states. achieve qualitative improvement in Data on mathematics and science per- many respects. A national consortium formance are a regular feature of the under the leadership of the Center for OECD's annual publication "Education at Educational Research is responsible for a Glance" (OECD, 2000). The OECD has the national project management. now launched its own program to monitor the outcomes of education systems in terms of student achievement, and to provide internationally comparable indicators for central domains of the edu-

73 Center for Educational Research

The TIMSS Team The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) The Third International Mathematics The international study is based on a Jürgen Baumert and Science Study (TIMSS) is the latest cross-sectional sample of three age Wilfried Bos in a series of international comparative groups: (I) students from the two adja- (until 2000) studies on mathematics and science cent grades with the largest proportion Eckhard Klieme teaching initiated by the International of 9-year-olds, (II) students from the Olaf Köller Association for the Evaluation of Edu- two adjacent grades with the largest Kai Schnabel cational Achievement (IEA). TIMSS inte- proportion of 13-year-olds, and (III) (until 2000) grates the two domains in a single students in the final grade of upper Knut Schwippert study, thus providing basic information secondary school in the general and vo- (until 2000) on system performance in a core area cational education system. In Germany, Associated scientists: of modern education in the 45 partici- age groups II and III were investigated. Rainer Lehmann pating countries. The German research As an enhancement of the international (Humboldt-Universi- group consists of three partners: the design, the TIMSS-Germany design for tät zu Berlin) Max Planck Institute for Human Devel- age group II was longitudinal. Addition- Manfred Lehrke opment (MPIB), the Institute for Sci- ally, an international Videotape Study (Institute for Science ence Education at the University of Kiel (TIMSS-Video) comparing mathematics Education, Kiel) (IPN), and the Humboldt University of instruction in Germany, Japan, and the Berlin (HUB). The national consortium is United States has been interlinked with headed by the Max Planck Institute for the panel study in Germany (see Fig. 1; Human Development. see also Research Area III for a more www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/- The goal of TIMSS is to investigate detailed description of TIMSS-Video). TIMSS-Germany/ achievement in mathematics and science from a cross-cultural perspective.

Year 1994 1995 1996

Students Students Teachers Grade

7 Question- Question- Question- Tests naire Tests naire naire

Students Teachers Principals Video-recording of mathematics classes

lesson lesson lesson 123 8 Question- Question- Question- Tests naire naire naire

lesson 1

Students in vocational Students in Depart- and preuniversity Principals preuniversity ment Principals courses11 courses 2 heads 3

12 Question- Question- Question- Question- Question- Tests naire naire Tests naire naire naire

Students in Depart- Figure 1. Design for preuniversity ment Principals courses1 heads 3 TIMSS/II, TIMSS-Video,

and TIMSS/III. 13 Question- Question- Question- Tests naire naire naire

1 Gymnasien offering Abitur in grade 13 (first age cohort). Longitudinal component grade 7 to grade 8 (national) 2 Gymnasien offering Abitur in grade 12 (second age cohort). Cross-sectional component (international) 3 Mathematics and science departments. Cross-sectional component (national) 74 Center for Educational Research

Research Questions is easily understood by teachers and Key References Since the publication of the reports on educational researchers in the field. Baumert, J., Bos, W., & Lehmann, R. (Eds.). Population II, our investigations have Technically, proficiency levels can be (2000). TIMSS/III. Dritte focused on the analysis of Population described as critical thresholds in Internationale Mathe- matik- und Naturwis- III—the final grade of upper secondary achievement, above which there is suf- senschaftsstudie—Ma- education in vocational and preuniver- ficient probability that students will thematische und naturwissenschaftliche sity courses. The results of these analy- provide the correct response to mathe- Bildung am Ende der ses are presented in two recently pub- matics and science questions which call Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. lished volumes. for particular knowledge or skills. Here, Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche The main foci of research were as sufficient probability is defined as a Grundbildung am Ende follows: 65% probability that the correct answer der Pflichtschulzeit. Op- laden: Leske + Budrich – the structure and level of the mathe- will be given. Four proficiency levels (362 p.). matics and physics competencies ac- were defined for the domain of mathe- quired at school, matical literacy, ranging from everyday – epistemological beliefs about mathe- reasoning to the application of basic matics and physics, mathematical routines, and on to – the relationship between motivation, mathematical modeling and argumen- learning strategies, and domain-spe- tation. When the distribution of stu- cific knowledge, dents across these proficiency levels is – instructional strategies in mathemat- viewed in international comparison, ics and physics classrooms and the qualitative differences in the structure implications of these for the acquisi- of mathematical knowledge acquired tion of domain-specific knowledge, become apparent. Table 1 illustrates the Baumert, J., Bos, W., & and literacy profiles of school leavers in five Lehmann, R. (Eds.). – the relationship between course se- European countries. For German mathe- (2000). TIMSS/III. Dritte Internationale Mathe- lection and domain-specific achieve- matics instruction, the proficiency lev- matik- und Naturwis- ment, on the one hand, and career els reveal an alarmingly high proportion senschaftsstudie—Ma- prospects and choice of university of students who are unable to reliably thematische und naturwissenschaftliche course, on the other. apply basic mathematical routines—a Bildung am Ende der necessary condition for successful Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathematische und Knowledge Structures in the Domain transfer from school to vocational physikalische Kompeten- of Mathematical Literacy training. By the same token, the pro- zen am Ende der gymnasialen Oberstufe. Op- To analyze students’ knowledge struc- portion of students who have attained laden: Leske + Budrich tures in a given domain such as mathe- the level of mathematical argumenta- (466 p.). matics, analysis has to go beyond the tion by the end of compulsory schooling Baumert, J., Klieme, E., broad unidimensional achievement is conspicuously low. The discrepancy Lehrke, M., & Savels- bergh, E. R. (2000). scores regularly established in educa- between results in Germany and the Konzeption und Aus- tional measurement. Instead, students’ Netherlands is striking. The finding that sagekraft der TIMSS- Leistungstests. Zur understanding of the domain needs to one third of the Dutch students in their Diskussion um TIMSS- be elaborated by means of qualitative final year of schooling do reach the Aufgaben aus der Mit- telstufenphysik (part 1). categories derived from research on highest level of mathematical literacy Die Deutsche Schule, 92, mathematics education and cognitive seems to provide convincing evidence 102–115; (part 2). Die Deutsche Schule, 92, psychology. Therefore, test scores are for the success of the realistic mathe- 196–217. anchored within the given content ar- matics concept developed by the eas, and score levels are associated Freudenthal Institute and implemented with cognitive demands mastered by in the Netherlands. students reaching the respective level. These proficiency levels also help to interpret research findings in a way that

75 Center for Educational Research

Table 1 Distribution of students across levels of mathematical proficiency at the end of full-time schooling (in %)

Germany France Netherlands Norway Switzerland Proficiency level (TCI1 = 78) (TCI = 84) (TCI = 78) (TCI = 84) (TCI = 82)

Everyday reasoning 15.4 5.5 3.7 7.6 5.7 Application of basic routines 36.6 33.4 21.5 32.5 27.8 Modeling and mathematization 34.1 44.3 41.3 37.4 40.9 Mathematical argumentation 13.9 16.8 33.4 22.5 25.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1 TIMSS Coverage Index: Percentage of the age cohort covered by the TIMSS sample.

Key References The Structure of Knowledge Acquired countries. We made systematic use of Klieme, E. (2000). Fach- in Preuniversity Mathematics and such differential item functioning in leistungen im voruniver- pairwise comparisons of the countries sitären Mathematik- Physics Courses: Strengths and Weak- und Physikunterricht: nesses of Students in Academic Tracks participating in TIMSS. Furthermore, we Theoretische Grundla- Previous comparative educational re- are able to refer to the additional infor- gen, Kompetenzstufen und Unterrichtsschwer- search has shown that didactical tradi- mation provided by the proficiency punkte. In J. Baumert, tions vary between countries. For exam- scales, on the one hand, and expert rat- W. Bos, & R. Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte ple, the realistic mathematics approach ings of the cognitive demands of the Internationale Mathe- implemented in the Netherlands as well items, on the other. Statistical methods matik- und Naturwis- senschaftsstudie— as the problem-oriented approaches can be used to test which of these cog- Mathematische und na- taken in the Scandinavian countries nitive demands are related to the DIF turwissenschaftliche highlight the linking of mathematical parameters. The patterns of results indi- Bildung am Ende der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. concepts to authentic problem situa- cate systematic differences in the Mathematische und tions, while mathematics education in structure of knowledge acquired in physikalische Kompeten- zen am Ende der gym- France and Japan stresses the system- the various countries, and thus reveal nasialen Oberstufe (pp. atic structure of mathematical concepts the effects of the differing didactic tra- 57–72). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. and inner-mathematical reasoning. ditions. Baumert, J., Bos, W., & These observations lead to theoretical The German students' mathematics Watermann, R. (2000). hypotheses on relative strengths and performance at the preuniversity lev- Fachleistungen im vor- universitären Mathe- weaknesses of students from different el was not only generally weaker than matik- und Physikunter- countries. Within TIMSS-Germany, we that of many of their European coun- richt im internationalen tested these hypotheses by categorizing terparts, these weaknesses were partic- Vergleich. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann the cognitive demands of TIMSS test ularly pronounced in the more ad- (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte items and examining their differential vanced domains of mathematical rea- Internationale Mathe- matik- und Naturwis- functioning in international compari- soning (see Table 2). The relative senschaftsstudie— son. weaknesses of the German upper sec- Mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche The difficulty parameter describing ondary students lie in the domains of Bildung am Ende der each item's position on the proficiency conceptual and procedural mathemati- Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathematische und scale was broken down into two com- cal knowledge. The German students physikalische Kom- ponents: (a) a component that covers also underperformed in tasks requiring petenzen am Ende der the overall difficulty of the item on the mathematical modeling, application, gymnasialen Oberstufe (pp. 129–180). Opladen: international level and (b) a country- and problem solving, however. A certain Leske + Budrich. specific component indicating differen- strength of German mathematics in- tial item functioning (DIF) between struction was found in the German stu-

76 Center for Educational Research

Table 2 Relation between cognitive demands of advanced mathematics items and differential item functioning in various countries in comparison to Germany1

Comparison country Cognitive demands Austria Switzerland France Sweden USA All countries

Mathematical knowledge –.22 –.31 –.28 –.32 –.38 Conceptual understanding –.35 –.25 –.25 –.37 Algebra –.29 –.36 –.34 –.28 Text comprehension .35 –.23 Modeling .40 –.24 Application –.32 Problem solving .22 –.22 –.20 Visualization and using .45 .25 .46 .32 graphic material

1 The values given are correlations between the cognitive demands (as rated by experts) and the differential item parameters across 66 TIMSS test items. Positive values indicate relative strengths of German students compared to students from the comparison country, while negative values indicate relative weaknesses. Only significant correlations (p < 0.05) are given. dents' ability to visualize and use Students attending the mathemati- graphic material, but this was the only cal and scientific track of the French strength that could be identified. The Lycée d’Enseignement Général generally pairwise international comparisons re- attain an extraordinarily high level of veal some highly interesting variations mathematics achievement. Their partic- in the country-specific cultures of pre- ular strengths lie in advanced mathe- university mathematics. There is little matics and algebra skills. At the same deviation in the DIF parameters of the time, the relations between the DIF pa- three German-speaking countries (Ger- rameters and the strategic demands of many, Austria, and Switzerland). In oth- the tasks such as problem solving, reer words, although the Swiss students structuring, and spatial visualization far outperformed their peers in Germany show that—in comparison to their ex- and Austria, the didactic cultures of the tremely high performance overall— three countries seem to be rather simi- French students are relatively weak in lar. These findings imply scope for opti- these areas. French instructional prac- mization within one and the same di- tice is obviously geared to the tradition- dactic tradition. al approach of imparting systematic do- The U.S. students' performance in main-specific knowledge. the advanced mathematics test—though As expected, the Swedish students' very low overall—was relatively high in profile is complementary to that of their tasks requiring conceptual and proce- French peers. Compared to both German Key Reference dural knowledge. This indicates that students and students in the other par- Baumert, J., Lehmann, R., et al. (1997). TIMSS— high school lessons in Germany follow ticipating countries, the particular Mathematisch-natur- the same kind of lesson script that was strengths of the Swedish students lie in wissenschaftlicher Un- also observed in the 7th and 8th grades, the domains of application and problem terricht im internationalen Vergleich. Deskriptive emphasizing the use of repetitive exer- solving, as well as in procedural knowl- Befunde. Opladen: Leske cises and the rote learning of mathe- edge and the qualitative understanding + Budrich (242 p.). matical concepts (Baumert, Lehmann of mathematical concepts. This confirms et al., 1997). that Swedish mathematics instruction

77 Center for Educational Research

indeed focuses more on problem solving ternational comparison, the relative and understanding than is the case in strengths of German upper secondary the other countries under investigation. students lie in the formal, quantitative Moreover, the level of competence approach to physics. In contrast, Ger- achieved by the Swedish students was man academic-track students have par- generally high. ticular difficulty with tasks that require The task shown in Figure 2 is a good either a clear conceptual understanding illustration of differing knowledge pro- or the overcoming of misconceptions files. The item, in which compulsory (see Fig. 3). This finding shows that the material from lower secondary educa- results of intensive research into con- tion is embedded in an unfamiliar conceptual change have not been success- text, was administered to preuniversity fully transferred to instructional prac- students taking advanced courses in tice in Germany. This indicates a serious mathematics. shortcoming in the implementation of Country-specific profiles also research findings in in-service teacher emerge for the knowledge acquired in training. preuniversity physics courses. By in-

Percent correct in selected countries A string is wound symmetrically around a circular rod. The string goes exactly 4 times 30 around the rod. The circumference of the rod is 4 cm and its length is 12 cm. 24

20 17

Percent 10 6 4

Find the length of the string. Show all your work. 0 France Sweden Switzerland Germany

Figure 2. TIMSS item on problem solving in advanced mathematics.

Key Reference Epistemological Beliefs about Mathe- age-graded increase in the complexity Köller, O., Baumert, J., matics and Physics of the worldviews. This process can & Neubrand, J. (2000). The terms "epistemological beliefs" and either be fostered or obstructed by Epistemologische Überzeugungen und "worldviews" cover all beliefs and sub- school instruction. Fachverständnis im jective theories that individuals develop When epistemological beliefs are Mathematik- und Physikunterricht. In J. about knowledge and knowledge acqui- studied within the framework of re- Baumert, W. Bos, & R. sition, either in general or in specific search on mathematics and science ed- Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/- III. Dritte Internationale domains. The starting point for all re- ucation, the aim is not only to optimize Mathematik- und Natur- search on epistemological beliefs is the the learning process. More importantly, wissenschaftsstudie— Mathematische und assumption that these intuitive theories epistemological beliefs are perceived naturwissenschaftliche predetermine how the individual en- as an integral component of mathe- Bildung am Ende der counters and interacts with the dis- They Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. matical and scientific knowledge. Mathematische und cernible world. They impact on thought provide implicit conceptual frameworks, physikalische Kompeten- and reasoning, information processing, indicating which questions can legiti- zen am Ende der gymnasialen Oberstufe (pp. learning, motivation, and—ultimately— mately be posed in a specific domain, 229–269). Opladen: academic achievement. As a rule, analy- which methods can be used to solve Leske + Budrich. ses of epistemological beliefs take a de- them, and with what degree of certain- velopmental approach and assume an ty. The elaboration of students' intuitive

78 Center for Educational Research

Figure 3. Two TIMSS items on miscon- The figure below shows a special sort of amusement park ride. As the ride starts to rotate about its central vertical axis the floor drops slowly but the rider does not. The rider is ceptions in advanced physics. pressed against the rough inside wall of the rotating cylinder and remains at rest with respect to the wall. The rider's feet are not in contact with the floor.

Percent correct in selected countries 40 Which one of the following diagrams best represents the real forces acting on the rider? 29 30 28 A. B. C. D. 20 15 Percent 10 6

0 Norway Sweden Switzerland Germany

Percent correct in selected countries The figure shows the trajectory of a ball bouncing on a floor, with negligible air resistance. 60 50 46 R PQ 40 30 Percent 23 20 12 7 Draw arrows on the figure showing the direction of the acceleration of the ball at points 10 P, Q, and R. 0 Norway Sweden Switzerland Germany theories is therefore a goal in its own bering and applying definitions, formu- right in mathematics and science edu- las, mathematical facts, and proce- cation, and epistemological beliefs are dures" or "doing mathematics means considered to be a core element of applying general rules and procedures mathematical and scientific literacy. At to specific tasks." Accordingly, upper the same time, typically occurring stu- secondary students are not familiar dents’ beliefs about mathematics and with the constructivist approach to physics allow inferences to be drawn mathematics taken in the philosophy of about the students' previous instruction science. This approach emphasizes the in these domains (see Tables 3 and 4). In TIMSS-Germany, epistemological beliefs about mathematics and physics Table 3 were explored in a supplementary na- Students’ beliefs about mathematics and learning mathematics tional investigation. The key findings can be summarized as follows: The • Math problems have one, and only one, correct answer. • There is only one approach to solving any given math problem—usually the method mathematical worldview of upper sec- recently demonstrated by the teacher. ondary students in the academic track • Normal students can’t expect to understand math; they have to learn methods off is typically a schematic and algorithmic by heart and apply them mechanically. perception of mathematics and mathe- • Students who have understood mathematical concepts and methods are able to solve any math problem in a matter of minutes. matics instruction. A clear majority of • School math has little or nothing to do with the real world. respondents agreed with statements • Doing math is a solitary activity that individuals engage in on their own. such as: "mathematics implies remem- • Math is a formal system, and has nothing to do with intuition or creativity.

79 Center for Educational Research

Table 4 nature of scientific theories is alien to Students’ beliefs about science and learning science this worldview. As is also the case in mathematics, • A logico-empiricist view of the world is predominant, according to which scientific the societal relevance of physics is theories are derived from observations and experiments. undisputed. The great majority of upper • An adequate understanding of the relationship between models and reality is lacking. Models are viewed as a direct reflection of reality. secondary students believe physics to be • Scientific knowledge is the result of human beings discovering objective, perma- the driving force behind technological nent natural laws (reification of discovery). progress, its aim being to solve the • In contrast to other forms of discovery, science knowledge entails a claim of absolute truth; the distinction between true and false is independent of theory and practical problems encountered by hu- context. manity. However, there is a systematic • The notion that scientific discoveries are the result of interactive validation difference in the physics-related world- processes is lacking. views of students enrolled in basic and • The sciences represent the definitive way of understanding the world in modern societies. advanced courses, the direction of • The sciences are the basis for modern technology and the engine driving progress. which is worthy of note: The longer and more intense the students' involvement with physics in school, the more pro- Key Reference constructive and dynamic nature of nounced their empiricist beliefs about Baumert, J., & Köller, mathematics, and the fact that mathe- science, and the greater the claims of O. (2000). Unterrichts- matical innovation is dependent on cre- certainty that they associate with gestaltung, verständ- nisvolles Lernen und ativity and imagination. Nevertheless, knowledge in physics. This finding clear- multiple Zielerreichung almost all Gymnasium students are ly contradicts the normative expecta- im Mathematik- und Physikunterricht der aware of the importance of mathemat- tions guiding physics education. gymnasialen Ober- ics in the modern world. Rigid schemat- The development of epistemological stufe. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann ic perceptions, such as there only being beliefs about mathematics and physics (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte one approach to solving any given during adolescence can be described as Internationale Mathe- matik- und Naturwis- mathematics problem—still a typical be- a process of differentiation. During ado- senschaftsstudie— lief among 14-year-olds—are no longer lescence, different aspects of beliefs, Mathematische und found in preuniversity mathematics which are by no means always logically naturwissenschaftliche Bildung am Ende der courses. In contrast to physics, Platonist compatible, become more distinct from Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. perceptions play practically no role in one another and thus more clearly de- Mathematische und physikalische Kompe- the domain of mathematics. fined. Where mathematics is concerned, tenzen am Ende der A predominant worldview among ac- a clear polarization of epistemological gymnasialen Oberstufe (pp. 271–315). ademic-track students in upper second- beliefs occurs over the course of this Opladen: Leske + ary education can also be identified for development—either in the direction of Budrich. the domain of physics. This perception a static schema-oriented view or in that couples the ontological belief that of a dynamic application-oriented posi- physics consists in the gradual discovery tion. Where physics is concerned, a sim- of a construction plan for the universe ilar differentiation of epistemological with the view that physics-related beliefs can be observed over the course knowledge has system character. Ac- of development. This has little effect on cording to this view, the natural laws of the empiricist view of the world that physics are discovered by physicists on a predominates in this domain, however. step-by-step basis. The theories of The main change here lies in the rejec- physics systematize human experience, tion of schematic perceptions of most of which is gained from experi- physics. Figure 4 shows the results of a ments. In the international research lit- latent class analysis for mathematics erature, this basic perception is defined from a developmental perspective. as a logico-empiricist view of science. Epistemological beliefs are intuitive An understanding of the constructive theories which represent an integral el-

80 Center for Educational Research

ement of domain-specific knowl- 60 edge and, at the same time, im- 54 pact on motivation, learning 50 49 processes, and ultimately academ- 47 ic achievement in the domain in 41 40 question. In TIMSS, structural equation modeling was used to 30 analyze the relationship between 26 27 24 epistemological beliefs, on the one

Students in % 20 hand, and motivational orienta- 20 tions, use of learning strategies, 12 and achievement in the given sub- 10 ject, on the other. It emerged that there was a high degree of com- 0 parability between the two sub- Indifferent Schema-oriented Application-oriented jects. The analyses of the mathe- Classes of epistemological beliefs matical worldviews—as shown in Figure 5—indicate that these be- Population II (lower secondary level): Gymnasium students liefs have direct or indirect—that Population II (lower secondary level): Students at other types of schools is, mediated by other factors— Population III (upper secondary level): Gymnasium students effects on achievement in mathematics. As expected, the effects Figure 4. Students’ epistemological beliefs about mathematics according to age of Platonist and schematic per- cohort and school type (in %). ceptions of mathematics are negative. The effect of schematic per- repetitive, involves relatively little varia- ceptions is mediated by interest in the tion, and does not have the primary aim subject and rehearsal strategies. Stu- of stimulating and fostering cognitive dents who believe that mathematics activity, intellectual autonomy, and self- consists merely in the application of regulated learning. This conclusion is particular algorithms to given tasks are confirmed by the TIMSS data on the less interested, more likely to use sur- structure and delivery of lessons (see face strategies when studying, and per- below: The Orchestration of Students' form less well than their peers. As was Learning Activities). At the same time, also predicted, the other two dimen- the TIMSS results also reveal consider- sions of the mathematical worldview able variation in knowledge profiles ac- proved to have positive effects on cording to the country, its didactic tra- achievement. Those students with a dition, and the subject in question. constructivist perception express great This convergence of results in the in- interest in mathematics and perform depth analyses conducted in Germany better than their peers. may well explain the far-reaching impact of the study. It seems fair to draw Summary attention to the considerable political, In Germany, the TIMSS findings on the practical, and scientific impact that structure of knowledge in mathematics TIMSS has had in this country. The find- and physics synthesize with the stu- ings have led to marked changes in the dents' modal epistemological beliefs to political agenda, inasmuch as the Län- form a relatively homogeneous pattern der have begun to establish a national and reflect a form of instruction which monitoring system focusing on educa- is fundamentally schematic and often tional outcomes. From the practical

81 Center for Educational Research point of view, the federal and Länder have led to the German Research governments have reacted with a well- Foundation (DFG) funding a new pro- equipped development program to im- gram to further research on learning prove instruction in individual schools and instruction in mathematics and sci- and professionalize teaching in the do- ence, taking into account support sys- mains of mathematics and sciences. tems existing both inside and outside of From the scientific point of view, the school. findings of TIMSS and TIMSS-Video

Epistemological beliefs Motivation/learning strategies Mathematics achievement .14

Instrumentality .21 Elaboration of mathematics strategies .30 .32 n.s.

Constructivist .25 Interest in perception mathematics .28 .24

Advanced Achievement in R 2 = .35 course .30 mathematics –.17

–.12 Schematic Rehearsal perception .19 strategies

Platonist perception –.09

Figure 5. Epistemological beliefs, motivation, learning strategies, and performance in mathematics: Structural equation model.

82 Center for Educational Research

Programme for International Student Assessment (OECD-PISA) The PISA Team As projects like the Third International learning outcomes. Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Another important feature of the Cordula Artelt have shown, large-scale assessments of PISA project is that it allows for nation- Jürgen Baumert student performance can provide valu- al additions to the international design. Eckhard Klieme able information for policy-makers, This gives national committees the op- Gundel Schümer teacher trainers, and educators. The portunity to address research questions Petra Stanat German ministers of education in the that are of particular interest to them. Anke Demmrich 16 German Länder have, therefore, re- The German PISA consortium has made Mareike Kunter solved to monitor outcomes of school- extensive use of this opportunity and Joachim Wirth ing on a regular basis. The Programme supplemented the program such that (predoctoral fellows) for International Student Assessment central research questions in education (PISA) that was initiated by the member and educational psychology can be ad- Associated scientists: countries of the Organisation for Eco- dressed. One main focus of these foun- Helmut Heid (Uni- nomic Cooperation and Development dational studies is the explication of versität Regensburg) (OECD) provides an excellent basis for structures of knowledge and competen- Michael Neubrand the establishment of such a monitoring cies in curricular and cross-curricular (Bildungswissen- system. This project assesses knowledge, domains. In addition, an attempt is schaftliche Hoch- skills, and competencies of 15-year-old made to gauge the importance of indi- schule Flensburg) students in reading, mathematics, and vidual-level and school-level factors, as Manfred Prenzel science, as well as in cross-curricular well as curricular and didactical tradi- (Institute for Science domains. Because the assessments take tions affecting the development of Education, Kiel) place on a regular basis, with updates these knowledge structures and compe- Ulrich Schiefele every three years, the study presents a tencies. Some of the national additions (Universität Bielefeld) tool for monitoring changes in the per- to the international PISA design and Wolfgang Schneider formance of the participating countries’ the research questions they aim at ad- (Universität Würz- education systems and for gauging the dressing are listed in Table 5. burg) effects of measures taken to improve Klaus-Jürgen Tillmann (Universität Bielefeld) Manfred Weiß Table 5 (DIPF, Frankfurt a.M.) National supplements to the international PISA design for analyses of knowledge structures and their determinants

Cross-curricular Reading Mathematics Science competencies

• Assessment of learning • Fine-grained differenti- • More comprehensive • Assessment of general from texts as a com- ation and description of assessment of under- problem-solving skills ponent of reading lit- competency classes standing of scientific and validation of the eracy distinct from concepts to test the construct • Addition of broader working with texts range of items assess- distinction between Assessment of aspects concept and process • • Assessment of proxi- ing aspects of mathe- of social competence mal antecedents of matical literacy not components of scien- and cooperative behav- text comprehension to covered by the interna- tific literacy ior identify possible points tional test • Identification and de- Exploration of the role for intervention scription of competency • • Ratings of items based schools play in the de- on a theory of cognitive levels for the concept velopment of CCCs demands and the process dimensions • Identification of effects of curricular and didactical traditions on knowledge structures

83 Center for Educational Research

Analyses of Knowledge Structures tional test is based on the psychological Reading literacy Each cycle of the theory of text comprehension developed international PISA program will focus by Kintsch (1998) and van Dijk and www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/- on one of the three assessment do- Kintsch (1983). This theory differenti- pisa/ mains. In the first cycle, this major do- ates three types of text representations: main is reading. The international verbatim representations, which result framework for the assessment of read- from basic processing of a text’s sur- ing literacy is largely based on a struc- face; propositional representations, tural model developed by Kirsch and which capture the meaning of texts; Mosenthal (1998), which strongly influ- and situational representations, which enced both the U.S. National Assess- integrate the information from the text ment of Educational Progress (NAEP) with prior knowledge. By separating the and the OECD’s International Adult Lit- reading or learning phase from the test eracy Study (IALS). At a general level, phase, the national test assesses each of this model distinguishes between a pri- these representations. More specifically, marily text-based and a more knowl- students answered questions about a edge-based aspect of reading compre- text they had read without being able hension. Whereas the former relies al- to refer back to it. most exclusively on information According to Kintsch (1998), text provided in the text, the latter also comprehension encompasses text-driven draws on prior knowledge. These two construction processes and knowledge- aspects are further broken down into driven integration processes. Idea units five types of demands that readers en- or propositions, on the one hand, and counter when working with texts, the reader’s goals, on the other, lead to namely retrieving information, develop- the retrieval and activation of associat- ing a broad understanding, and devel- ed elements (knowledge, experience) oping an interpretation, on the one from long-term memory and the forma- hand (representing text-based compre- tion of an interrelated network. At the hension), as well as reflecting on the lowest level of comprehension, a person content of the text and reflecting on may be able to reproduce a text from the form of the text, on the other (rep- memory without being able to use it for resenting more knowledge-based com- any other purpose; in that case, the in- prehension). formation provided by the text remains The international approach examines inert knowledge. The most elaborated reading comprehension in the context form of text processing, on the other of working with texts. In the test, stu- hand, is the situational representation. dents were allowed to refer back to the Here, the contents of the text and the text while answering questions about it. reader’s current knowledge are inter- This approach clearly captures an im- connected and additional information portant aspect of reading literacy. Yet, stemming from inferences is incorporat- reading literacy also encompasses the ed, thus reflecting the deepest level of ability to generate mental representa- learning from the text. In generating tions of a text such that the informa- situational representations, deliberate tion can be used at a later point in control becomes necessary when the time, without having to consult the textual information interferes with the document again. This aspect, which can knowledge base or when not enough be described as learning from texts, was knowledge is available for an orderly assessed in the national extension of mental representation of the text to be the international PISA design. The na- constructed.

84 Center for Educational Research

Large-scale assessment studies (e.g., gies was assessed. That is, students Key References IEA, NAEP) have recently begun to try to were asked to rate a series of learning Baumert, J., Artelt, C., explain observed differences in text strategies in terms of how effective Klieme, E., & Stanat, P. (in press). PISA (Pro- comprehension skills or reading literacy they would be for attaining a stated gramme for Internation- by reference to structural and individual goal in six different scenarios, and their al Student Assess- ment)—Zielsetzung, the- features. Among other things, they ex- ratings were subsequently compared oretische Konzeption amined the role of such factors as with corresponding judgments by ex- und Entwicklung von Messverfahren. In F. E. school characteristics, class size, and perts. Weinert (Ed.), Leis- students’ socio-economic background As described above, the national de- tungsmessung in Schulen—Eine Zwischen- (SES). One of the main findings of these sign includes a second text comprehen- bilanz. Weinheim: Beltz. studies was that, compared to SES, sion test, differing from the internation- Klieme, E., Köller, O., & school variables seem to have relatively al reading literacy test in several re- Stanat, P. (in press). little impact on text comprehension spects. Whereas the international TIMSS und PISA: Von der Untersuchung fachlichen skills. However, the analyses did not assessment examines reading compre- Lernens zur Analyse all- take into account more proximal an- hension in the context of working with gemeiner Kompetenz- entwicklung. Journal für tecedents of reading comprehension texts, the national test requires students Schulentwicklung. that have been identified in the psycho- to read each text within a limited peri- Klieme, E., Funke, J., logical literature on the processes oper- od of time and to subsequently answer Leutner, D., Reimann, P., & Wirth, J. (in press). ating during the construction of mental comprehension-based and knowledge- Problemlösen als fächer- representations, on the one hand, and based questions from memory without übergreifende Kompe- tenz. Konzeption und er- on individual predictors of comprehen- being able to consult the text again. The ste Resultate aus einer sion and memory skills, on the other. extent to which students have devel- Schulleistungsstudie. Here, decoding skills, knowledge about oped a situational representation of the Zeitschrift für Päda- gogik. language, domain-specific knowledge, information provided is regarded as an basic cognitive capacities (working indicator of learning from texts. On the memory, mental ability), learning strate- basis of the different assumptions about gies, and metacognitive knowledge are text comprehension and literacy under- described as major predictors of text lying the national and the international comprehension. In addition, the con- theoretical frameworks, we expect that struction of a coherent situational rep- different predictors will be identified for resentation of a text may also depend the aspects captured with the two tests. on the reader’s goals and motivation. More specifically, the theoretical as- The importance of motivational vari- sumptions depicted in Figure 6 will be ables has repeatedly been shown in re- tested systematically by comparing search on learning strategies. structural equation models with varying Rather than concluding that schools constraints. do not make a difference, the national Based on the models by Kirsch and PISA consortium added an assessment Mosenthal and van Dijk and Kintsch, we of several proximal antecedents of text expect to find substantial effects of comprehension which could represent mental ability, decoding speed, knowl- potential points of intervention, partic- edge about learning strategies, and in- ularly in schools. The national additions terest, as well as of parents’ socio-eco- include reading and learning strategies, nomic status (SES) on both aspects of thematic interest, and prior knowledge text comprehension. Other predictors about the topic of each text. A reading are expected to influence only one of speed test was also administered, allow- the measures. For example, the theoret- ing for the measurement of basic read- ical assumptions suggest that prior ing skills (decoding speed). Furthermore, knowledge and use of deep-level learn- students' knowledge of learning strate- ing strategies (elaborations) will only

85 Center for Educational Research

These findings suggest that metacogni- SES + + tive skills may present an appropriate + + point of intervention when it comes to Mental + ability + fostering reading literacy in schools. To + + test this idea, an experimental training + Decoding speed + study has been designed. Based on the + + concept of reciprocal instruction, stu- Thematic + prior knowledge + dents will be trained in the use of

Situational metacognitive strategies, and the Reading + + Learning strategy + + text longer-term effects of this training pro- literacy knowledge representation gram on text comprehension will be ex- + Deep-level + learning strategies plored. + + Effort and Mathematical literacy The inter- + + persistence national framework for the assessment

Instrumental + of mathematical literacy is strongly in- + motivation + fluenced by the "realistic mathematics”

Text comprehension: Interest Text comprehension: approach introduced by Hans Freuden- Kirsch & Mosenthal Kintsch model thal. This approach starts with the as- model sumption that mathematical concepts Figure 6. Theoretical have a positive effect on the develop- and ideas have primarily been developed assumptions about ment of situational text representations, as tools for grasping and structuring variables predicting the two facets of text whereas instrumental motivation and phenomena of the physical, social, and comprehension. effort and persistence when studying mental world. In line with this assump- should primarily be associated with tion, the international PISA test consists higher levels of performance in the in- mainly of items that require students to ternational reading literacy test. apply their knowledge and skills in au- Analyses of data from a field trial thentic situations. Moreover, the com- show that the international assessment position of the test reflects the idea (working with texts) and the national that problems involving modeling and assessment (learning from texts) do, in application present the best indicators fact, capture different aspects of read- for mathematical understanding. ing literacy. A two-dimensional Rasch The "realistic mathematics” approach model was shown to represent the data reflects current ideas on constructivist better than a one-dimensional model. teaching and situated learning that are Owing to design restrictions in the field quite popular in didactics and educa- trial, however, we have not yet been tional research (see below: Research able to test the complete model depict- Area III). However, these conceptualiza- ed in Figure 6 by considering both crite- tions leave unanswered such important rion variables simultaneously. Neverthe- questions about the nature and struc- less, in line with our theoretical as- ture of mathematical competencies as sumptions, partial models provided the following: strong evidence to show that learning (1) What is the relationship between strategy knowledge and text-related modeling-and-application kinds of prior knowledge have the highest pre- tasks, on the one hand, and inner- dictive power, particularly where learn- mathematical problem solving and ing from texts is concerned. Most im- technical skills, on the other? Do these portantly, this conclusion holds even competencies constitute different di- when SES is included as a predictor. mensions of mathematical literacy or do

86 Center for Educational Research they represent hierarchical levels of tion on structural aspects of the do- mathematical understanding that may main, these proficiency scales will allow be positioned on a singular latent di- for criterion-referenced interpretations mension? of test scores. In order to gauge the ef- (2) Can different levels of mathe- fects of didactical and curricular tradi- matical modeling be distinguished? tions on structures of mathematical To address these and other ques- knowledge and skills, moreover, differ- tions, the German PISA consortium has ential strengths and weaknesses across extended the international approach in countries as well as regions and school terms of theory, design, and methodo- types will be examined. logy: Taken together, the theoretical, em- (1) Further breaking down two of the pirical, and analytical power of the ex- three competency classes defined in the tended PISA mathematics study will international framework, the national provide important insights into the na- approach establishes a more fine- ture of mathematical literacy and into grained theory of mathematical compe- specific strengths and weaknesses in tencies. More specifically, the model students’ knowledge and skills. Such re- distinguishes the following competency sults represent valuable information for classes: (1a) application of technical curriculum development, teacher train- skills or recall of facts, (1b) modeling ing, and textbook writing. based on a single algorithm, (2a) single- step modeling that is primarily concep- Scientific literacy As is the case tual in nature, (2b) multi-step modeling with mathematics, the first cycle of that requires either the combination of PISA assesses scientific literacy as a mi- several similar steps or knowledge from nor component. In line with the Anglo- several mathematical domains, and (3) Saxon notion of scientific literacy, as mathematical thinking, generalization, described in the Benchmarks for Science and insight. Literacy published by the American As- (2) Based on mathematical and di- sociation for the Advancement of Sci- dactical conceptualizations as well as ence, for example, the international psychological approaches, a theoretical PISA framework emphasizes process model of cognitive demands has been skills. The framework defines processes developed. Using this model, trained ex- as "mental (and sometimes physical) ac- perts rated the cognitive demands of tions used in conceiving, obtaining, in- each item used in PISA. terpreting, and using evidence or data (3) The test design was extended by to gain knowledge or understanding” adding a broader range of items. These (OECD, 1999, p. 61), and distinguishes items cover a wide variety of mathe- five such processes: (1) recognizing sci- matical themes and a broad range of entifically investigable questions, (2) technical skills. identifying evidence needed in a scien- The structure of mathematical com- tific investigation, (3) drawing or evalu- petence will be explored and compared ating conclusions, (4) communicating across student groups and countries. valid conclusions, and (5) demonstrating Based on the theory of item demands understanding of scientific concepts. Al- and difficulty mentioned above, levels though some scientific knowledge is of proficiency will be described in detail needed for all five processes, only the for the dimensions and sub-dimensions fifth primarily focuses on this aspect of identified in the structural analyses. In scientific literacy. In other words, un- addition to providing further informa- derstanding of scientific concepts is not

87 Center for Educational Research

intended to be the main challenge in skills can be defined and measured at a solving items designed to assess the domain-independent level and distin- first four of the processes covered in guished from general intelligence. the international PISA test. Analyses of the field-trial data identi- The national extension in science fied two aspects of problem solving. The adds a more comprehensive assessment first was primarily picked up by the pa- of conceptual understanding to the in- per-and-pencil tasks, and reflects an ternational design. This addition covers abstract component that is closely re- concepts from biology, physics, and lated to general reasoning ability. Per- chemistry. The data collected with both formance in the more complex, dynam- the international and national items will ic, and realistic computer-based tasks, be used to test the distinction between on the other hand, seems to constitute concept and process components of sci- a distinct factor. The data from the entific literacy. If, as expected, the dis- main study will be used to explore fur- tinction holds, competency levels will be ther the structure of the problem-solv- determined and described for each of ing construct and its relationship with the two dimensions. Again, on the basis other competencies and skills. Moreover, of such structural analyses, specific relationships between the CCCs, stu- strengths and weaknesses of the students’ sociocultural background, and dents can be identified. school-level variables will be analyzed to gauge the extent to which schools Cross-curricular competencies can promote the development of such PISA is the first international assess- general competencies. ment study that goes beyond the meas- Another national extension in the urement of knowledge and skills in cur- CCC domain aimed at assessing aspects ricular domains and attempts to capture of social competence. Particularly in the so-called cross-curricular competencies German debate about educational goals, (CCCs) that can be applied in a broad social learning and social competencies range of situations. This approach fol- play an important role. Protagonists of lows the central idea that the goals of progressive education (Reformpäda- formal education are not restricted to gogik) have placed special emphasis on maximizing curriculum-based knowl- social skills as paramount outcomes of edge. In the first cycle of PISA, cogni- schools. However, while it is relatively tive, metacognitive, and motivational easy to capture academic achievement prerequisites for self-regulated learning reliably and validly in large-scale as- were assessed in most participating sessments, the measurement of social countries. The instrument for this part behavior or social competencies in such of the assessment was developed by studies poses more difficult problems. PISA-Germany in collaboration with the Most of the measures applied in previ- OECD and the University of Groningen. ous research have been based on self- In Germany, a problem-solving com- reports that tend to be affected by a ponent has been added to the design. tendency toward socially desirable re- Based on different psychological ap- sponses. In addition to employing exist- proaches to studying problem solving, ing self-report scales measuring cogni- both paper-and-pencil instruments and tive, emotional, and motivational an- computer-based assessment procedures tecedents of interpersonal behavior have been developed. A main goal of (e.g., perspective taking, social orienta- this part of the study is to determine tions), a group-task was, therefore, de- the extent to which problem-solving veloped to assess cooperative behavior.

88 Center for Educational Research

This task requires three students to tionships between cognitive competen- work together on a problem and to pool cies, social skills, and cooperative prob- the various pieces of information given lem solving will be further investigated to each group member in order to come with the data from the main study. up with a joint solution. Results from a Moreover, the assumption that cognitive validation study show that the joint so- and social outcomes of schooling show lution represents a combination of the a positive rather than compensatory re- students’ problem-solving abilities and lationship will be tested. aspects of social competence. The rela-

Research Area III Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools

Three cornerstones of competence acquisition have to be integrated into research on learning and instruction: the tasks to be mastered, the students (who have to be engaged in meaningful learning activities), and the teachers (whose task it is to facilitate students’ learning). Each cornerstone highlights different aspects of the learning process. Focusing on the tasks means asking what kinds of knowledge structures and more general cognitive preconditions have to be accessible in order for certain tasks to be mastered. Switching to the students' perspective leads to the question of how the learners' existing knowledge can be modified, extended, cross-linked, hierarchically ordered, or how new knowledge can be generated, in order to master the tasks. The teacher's role is to mediate between the tasks and the students. By selecting learning materials, giving appropriate feedback, and involving students in meaningful learning activities, teachers can support learners in closing the gap between prior knowledge and the knowledge needed to master the tasks in question. Insightful Learning: A Challenge for teachers as well as for researchers. for Teachers as well as for Nonetheless, scientific progress in mod- Scientists eling and explaining the emergence of In comparison to the acquisition of insights and conceptual understanding facts, skills, and routines, insightful is evident. conceptual understanding—a central It is now widely accepted that new aim of science and mathematics in- concepts and insights are not acquired struction, in particular—is still a puzzle, through passive transmission of the ex-

89 Center for Educational Research

pert's knowledge to the learner's mind, cur during the learning process and but rather that they are the result of whether students need special support the learner's active process of con- to overcome these. In order to combine structing increasingly complex and the task perspective and the student elaborated cognitive structures. Power- perspective, teachers need pedagogical ful learning environments stimulate stu- content knowledge in the sense of dents' cognitive activation, that is, stu- Schulman (1987). This means that dents' mental involvement in the tasks teachers have to know how particular to be mastered. In so doing, learners topics, problems, or issues are organ- have to make use of, and are con- ized, represented, and adapted to meet strained by, the knowledge already the diverse interests and abilities of available to them. Particularly for sci- learners and how they should be pre- ence and mathematics, it has been sented during instruction. Teachers' widely shown that students enter class- classroom behavior thus needs to be rooms with intuitive concepts and belief based on an understanding of how stu- systems which are partly based on uni- dents learn in the respective academic versal conceptual primitives. These may domains. have innate roots, but are also shaped In order to provide teachers with ap- by schooling. The negative conse- propriate pedagogical content knowl- quences of ignoring this kind of prior edge, research on learning and instruc- knowledge have been demonstrated, tion has to focus on students' insightful particularly for physics education. Stu- learning. Important questions to be dents often only adopt the knowledge addressed include the following: What taught at school at a superficial level, is the structure of the knowledge to be and therefore can only use it when acquired? What prior knowledge does faced with problems that have already the learner have to build on? What par- been dealt with at school. Data from ticular tasks, explanations, and interac- the TIMS advanced physics study show tive discourse will assist students’ con- that overcoming certain misconceptions struction of intelligent knowledge? Is that are deeply rooted in everyday ex- the understanding of certain concepts perience is the most difficult task of subject to conscious or unconscious science education (see above The Struc- processes? At what stage of the learn- ture of Knowledge Aquired in Preuniver- ing process are feedback and direct in- sity Mathematics and Physics Courses). struction helpful? At what age can stu- To effectively initiate and assist students make sense of certain forms of vi- dent learning, teachers need to take sual-spatial representation? What kind into account students’ specific prior of practice do students need for the ap- knowledge and understanding, and they plication of such tools in new content need to design and organize lessons and domains? Which tool is most appropri- classroom discourse in a way that ate for reasoning in a given content do- closely attend to the curriculum as well main? What kinds of misconceptions as to the social construction of meaning can arise from using a tool that has not in classrooms. Teachers can only do a yet been fully understood? good job if they know what makes cer- Questions such as these are ad- tain tasks particularly difficult, on the dressed in quasi-experimental and ex- one hand, and are aware of the way perimental classroom studies as well their students learn, on the other. For as in training studies run in the labo- instance, they have to know what kinds ratory. Laboratory studies are a compa- of mistakes and obstacles typically oc- rably cheap and particularly appropriate

90 Center for Educational Research method for researching certain aspects From Educational Productivity to of students' learning. They allow factors Cognitive Activation of instructional input to be disentangled In general, models of educational pro- from factors related to teacher person- ductivity (such as those devised by Wal- ality and the management and organi- berg and colleagues), the quantity and zation of classrooms and schools. More- quality of instruction are deemed to be over, running studies with small groups productivity factors that cannot be in the laboratory allows for detailed compensated by other components, video-based monitoring of learner ac- such as the home and classroom envi- tivities, and leaves room for additional ronment or individual abilities and mo- achievement measures to be gathered tivation. There is a high level of consen- during the learning process. Although sus in the description of "instructional learning programs and training sessions quality” in the international research developed for the laboratory can hardly community. High quality instruction is be directly transferred to schools, they typically described by a set of basic provide insights into particular effects properties that combine aspects of di- of the presentation of information and rect instruction with adaptivity and af- learning materials that are of central fective quality: importance for teacher education. We, – good classroom management and ef- therefore, consider them a very useful fective responses to interruption, supplement to studies carried out in – appropriate pacing and moderate schools, particularly when linked to speed of interactional exchange, al- each other. lowing for a high level of student at- tentiveness and participation, The Orchestration of Students’ – clear and well-structured presen- Learning Activities tation of material and setting of Classroom instruction is not the only tasks, factor that determines the knowledge – adaptivity of task selection and feed- structures and epistemological beliefs back given by the teacher, based on acquired by students. It is, however, the his/her diagnostic understanding of factor that is most likely to be affected the ability and learning progress of by the institutions of the education sys- individual students, and tem and the professional activity of – affective quality of the teacher-stu- teachers. Recent findings emphasize dent relations. that classroom instruction, rather than This concept describes the basic re- the school environment or management quirements of "instructional quality,” structures, has the main impact on the conditions which have to be met to school effectiveness in terms of allow for successful knowledge acquisi- learning outcomes. As such, the question in the classroom. However, this tion of what actually determines good concept of instructional quality is limit- instructional practice is central to the ed by that fact that (a) it does not show success of formal education and the how teachers implement each of its ele- functionality of the education system. ments in the structure and delivery of For this question to be addressed, peda- their lessons, (b) it has a distal relation- gogical concepts of instructional quality ship to the students’ actual learning need to be combined with the analysis processes, and (c) it overlooks subject of individual and collective processes of content, and thus, cannot adequately knowledge acquisition in specific do- reflect the structure and quality of the mains. knowledge acquired.

91 Center for Educational Research

In the approach taken by the Center (c) take domain-specific criteria of for Educational Research, the concept knowledge acquisition into considera- of instructional quality is extended by tion. Linking up with the investigations adding specific didactic aspects that of knowledge structures in mathematics (a) describe how basic elements of the and science described above, we ask the productivity model are implemented in following question: How should instruc- the setting of tasks and in instructional tion be shaped to allow students to interaction processes, (b) have a more gain a deep understanding of domain- proximal relationship to the psychologi- specific concepts and develop adequate, cal processes of insightful learning, and nonschematic epistemological beliefs?

The Research Teaching for Understanding: Linking BIJU and TIMSS to Research Team on Learning and Instruction TIMSS/III In the TIMS study on ad- standing-oriented mathematics instruc- Jürgen Baumert vanced mathematics and physics in- tion is much less prevalent in everyday Sabine Gruehn struction at the end of compulsory instructional practice than procedural (until 1998) schooling, students were asked to rate drills (mostly solving equations) or a re- Eckhard Klieme their instruction in each subject domain ceptive instructional style, with the Olaf Köller in terms of a given list of properties. It teacher demonstrating procedures and Gundel Schümer was possible to reduce these ratings to the students taking notes from the Marten Clausen 4 or 5 scales (Baumert & Köller, 2000). blackboard. It is even rarer for mathe- (until 2000) In both domains, the first factor clearly matics to be applied to everyday prob- Steffen Knoll represented understanding-oriented in- lems—a characteristic which is closely (until 1999) struction. The three most important related to insightful learning. If these Oliver Lüdtke items were as follows: "Explaining the four instructional characteristics are (predoctoral reasoning behind an idea,” "describing placed in relation to the level of fellows) and analyzing relations,” and "working achievement in the course attended on tasks and problems with no immedi- teaching for understanding emerges as ate solution.” The corresponding scales a positive predictor and teacher demon- provide first indications of ways in stration as a negative predictor. This is a www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/- which cognitive activation can be first indication that cognitively activat- TIMSS-Video/ achieved in the classroom environment. ing instruction is associated with higher As shown in Figure 1, even in pre- levels of mathematics knowledge—be it university mathematics courses, under- that this type of instruction better fos-

65 Basic course 60 Advanced course SD = 10) 55

40 Figure 1. Instructional approaches in advanced mathematics courses as perceived 35 by students. 30

Scores (neutral point = 50; Application Understanding Procedural Teacher training demonstration

92 Center for Educational Research

ters student achievement or that it is results of the videotape study con- Key References more often practiced in high perform- ducted in Germany, Japan, and the Baumert, J., & Köller, ing classes. (international coordination: James O. (2000). Unterrichts- USA gestaltung, verständ- W. Stigler) allows a multi-perspective nisvolles Lernen und BIJU The cross-sectional design of approach to be taken to the investiga- multiple Zielerreichung im Mathematik- und the TIMS upper secondary study did not tion of instructional quality. As part of Physikunterricht der allow for a distinction to be made be- an extension of this study at the Max gymnasialen Oberstufe. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & tween the preconditions and the out- Planck Institute for Human Develop- R. Lehmann (Eds.), comes of lesson structure and delivery. ment (Klieme, Knoll, & Schümer, 1999; TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- tionale Mathematik- This is possible within the longitudinal Klieme & Bos, 2000), the scales from und Naturwissenschafts- framework of the BIJU study, however. the student questionnaires were both studie—Mathematische Gruehn (2000) used a multilevel ap- presented to the teacher in question, und naturwissenschaftliche Bildung am Ende proach to investigate the impact of in- and used as high-inference ratings by der Schullaufbahn: Vol. structional properties on performance trained video viewers (Clausen, in 2. Mathematische und physikalische Kompeten- gains in mathematics and science over press). On the basis of video analyses, it zen am Ende der gym- the course of the 7th grade. Gruehn was possible to validate the "cognitive nasialen Oberstufe (pp. 271–315). Opladen: also surveyed the students’ perception activation” construct and delimit it Leske + Budrich. of their instruction, but here on a total from other dimensions of instructional of 21 scales. She was, thus, able to cov- quality. er each of the above mentioned classi- The 21 rating scale scores of the cal dimensions of instructional quality video viewers allow three superordinal by several scales. Furthermore, two as- dimensions of quality to be recon- pects of cognitively activating instruc- structed: (a) effectiveness of classroom tion were tapped in BIJU: First, "cogni- management, (b) individualization and tively demanding exercises,” that is, the positive climate of teacher-student re- use of tasks which restructure and con- lations, and (c) cognitive activation. The textualize subject content, thus, result- first two dimensions correspond with ing in the reconstruction of knowledge; classical concepts of instructional qual- second, the "Socratic approach to mis- ity. Interestingly, it emerged that in- takes.” Gruehn (2000) was able to show structional adaptivity and the affective that cognitive activation has a posi- quality of teacher-student relations tive effect on performance gains in both mathematics and physics. A dominance of simple repetition tasks, in 160 contrast, had a marked negative effect in all school types. When classes with 150 Classes with high level of cognitively activating instruction are cognitive activation identified and compared to classes in 140 the same school type where instruction is more repetitive, the effects of cogni- 130 tive activation on performance gains 120 are striking (see Fig. 2). Classes with low level of cognitive activation

TIMSS-Video The BIJU scales de- Mathematical Achievement 110 scribing the instructional approach 100 were also implemented in the TIMSS- Beginning grade 7 Ending grade 7 Germany 8th-grade study (Baumert, Figure 2. Achievement gain of Gymnasium students dependent on the level of Lehmann et al., 1997). Combining the cognitive activation (findings from BIJU, adapted from Gruehn, 2000). data gathered by these scales with the Metric defined across all school types with m = 100, SD = 30.

93 Center for Educational Research

Key References were confounded. The additional didac- whose classes show higher levels of Gruehn, S. (2000). Un- tic properties introduced by BIJU and cognitive activation seem to act as me- terricht und schulisches TIMSS allow the third, more content-re- diators facilitating the students’ own Lernen: Schüler als Quel- len der Unterrichtsbe- lated dimension to be identified. Per- learning activities and argumentation, schreibung. Münster: formance gains on the class level are and not as providers of rules and facts. Waxmann (252 p.). predicted by the "cognitive activation” Klieme, E., & Bos, W. (2000). Mathematikleis- dimension, whereas interest gains are Summary The various studies con- tungen und mathema- predicted by individualization and the ducted within the framework of tischer Unterricht in Deutschland und Japan. quality of teacher-student relations. TIMSS/III, BIJU, and TIMSS-Video can be Triangulation qualitati- In this extended model of instruc- summarized as follows: In addition to ver und quantitativer Forschungsansätze im tional quality, classroom management is the classic elements of good instruc- Rahmen der TIMS- no longer the central component ex- tion—efficient classroom management, Studie. Zeitschrift für plaining performance gains. This does adaptivity of instruction, and quality of Erziehungswissenschaft, 3, 359–379. not imply that it is irrelevant, however. teacher-student relations—student sur- Klieme, E., Knoll, S., & As shown in Figure 3, a high level of veys and video-based observations al- Schümer, G. (1999). cognitive activation can only be low the identification of a further di- Mathematikunterricht der Sekundarstufe I in achieved in a well-managed classroom. mension of instructional quality, which Deutschland, Japan und In other words, efficient classroom can be termed "cognitive activation.” den USA. CD-Rom-Doku- mentation der TIMSS- management is a necessary condition of This refers to teaching strategies, task Videostudie. Berlin: good instruction, but not a sufficient settings, and patterns of interaction Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung and one. which allow students to actively con- Stuttgart: Klett. Based on discourse analyses of the struct and cross-link knowledge. Al- videotapes by Schümer, it was shown though—as assumed in educational pro- that high levels of cognitive activation ductivity models—efficient classroom are associated with changes in the ver- management is a necessary condition bal behavior patterns of teachers: for instructional effectiveness in terms Teachers in cognitively activating class- of learning outcomes, the level of cog- rooms make more content-related, but nitive activation, and hence the didactic fewer discipline- and management-re- quality of instruction, is of critical im- lated statements; they pose more ques- portance for performance gains. This tions asking students to describe or ex- forges a link between instructional plain something and fewer factual quality research, psychological theories questions. From independent high-infer- of insightful learning, and research on ence ratings of problem solving process- mathematics and science education. es, we can infer that

cognitive activation 4,0 is associated with a high new role for the teacher: Teachers 3,0

2,0 School type

Cognitive activation Gymnasium Realschule Figure 3. Relation between classroom manage- Hauptschule low ment and cognitive activation (findings from Other TIMSS-Video). 1,0 1,0 poor 2,0 3,0 good 4,0 Classroom management

94 Center for Educational Research

Teacher Beliefs and the Orchestration of Learning Activities: From The Pythagoras TIMSS-Video to the "Pythagoras” Project Team As shown by studies such as TIMSS- schools and carried out in the Center Video, cognitive activation of students for Educational Research, links up with Eckhard Klieme requires a certain type of teaching, these findings from TIMSS-Video. The Claudia Thußbas where teachers act as facilitators for aim of the "Pythagoras” project, direct- Associated students’ learning activities and guide ed by Eckhard Klieme, is to investigate scientists: them toward an in-depth understand- instructional quality and mathematical Kurt Reusser ing of the subject domain. This type of understanding in Germany and—in col- Christine Pauli teaching behavior is dependent on the laboration with the University of (University of teacher having adequate understanding Zurich—in Switzerland. In the first stage Zurich) of his or her role, based on beliefs of the project, mathematics teachers about the epistemological nature of the from the two countries will be surveyed domain, learning, and instruction. With about perceived instructional condi- www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/- this in mind, the TIMSS teachers of tions, teacher beliefs, and instructional Pythagoras/ lower secondary schools were asked to practice in two specific topics: algebra- comment on the following statement: ic word problems and the Pythagorean "Basic computational skills on the part theorem. of the teacher are sufficient for teach- Instructional practice on the Key Reference ing primary school mathematics.” The Pythagorean theorem was surveyed Klieme, E., & Thußbas, more strongly the teachers agreed with with reference to the kind of mathe- C. (in press). Kontextbe- dingungen und Verstän- this statement and the more explicitly matical tasks set. The teachers were digungsprozesse im they thus reduced the teacher’s role to asked to what extent certain types of Geometrieunterricht. Eine Fallstudie. In S. von the imparting of procedural skills, the tasks—procedural tasks, tasks requiring Aufschnaiter & M. lower the level of cognitive activation a qualitative understanding of mathe- Welzel (Eds.), Nutzung von Videodaten zur Un- to be observed in the videos (cf. Fig. 4). matical concepts, proofs, inner-mathe- tersuchung von Lehr- In other words, a relationship could be matical transfer tasks, and application Lernprozessen. Münster: identified between teacher beliefs and tasks—were used in their lessons. On Waxmann. instructional quality in the sense of the basis of these data, the teachers cognitive activation. participating in a pilot study in Ger- A new study, funded by the German many could be grouped into two latent Research Foundation (DFG) as part of classes (cf. Fig. 5a): one group that used its program on educational quality in a higher total number of tasks, a broad-

4,0 high

3,0

2,0 Classroom Quality of instruction management Cognitive low activation Figure 4. Instructional quality-rated by 1,0 observers dependent on teacher’s belief Strongly Disagree Agree about the importance of basic computa- disagree tional skills for teaching at primary "Basic computational skills are sufficient" school (findings from TIMSS-Video).

95 Center for Educational Research

1,00 and their beliefs about the learning processes (questionnaire developed by Fennema, Carpenter, & Loef and adapt- 0,75 ed by Staub & Stern) are in accordance with constructivist ideas of knowledge

0,50 acquisition. This represents first empirical evidence confirming the existence of

(probability) a relationship between constructivist 0,25 Teacher group beliefs and instructional practice. It is High activitation a telling result that cognitive activation Use in classroom instruction Low activitation 0,00 was found to be associated with appli- Procedural Application Proof cation-oriented instruction among the Knowledge Transfer teachers surveyed. Although the Ger- Type of task man-Japanese comparison in TIMSS- Figure 5a. Use at mathemati- Video revealed that inner-mathematical cal tasks in er variation of task types, and empha- tasks are of particular value in cogni- teaching the sized application (high activation tively activating instruction, German Pythagorean theorem by two group), and a second group that limited teachers are still unfamiliar with this groups of its lessons to drilling routine knowledge approach (Klieme & Bos, 2000). teachers. and procedural skills (low activation Within the framework of a longitu- group). When these two groups are dinal videotape study, the "Pythagoras” compared in terms of their beliefs, con- project will continue to explore the ef- siderable differences emerge (cf. Fig. fects of teacher beliefs on instructional 5b): Teachers with a cognitively activat- quality and student understanding, using instructional approach set them- ing methods including the quasi-experi- selves more demanding instructional mental variation of instructional set- goals. Their epistemological beliefs tings to provide for higher or lower lev- stress the application of mathematical els of cognitive activation. models in real-world problem solving

Figure 5b. Relation between in- 0,8 structional approach (high vs. low cognitive activation) and teacher 0,6 beliefs. 0,4

0,2

0,0 Teacher group -0,2 High activitation Standardized scores Low activitation -0,4 Beliefs about Instructional Epistemological lerning: goals: cognitive belief: constructivist demand application orientation Teachers Beliefs

96 Center for Educational Research

Cognitive Activation by Means of Diagrammatic Tools The ENTERPRISE Knowledge dealt with in academic con- and modification of graphs and dia- Team texts is based on symbolic systems such grams so easy, the frequency with Ilonca Hardy as script, formal mathematical lan- which individuals encounter such repre- Elsbeth Stern guage, pictures, and diagrammatic rep- sentations has increased markedly over resentations. Symbols can be under- the past decades. In view of this trend, Zhu Liqi stood as mental tools that provide a cognitive science has put a great deal (until 1999) basis for the construction of meaning in of effort into researching diagrammatic Catrin Rode concepts, ideas, or plans. In order to literacy. Beyond the function of depict- (until 2000) successfully employ such tools, it is im- ing information, however, diagrams and Elwin Savelsbergh portant to know which affordances and graphs can also serve as active reason- (until 1999) constraints different mental tools pro- ing tools. Drawing diagrams may help (postdoctoral vide. For instance, both language and to integrate complex information or fellows) numbers provide affordances for con- provide a basis upon which inferences Anja Felbrich structing the concept of infinity, even can be drawn. It has been demonstrated Susanne Koerber though this concept has no direct rela- that experts in domains such as sci- (until 2000) tion to the perceivable world. Language ence, mathematics, and formal logic (predoctoral allows prefixes such as “in-” to be make extensive use of graphs and dia- fellows) added to words, thus reversing their grams as reasoning tools. Apart from meaning. Numbers provide the means this rather small group of people, how- Key References for addition and allow quantities to be ever, the active use of visual-spatial Hardy, I. (1999). Wie enlarged ad infinitum by adding a num- tools is not very common, neither inside Kinder lernen: Von der Bedeutung soziokultu- ber to any given number. Following this nor outside of school. reller Lernerfahrungen line of argumentation, which is based With this in mind, the ENTERPRISE für die Denkentwicklung. on the core ideas of Vygotski, cognitive project ( nhancing K owledge ransfer Grundschulmagazin, 72, E N T 4–7. development and learning can be un- and Efficient Reasoning by Practicing Stern, E., Aprea, C., & derstood as a process of extending the Representation In Science Education) Ebner, H. (in press). Im- use of mental tools. In this sense, sym- directed by Elsbeth Stern aims to ex- proving cross-content transfer in text process- bols not only represent parts of the per- plore the conditions under which ing by means of active ceivable world, but themselves become graphs and diagrams can serve as tools graphical representation. objects of reasoning, thus allowing the for structuring learning environments, Learning and Instruction. Stern, E., Hardy, I., & construction of concepts which have no and thus foster conceptual understand- Koerber, S. (in press). direct relation to the perceivable world. ing in science as well as other content Die Nutzung graphisch- visueller Repräsenta- Within this framework, understanding areas. tionsformen im Sach- can be conceptualized as the ability to unterricht. In K. Spreck- use representations in a flexible man- elsen, A. Hartinger, & K. Möller (Eds.), Ansätze ner. und Methoden empiri- While pictures, number systems, and scher Forschung zum Sachunterricht. Bad written language have a long tradition Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. of use in human culture, visual-spatial Stern, E. (in press). Wie tools such as graphs and diagrams abstrakt lernt das Grundschulkind? Neuere were only devised as tools for knowl- Ergebnisse der entwick- edge representation about two cen- lungspsychologischen Forschung. In H. Petillon turies ago. Since then, space has been (Ed.), Handbuch Grund- used to represent nonspatial informa- schulforschung: Vol. 5. tion, particularly in formal domains Individuelles und soziales Lernen—Kindperspek- such as science and economics. Because tive und pädagogische computers have made the construction Konzepte. Leverkusen: Leske + Budrich.

97 Center for Educational Research

The Cognitive Potential of Graphs and eas (Stern, Aprea, & Ebner, in press). The Diagrams first results of a collaborative study The old adage that one picture can be between the ENTERPRISE group and worth ten thousand words has been Reinhard Demuth, Institute for Science confirmed by cognitive science re- Education at the University of Kiel "One picture can search. Diagrams support a large num- (IPN), indicate that graphs can be used be worth ten ber of perceptual inferences, which are as transfer tools. In four 10th-grade thousand words.” extremely easy for humans to process. Realschule classrooms in the Kiel area, They group together all related infor- the concept of equilibrium was intro- mation, thus making extensive searches duced as a new topic by means of a for elements needed in a problem-solv- computer animation showing the varying inference superfluous. Indeed, visu- ing relations of sharks and herrings in a alization may lead to new insights into marine ecosystem. In two of the class- the formal structures of a problem. We rooms, the animation was supplement- will come back to this aspect when pre- ed by line graphs demonstrating the senting a study which shows that ele- regular fluctuations of the two species mentary school children can already over time. Results revealed that all four overcome misconceptions about pro- classrooms improved their understand- portional reasoning with the help of ex- ing of the equilibrium, but that only ternal representations. students in the classrooms using graphs Diagrammatic tools not only support were able to transfer their knowledge the emergence of conceptual knowl- about the equilibrium to economics-re- edge, they also offer efficient ap- lated contents. This promising result proaches to solving formal problems, supports the core assumption of the for example, by comparing two slopes ENTERPRISE project that the compe- in a linear graph to infer information tent use of graphs and diagrams is cru- about different rates of change. Cross- cial for advanced reasoning and knowl- tabulation can also be employed as a edge transfer in formal content areas procedure allowing the effects of more such as science and economics. than one variable to be disentangled. It is widely accepted that diagram- Why Diagrammatic Tools are Particu- matic representations also foster ana- larly Appropriate for Stimulating Cog- logical transfer. Because the con- nitive Activation in Classrooms straints to be considered when drawing We assume that forms of external rep- graphs and diagrams are the same in resentation not only support individu- different domains and content areas, als' cognitive functioning, but that they learners using external representations are particularly appropriate for class- may be able to identify previously im- room use. The major challenge for perceptible commonalities between do- teachers is to orchestrate students' mains. For instance, interpreting the learning behavior by presenting prob- slope of a graph as the rate of change lems and learning material which leave requires the axes to be labeled in in- room for self-regulated activities. Ex- creasing units. Core concepts from dif- ternal representations are clearly one ferent content domains, for example, way of achieving this goal. From a so- price per unit, speed, density, reproduc- cio-constructivist point of view, it can tion rate, or concentration of acid can be postulated that external representa- be represented by the slope of a linear tions such as graphs will support high- graph. Such commonalities may bridge quality discourse in the classroom as the gaps between different content ar- well as in small groups by offering stu-

98 Center for Educational Research dents an anchor for their reasoning external representations may relieve the processes. teacher of close supervision, in that stu- Moreover, the use of external rep- dents can work independently in a resentations may be particularly appro- meaningful way. The wider use of priate for classrooms because the con- graphs and diagrams in classrooms may struction of graphs and diagrams leaves also improve students' metacognitive learners with various degrees of free- knowledge and learning strategies, dom. Depending on the learner's prefer- which many studies—including TIMSS ences, for example, diagrams can either and PISA—have shown to be important. be constructed in a sparse way, or they can be enriched with concrete pictures Current Deficits in the Use of Graphs of the situation to be represented. In and Diagrams Inside and Outside this respect, external representations al- School low an element of freedom and leave Despite the value of graphs and dia- room for the introduction of the learn- grams as tools for knowledge structur- er's own interests. As has been demon- ing, reasoning, and problem solving, the strated in the BIJU study, this is other- competent use of such tools is not as wise quite rare. The use of diagrammat- widespread as would be desirable. Sev- ic tools may be particularly helpful in eral studies conducted by the ENTER- coping with large interindividual dif- PRISE group have revealed that there is ferences in prior knowledge and gen- room for improvement in diagrammatic eral cognitive capabilities. Each indi- competencies, not only in students of vidual student can use and construct vi- all ages, but also in their teachers. sual-spatial representations in the way For instance, Elwin Savelsbergh de- that is most appropriate for his or her veloped a training program which used conceptual understanding of the given vector diagrams to support secondary situation. Particularly if teachers offer a school students' understanding of cen- broad variety of diagrammatic tools, tral concepts in mechanics, for example, they can ensure that students are nei- pivots and levers. However, it emerged ther bored nor overtaxed. that the students could not take advan- Last but not least, the use of dia- tage of this training program because of grammatic tools can also stimulate stu- their weaknesses in the sphere of dents' metacognitive activities, especial- graphical representation. A study on the ly with respect to self-monitoring. graph-based reasoning of university Dealing with complex tasks requires students reading mathematics and eco- particularly extensive planning and goal nomics (Stern, Aprea, & Ebner, in press) setting. Difficulties may occur because a showed that such deficits are not recti- learner does not know how to begin fied after leaving school. Participants in structuring the problem. In this case, this study answered questions on a text familiarity with certain forms of exter- dealing with the break-even point. Un- nal representation, such as the con- doubtedly, the best way to infer the struction of concept maps, may help necessary information from the text him or her to access an appropriate so- was to construct hand-drawn graphs. lution process. Moreover, by trying to Without an obvious hint, however, very map a certain concept or situation onto few students did so. space, students may become aware of A study with 5th-, 7th-, and 9th- which particular aspects of the content grade students from Berlin Gymnasium area and the problem they do not yet schools showed that students even have understand. In this respect, the use of difficulty in constructing qualitative di-

99 Center for Educational Research

Key Reference agrams. Students were presented with problems (Stern & Staub, 2000). Analyz- Stern, E., & Staub, F. short texts such as the following: "On ing the use of representations in 8th- (2000). Mathematik ler- the faraway planet of Urx, living beings grade mathematics classrooms of the nen und verstehen: An- forderungen an die Ge- are called pings. There are two kinds of TIMSS-Video sample, Ilonca Hardy staltung des Mathe- pings—spotted pings and striped pings. found that only 2.8% of introductory matikunterrichts. In E. Inckermann, J. Kahlert, There are also two kinds of spotted tasks were based on visual representa- & A. Speck-Hamdan pings—laughing pings and crying pings. tions. Although representation tasks (Eds.), Sich Lernen leisten. Grundschule vor den Among the striped pings, there are noisy which demand a switch between sym- Herausforderungen der ones and quiet ones. Tip is a crying bolic systems are associated with high- Wissenschaft (pp. 90–- 100). Neuwied: Luchter- ping." The best way to answer the sub- quality instructional discourse, teachers hand. sequent inference question "Is Tip spot- rarely employ them as a basis for stu- ted or striped?" is by drawing a tree-di- dent activity. agram. However, even in 9th grade, only very few students took advantage of Experimental Training Studies on this form of representation although Elementary School Students' Use of they had encountered it previously, both External Representations inside and outside of school. By varying In exploring the ways in which dia- the instruction in an experimental de- grammatic tools can best be imple- sign, we tested whether students had mented in science and mathematics in- diagrammatic methods at their disposal struction, the ENTERPRISE project con- but were simply unable to access them. centrates mainly on elementary school In fact, it emerged that students lack an children. Investigations of this age understanding of the potential of dia- group provide valuable insights into hu- grammatic representations. The large man development, particularly because majority of students preferred proposi- elementary school children's cognitive tional representations, although these potential has long been underestimated. were less appropriate for answering the A widespread assumption is that stu- questions posed at the end of the text. dents of this age group are “concrete” As shown by a collaborative study with thinkers and this, in turn, has had a lim- Zhu Liqi and Fang Ge from the Chi- iting effect on the design of elementary nese Academy of Science, however, school science and mathematics curric- the use of diagrams was quite natural ula. This assumption has been funda- for the majority of Beijing students of mentally challenged by findings show- the same age. The superior performance ing that elementary school children can of the Chinese students may be due to have profound domain-specific expert- frequent practice of diagrams in mathe- ise in several areas. There is good reason matics lessons, as well as to indirect ef- to assume that presenting elementary fects of their symbol-based writing sys- school children with more demanding tem. learning material will better prepare In sum, these findings suggest that them for the mathematics and science schools should provide more opportuni- lessons in secondary schools. The extent ties for students to practice graph- and to which elementary school children can diagram-based reasoning. Teachers need already make use of graphs, diagrams, to learn more about the potential of and other forms of external representa- graphs and diagrams and to find ways tion is investigated in experimental of using them appropriately. German el- training studies. ementary school teachers currently lack training in ways of providing appropriate visualizations of arithmetical word

100 Center for Educational Research

Study I: How Linear Graphs can Help situation, on the other, has to be 4th Graders to Overcome Mathemati- achieved. Different representations may cal Misconceptions meet these requirements in different In the left-hand pitcher there is a mix- ways, depending on their structural ture of 5 glasses of orange juice and 9 characteristics and the agents' prior ex- glasses of lemon juice. In the right-hand periences. One difference between pitcher there is a mixture of 8 glasses of forms of representation is their degree orange juice and 12 glasses of lemon of intuitive interpretability. The func- juice. Which mixture tastes more orangy tioning of the balance beam, for exam- or do both mixtures taste the same? ple, is understood comparatively easily The majority of elementary school by children. For instance, when children Figure 6. The three forms children, and even many adults, will er- put different weights on each side of of representation used in roneously answer the training study. that both mixtures taste “the same.” The Balance beam so-called additive misconception, according to which the difference between quantities rather than their ratio is considered, often prevails until students have acquired advanced competencies in using fractions and decimals. A study with 67 4th graders (Koerber, 2000) revealed that additive misconceptions in proportional reasoning can be overcome with the

Anzahl der Anzahl der help of external rep- Orangen- Orangen- saftbecher Contextualized graphsaftbecher Conventional graph resentations, as de- 12 picted in Figure 6. In 11 order to fully exploit 10 a representation and 9 foster in-depth un- 8 derstanding of a 7

quantitative concept, 6 a meaningful integra- 5

tion of the symbolic 4 understanding of the 3 representation, on 2 the one hand, and 1 the quantitative un- 0 12 345 678 910 1112 Anzahl der Anzahl der Zitronensaft- Zitronensaft- derstanding of the becher becher

101 Center for Educational Research

Key Reference the beam, they intuitively interpret the about which mixture tastes more Koerber, S. (2000). Der side going downward as bearing more orangy, for example. The same conclu- Einfluss externer Reprä- weight, owing to their experience with sion can be drawn by comparing the sentationsformen auf proportionales Denken seesaws. Moreover, external representa- slopes of two graphs in a Cartesian co- im Grundschulalter. Doc- tions may differ in their degree of ab- ordinate system representing the two toral dissertation, Tech- nische Universität Berlin. straction with respect to the quantities mixtures. Such coordinate systems can involved (e.g., numbers on axes vs. be either designed in a purely numerical weights which can be put on the bal- way (conventional graph), or they can ance beam, both representing quanti- be adapted to include elements of the ties). With increasing abstraction, a def- context in question (contextualized inition of the relationship between the graph). In the contextualized graph, the symbols used and the quantities repre- glasses of orange and lemon juice were sented becomes ever more important depicted at the respective coordinates, for interpretation. and the background was colored with The balance beam and the Carte- orange of increasing intensity moving sian graph both allow the representa- from the x-axis (number of glasses of tion of quantitative information on their lemon juice) to the y-axis (number of levers or axes, respectively, and enable glasses of orange juice). The inclusion of the integration of two quantities form- these two elements was intended to ing a ratio to be visualized. By taking a foster a meaningful relation between balance beam, where balance can be the unfamiliar representational format maintained by changing the arm length of graphs and the mixture context, thus of a movable beam, two ratios can be facilitating the interpretation of the compared and a conclusion drawn graph's properties (e.g., numbers at the

3 Figure 7. Mean performance of the three differ- 2 ent training groups (ab-

stract graph, contextual- Number of correctly answered questions ized graph, balance beam) 1 and of a group, that did not receive any training 0 on the proportional reasoning test (maximum score: 8 points) in the pretest (yellow column), posttest 1 (red column), 4 4 without training and posttest 2 (blue col- 2 2 umn). 12 12

102 Center for Educational Research axes) and its principles (e.g., the steeper In sum, results of this study are a the slope, the more intense the orange promising indication that representa- taste). tions—once meaningfully related to the The balance beam affords hands-on problem context—are not only beneficial experience and thus the witnessing of for representing and communicating in- cause-and-effect relationships. This formation about concepts that have al- helps children to interpret the balance ready been acquired, but can be used as beam intuitively without having been scaffolding tools for the acquisition of explicitly exposed to its rules. In con- new concepts, and thus aid conceptu- trast, any meaningful use of the Carte- al change. Combining the “natural” sian graph requires the knowledge and persuasiveness of the balance beam correct application of its rules (e.g., the with the broad applicability of the ab- steeper the slope, the faster or more in- stract graph can be recommended as an tense the rate of change). instructional approach for elementary Tests were administered before the school. training (pretest), after the first half (posttest 1) and after the entire training Study 2: The Value of Self-Construc- (posttest 2). Figure 7 shows that per- ted Representations for Deeper formance in a proportional reasoning Mathematical Understanding test increased under all three training Assuming that conceptual understand- conditions, but that the group exposed ing is supported by transforming one to the balance beam gained the most representation into another, the tank from the training program. Apart from system depicted in Figure 8 may be par- this posttest evidence for the students' ticularly suitable as a way of laying the acquisition of proportional reasoning, foundations for an understanding of lin- student activity during the training ear graphs (Hardy, in press). By pouring Key Reference process indicates that working with ex- water into tanks using differently sized Hardy, I. (in press). ternal representations leads to different cups, both the y-intercept and the slope Repräsentationsaktivi- täten zur Förderung pro- degrees of insight into new mathemati- of a graph can be visualized. Although portionalen und cal concepts and different levels of con- some elementary school children spon- graphisch visuellen Ver- ständnisses im Grund- ceptual change. In the balance beam taneously see the connection between schulalter. In H. Petillon condition, in particular, “eureka experi- the tank system and the graph, an addi- (Ed.), Handbuch Grund- schulforschung: Vol. 5. ences” were observed when students tional representation that mediates be- Individuelles und used the balance to explain their rea- tween the concrete and the abstract soziales Lernen—Kind- perspektive und päda- soning. The posttest results of children representational forms may be benefi- gogische Konzepte. who worked with the contextualized cial. In a study with 68 4th graders, Leverkusen: Leske + graph did not differ from those of chil- Hardy found that a group who repre- Budrich. dren who worked with the conventional, sented the tank quantities in tables be- rather abstract graph. The added con- fore interpreting Cartesian graphs were textualization apparently did not foster more likely to show two-dimensional a meaningful connection between the understanding of Cartesian graphs than symbols used and the proportional prop- a group who represented the tank erties of the situation, thus resulting in quantities in self-constructed represen- proportional knowledge with a high lev- tations. Interestingly, the level of pro- el of situational specificity. This result portional understanding, as evidenced qualifies the widely held view that em- by the students' problem-solving activi- bedding complex ideas and concepts ties with the tank system, was higher in within concrete contexts is particularly the group with self-constructed repre- helpful for elementary school children. sentations. While tables represented the

103 Center for Educational Research two dimensions of number of pours and corresponding water level particularly well, thus enabling transfer to Cartesian graphs, self-constructed representations did more to further students' perceptions of mathematical relationships in the problem-solving situation. Graphs, diagrams, tables, or other forms of external representation are culturally-developed tools which sum- marize the agreed-upon understanding of a mathematical community. However, they may vary in their initial degree of meaningfulness to novices. Such representations often need to be introduced by teachers, and only after a period of familiarization will students be able to use these tools in a self-determined manner for structuring their knowledge and reasoning. In contrast, self-constructed representations explicate an individual's mathematical understanding of a situation and, as such, are inher- ently meaningful to the constructor. Self-constructed and predetermined visual representations may fulfill different purposes in students' development of proportional reasoning. This was explored in a study conducted by Ilonca Hardy with 27 12-year-old students who took part in a training session with either a predetermined form of representation or a self-constructed form. Effects of the one-hour Figure 8. The tank system with differently sized cups (upper picture) and its transformation into a self-constructed representation (bottom left) and a table (bottom training session were assessed by right). achievement gains in a proportional reasoning test closely related to the their solutions significantly better than training domain, as well as by a transfer the group using self-constructed repre- test involving a structurally dissimilar sentations. In the transfer problem, problem. In order to assess the students' however, the group using self-con- ability to use visual representations in structed representations outperformed solving proportional problems, they the other group where both visualizing were asked to visualize if they thought the problem structure and solving the this would help their problem solving. problem were concerned. It seems that Results showed that both groups the process of devising a representation achieved similar gains in performance furthered students' perception of repre- after the intervention, but that the sentations as flexible tools for problem group using a predetermined form of solving, whereas instruction with a pre- representation was able to visualize determined form of representation led

104 Center for Educational Research students to restrict the usefulness of These classroom studies are based on the representation to the training do- the assumption that graphs and dia- main. In further studies, we explore grams can serve as instruments to whether presenting students with pre- structure learning environments, thus determined representations only after allowing a practicable mode of instruc- they have used self-constructed ones tion based on constructivist views of supports flexibility in dealing with rep- learning. resentations.

Outlook on Further Research The studies conducted thus far have shown that elementary school children are already able to map visual-spatial representations of quite demanding concepts and that this helps them to overcome misconceptions which can otherwise be quite persistent. In further experiments, we explore what kind of practice helps students best to use graphs and diagrams as tools for knowledge acquisition and transfer. Moreover, in a collaborative project funded by the German Science Foundation with Kornelia Möller, University of Münster, Ilonca Hardy and Elsbeth Stern are investigating how graphs can be implemented in an elementary school curriculum on "swimming and sinking."

105 Center for Educational Research

Research Projects of the Director Emeritus

Experiential Learning and the Lifeworld of the Wolfgang Edelstein School Since the mid-century criticism of the school had focused on problems of justice and functionality, the fairness of school organization to the different social classes and on acceptable relations of outcomes to input. However, until the nineties, the basic fit between the educational system and the manpower needs of the economic system was never called into question. However problematic their relationship, in a fairweather society with an expanding economy schools continued to prepare for "life" and to guarantee the social inclusion of their graduates.

In the last decade of the century the set of problems more specifically felt in balanced relationship between school the Eastern provinces of the country. and life was being upset. An incipient The unitary school system of the social- imbalance in the relation between the ist GDR had been abolished, and a sys- school and the globalizing economy tem akin to the threepronged Western would lead to the potential exclusion of system introduced; the job security of a sizeable segment of young people of the graduates which had been part of school leaving age. Although a vast ma- an institutional patronage system link- jority, especially of the better students, ing schools to industries and work- was not threatened, the relative shrink- places dissolved, decreasing birth rates age of opportunities was bound to af- decimated the school population, and fect the perspectives of everyone in threatened school sites and teaching some way or to some extent. Increased positions. And in the financially de- pressure not only derives from the manding reconstruction of the infra- stiffer competition for economic and structure in the Eastern provinces the social inclusion, but from the concomi- needs of a renovated school system did tant imperatives of compliance and not top the rank. In fact there is empir- submission to standards, the insistence ical evidence for alienation and disaf- on increased speed and compression of fection of school in large portions of educational careers, and even from per- the population of secondary schools in ceived threats of a departure from con- the East. It is also quite clear that the ventional pathways—both for individu- alarming increase of right-wing ex- als and schools. tremism, xenophobia, cynicism and vio- Simultaneously with the onset of lence among secondary school students globalization-related risks and setbacks in East Germany largely occurs among the unification of Germany produced a those who are alienated by the school

106 Center for Educational Research and dissatisfied with their teachers. to the predicament of adolescents and In sum, the transformation of the schools as described above. The project economy and the needs generated by was submitted to the Federal Commis- German unification have produced a fis- sion on Educational Research and Plan- cal crisis which, combined with the po- ning (BLK), which after yearlong negoti- litical goal of a lean state have deprived ations accepted to sponsor the project, schools both in the old and the new and appropriate funds and teacher federal states of essential funds, re- hours for project activities. Ten German stricted the number of available teach- states decided to participate, with one ing positions and thus the access of school each. For a period of three years, younger teachers to schools, a fact schools participating in the Coalition leading to diminishing expectations and were to receive support for their self- decreasing professional aspirations as designed self-efficacy projects. The sup- well as increasing burnout, as the aver- port consisted in a half extra position age age of the teaching force increases. for each school, federal money for cen- On the local level, this may result in tral activities and foundation funding growing numbers of cancelled lessons for the support for common develop- and extra-curricular projects—with the ment activities, conferences and teacher double-edged consequence of dimin- training endeavors, as well as school- ished discipline and increased achieve- based consultancies, training and evalu- ment pressure. These problems, of ation activities. This model of mixed course, vary across the states, hitting public and private appropriations was the poorest states like Berlin or Meck- new and opened up a window of oppor- lenburg-West Pommerania harder than tunities for support of individual pro- the wealthier ones. grams not available to previous projects. ______No common treatment condition was designed for the participating schools. On the background of this picture of In line with the philosophy of self-effi- widespread dysfunction it appears rea- cacy as applied to organizational behav- sonable to not only critically evaluate ior the project was to rely maximally on the outcomes of schooling and to initi- the school's own proposals and prefer- ate programs of curricular innovation, ences negotiated between teachers and but to give special attention to social the leadership of the institution. This psychological processes in school—the decision made the evaluation of the quality of teacher/student interaction project a much more complicated affair. and of the school as a setting for life While assessing overall effects of the experience and moral growth in child- intervention, each individual school had hood and adolescence: to be evaluated, at least in part, in "Coalition of Self-Efficacious terms of its own program. Key Reference Schools" (Verbund Selbstwirksamer The program was targeted on three Brockmeyer, R., & Schulen). In the aftermath of a confer- sets of objectives: the students, the Edelstein, W. (Eds.). (1997). Selbstwirksame ence on applications of A. Bandura's teachers, and the school. Student Schulen. Wege pädago- theory of self-efficacy sponsored by the change was measured through a battery gischer Innovation. Oberhausen: Verlag Karl Jacobs Foundation in 1994, R. Brock- of self-efficacy scales relating to learn- Maria Laufen (168 p.). meyer and W. Edelstein designed a proj- ing in various subjects, satisfaction with ect targeting teacher self-organization school, learning climate in the class- and students' enhanced wellbeing and room, health, anxiety and control be- achievement in secondary schools (ages liefs, and a variety of other variables. 12–18). This was an attempt to respond Teacher measures related to several

107 Center for Educational Research

burnout dimensions, professional in- tations of success and motivation to involvement, collegial effectiveness, and vest effort in learning, as well as opti- individual professional efficacy, among mistic confidence in their competence others (Edelstein & Brockmeyer, 1997). to achieve, teachers need to be able to Change of the school as an organi- implement error friendly questioning zation was assessed by narrative ac- strategies, inductive discourse, and counts and day-to-day documentation evaluation methods that stress individ- of school events and decision making at ual progress (e.g., portfolio methods). various levels. An important dimension Quality of instruction and pedagogy of the project was the establishment of consequently is the focus of the succes- a complementary network of schools to sor program "Quality in Schools and cooperate with each school in the School Systems" (QuiSS) which the Fed- Coalition, comparing and contrasting eral Commission initiated to succeed experience, and communicating through the Coalition for the next five years. It internet messages. The evaluation has also influenced the preparation for process is still under way, but major re- yet another program sponsored by the sults show, on the average, slight Federal Commission provisionally named progress in self-efficacy of teachers, "Learning Democracy in Schools and lowered burnout scores, and, contrary to Communities"—a program designed to Key References the overall trend in the corresponding fight the right-wing extremist youth Edelstein, W. (in press). Zur Genese des rechts- population, arrested decrease in self-ef- culture to which adolescent dissatisfac- extremen Potentials in ficacy scores and interest in school for tion with school experience and with Deutschland und mög- liche Antworten seitens students with large within-school and the lifeworld of the schools (Edelstein, der Schule. In C. Petry & between-school variations. On the aver- 2000a, in press) appears to be a con- E. Welz (Eds.), Demokra- tie lernen und leben— age, scores rose significantly during the tributing factor. Eine Initiative gegen early phase of the project to remain It is a sign of success and of organi- Rechtsextremismus, Ras- stable or decrease somewhat in the lat- zational self-efficacy that, when the sismus, Antisemitismus, Fremdenfeindlichkeit er phase. The major effects were seen in project ended in 1999, the Coalition und Gewalt. Gutachten the organizational progress of (most) continued its activity even without ex- und Empfehlungen: Vol. I. Probleme—Voraus- schools, and important changes in atti- ternal support, maintaining internal co- setzungen—Möglichkei- tudes towards school, school reform, operation, conferences, and the external ten. Weinheim: Beltz. and collegial cooperation among networks, now encompassing 60 Edelstein, W. (1999). Das Stiftungsprogramm teachers. schools. A grant has been ascertained to "Jugend übernimmt Ver- The major weakness proved to be the continue and to extend these activities antwortung." In Stiftung Brandenburger Tor (Ed.), following: Teachers were expected to for another three years, and new mem- Jugend übernimmt Ver- enhance the growth of self-efficacy in ber schools are being recruited to join antwortung (pp. 44-55). students through changing their in- the Coalition. Berlin. structional strategies towards self-effi- Program "Youth Take Responsi- cacy generating interactions and con- bility" (Jugend übernimmt Verantwor- structive individualizing feedback to tung) established through the Branden- students. This strategy, however, failed burger Tor Foundation of the Berlin to produce effects as teachers rarely Bank Company. modified their didactic strategies and Whereas the concept of the "self- tactical moves with this goal in mind. efficacious school" targeted the social Teachers need much more training, sup- psychology of educational goals pursued port, and cooperation to achieve goals to enhance student optimism and effort involving changes in basic professional and to decrease teacher burnout know-how and pedagogical attitude. through student-oriented instruction, For students to develop positive expec- communicative collegial interaction and

108 Center for Educational Research

co-constructive organizational process, A first expert workshop on responsi- Key References the focus of the responsibility program bility learning was held in May 2000 Edelstein, W. (2000). is both more limited and more precise: (Edelstein, 2000c). A conference on the Verantwortung lernen, The aim is to fuse the abstract charac- learning of responsibility in various do- Verantwortung lehren, Verantwortung lehren teristics of self-efficacy beliefs with the mains (schools, ecological projects, in- lernen. In Stiftung Bran- concrete experience of responsibility for ternational youth programs, reeducation denburger Tor (Ed.), Ju- gend übernimmt Verant- cooperative action in a circumscribed of adolescent delinquents) will take wortung—Verantwor- project based in a school or community. place in May 2001, and a summer tung lernen (pp. 68–76). Again, the basic idea is to counteract school for teachers on responsibility Berlin. Edelstein, W. (2000). the sense of helplessness, heteronomy learning in projects is in preparation for Lernwelt und Lebens- and alienation affecting many students July 2001. welt. Überlegungen zur Schulreform. Neue in the secondary school (especially, but Sammlung, 40, 369–382. not only, low-achieving students) and to activate them through a sense of achievement with a self-chosen task undertaken in cooperation with others. A project in the program represents an www.stiftung.brandenburgertor.de experience of cooperation and democratic excercise of control in the context of collective goalsetting and decision making about a common task. It implies responsibility taken for action and responsibility shared with others. It also implies didactic and management shifts that teachers have to acquire (Edelstein, 1999f).

109 Center for Educational Research

Publications 1998–2000

Achtenhagen, F., & Baumert, J. Averill, J. R., Stanat, P., & More, richt, Kultus, Wissenschaft und Testaufgaben zu TIMSS/III. Ma- (Eds.). (1999). Alternative Evalu- T. (1998). Aesthetics and the en- Kunst (Ed.), Wissen und Werte thematisch-naturwissenschaft- ationsverfahren. Unterrichtswis- vironment. Review of General für die Welt von morgen. Doku- liche Grundbildung und voruni- senschaft, 27, 97–191. Psychology, 2, 1–22. mentation zum Bildungskongreß versitäre Mathematik und Physik des Bayerischen Staatsministeri- der Abschlußklassen der Sekun- Arnold, E., Bos, W., Koch, M., Baumert, J. (2000). Lebenslan- ums für Unterricht, Kultus, Wis- darstufe II (Population 3). Berlin: Koller, H.-C., & Leutner-Ramme, ges Lernen und internationale senschaft und Kunst am 29./30. Max-Planck-Institut für Bil- S. (1998). Selbstbestimmt lehren Dauerbeobachtung der Ergeb- April 1998 in der Ludwig-Maxi- dungsforschung (Materialien lernen. Ein Konzept zur hoch- nisse von institutionalisierten milians-Universität München aus der Bildungsforschung, schuldidaktischen Qualifizierung Bildungsprozessen. In F. Achten- (pp. 213–231). München: Vol. 62). des akademischen Mittelbaus. hagen & W. Lempert (Eds.), Bayerisches Staatsministerium Das Hochschulwesen, 46, 147–- Lebenslanges Lernen im Beruf. für Unterricht, Kultus, Wissen- Baumert, J., Bos, W., & 152. Seine Grundlegung im Kindes- schaft und Kunst. Lehmann, R. (Eds.). (2000a). und Jugendalter: Vol. 5. Erzie- – (1998b). Internationale Schul- TIMSS/III. Dritte Internationale Artelt, C. (2000a). Wie prädiktiv hungstheorie und Bildungsfor- leistungsvergleiche. In D. H. Mathematik- und Naturwissen- sind retrospektive Selbstberichte schung (pp. 121–127). Opladen: Rost (Ed.), Handwörterbuch Pä- schaftsstudie—Mathematische über den Gebrauch von Lern- Leske + Budrich. dagogische Psychologie (pp. und naturwissenschaftliche Bil- strategien für strategisches Ler- – (1999a). Befunde der interna- 219–225). Weinheim: Beltz. dung am Ende der Schullauf- nen? Zeitschrift für Pädagogi- tionalen Leistungsvergleiche – (1998c). Physikleistungen am bahn: Vol. 1. Mathematische und sche Psychologie, 14, 72–84. zum mathematisch-naturwis- Ende der Schullaufbahn im naturwissenschaftliche Grund- – (2000b). Strategisches Lernen. senschaftlichen Unterricht und inter- und intranationalen Ver- bildung am Ende der Pflicht- Münster: Waxmann (Pädagogi- fachdidaktische Konsequenzen. gleich. In Fachverband Didaktik schulzeit. Opladen: Leske + sche Psychologie und Entwick- In Weiterentwicklung des ma- (Ed.), Didaktik der Physik: Vor- Budrich (362 p.). lungspsychologie, Vol. 18.) thematisch-naturwissenschaft- träge zur 62. Physikertagung – (Eds.). (2000b). TIMSS/III. Dritte (303 p.). lichen Unterrichts (pp. 11–20). 1998 (pp. 22–32). Regensburg: Internationale Mathematik- und Stuttgart: Ministerium für Kul- Deutsche Physikalische Gesell- Naturwissenschaftsstudie—Ma- tus, Jugend und Sport. schaft. thematische und naturwissen- – (1999b). Mathematisch-natur- – (1998d). TIMSS—Mathema- schaftliche Bildung am Ende der wissenschaftliche Bildung am tisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathema- Ende der Schullaufbahn. In Unterricht im internationalen tische und physikalische Kompe- J. List (Ed.), Mathematik, Natur- Vergleich. In Gewerkschaft Er- tenzen am Ende der gymnasialen wissenschaften und Technik ziehung und Wissenschaft Oberstufe. Opladen: Leske + (pp. 64–85). Köln: Deutscher Nordrhein-Westfalen (Ed.), Ein- Budrich (466 p.). Instituts-Verlag. trichtern + Pauken = Mathe – (1999c). Die Rolle standardi- Mangelhaft. Ergebnisse der sierter Vergleichsuntersuchun- TIMS-Studie und Konsequenzen gen in einem System der Quali- für den Unterricht an deutschen tätssicherung und Qualitätsent- Schulen (pp. 13–50). Essen: wicklung. In G. Grogger & Neue deutsche Schule Verlags- W. Specht (Eds.), Evaluation und gesellschaft. Qualität im Bildungswesen – (1998e). TIMSS—Mathema- (pp. 72–79). Graz: Zentrum für tisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Schulentwicklung, Bereich II. Unterricht im internationalen – (1999). Lernstrategien und – (1998a). Fachbezogenes/fach- Vergleich—Anlage der Studie Lernerfolg—Eine handlungsnahe übergreifendes Lernen/Erwei- und ausgewählte Befunde. In J. Studie. Zeitschrift für Entwick- terte Lern- und Denkstrategien. List (Ed.), TIMSS: Mathema- lungspsychologie und Pädago- Leitung Forum 5. In Bayerisches tisch-naturwissenschaftliche gische Psychologie, 31, 86–96. Staatsministerium für Unter- Kenntnisse deutscher Schüler auf dem Prüfstand (pp. 13–65). Artelt, C., & Stanat, P. (1999). Köln: Deutscher Instituts-Verlag. Schülerleistungen im internationalen Vergleich: Die OECD- Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Klieme, Studie PISA (Programme for In- E., & Stanat, P. (in press). PISA – (2000c). Untersuchungsgegen- ternational Student Assess- (Programme for International stand und Fragestellungen. In ment). Erziehungswissenschaft, Student Assessment)—Zielset- J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Leh- 10, 8–14. zung, theoretische Konzeption mann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte und Entwicklung von Messver- Internationale Mathematik- und Avenarius, H., Baumert, J., fahren. In F. E. Weinert (Ed.), Naturwissenschaftsstudie— Döbert, H., & Füssel, H.-P. (Eds.). Leistungsmessung in Schulen— Mathematische und naturwis- (1998). Schule in erweiterter Eine Zwischenbilanz. Weinheim: senschaftliche Bildung am Ende Verantwortung: Positionsbestim- Beltz. der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. Ma- mungen aus erziehungswissen- thematische und naturwissenschaftlicher, bildungspolitischer Baumert, J., Bos, W., Klieme, schaftliche Grundbildung am und verfassungsrechtlicher E., Lehmann, R., Lehrke, M., Ende der Pflichtschulzeit (pp. Sicht. Neuwied: Luchterhand Hosenfeld, I., Neubrand, J., & 19–30). Opladen: Leske + (166 p.). Watermann, R. (Eds.). (1999). Budrich.

110 Center for Educational Research

Baumert, J., Bos, W., & Wa- Itemfunktionen am Beispiel des studie—Mathematische und na- gionale Variabilität und die termann, R. (2000a). Fachleis- mathematischen Grundbil- turwissenschaftliche Bildung am Sicherung gemeinsamer Stan- tungen im voruniversitären Ma- dungstests der Dritten Interna- Ende der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. dards in der gymnasialen Ober- thematik- und Physikunterricht tionalen Mathematik- und Na- Mathematische und naturwis- stufe. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & im internationalen Vergleich. In turwissenschaftsstudie der IEA senschaftliche Grundbildung am R. Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. (TIMSS). In H.-J. Herber & F. Ende der Pflichtschulzeit (pp. Dritte Internationale Mathema- Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Hofmann (Eds.), Schulpädagogik 31–84). Opladen: Leske + tik- und Naturwissenschafts- Internationale Mathematik- und und Lehrerbildung (pp. 301–- Budrich. studie—Mathematische und na- Naturwissenschaftsstudie— 324). Innsbruck: Studien Verlag. – (2000b). Untersuchungs- turwissenschaftliche Bildung am Mathematische und naturwis- gegenstand, allgemeine Frage- Ende der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. senschaftliche Bildung am Ende Baumert, J., & Köller, O. stellungen, Entwicklung der Un- Mathematische und physika- der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Ma- (2000a). Motivation, Fachwah- tersuchungsinstrumente und lische Kompetenzen am Ende thematische und physikalische len, selbstreguliertes Lernen und technische Grundlagen der Stu- der gymnasialen Oberstufe (pp. Kompetenzen am Ende der gym- Fachleistungen im Mathematik- die. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. 317–372). Opladen: Leske + nasialen Oberstufe (pp. 129–- und Physikunterricht der gym- Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Budrich. 180). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. nasialen Oberstufe. In J. Bau- Internationale Mathematik- und – (2000b). Mathematische und mert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann Naturwissenschaftsstudie—Ma- Bos, W., & Baumert, J. (1999a). naturwissenschaftliche Grund- (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- thematische und naturwissen- Internationale Schulleistungs- bildung im internationalen Ver- tionale Mathematik- und Na- schaftliche Bildung am Ende der forschung als Instrument exter- gleich. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & turwissenschaftsstudie—Mathe- Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathema- ner Evaluation des Bildungs- R. Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. matische und naturwissen- tische und physikalische Kompe- wesens in Deutschland am Bei- Dritte Internationale Mathema- schaftliche Bildung am Ende der tenzen am Ende der gymnasialen spiel von TIMSS/III. In B. von tik- und Naturwissenschafts- Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathe- Oberstufe (pp. 27–56). Opladen: Rosenbladt (Ed.), Bildung in der studie—Mathematische und matische und physikalische Leske + Budrich. Wissensgesellschaft (pp. 63–92). naturwissenschaftliche Bildung Kompetenzen am Ende der gym- Münster: Waxmann. am Ende der Schullaufbahn: nasialen Oberstufe (pp. 181–- Baumert, J., Köller, O., & – (1999b). Möglichkeiten, Gren- Vol. 1. Mathematische und na- 213). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Schnabel, K. (2000). Schulfor- zen und Perspektiven interna- turwissenschaftliche Grundbil- – (2000b). Unterrichtsgestal- men als differentielle Entwick- tinaler Bildungsforschung: Das dung am Ende der Pflichtschul- tung, verständnisvolles Lernen lungsmilieus—Eine ungehörige Beispiel TIMSS/III. Aus Politik zeit (pp. 135–197). Opladen: und multiple Zielerreichung im Fragestellung? In Gewerkschaft und Zeitgeschichte, 49, 3–15. Leske + Budrich. Mathematik- und Physikunter- Erziehung und Wissenschaft – (1998a). Erste Ergebnisse der – (1998). TIMSS/III: Schülerleis- richt der gymnasialen Ober- GEW (Ed.), Messung sozialer TIMSS-Studie für den oberen tungen in Mathematik und den stufe. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & Motivation. Eine Kontroverse Sekundarbereich. Mathematik Naturwissenschaften am Ende R. Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. (pp. 28–68). Frankfurt a.M.: lehren, 90, 56–60. der Sekundarstufe II im interna- Dritte Internationale Mathema- Bildungs- und Förderungswerk – (1998b). Fachleistungen in tionalen Vergleich. Zusammen- tik- und Naturwissenschafts- der GEW (Schriftenreihe des voruniversitärer Mathematik im fassung deskriptiver Ergebnisse. studie—Mathematische und na- Bildungs- und Förderungswerks internationalen Vergleich— Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für turwissenschaftliche Bildung am der GEW, Vol. 14). Ergebnisse aus der TIMS-Studie Bildungsforschung (Studien und Ende der Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. für die gymnasiale Oberstufe. Berichte, Vol. 64). Mathematische und physika- Baumert, J., Lehmann, R., Lehrerbildung und Schule, 4, lische Kompetenzen am Ende Lehrke, M., Clausen, M., Hosen- 58–69. Baumert, J., Evans, R. H., & der gymnasialen Oberstufe (pp. feld, I., Neubrand, J., Patjens, S., Geiser, H. (1998). Technical 271–315). Opladen: Leske + Jungclaus, H., & Günther, W. Bos, W., & Köller, O. (1998). problem solving among 10- Budrich. (Eds.). (1998a). Testaufgaben TIMSS—Mathematics and sci- year-old students as related to – (1998a). Interest research Mathematik TIMSS 7./8. Klasse ence achievement in interna- science achievement, out-of- concerning secondary level I: (Population 2). Berlin: Max- tional comparison: Goals, de- school experience, domain-spe- An overview. In L. Hoffmann, A. Planck-Institut für Bildungs- sign, and research questions. cific control beliefs, and attri- Krapp, K. A. Renninger, & forschung (Materialien aus der Newsletter of the International bution patterns. Journal of Re- J. Baumert (Eds.), Interest and Bildungsforschung, Vol. 60). Society for the Study of Behav- search in Science Teaching, 35, learning: Proceedings of the – (1998b). Testaufgaben Natur- ioural Development, 33, 1–3. 987–1013. Seeon Conference on Interest wissenschaften TIMSS 7./8. and Gender (pp. 241–256). Kiel: Klasse (Population 2). Berlin: Bos, W., & Tarnai, C. (1999a). Baumert, J., Fend, H., O’Neil, H. Institut für die Pädagogik der Max-Planck-Institut für Bil- Content analysis in educational F., & Peschar, J. L. (1998). Pre- Naturwissenschaften. dungsforschung (Materialien research. International Journal pared for life-long learning. – (1998b). Nationale und inter- aus der Bildungsforschung, of Educational Research, 31, Paris: OECD. nationale Schulleistungsstudien: Vol. 61). 656–734. Was können sie leisten, wo sind – (1999b). Content analysis in Baumert, J., Klieme, E., Lehrke, ihre Grenzen? Pädagogik, 50, Baumert, J., Schnabel, K., & empirical social research. Inter- M., & Savelsbergh, E. R. (2000). 12–18. Lehrke, M. (1998). Learning national Journal of Educational Konzeption und Aussagekraft math in school: Does interest Research, 31, 659–671. der TIMSS-Leistungstests. Zur Baumert, J., Köller, O., Lehrke, really matter? In L. Hoffmann, – (1999c). University faculty Diskussion um TIMSS-Aufgaben M., & Brockmann, J. (2000a). A. Krapp, K. A. Renninger, & J. members’ and students’ percep- aus der Mittelstufenphysik (part Anlage und Durchführung der Baumert (Eds.), Interest and tions of university academic 1). Die Deutsche Schule, 92, Dritten Internationalen Mathe- learning: Proceedings of the systems. International Journal 102–115; (part 2). Die Deutsche matik- und Naturwissenschafts- Seeon Conference on Interest of Educational Research, 31, Schule, 92, 196–217. studie zur Sekundarstufe II and Gender (pp. 327–336). Kiel: 699–715. (TIMSS/III)—Technische Grund- Institut für die Pädagogik der Baumert, J., Klieme, E., & lagen. In J. Baumert, W. Bos, & Naturwissenschaften. Brockmann, J., Bos, W., & Watermann, R. (1998). Jenseits R. Lehmann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Gruehn, S. (1999). Methoden- von Gesamttest- und Untertest- Dritte Internationale Mathema- Baumert, J., & Watermann, R. ausbildung und Berufsaspiratio- werten: Analyse differentieller tik- und Naturwissenschafts- (2000). Institutionelle und re- nen Studierender im Diplom-

111 Center for Educational Research

Studiengang Erziehungswissen- wicklungspsychologie und päda- (Ed.), Jugend übernimmt Verant- Edelstein, W., & Nunner-Wink- schaft. Empirische Pädagogik, gogischen Praxis. Weinheim: wortung—Verantwortung lernen ler, G. (Eds.). (2000). Moral im 13, 333–352. Beltz. (pp. 68–76). Berlin. sozialen Kontext. Frankfurt a.M.: – (in press-b). Lernwelt und – (1999a). Aus Fehlern wird Suhrkamp (506 p.). Bullock, M., Nunner-Winkler, G., Lebenswelt. Überlegungen zur man klug. Zur Ontologie der Stern, E., Lopez, A., & Ziegler, A. Schulreform. In W. Beutel & Fehlertypen. In W. Althof (Ed.), (in press). Using a complex rule P. Fauser (Eds.), Erfahrene Fehlerwelten. Vom Fehlermachen in different domains: When fa- Demokratie. Opladen: Leske + und Lernen aus Fehlern (pp. miliar schemes don't help. In D. Budrich. 111–127). Opladen: Leske + Fasko (Ed.), Critical thinking and – (in press-c). Mediation als so- Budrich. reasoning: Current theory, re- zialkognitiver Entwicklungspro- – (1999b). Bedingungen erfolg- search, and practice. Cresskill, zess. In Evangelische Akademie reicher Schultransformation. In NJ: Hampton Press. Bad Boll (Ed.), Abgründe und E. Risse & H.-J. Schmidt (Eds.), Schätze der Mediation. Von der Bildungsplanung zur Chourdakis, D., & Thußbas, C. – (in press-d). Verantwortlich Schulentwicklung (pp. 119–132). (2000). Der Aufbau inhaltsspe- handeln lernen. In Stiftung Neuwied: Luchterhand. zifischer Wissensstrukturen in Brandenburger Tor (Ed.), Jugend – (1999c). The cognitive context der Mathematik im Rahmen übernimmt Verantwortung. of historical change: Assimila- analoger Problemlöseanforde- Berlin: H&P Druck Berlin. tion, accommodation, and the rungen (Abstract). In D. Vorberg, – (in press-e). Verantwortung— segmentation of competence. A. Fuchs, T. Futterer, A. Hei- Initiative—Selbstwirksamkeit. New Directions for Child and necke, U. Mattler, & U. Heinrich Skizze eines Programms zur För- Adolescent Development, 83, (Eds.), Tagungsband zur 42. Ta- derung situierten Lernens und 5–17. nachhaltiger Lernmotivation gung experimentell arbeitender – (1999d). Notizen zur Funktion Edelstein, W., Oser, F., & Schus- Jugendlicher. In F. Achtenhagen Psychologen (p. 187). Lengerich: von Gleichheit und Gerechtig- ter, P. (Eds.). (in press). Morali- & W. Lempert (Eds.), Modellver- Pabst. keit im Bildungssystem. In Hein- sche Erziehung in der Schule. suchsprogramm "Lebenslanges rich-Böll-Stiftung (Ed.), Bildung: Beiträge zur Entwicklungspsy- Lernen." Opladen: Leske + Clausen, M., & Meyer, T. (1999). Brücken in die Zukunft (pp. chologie und pädagogischen Budrich. Konfigurationsfrequenzanalyse 197–200). Berlin: Heinrich-Böll- Praxis. Weinheim: Beltz. – (in press-f). Verantwortung und log-lineare Modelle als Ver- Stiftung. fahren zur Analyse von Häu- lernen, Verantwortung lehren, Edelstein, W., & Schröder, E. – (1999e). Soziale Selektion, So- figkeitstafeln. In B. Strauß, M. Verantwortung lehren lernen. In (2001). The impact of social zialisation und individuelle Ent- Kolb, & H. Haag (Eds.), Daten- Stiftung Brandenburger Tor structure on development: An wicklung. 10 Thesen zur sozial- analyse in der Sportwissenschaft (Ed.), Jugend übernimmt Verant- analysis of individual differences konstruktivistischen Rekonstitu- (pp. 337–357). Schorndorf: Hof- wortung. Berlin: H&P Druck in cognition. In A. Tryphon & tion der Sozialisationsforschung. mann. Berlin. J. Vonèche (Eds.), Working with In M. Grundmann (Ed.), Kon- – (in press-g). Zur Genese des Piaget: Essays in honour of Bär- struktivistische Sozialisations- Clausen, M., Möller, J., & rechtsextremen Potentials in bel Inhelder (pp. 85–101). Hove, forschung (pp. 35–79). Frankfurt Strauß, B. (2000). Einflüsse auf Deutschland und mögliche Ant- UK: Psychology Press Ltd. a.M.: Suhrkamp. das Ankreuzverhalten bei der worten seitens der Schule. In C. - (2000). Full house or Pan- Self-Monitoring-Skala. In J. L. Petry & E. Welz (Eds.), Demokra- – (1999f). Das Stiftungspro- dora’s box? The treatment of Patry (Ed.), Situationsspezifität tie lernen und leben—Eine Initia- gramm "Jugend übernimmt Ver- variability in post-Piagetian rein pädagogischen Handlungs- tive gegen Rechtsextremismus, antwortung." In Stiftung Bran- search. Child Development, 71, feldern (pp. 81–100). Innsbruck: Rassismus, Antisemitismus, denburger Tor (Ed.), Jugend 840–842. Studien-Verlag. Fremdenfeindlichkeit und Ge- übernimmt Verantwortung (pp. walt. Gutachten und Empfehlun- 44-55). Berlin. Fischer, K., & Thußbas, C. Cohors-Fresenborg, E., & gen: Vol. I. Probleme—Vorausset- – (1999g). Der Wettbewerb (2000a). Die Wirkung humoris- Klieme, E. (2000). Mathematik zungen—Möglichkeiten. Wein- "Jugend übernimmt Verantwor- tisch-episodischer Elemente in als Werkzeug zur Wissensreprä- heim: Beltz. tung." Bericht über Ergebnisse der Fernsehwerbung. Eine ex- sentation—Eine Evaluationsstu- – (2001). Kognitive Entwicklung, des Wettbewerbs. In Stiftung perimentelle Studie (Abstract). die auf der Basis von TIMSS- Sozialisation und die Entste- Brandenburger Tor (Ed.), Jugend In E. Schröger, A. Mecklinger, & Instrumenten. In M. Neubrand hung individueller Differenzen. übernimmt Verantwortung (pp. A. Widmann (Eds.), Beiträge zur (Ed.), Beiträge zum Mathematik- In S. Hoppe-Graff & A. Rümmele 6–9). Berlin. 41. Tagung experimentell arbei- unterricht 2000 (pp. 149–152). (Eds.), Entwicklung als Struktur- – (1998a). Selbstwirksamkeit im tender Psychologen (p. 382). Hildesheim: Franzbecker. genese (pp. 305–333). Hamburg: Kontext der Schulreform. Päda- Lengerich: Pabst. Dr. Kovac. gogische Führung, 9, 56–59. – (2000b). Die Wirkung humo- Dossey, J., Klieme, E., Csapo, B., – (2000a). Lernwelt und Lebens- – (1998b). Selbstwirksamkeit in ristisch-episodischer Elemente & Vosniadou, S. (2000). Frame- welt. Überlegungen zur Schulre- der Schulreform. Unterrichtswis- in der Fernsehwerbung. Eine ex- work for the assessment of prob- form. Neue Sammlung, 40, senschaft, 26, 100–106. perimentelle Studie. Medienpsy- lem solving skills in the second 369–382. chologie, 1, 51–68. international PISA survey cycle. – (2000b). The responsible prac- Edelstein, W., Grundmann, M., Paris: OECD (74 p.). tice of science: Remarks about & Mies, A. (1999). The develop- Gonzalez, E. J., Smith, T. A., Sib- cross-pressures of scientific pro- ment of internal vs. external berns, H., Schwippert, K., et al. Edelstein, W. (in press-a). Ge- gress and the ethics of research. control beliefs in developmen- (1998). User guide for the TIMSS sellschaftliche Anomie und mo- Max Planck Forum 2 (Ethos der tally relevant contexts of chil- International database. Final ralpädagogische Intervention: Forschung) (pp. 169–180). Mün- dren’s and adolescents’ life- year of secondary school. Chest- Moral im Zeitalter individueller chen: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. worlds. In W. J. Perrig & A. Grob nut Hill, MA: Boston College. Wirksamkeitserwartungen. In W. – (2000c). Verantwortung ler- (Eds.), Control of human behav- Edelstein, F. Oser, & P. Schuster nen, Verantwortung lehren, Ver- iour, mental processes and con- Gruehn, S. (2000). Unterricht (Eds.), Moralische Erziehung in antwortung lehren lernen. In sciousness (pp. 377–390). Mah- und schulisches Lernen: Schüler der Schule. Beiträge zur Ent- Stiftung Brandenburger Tor wah, NJ: Erlbaum. als Quellen der Unterrichtsbe-

112 Center for Educational Research

schreibung. Münster: Waxmann – (in press-e). Schulpartner- Einsendungen zum Förderpro- ziehungswissenschaftlerInnen (252 p.). schaften als zusätzliche Auf- gramm Demokratisch Handeln im Transformationsprozeß. gaben von Schulen. Die lernende 1995. In C. Händle, D. Oester- Weinheim: Deutscher Studien Gruehn, S., & Schnabel, K. (in Schule. reich, & L. Trommer, Aufgaben Verlag. press). Schulleistungen im mo- – (in press-f). Stabilisierung politischer Bildung in der Sekun- ralisch-evaluativen Lernbereich: oder Veränderung des traditio- darstufe I (pp. 209–248). Opla- Händle, C., Oesterreich, D., & Das Beispiel Lebensgestaltung–- nellen Geschlechterverhältnisses den: Leske + Budrich. Trommer, L. (1999a). Aufgaben Ethik–Religionskunde (LER) in im Bildungssystem der BRD. In – (1999d). Politische Bildung in politischer Bildung in der Sekun- Brandenburg. In F. E. Weinert B. Geißel & B. Seemann (Eds.), der Schule. In C. Händle, darstufe I. Opladen: Leske + (Ed.), Leistungsmessung in Schu- Neue Bildungspolitik—zwischen D. Oesterreich, & L. Trommer, Budrich (281 p.). len. Weinheim: Beltz. Risiko und Chance für Frauen. Aufgaben politischer Bildung in Opladen: Leske + Budrich. der Sekundarstufe I (pp. 13–67). Grundmann, M., Binder, T., Edel- – (in press-g). Weiterbildung der Opladen: Leske + Budrich. stein, W., & Krettenauer, T. DSE für Erziehungswissen- – (1999e). Restoring traditional (1998a). Soziale Krisenerfahrung schaftlerinnen aus Ostafrika. Ein gender relations in the process und die Wahrnehmung sozialer integrierter Ansatz zur Vermitt- of German unification. In Anomie bei Ost- und Westber- lung qualitativer Methoden der B. Brock-Utne et al. (Eds.), Glo- liner Jugendlichen: Ergebnisse Bildungsforschung. Zeitschrift balisation on whose terms? (pp. einer Kohorten- und Längs- für internationale Bildungsfor- 125–137). Oslo. schnittanalyse. In M. Grund- schung und Entwicklungspäda- – (1998a). Globale, regionale mann et al. (Eds.), Sozialisation gogik (ZEP). und lokale Orientierung in und Entwicklung in den neuen – (2000a). Lehrerinnen als Ex- Schulprojekten zur politischen Bundesländern (pp. 171–198). pertinnen für Schulentwicklung. Bildung. In F. E. Anhelm & Weinheim: Juventa. In C. Grohn-Menard & C. Gro- W. Wortmann (Eds.), Globalisie- – (1998b). Soziale Krisenerfah- neberg (Eds.), Raum für Ver- rung am Horizont politischen rung und die Wahrnehmung wandlung (pp. 153–159). Biele- Lernens (136–146). Loccum: sozialer Anomie bei Ost- und feld: Kleine Verlag (Wissen- Loccumer Protokolle 53/97. Westberliner Jugendlichen: Er- schaftliche Reihe, Vol. 128). – (1998b). Der interdisziplinäre Ansatz in der Bildungsforschung. – (1999b). Concepts of civic ed- gebnisse einer Kohorten- und – (2000b). Professionelle und In D. Hoffmann & K. Neumann ucation in Germany based on a Längsschnittanalyse. Zeitschrift zusätzliche Qualifizierung von (Eds.), Die gegenwärtige Struktur survey of expert opinion. In J. für Soziologie der Erziehung und Lehrpersonen. In M. Schmerr in der Erziehungswissenschaft Torney-Purta, J. Schwille, & J.-A. Sozialisation, 71–187 (2. Bei- (Ed.), Erfahrungen nutzen—für (pp. 55–64). Weinheim: Deut- Amadeo (Eds.), Civic education heft). Schulen von morgen (pp. 106–- scher Studien Verlag. across countries: Twenty-four 115). Pfungstadt: Spitzer. – (1998c). Kritik der Dominanz- case studies from the IEA civic Haag, L., & Stern, E. (2000a). – (2000c). Restauration und Re- Lateinunterricht auf dem Prüf- beziehung zwischen Ost und education project (pp. 257–284). form im Bildungssystem der West. In M. von Lutzau (Ed.), Amsterdam: International Asso- stand. Altsprachlicher Unter- neuen Bundesländer nach der richt, 4–5, 86–89. Frauen Kreativität Macht Schule ciation for the Evaluation of Ed- Wende. In K. Neumann & (pp. 99–106). Weinheim: Deut- ucational Achievement and – (2000b). Non scholae sed R. Uhle (Eds.), Pädagogik zwi- scher Studien Verlag. Ebron Press. vitae discimus? Auf der Suche schen Reform und Restauration – (1998d). Lehrerinnen in Sys- – (1998). Eine Studie zur politi- nach globalen und spezifischen (pp. 161–174). Weinheim: Deut- tem und Lebenswelt. Erkundun- schen Bildung in der Sekundar- Transfereffekten des Lateinun- scher Studien Verlag. gen ihrer doppelten Sozialisa- stufe I im Rahmen der IEA. terrichts. Zeitschrift für Päda- – (2000d). Voneinander lernen? tion. Opladen: Leske + Budrich DVPB aktuell, 2, 29–31. gogische Psychologie, 14, 146–- Grundschullehrerinnen in den (336 p.). 157. Neubundesländern. Grund- Hardy, I. (in press). Repräsenta- schule, 33, 16–18. tionsaktivitäten zur Förderung Händle, C. (in press-a). An- – (2000e). Zur Diskussion poli- proportionalen und graphisch spruchsvolle Schulprojekte zur tischer Bildung in der BRD am visuellen Verständnisses im politischen Bildung. Neue Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts. In Grundschulalter. In H. Petillon Sammlung. M. Schmerr (Ed.), Erfahrungen (Ed.), Handbuch Grundschul- – (in press-b). Formelle und in- nutzen—für Schulen von morgen forschung: Vol. 5. Individuelles formelle Qualifizierung für den (pp. 82–91). Pfungstadt: Spitzer. und soziales Lernen—Kindper- Lehrberuf. Die doppelte Soziali- – (1999a). Civic Education. Poli- spektive und pädagogische sation von Lehrpersonen. In tische Bildung—Bildungsbiogra- Konzepte. Leverkusen: Leske + U. Kolbe, B. Koch-Priebe, & phien. In D. Hoffmann (Ed.), Re- Budrich. J. Wildt (Eds.), Didaktik der Bil- konstruktion und Restitution des – (2000). Die Beziehung zwi- dung von Lehrerinnen und Leh- Bildungsbegriffs (pp. 267–285). schen Konversation und Kontext rern. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Weinheim: Deutscher Studien im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In – (in press-c). Lehrerinnen im Verlag. D. Leutner & R. Brünken (Eds.), Transformationsprozess. In W. – (1999b). "Do respect every- Neue Medien in Unterricht, Aus- Keim & C. Uhlig (Eds.), Kritik der one's body and feelings." Eine und Weiterbildung (pp. 75–84). Transformation. Frankfurt a.M.: Schulkultur sozialer Integration. Münster: Waxmann. Lang (Jahrbuch der Pädagogik, In I. Kunze (Ed.), Schulen in drei – (1998e). Ein Wechselbalg aus – (1999). Wie Kinder lernen: Vol. 10). Ländern. Portraits aus didakti- Velten. Die Deutsche Lehrerzei- Von der Bedeutung soziokultu- – (in press-d). Mehr Schulquali- scher Perspektive (pp. 95–120). tung mit neuem Gesicht? Erzie- reller Lernerfahrungen für die tät durch neue Formen der Weinheim: Deutscher Studien hung und Wissenschaft, 50, Denkentwicklung. Grundschul- Steuerung? In D. Hoffmann Verlag. p. 36. magazin, 72, 4–7. (Ed.), Ökonomisierung der Bil- – (1999c). Politische Bildung in dung. Weinheim: Deutscher Stu- ausgewählten Projektdokumen- Händle, C., Nitsch, W., & Uhlig, Hart, D., Keller, M., Edelstein, dien Verlag. tationen. Eine Untersuchung der C. (1998). LehrerInnen und Er- W., & Hofmann, V. (1998).

113 Center for Educational Research

Childhood personality influences Kiel: Institut für die Pädagogik tikunterricht der Sekundarstufe I und Dokumentation des Erhe- on social-cognitive develop- der Naturwissenschaften. in Deutschland, Japan und den bungsprogramms 1945–1989. ment: A longitudinal study. USA. CD-Rom-Dokumentation Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Journal of Personality and Social Klieme, E., Artelt, C., & der TIMSS-Videostudie. Berlin: Bildungsforschung (Studien und Psychology, 74, 1278–1289. Stanat, P. (in press). Fächer- Max-Planck-Institut für Bil- Berichte, Vol. 67). übergreifende Kompetenzen: dungsforschung and Stuttgart: Hoffmann, L., Krapp, A., Renn- Konzepte und Indikatoren über- Klett. Köhler, H., & Baumert, J. inger, K. A., & Baumert, J. fachlicher Bildung. In F. E. Wei- (1998). Bildung in Schleswig- (Eds.). (1998). Interest and nert (Ed.), Leistungsmessungen Klieme, E., Köller, O., & Holstein. In J. Petersen & G.-B. learning: Proceedings of the in Schulen. Weinheim: Beltz. Stanat, P. (in press). TIMSS und Reinert (Eds.), Bildung in Seeon Conference on Interest PISA: Von der Untersuchung Deutschland (Vol. 3, pp. 336–- and Gender. Kiel: Institut für die Klieme, E., Baumert, J., Köller, fachlichen Lernens zur Analyse 381). Donauwörth: Auer. Pädagogik der Naturwissen- O., & Bos, W. (2000). Mathe- allgemeiner Kompetenzentwick- schaften. matische und naturwissen- lung. Journal für Schulentwick- Köhler, H., & Schulze, E. (in schaftliche Grundbildung: Kon- lung. press). Bildungsstatistische Er- Hosenfeld, I., & Höft, S. (1999). zeptuelle Grundlagen und die gebnisse der Volkszählungen in Robustheit statistischer Testver- Erfassung und Skalierung von Klieme, E., & Nauels, H. (1999). der DDR 1950 bis 1981. Doku- fahren. In B. Strauß, H. Haag, & Kompetenzen. In J. Baumert, Die Qualität medizinischer Prü- mentation und ausgewählte M. Kolb (Eds.), Datenanalyse in W. Bos, & R. Lehmann (Eds.), fungen aus der Sicht der Psy- Analysen. Berlin: Max-Planck- der Sportwissenschaft (pp. TIMSS/III. Dritte Internationale chodiagnostik. In U. Fuchs (Ed.), Institut für Bildungsforschung. 359–375). Schorndorf: Hofmann. Mathematik- und Naturwissen- Qualität der Lehre (pp. 276–- schaftsstudie—Mathematische 281). Münster: Lit-Verlag. Köller, O. (in press-a). High Hosenfeld, I., Köller, O., & und naturwissenschaftliche Bil- school dropout. In N. J. Smelser Baumert, J. (1999). Why sex dung am Ende der Schullauf- Klieme, E., & Thußbas, C. (in & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), Interna- differences in mathematics bahn: Vol. 1. Mathematische und press). Kontextbedingungen und tional encyclopedia of the social achievement disappear in Ger- naturwissenschaftliche Grund- Verständigungsprozesse im Geo- and behavioral sciences. Oxford, man secondary schools: A re- bildung am Ende der Pflicht- metrieunterricht. Eine Fallstudie. UK: Elsevier Science. analysis of the German TIMSS- schulzeit (pp. 85–133). Opladen: In S. von Aufschnaiter & M. – (in press-b). Mathematical data. Studies in Educational Leske + Budrich. Welzel (Eds.), Nutzung von Vi- world views and achievement in Evaluation, 25, 143–161. deodaten zur Untersuchung von advanced mathematics: Findings Klieme, E., Baumert, J., & Lehr-Lernprozessen. Münster: from the TIMSS population III. Keller, M., & Edelstein, W. Schwippert, K. (2000). Schulbe- Waxmann. Studies in Educational Evalua- (1999). Le développement du zogene Evaluation und Schul- tion. raisonnement sociomoral dans leistungsvergleiche. Eine Studie Knoll, S. (1998). Anforderungs- – (2000a). Goal orientations: un contexte interculturel. In J.- im Anschluss an TIMSS. In H. G. gestaltung im Mathematikun- Their impact on academic learn- L. Beauvois, N. Dubois, & W. Rolff, W. Bos, K. Klemm, H. terricht. Mathematik lehren, 90, ing and their development dur- Doise (Eds.), La construction so- Pfeiffer, & R. Schulz-Zander 47–51. ing early adolescence. In J. ciale de la personne (pp. 43–46). (Eds.), Jahrbuch der Schulent- Heckhausen (Ed.), Motivational Grenoble: Presses Universitaires wicklung (Vol. 11, pp. 387–438). Knoll, S., & Stigler, J. W. (1999). psychology of human develop- de Grenoble. München: Juventa. Management and analysis of ment: Developing motivation large-scale video surveys using and motivating development Keller, M., Edelstein, W., Klieme, E., & Bos, W. (2000). the software vPrism TM. Inter- (pp. 129–142). Oxford, UK: Schmid, C., Fang, F., & Fang, G. Mathematikleistungen und national Journal of Educational Elsevier. (1998). Reasoning about re- mathematischer Unterricht in Research, 31, 725–734. – (2000b). Soziale Vergleichs- sponsibilities and obligations in Deutschland und Japan. Trian- prozesse im Kurssystem der close relationships: A compari- gulation qualitativer und quan- Koerber, S. (2000). Der Einfluss gymnasialen Oberstufe. In son across two cultures. Devel- titativer Forschungsansätze im externer Repräsentationsformen J. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Leh- opmental Psychology, 34, 731–- Rahmen der TIMS-Studie. Zeit- auf proportionales Denken im mann (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte In- 741. schrift für Erziehungswissen- Grundschulalter. Doctoral disser- ternationale Mathematik- und schaft, 3, 359–379. tation, Technische Universität Naturwissenschaftsstudie—Ma- Klieme, E. (2000). Fachleistun- Berlin. thematische und naturwissen- gen im voruniversitären Mathe- Klieme, E., Ebach, J., Funke, J., schaftliche Bildung am Ende der matik- und Physikunterricht: & Reeff, J.-P. (in press). Analyti- Köhler, H. (in press-a). Ausge- Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathema- Theoretische Grundlagen, Kom- cal problem solving in real world wählte Probleme der Realisie- tische und physikalische Kompe- petenzstufen und Unterrichts- contexts. Assessment framework rung der achtjährigen Grund- tenzen am Ende der gymnasialen schwerpunkte. In J. Baumert, W. for the International Adult Liter- schule in der SBZ/DDR. In P. Oberstufe (pp. 215–228). Opla- Bos, & R. Lehmann (Eds.), acy and Life Skills Survey. Drewek & A. Huschner (Eds.), den: Leske + Budrich. TIMSS/III. Dritte Internationale Ottawa: Statistics Canada, and Historische Eigendynamik und – (1998a). Different aspects of Mathematik- und Naturwissen- Washington, DC: National Cen- politische Transformation der learning motivation: The impact schaftsstudie—Mathematische ter of Education Statistics. Schule im 20. Jahrhundert. Re- of interest and goal orientation und naturwissenschaftliche Bil- gionale Schulentwicklung in on scholastic learning. In dung am Ende der Schullauf- Klieme, E., Funke, J., Leutner, D., Berlin und Brandenburg 1890–- L. Hoffmann, A. Krapp, K. A. bahn: Vol. 2. Mathematische und Reimann, P., & Wirth, J. (in 1990. Weinheim: Bibliothek für Renninger, & J. Baumert (Eds.), physikalische Kompetenzen am press). Problemlösen als fächer- Bildungsforschung, Studien Interest and learning: Proceed- Ende der gymnasialen Oberstufe übergreifende Kompetenz. Kon- Verlag. ings of the Seeon Conference on (pp. 57–72). Opladen: Leske + zeption und erste Resultate aus – (in press-b). Zensur, Leistung Interest and Gender (pp. 317–- Budrich. einer Schulleistungsstudie. Zeit- und Schulerfolg in den Schulen 326). Kiel: Institut für die Päda- – (1999). Evaluation report. In schrift für Pädagogik. der DDR. Zeitschrift für Päda- gogik der Naturwissenschaften. E. Klieme, E. Lucius, & E. Zabel, gogik. – (1998b). Zielorientierungen Report on the 9th International Klieme, E., Knoll, S., & – (1999). Was die Schulstatistik und schulisches Lernen. Müns- Biology Olympiade (pp. 29–77). Schümer, G. (1999). Mathema- der SBZ/DDR erfragte. Analyse ter: Waxmann.

114 Center for Educational Research

sen in den Sekundarstufen I und wissenschaftsstudie—Mathema- Forschungen zu Lehr- und Lern- II. In U. Schiefele & K. Wild tische und naturwissenschaft- konzepten für die Grundschule. (Eds.), Interesse und Lernmotiva- liche Bildung am Ende der tion—Untersuchungen zu Ent- Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathema- Krettenauer, T., & Edelstein, W. wicklung, Förderung und Wir- tische und physikalische Kompe- (1999). From substages to moral kung (pp. 163–183). Münster: tenzen am Ende der gymnasialen types and beyond: An analysis Waxmann. Oberstufe (pp. 373–404). Opla- of core criteria for morally au- – (1999). Wege zur Hochschul- den: Leske + Budrich. tonomous judgements. Interna- reife: Offenheit des Systems und tional Journal of Behavioral De- Sicherung vergleichbarer Stan- Köller, O., Klieme, E., & Stern, velopment, 23, 899–920. dards. Analysen am Beispiel der E. (1999). Der Forschungsbe- Mathematikleistungen von reich Erziehungswissenschaft Kuptsch, C., Kleinmann, M., & Oberstufenschülern an integrier- und Bildungssysteme am Max- Köller, O. (1998). The chamele- ten Gesamtschulen und Gym- Planck-Institut für Bildungsfor- on effect in assessment centers: nasien in Nordrhein-Westfalen. schung. Newsletter der Fach- The influence of interindividual Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissen- gruppe Pädagogische Psycho- consistency on the construct schaft, 2, 370–405. logie 1. validity of assessment centers. Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (in Journal of Social Behavior and press). Leistungsgruppierungen Köller, O., & Bos, W. (1998). Köller, O., & Möller, J. (in press). Personality, 13, 103–116. in der Sekundarstufe I und ihre TIMSS-Germany: Design, instru- Selbstbezogene Fähigkeitskogni- Konsequenzen für die Mathe- ments, and research questions. tionen im Kontext Schule: Die Lee, V. E., Smerdon, B., Alfeld- matikleistung und das mathe- Newsletter of the International Rolle unterschiedlicher Refe- Liro, C., & Brown, S. (2000). matische Selbstkonzept der Be- Society for the Study of Behav- renzrahmen. In R. K. Silbereisen Inside large and small high gabung. Zeitschrift für Pädago- ioural Development, 33, 6–7. (Ed.), Bericht über den 42. Kon- schools: Curriculum and social gische Psychologie. greß der Deutschen Gesellschaft relations. Educational Evalua- - (1998). Ein deutsches Instru- Köller, O., Daniels, Z., für Psychologie in Jena 2000. tion and Policy Analysis, 22, ment zur Erfassung von Zielori- Schnabel, K., & Baumert, J. – (1998). Kontrafaktisches Den- 147–171. entierungen bei Schülerinnen (2000). Kurswahlen von Mäd- ken. In D. H. Rost (Ed.), Hand- und Schülern. Diagnostica, 44, chen und Jungen im Fach Ma- wörterbuch Pädagogische Psy- Little, T. D., Schnabel, K., & 173–181. thematik: Zur Rolle des fach- chologie (pp. 259–262). Wein- Baumert, J. (Eds.). (2000). Mod- spezifischen Selbstkonzepts und heim: Beltz/Psychologie Verlags eling longitudinal and multilevel Köller, O., Baumert, J., Clausen, Interesses. Zeitschrift für Päda- Union. data. Practical issues, applied M., & Hosenfeld, I. (1999). Pre- gogische Psychologie, 14, 26–37. approaches, and specific exam- dicting mathematics achieve- ples. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Köller, O., & Schiefele, U. ment of eighth grade students in & Gehrke, J. (1999). (297 p.). Köller, O., (1998). Zielorientierungen. In Germany: An application of Multiple Regressionsanalyse. In D. H. Rost (Ed.), Handwörter- parts of the model of education- B. Strauß, H. Haag, & M. Kolb buch Pädagogische Psychologie al productivity to the TIMSS (Eds.), Datenanalyse in der (pp. 585–588). Weinheim: data. Educational Research and Sportwissenschaft (pp. 377–- Beltz/Psychologie Verlags Union. Evaluation, 5, 180–194. 398). Schorndorf: Hofmann.

Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Köller, O., & Hosenfeld, I. Köller, O., Schnabel, K., & Neubrand, J. (2000). Epistemo- (1999). Kausalitätsüberzeugun- Baumert, J. (in press). Does in- logische Überzeugungen und gen, Selbstwirksamkeitsüberzeu- terest matter? The relationship Fachverständnis im Mathema- gungen und Schulleistungen. In between academic interest and tik- und Physikunterricht. In J. B. Hannover, U. Kittler, & H. achievement in mathematics. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann Metz-Göckel (Eds.), Sozialkogni- Journal for Research in Mathe- (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- tive Aspekte der Pädagogischen matics Education. tionale Mathematik- und Natur- Psychologie—Dokumentation des – (2000). Der Einfluß der Leis- wissenschaftsstudie—Mathe- 3. Dortmunder Symposiums für tungsstärke von Schulen auf das matische und naturwissen- Pädagogische Psychologie 1998 fachspezifische Selbstkonzept schaftliche Bildung am Ende der (Vol. 1, pp. 140–151). Essen: Die der Begabung und das Interesse. Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathema- blaue Eule. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungs- tische und physikalische Kompe- psychologie und Pädagogische tenzen am Ende der gymnasialen Köller, O., Klemmert, H., Möller, Psychologie, 32, 70–80. Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & Oberstufe (pp. 229–269). Opla- H., & Baumert, J. (1999). Leis- Baumert, J. (in press). Reunifi- den: Leske + Budrich. tungsbeurteilungen und Fähig- Köller, O., & Schümer, G. cation of East and West German keitsselbstkonzepte. Eine längs- (1998). Why did Japanese stu- school systems: Longitudinal Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Rost, schnittliche Überprüfung des dents do so well in TIMSS? Re- multilevel modeling study of the J. (1998). Zielorientierungen: Ihr Modells des Internal/External sults from the TIMSS Videotape big-fish-little-pond effect on typologischer Charakter und Frame of Reference. Zeitschrift Study and information about academic self-concept. Ameri- ihre Entwicklung im Jugendalter. für Pädagogische Psychologie, the educational system in Japan. can Educational Research Jour- Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsy- 13, 128–134. Newsletter of the International nal. chologie und Pädagogische Psy- Society for the Study of Behav- chologie, 30, 128–138. Köller, O., & Klieme, E. (2000). ioural Development, 33, 7–8. Mauch, M., & Thußbas, C. (in Geschlechtsdifferenzen in den press). Geschlechtsrollenschema Köller, O., Baumert, J., & mathematisch-naturwissen- Koerber, S. (in press). Helfen und Computereinstellung: Ist Schnabel, K. (2000). Zum Zu- schaftlichen Leistungen. In J. visuelle Repräsentationen beim das feminine Geschlechtsrollen- sammenspiel von schulischem Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann Denken? In H. G. Roßbach, schema Ursache der Computer- Interesse und Lernen im Fach (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- K. Czerwencka, & K. Nölle (Eds.), distanz von Frauen? Zeitschrift Mathematik. Längsschnittanaly- tionale Mathematik- und Natur- Jahrbuch Grundschulforschung. für Frauenforschung, 3.

115 Center for Educational Research

Meiser, T., Stern, E., & Lange- empirische Studie über die Sicht havioral Scientist, 43, 926– nix zu gebrauchen. Unterrichts- heine, R. (1999). Latent change von Experten und Expertinnen. 939. wissenschaft, 27, 333–336. in discrete data: Unidimension- In H. H. Krüger & H. Wenzel – (1998a). Prüfungsangst und al, multidimensional, and mix- (Eds.), Schule zwischen Effekti- Rundshagen, I., Schnabel, K., & Lernen. Empirische Analysen ture distribution Rasch models vität und sozialer Verantwor- Schulte Am Esch, J. (2000). zum Einfluß fachspezifischer for the analysis of repeated ob- tung (pp. 79–90). Opladen: Midlatency median nerve Leistungsängstlichkeit auf schu- servations. Methods of Psycho- Leske + Budrich. evoked responses during recov- lischen Lernfortschritt. Münster: logical Research Online, 3, – (1999). Flucht in die Sicher- ery from propofol/sufentanil to- Waxmann (201 p.). 75–93. heit: Ein neuer Ansatz und ein tal intravenous anaesthesia. neues Maß zur autoritären Per- Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandi- Möller, J., & Köller, O. (in press- sönlichkeit. Zeitschrift für Poli- navica, 44, 313–320. a). Dimensional comparisons: tische Psychologie, 7, 289–302. An experimental approach to – (1998a). Authoritarianism and Rundshagen, I., Standl, T., & the internal/external frame of right-wing extremism among Schnabel, K. (1999). Patients’ reference model. Journal of Ed- German youth. Evidence from versus nurses assessment of ucational Psychology. three empirical studies. In M. postoperative pain in orthope- – (in press-b). Frame of refer- Watts (Ed.), Cross-cultural per- dic patients. British Journal of ence effects following the an- spectives on youth, radicalism Anaesthesia, 82, 374–378. nouncement of exam results. and violence (pp. 39–54). Contemporary Educational Psy- Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Savelsbergh, E. R., de Jong, T., chology. – (1998b). Lernziel: Die deut- & Ferguson-Hessler, M. G. M. – (2000). Spontaneous and re- sche Nation. Expertenbefragung (2000). Physics learning with a active attributions following zu den Zielen politischer Bil- computer algebra system: To- academic achievement. Social dung in der Sekundarstufe I. In wards a learning environment Psychology of Education, 4, F. E. Anhelm & W. Wortmann to promote enhanced problem 67–86. (Eds.), Globalisierung am Hori- representations. Journal of – (1999). Spontaneous cogni- zont politischen Lernens (pp. Computer-Assisted Learning, 16, – (1998b). Schuleffekte. In D. H. tions on academic test results. 147–163). Loccum: Loccumer 229–242. Rost (Ed.), Handwörterbuch The Journal of Experimental Ed- Protokolle 53/97. – (1998). Competence related Pädagogische Psychologie (pp. ucation, 67, 150–164. – (1998c). Ein neues Maß zur differences in problem repre- 431–435). Weinheim: Beltz/Psy- – (1998a). Dimensionale und Messung autoritärer Charakter- sentations. In M. van Someren, chologie Verlags Union. soziale Vergleiche nach schuli- merkmale. Zeitschrift für Sozial- P. Reimann, T. de Jong, & – (1998c). TIMSS—Mathema- schen Leistungen. Zeitschrift für psychologie, 1, 56–64. H. Boshuizen (Eds.), The role of tisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Entwicklungspsychologie und multiple representations in Unterricht im internationalen Pädagogische Psychologie, 30, Oesterreich, D., Händle, C., & learning and problem solving Vergleich—Wie können Schulen 118–127. Trommer, L. (in press). Wie läßt (pp. 128–141). Amsterdam: und Lehrer reagieren? In Ver- – (1998b). Leistungs- und ge- sich politische Bildung verbes- Elsevier. band Bildung und Erziehung e.V. schlechtsbezogene Vergleiche in sern? Empfehlungen aus der (Ed.), Wie wird Deutschlands Bil- der Schule. Empirische Pädago- Sicht von Experten und Exper- Schecker, H., & Klieme, E. dung fit für die Zukunft? (pp. gik, 12, 119–131. tinnen. Die Deutsche Schule. (2000). Erfassung physikalischer 24–33). Würzburg: Verband Bil- – (1999). Eine Befragung von Kompetenz durch Concept- dung und Erziehung e.V. Nunner-Winkler, G., & Edel- Experten und Expertinnen zur Mapping-Verfahren. In H. Fisch- stein, W. (2000). Einleitung. In politischen Bildung in der Se- ler & J. Peuckert (Eds.), Concept Schnabel, K., Baumert, J., & W. Edelstein & G. Nunner- kundarstufe I. In C. Händle, D. Mapping in fachdidaktischen Bos, W. (2000). Mathematisch- Winkler (Eds.), Moral im sozialen Oesterreich, & L. Trommer, Auf- Forschungsprojekten der Physik naturwissenschaftliche Grund- Kontext (pp. 7–31). Frankfurt gaben politischer Bildung in der und Chemie (pp. 23–56). Berlin: bildung am Ende der Sekundar- a.M.: Suhrkamp. Sekundarstufe I (pp. 131–208). Logos Verlag. stufe II—Deutschland im inter- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. nationalen Vergleich. Analysen Oesterreich, D. (2001). Mas- Schiefele, U., & Köller, O. unter Nutzung der Dritten In- senflucht in die Sicherheit? Patrick, H., Ryan, A. M., Alfeld- (1998). Intrinsische und extrin- ternationalen Mathematik- und Zum politischen Verhalten au- Liro, C., Fredricks, J., Hruda, L., sische Motivation. In D. H. Rost Naturwissenschaftsstudie toritärer Persönlichkeiten. Theo- & Eccles, J. S. (1999). Adoles- (Ed.), Handwörterbuch Pädago- (TIMSS III). In Jahrbuch der retische Überlegungen und cents’ commitment to develop- gische Psychologie (pp. 193–- Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (pp. Ergebnisse von vier empirischen ing talent: The role of peers in 197). Weinheim: Beltz/Psycho- 769–779). München: Max- Untersuchungen. In W. Heit- continuing motivation for logie Verlags Union. Planck-Gesellschaft. meyer (Ed.), Schattenseiten der sports and the arts. Journal of Globalisierung (pp. 275–297). Youth and Adolescence, 28, Schnabel, K. (in press-a). Psy- Schnabel, K., & Gruehn, S. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. 741–763. chologie der Lernumwelt. In B. (2000). Studienfachwünsche – (2000a). Autoritäre Persön- Weidenmann, A. Krapp, M. und Berufsorientierungen in der lichkeit und Sozialisation im Rode, C., Cosmides, L., Hell, W., Hofer, G. L. Huber, & H. Mandl gymnasialen Oberstufe. In J. Elternhaus. Theoretische Über- & Tooby, J. (1999). When and (Eds.), Pädagogische Psychologie Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann legungen und empirische Ergeb- why do people avoid unknown (4th ed.). Weinheim: Beltz/Psy- (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- nisse. In S. Rippl, C. Seipel, & probabilities in decisions under chologie Verlags Union. tionale Mathematik- und Natur- A. Kindervater (Eds.), Autorita- uncertainty? Testing some pre- – (in press-b). Tagträume für die wissenschaftsstudie—Mathema- rismus. Kontroversen und An- dictions from optimal foraging Schule von Morgen. In B. Nacke tische und naturwissenschaft- sätze der aktuellen Autoritaris- theory. Cognition, 72, 269–304. (Ed.), Visionen für Gesellschaft liche Bildung am Ende der musforschung (pp. 69–90). und Christentum. Wohin sich Schullaufbahn: Vol. 2. Mathe- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Rode, C., & Wang, X. T. (2000). Gesellschaft entwickeln kann. matische und physikalische – (2000b). Ziele und Realität Risk-sensitive decision making Würzburg: Echter. Kompetenzen am Ende der gym- politischer Bildung in der Bun- examined within an evolution- – (1999). Wissenschaft ist Ab- nasialen Oberstufe (pp. 405–- desrepublik Deutschland. Eine ary framework. American Be- straktion, aber Abstraktes ist zu 444). Opladen: Leske + Budrich.

116 Center for Educational Research

Schnabel, K., Köller, O., & lien aus der Bildungsforschung, gang in die Sekundarstufe II und Individual development from 3 Baumert, J. (in press). Stim- Vol. 69). den Beruf: 2. Mathematisch- to 12 (pp. 154–170). Cambridge, mungsindikatoren und Leis- – (2000c). Proportional, combi- naturwissenschaftliche Grund- UK: Cambridge University Press. tungsängstlichkeit als Prädikto- natorial, and correlational rea- bildung ausländischer Schulaus- - (1998a). Early training: Who, ren für schulische Leistungsent- soning: A manual including bildungsabsolventen. In J. what, when, why, and how? In wicklung: Eine längsschnittliche measurement procedures and Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann M. Beishuizen, K. P. E. Grave- Vergleichsanalyse. In C. Fink- descriptive analyses. Berlin: Max (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- meijer, & E. C. D. M. van Lies- beiner & G. W. Schnaitmann Planck Institute for Human De- tionale Mathematik- und Natur- hout (Eds.), The role of contexts (Eds.), Lehren und Lernen im velopment (Materialien aus der wissenschaftsstudie—Ma- and models in the development Kontext empirischer Forschung Bildungsforschung, Vol. 70). thematische und naturwissen- of mathematical strategies and und Fachdidaktik. Donauwörth: schaftliche Bildung am Ende der procedures (pp. 239–253). Auer. Schröder, E., & Edelstein, W. Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. Mathema- Utrecht: CD-ß Press. (2001). The impact of develop- tische und naturwissen- – (1998b). Die Entwicklung des Schnabel, K., & Leschinsky, A. mental change and social con- schaftliche Grundbildung am mathematischen Verständnisses (in press). La transition de straints on cognition: The exam- Ende der Pflichtschulzeit (pp. im Kindesalter. Lengerich: Pabst l’école à la formation profes- ple of syllogistic reasoning. In A. 282–300). Opladen: Leske + (247 p.). sionnelle initiale en Allemagne. Tryphon & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Budrich. – (1998c). Die Entwicklung In M. Guigue (Ed.), Problème Working with Piaget: Essays in schulbezogener Kompetenzen: d’orientation des jeunes. honour of Bärbel Inhelder (pp. Siegler, R. S., & Stern, E. (1998). Mathematik. In F. E. Weinert 103–121). Hove, UK: Psychology Conscious and unconscious (Ed.), Entwicklung im Kindes- Schnabel, K., Little, T. D., & Press Ltd. strategy discoveries: A microge- alter—Bericht über eine Längs- Baumert, J. (2000). Modeling netic analysis. Journal of Experi- schnittstudie (pp. 95–113). longitudinal and multilevel data. Schümer, G. (1999a). Basic data mental Psychology: General, Weinheim: Beltz. In T. D. Little, K. Schnabel, & J. on the educational system of 127, 377–397. – (1998d). Schneisen im Baumert (Eds.), Modeling longi- Berlin. Berlin: Max Planck Insti- Dschungel wissenschaftlicher tudinal and multilevel data. tute for Human Development Stanat, P., & Artelt, C. (in Fragestellungen. In H. Bruegel- Practical issues, applied ap- (Materialien aus der Bildungs- press). Der Beitrag internatio- mann, M. Fölling-Albers, & proaches, and specific examples forschung, Vol. 64). naler Schulleistungsvergleiche S. Richter (Eds.), Jahrbuch (pp. 9–13). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- – (1999b). L’insegnamento della zur Qualitätssicherung: Das Bei- Grundschule. Fragen der Praxis— baum. matematica in Giappone, Stati spiel PISA. In H. Döbert & C. Befunde der Forschung (pp. Uniti e Germania: osservazioni Ernst (Eds.), Schule und Qualität. 123–127). Seelze: Friedrich Schnabel, K., & Schwippert, K. sulla difficolta della valutazione Basiswissen Pädagogik: Aktuelle Verlag. (2000). Einflüsse sozialer und del sistema scolastico. CADMO, Schulkonzepte (Vol. 6). Hohen- – (1998e). Schulisches Lernen: ethnischer Herkunft beim Über- 7, 19–38. gehren: Schneider Verlag. Was wird transferiert? In K. gang in die Sekundarstufe II und – (1999c). Lehrer in Japan: Ar- Reschke & E. Witruk (Eds.), Das den Beruf: 1. Schichtenspezifi- beitsbedingungen und Arbeits- Stern, E. (in press-a). Intelli- Lernen lernen (pp. 55–67). Re- sche Einflüsse am Übergang auf ethos. Pädagogik, 51, 30–35. gence, prior knowledge, and gensburg: Roderer Verlag. die Sekundarstufe II. In J. – (1999d). Mathematics educa- learning. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baumert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann tion in Japan. Journal of Cur- Baltes (Eds.), International ency- Stern, E., Aprea, C., & Ebner, H. (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna- riculum Studies, 31, 399–427. clopedia of the social and be- (in press). Improving cross-con- tionale Mathematik- und Natur- – (1999e). Mathematikunter- havioral sciences (Vol. 3.5). Ox- tent transfer in text processing wissenschaftsstudie—Ma- richt in Japan: Ein Überblick ford, UK: Elsevier Science. by means of active graphical thematische und naturwissen- über den Unterricht in öffent- – (in press-b). Intelligenz, Wis- representation. Learning and In- schaftliche Bildung am Ende der lichen Grund- und Mittelschu- sen, Transfer und der Umgang struction. Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. Mathema- len und privaten Ergänzungs- mit Zeichensystemen. In E. Stern tische und naturwissen- schulen. In V. Schubert (Ed.), & J. Guthke (Eds.), Perspektiven Stern, E., & Haag, L. (2000). schaftliche Grundbildung am Lernkultur: Das Beispiel Japan der Intelligenzforschung. Non vitae sed scholae discimus: Ende der Pflichtschulzeit (pp. (pp. 45–76). Weinheim: Deut- Lengerich: Pabst. Das Schulfach Latein auf dem 261–281). Opladen: Leske + scher Studien Verlag. – (in press-c). Schulisches Ler- Prüfstand. Forschung und Lehre, Budrich. – (1999f). Projektunterricht in nen: Was wird transferiert? In 11, 91–93. der Regelschule: Anmerkungen K. Reschke & E. Witruk (Eds.), Schneider, W., & Stern, E. zur pädagogischen Freiheit des Das Lernen lernen. Regensburg: Stern, E., & Hardy, I. (in press). (2000). Die Entwicklung von Lehrers. In U. Steffens & T. Bar- Roderer Verlag. Leistungsmessung in Mathema- Kompetenzunterschieden. gel (Eds.), Lehren und Lernen im – (in press-d). Wie abstrakt tik. In F. E. Weinert (Ed.), Hand- Grundschule, 32, 22–24. offenen Unterricht (pp. 41–56). lernt das Grundschulkind? buch der Kultusministerkonfe- Wiesbaden: Landesinstitut für Neuere Ergebnisse der entwick- renz: Leistungsmessung in Schröder, E., Bödeker, K., & Pädagogik. lungspsychologischen For- Schulen. Weinheim: Beltz. Edelstein, W. (2000a). The de- – (1998). Vzdelávání v oblasti schung. In H. Petillon (Ed.), velopment of formal thought: A matematiky v Japonsku, Spo- Handbuch Grundschulforschung: Stern, E., Hardy, I., & Koerber, manual including measurement jenych státech a v Nemecku. Vol. 5. Individuelles und soziales S. (in press). Die Nutzung procedures and descriptive Prohlubování obtíznosti a hod- Lernen—Kindperspektive und graphisch-visueller Repräsenta- analyses. Berlin: Max Planck In- nocení vzdelávací úcinnosti. In pädagogische Konzepte. Lever- tionsformen im Sachunterricht. stitute for Human Development S. Navratil & J. van Buer (Eds.), kusen: Leske + Budrich. In K. Spreckelsen, A. Hartinger, (Materialien aus der Bildungs- Rozvoj autonomie skol. Podmín- – (2000). Fördermöglichkeiten & K. Möller (Eds.), Ansätze und forschung, Vol. 68). sky, prostredky, evaluace (pp. des Lerntransfers im wirt- Methoden empirischer For- – (2000b). The development of 111–123). Usti nad Labem: Uni- schaftsberuflichen Unterricht. schung zum Sachunterricht. Bad syllogistic reasoning: A manual verzita J. E. Purkyne. Wirtschaft und Erziehung, 10, Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. including measurement proce- 359–362. dures and descriptive analyses. Schwippert, K., & Schnabel, K. - (1999). Development of math- Stern, E., & Koerber, S. (2000). Berlin: Max Planck Institute for (2000). Einflüsse sozialer und ematical competencies. In F. E. Mentale Modelle von Zeit und Human Development (Materia- ethnischer Herkunft beim Über- Weinert & W. Schneider (Eds.), Zukunft. In B. Strauß, J. Möller,

117 Center for Educational Research

& S. Jürgensen, Psychologie und Vetter, P. H., & Köller, O. (1998). tionale Mathematik- und Natur- Zukunft (pp. 15–29). Göttingen: First versus rehospitalized pa- wissenschaftsstudie—Mathema- Hogrefe. tients with an affective disorder tische und naturwissenschaft- or schizophrenia: Differences in liche Bildung am Ende der Stern, E., & Staub, F. (2000). long-term course and outcome. Schullaufbahn: Vol. 1. Mathe- Mathematik lernen und verste- Psychopathology, 31, 260–264. matische und hen: Anforderungen an die Ge- naturwissenschaftliche Grund- staltung des Mathematikunter- Vetter, P. H., Krauss, S., Steiner, bildung am Ende der richts. In E. Inckermann, J. Kah- O., Kropp, P., Möller, W. D., Moi- Pflichtschulzeit (pp. 199–259). lert, & A. Speck-Hamdan (Eds.), ses, H. W., & Köller, O. (1999). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Sich Lernen leisten. Grundschule Vascular dementia versus de- vor den Herausforderungen der mentia of Alzheimer’s type: Do Watermann, R., Erlemeier, N., & Wissenschaft (pp. 90–100). they have differential effects on Weber, G. (2000). Alterskon- Neuwied: Luchterhand. caregivers’ burden? Journals of zepte bei Professionellen in der Gerontology: Psychological Sci- Altenpflege. In J. Reinecke & C. Stigler, J. W. et al., & Knoll, S. ences and Social Sciences, 54, Tarnai (Eds.), Angewandte Klas- (1999). The TIMSS videotape 93–98. sifikationsanalyse (pp. 252–- classroom study. Methods and 267). Münster: Waxmann. findings from an exploratory re- Vetter, P. H., Krauss, S., Steiner, search project on eighth-grade O., Moises, H. W., Kropp, P., mathematics instruction in Ger- Möller, W. D., & Köller, O. (in many, Japan, and the United press). Vascular dementia: Do States. Washington, DC: Gov- patients and family caregivers ernment Printing Office. make adequate use of available supports? Aging & Mental Thußbas, C. (2000). Inhalt, Vor- Health. wissen und analoger Transfer. Der Einfluss der Typizität von Vetter, P. H., Pritzbuer, J. von, Cover Stories auf analoges Pro- Jungmann, K., Kropp, P., & blemlösen in der Mathematik Köller, O. (in press). The validity (Abstract). In D. Vorberg, A. of the ICD-10 classification of Fuchs, T. Futterer, A. Heinecke, recurrent affective disorders: Do U. Mattler, & U. Heinrich (Eds.), endogenous and psychogenic Tagungsband zur 42. Tagung ex- depressions form a homoge- perimentell arbeitender Psycho- neous diagnostic group? Psy- logen (p. 84). Lengerich: Pabst. chopathology.

Trautwein, U., Köller, O., & Vetter, P. H., Pritzbuer, J. von, Baumert, J. (in press). Lieber oft Jungmann, K. Moises, H. W., als viel: Hausaufgaben und die Kropp, P., & Köller, O. (2000). Entwicklung von Leistung und Motivation to seek psychother- Interesse im Mathematik-Unter- apy in patients with recurrent richt der 7. Jahrgangsstufe. depressive disorder. Psycho- Zeitschrift für Pädagogik. therapy Research, 10, 159–168.

Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Vetter, P. H., Steiner, O., Krauss, Schmitz, B., & Baumert, J. (in S., Moises, H., Kropp, P., Möller, press). Do homework assign- W., D., & Köller, O. (1998). Fac- ments enhance achievement? A tors affecting the utilization of multilevel analysis in 7th grade homecare supports by caregiv- mathematics. Contemporary Ed- ing relatives of Alzheimer’s pa- ucational Psychology. tients. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 9, 111–116. Trommer, L. (2000). Lehrpläne zur Politischen Bildung in der Watermann, R. (2000). Beruf- Sekundarstufe I. Gegenwarts- liche Wertorientierungen im kunde, 49, 79–86. Wandel. Eine Kohortenanalyse – (1999). Eine Analyse der Lehr- zur Dynamik arbeitsbezogener pläne zur Sozialkunde in der Einstellungen anhand von Sekundarstufe I. In C. Händle, D. ALLBUS-Umfragedaten. Müns- Oesterreich, & L. Trommer, Auf- ter: Institut für sozialwissen- gaben politischer Bildung in der schaftliche Forschung e.V. Sekundarstufe I (pp. 69–129). (225 p.). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Watermann, R., & Baumert, J. Trost, G., Klieme, E., & Nauels, (2000). Mathematische und na- H.-U. (1998). The relationship turwissenschaftliche Grundbil- between different criteria for dung beim Übergang von der admission to medical school Schule in den Beruf. In J. Bau- and student success. Assess- mert, W. Bos, & R. Lehmann ment in Education, 5, 247–254. (Eds.), TIMSS/III. Dritte Interna-

118 119

Center for Lifespan Psychology Center for Lifespan Psychology

Contents

Introductory Overview ……………………………………………………………………………… 123 Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 126 The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) ……… 131 Research Project 1 The Interplay of Sensorimotor and Cognitive Functioning ……………………………………………………………… 133 Research Project 2 Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue in Development …………………………………………………………… 137 Research Project 3 Personal Goals in Lifespan Development …………………… 141 Research Project 4 Trends and Profiles of Psychological Aging ………………… 145 Research Project 5 Regulating Development by Controlling the Environment and the Self ………………………………………… 153 Research Project 6 Parent-Adolescent Relationships: Family and Differential Perspectives …………………………………………… 156 International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences ……………… 159

Publications 1998–2000 …………………………………………………………………………… 161

Scientific Staff (1998–2000)

Paul B. Baltes, Julia Delius, Peter A. Frensch (as of 1999: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), Alexandra M. Freund, Jutta Heckhausen (as of 2001: University of California, Irvine), Ralf T. Krampe, Kurt Kreppner, Ute Kunzmann, Shu-Chen Li, Ulman Lindenberger (as of 1999: Universität des Saarlandes), Todd D. Little (as of 1998: Yale University), Gabriele Oettingen (as of 2001: Universität Hamburg), Tania Singer, Jacqui Smith, Ursula M. Staudinger (as of 1999: Technische Universität Dresden) Postdoctoral Research Fellows Susan Bluck (as of 2000: University of Florida), Paolo Ghisletta, Judith Glück, Karen Z. H. Li (as of 2000: Concordia University, Montreal), Heiner Maier (as of 1998: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock), Monisha Pasupathi (as of 1999: University of Utah), Bettina S. Wiese (as of 1999: Technische Universität Darmstadt), Carsten Wrosch (as of 1999: Carnegie-Mellon University), Lixia Yang Predoctoral Research Fellows Albina Bondar, Susanne Ehrhorn, Jutta Kray (as of 1999: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; as of 2000: Universität des Saarlandes), Michael Rapp, Manuela Riediger, Florian Schmiedek, Antje Stange, Manuela Ullrich (as of 2000: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), Brigitte Wanner (as of 2001: University of Montreal), Regina Wolf

122 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Introductory Overview

Conceptual Orientation The Center for Lifespan Psy- chology was created in 1981 when Paul B. Baltes was appointed director. Research and theory in the Center is conducted primarily from the perspectives of the field of developmental psychology. Its special focus is on the study of psychological change during adulthood and old age. The choice of these age periods is guided by the fact that the second half of life, while one of the major themes and issues of modernity and the aging of the population, is underresearched and offers unique opportunities for innovation, both in theory and What is developmental psychology, the field that is the disciplinary home of most researchers practice. In fact, it seems fair in the Center for Lifespan Psychology? The psy- to argue that the Center has chology of the ages of life, from childhood to old been a major player in advanc- age and their interconnections, is the substantive scope of this field. To this end, developmental ing the field of lifespan psy- psychologists aspire to understand the behavioral, chology. mental, social, motivational, and interpersonal characteristics and processes that constitute, ac- company, and modify lifetime development. The major sources for the nature of lifespan development include the long-term consequences of biocultural evolution, the ongoing opportunity and inequality structures of society, the microenviron- ments, such as families within which individuals live, and, of course, the role of individual factors and processes, such as individual differences in learning histories, mental capacities, motivation, self-regulation, and strategies of life management.

123 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References In general, developmental psycholo- relationships change with time as chil- Baltes, P. B. (1987). gists concern themselves primarily with dren become adults and parents turn Theoretical propositions the more proximal sources of individual into seniors, or how do individuals of lifespan developmental psychology: On the behavior during the life span. However, maintain a sense of life satisfaction as dynamics between to achieve a fuller understanding of in- they navigate the many transitions of growth and decline. De- velopmental Psychology, dividual development it is necessary for life with their unique gains and losses? 23, 611-626. developmental psychologists to engage These and similar questions are not Baltes, P. B. (1990). En- themselves in collaborative efforts with only pursued regarding universal laws. twicklungspsychologie der Lebensspanne: Theo- the biological and the social sciences. On the contrary, developmental psychol- retische Leitsätze. Psy- This is the special opportunity of the ogists treat the human condition as co- chologische Rundschau, 41, 1-24. transdisciplinary concept of human de- constructed by biology and culture and, Baltes, P. B. (1997). On velopment that guides work in the four therefore, they are deeply committed to the incomplete architec- centers of the Max Planck Institute for understanding individuality and the role ture of human ontogen- Human Development. In this vein, there of personal and nonnormative (idiosyn- esis: Selection, optimization, and compensa- has been considerable interaction of cratic) choices in development. In this tion as foundation of scientists in the Center for Lifespan Psy- spirit, additional topics of great concern developmental theory. American Psychologist, chology with researchers in the other to developmental psychologists are 52, 366-380. centers or from other institutions. A questions of commonalities and differ- Baltes, P. B., Linden- good example is the Berlin Aging Study ences in development and the ways by berger, U., & Staudin- ger, U. M. (1998). Life- in which medical researchers and be- which individuals and their close part- span theory in develop- havioral and social scientists collaborate ners can improve their own developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.) & in the pursuit of knowledge about hu- ment as well as that of others. W. Damon (Ed.-in chief), man aging in a changing society. During What is special about the general Handbook of child psy- the recent decade, lifespan and life- research orientation that scientists in chology: Vol. 1. Theore- tical models of human course research have become a major the Center for Lifespan Psychology dis- development (pp. 1029- focus of the Institute’s research profile. play and use as mental scripts? The 1143). New York: Wiley. This emerging focus has led to an in- theoretical and methodological perspec- Baltes, P. B., & Singer, T. (2001). Plasticity and creased cooperation between all Cen- tives and research agenda of the Center the aging mind: An ex- ters. The shared overall framework is are summarized below in seven propo- emplar of the biocultural orchestration of brain the coordination of several lines of in- sitions. These propositions reflect what and behavior. European quiry (psychological, sociological, edu- may be considered the theoretical Review, 9. cational) to understand the evolution framework of lifespan psychology Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1999a). Lifespan per- and ontogeny of human behavior. (Baltes, 1987, 1990, 1997; Baltes, Lin- spectives on develop- A sample of questions that develop- denberger, & Staudinger, 1998; Baltes & ment. In M. H. Bornstein mental psychologists typically study are Singer, in press). & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), De- velopmental psychology: the following: How do nature and nur- 1. Human development is viewed as An advanced textbook ture interact in determining develop- occurring throughout the life span, im- (4th ed., pp. 197–226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. ment, such as the emergence of the plying cumulative-continuous as well as mind, how and why do such functions innovative-discontinuous developmental as intelligence and memory change with processes and outcomes. age, how and to what end do individu- 2. The process of human develop- als acquire and maintain a sense of per- ment from childhood into old age is sonal control, how do persons plan and considered to be an age-related change manage their lives, what are the special in adaptive capacity, in which there is a bodies of knowledge and dispositions, continuous interplay between growth such as life skills and wisdom that make (gains) and decline (losses). for successful aging, how do aging indi- 3. Understanding psychological de- viduals cope with illness or rapid tech- velopment requires theoretical models nological change, how do parent-child that are often identified as contextual,

124 Center for Lifespan Psychology

interactive, or dialectical. For example, 7. Understanding the nature of hu- ontogenetic development occurs in the man development is facilitated by a context of biosocial systems and biocul- perspective that attempts to link com- tural change. Three macrostructural ponents of functioning into an integrat- components are particularly relevant: ed whole, that is, the individual. To this (a) social change, (b) the system context end, the search for general models of provided by familial and/or generational successful development and aging is a transmission, and (c) the lifespan ecolo- leitmotif of research in the Center. One gies associated with settings, such as such model currently under investiga- the family, school, work, leisure, health tion postulates that selection, optimiza- care, and retirement. tion, and compensation constitute the Key Reference 4. The plasticity or basic potential of functional elements of the developmen- Staudinger, U. M., development (i.e., its range and con- tal process. It is argued that their dy- Marsiske, M., & Baltes, straints) is a central focus of investiga- namic coordination and orchestration P. B. (1995). Resilience and reserve capacity in tion. Of major concern are studies ex- results in successful development, that later adulthood: Poten- ploring the functional range within is, the maximization of gains and mini- tials and limits of development across the life which individual developmental mization of losses across the life span. span. In D. Cicchetti & processes can be influenced. Objective The following summary of the re- D. Cohen (Eds.), Devel- opmental psychopatho- and subjective knowledge about plastic- search programs of the Center are not logy: Vol. 2. Risk, dis- ity of development (in either a positive comprehensive. They are samples and il- order, and adaptation (pp. 801–847). New or a negative direction) is essential for lustrate the lines of inquiry that Center York: Wiley. the formulation of strategies aimed at scientists pursue in making a contribu- the optimization of human develop- tion to research and theory in lifespan ment. psychology as well as its implications 5. Human activity and goal orienta- for social policy and the future of hu- tion during lifetime development are mankind. other conceptual emphases that guide Key Reference the Center’s studies. Such an emphasis Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (Eds.). (1990). makes explicit the role that individuals Successful aging: Per- play as producers of development—both spectives from the behavioral sciences. Cam- their own as well as that of others. bridge, UK: Cambridge Key Reference 6. Another conceptual orientation is University Press (397 p.). Baltes, P. B., & the notion of interactive minds. This ori- Staudinger, U. M. entation, an orientation that has much (Eds.). (1996). Interac- tive minds. Life-span in common with the field of cultural perspectives on the so- psychology, reflects the notion that the cial foundation of cognition. New York: Cam- psychological nature of the social con- bridge University Press text of human development is essential- (457 p.). ly collective and involves internal as well as external mechanisms of social transactions and collaborations.

125 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition Background Lifespan conceptions of intelligence provide a first general theoretical orientation to work in the Center. One domain of psychological functioning that has undergone major changes in theoretical orientation during the last decades is the psychology of intelligence. Research on lifespan intelligence was one of the contributory sources for this change. To illustrate, the psychometric tradition of intelligence testing pioneered, for instance by Stern and especially Binet close to 100 years ago is very much ingrained in people’s everyday thinking of intelligence. In the minds of the general public, being smart and having a high IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is synonymous. In contrast, over the last couple of decades the climates of the scientific inquiry about intelligence have shifted from the IQ-based tradition—usually measured with respect to limited sets of abilities associated primarily with academic performance and work productivity—to more broadly-based inquiries about the contextual and functional aspects of intelligence and its associated cognitive resources. A new and productive marriage of the psychometric, cognitive-psychological, and ecological traditions is in the making.

Specifically, implicit in the psycho- al shift by reconceptualizing intelli- metric approach is a focus of measur- gence with new insights into its nature ing, as opposed to understanding the as a system of contextualized and on- causes, contexts, and functions of intel- togenetically driven adaptive cognitive ligence; and the view that intelligence functions. reflects a collection of static abilities We pursued several lines of inquiry that characterizes a person, as opposed in our search for a dynamic view of in- to a dynamic system of contextualized telligence that is both contextually and and adaptive cognitive functions that lifespan sensitive. Originally, our ap- the individuals continue to acquire proach was guided by cognitive training throughout their life course. One aspect research demonstrating more plasticity of the Center’s research program focus- of the aging mind than is commonly ing on the theory and empirical investi- assumed and subsequently by age com- gations of lifespan intellectual develop- parative research on limits of function- ment has contributed to this conceptu- ing, that showed the existence of a

126 Center for Lifespan Psychology lifespan function of cognitive plasticity cal evolution and unfolds under a mini- (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, mum level of environmental support 1998). Meanwhile, we have broadened during individual ontogenesis. The this approach by adding to it new theo- speed, accuracy, and coordination of el- retical orientations, if not new concep- ementary information-processing mech- tions, that stem from efforts to further anisms index cognitive mechanics. The integrate cognitive experimental and primary substrate of cognitive pragmat- contextual thinking with the psychome- ics, on the other hand, is culture-based tric traditions of intelligence testing. knowledge that is acquired through cul- A key characteristic defining intelli- tural learning and life experiences. Pro- gence and intelligent behavior is its totypical examples of cognitive prag- adaptive value in novel situations. Life- matics are being able to speak and un- span contexts include continuity and derstand the social implications of change in contexts of adaptation. In old language and to solve practical daily age, for instance, a larger and larger problems involving formal-logical rea- share of cognitive resources is invested soning, to acquire the knowledge and into maintaining bodily functions, skills related to professional expertise, rather than “academic” pursuits. Seen or the kind of life skills that are neces- from this perspective, intelligence is in- sary to navigate the modern world. trinsically related to a lifespan perspec- In the following, we describe three tive of human development that consid- general lines of our ongoing research ers development as a process within aimed at extending conventional models which individuals continue to adapt of intelligence from the perspective of their bodies of factual and procedural lifespan psychology. The first line of re- knowledge to changes and transforma- search focuses on the relations between Key Reference tions in biological, environmental, and cognitive mechanics and pragmatics Baltes, P. B., cultural constraints that inevitably take with biological and cultural factors and Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). place throughout their life course. their differential lifespan trajectories. A Lifespan psychology: In this spirit, and by extending the second line of research is the investiga- Theory and application to intellectual function- Cattell-Horn theory of fluid-crystallized tion of resource management in senso- ing. Annual Review of intelligence (Cattell, 1973), we have rimotor functioning that has been moti- Psychology, 50, 471–507. presented a new dual-process model vated by our concept of the cognitive of intelligence (Baltes, Staudinger, & mechanics. The third line, the study of Lindenberger, 1999) that highlights two wisdom, is rooted in our research on the distinct but interacting dimensions of cognitive pragmatics. intellectual functioning (see Fig. 1), the biologically (or neurophysiologically) driven cognitive mechanics (i.e., basic Basic information processing information processes in the sense of Mechanics – content-poor cognitive primitives) and the culture- – biology-dependent based cognitive pragmatics of the mind – genetically predisposed (i.e., culture-based bodies of factual and procedural knowledge). The cognitive Factual and procedural knowledge Pragmatics mechanics are basic information-pro- – content-rich – culture-dependent cessing primitives for memorizing and – experience-based learning that people are capable of, and they are predominately preprogrammed Figure 1. The dual-process model of lifespan intellectual development distin- by the neurophysiological architecture guishes between the cognitive mechanics and pragmatics of intellectual of the mind as it evolved during biologi- functioning (adapted from Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999).

127 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Sources of Age Differences in Cognitive Mechanics versus Pragmatics To test the dual-process model of life- ple’s sensorimotor performance also span development of intelligence, thus correlates highly with the cognitive me- far our research had directly examined chanics. In this vein, old people who the relations between these two aspects varied more in their walking perfor- of intellectual functioning with biologi- mance from week to week showed cal and cultural factors and their differ- worse episodic and spatial memory (Li, ential lifespan trajectories. In our view, Aggen, Nesselroade, & Baltes, 2001). sensory and intellectual functions are Given that biology and culture co- closely related when cognitive primi- contribute differentially to the mechan- tives (mechanics) are operative in the ics and pragmatics of intelligence, in- task at hand. Congruent with this ex- vestigations of how these two aspects pectation our empirical findings (see of intellectual functioning develop, Fig. 2) show that among old adults, ba- maintain, and decline throughout life sic sensory processing is much more could offer insights into the complex highly correlated with the cognitive me- and co-constructive (Baltes & Singer, in chanics than with cognitive pragmatics. press) interplay between the individual’s In contrast, socio-biographical predic- biological and cultural “inheritances” in tors correlate more with cognitive prag- development. Combing our research on matics than with cognitive mechanics cognitive aging and concurrent work (Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997). The asso- drawing data from a lifespan sample ciation between the more biology-based covering the first to the eighth decades sensory-sensorimotor processes and of life, we found in line with our expec- cognitive mechanics is a robust phe- tations differential lifespan trajectories nomenon that generalizes to measures for cognitive mechanics and pragmatics other than the average level of per- (see Fig. 3). As is true for research on formance. Within persons, for instance, the fluid-crystallized distinction, cogni- week-to-week fluctuations in old peo- tive mechanics display an earlier growth pattern up to early adulthood. The 35 growth of cognitive mechanics primarily Perceptual speed driven by brain maturation can then be 30 Knowledge invested into the acquirement and re- 25 finement of culture-based cognitive pragmatics. However, because of their 20 close ties to biology and genome-based 15 determinants, continuous loss of cognitive mechanics starts early in adulthood. 10 In contrast, the culture-based pragmat- Shared variance (%) ics, represented by the abilities of 5 knowledge and language, have a later 0 onset of decline and the decline is less e pronounced (Li, Lindenberger, Prinz,

Vision Class Baltes, & the CoOP-MIND Research Hearing Incom Bal./Gait Prestige Education Team, 2000). However, in old age the role of biology-based cognitive mechan- Sensory-sensorimotor Socio-biographical correlates correlates ics in regulating the cognitive pragmat- Figure 2. Differential correlational links of perceptual speed (a marker of the me- ics increases (see also Fig. 2). chanics) and verbal knowledge (a marker of the pragmatics) to biological and socio-biographical indicators in old age (data from Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997).

128 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Lifespan Differences in the Allocation of Cognitive Resources Key References The category of cognitive mechanics tasks (memorization) (Lindenberger, Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). In- encompasses the efficiency of basic in- Marsiske, & Baltes, 2000; Li, Linden- tellectual functioning in formation processes and also includes berger, Freund, & Baltes, in press). Using old and very old age: Cross-sectional results the optimal allocation of cognitive re- dual-task and training research para- from the Berlin Aging sources. Flexible resource allocation is digms, the results suggest that older Study. Psychology and especially important whenever the indi- adults invest considerable cognitive re- Aging, 12, 410–432. vidual is faced with multiple tasks or sources to compensate for the de- Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, situational constraints. An example of creased efficacy of their sensorimotor P. B. (2000). Memorizing these tasks or situational demands functions. At a larger scale, we assume while walking: Increase in dual task costs from comprises basic sensorimotor functions that in later adulthood a considerable young adulthood to old like maintaining balance or walking amount of the available cognitive re- age. Psychology and Ag- ing, 15, 417–436. while talking to a friend. Everyday life sources is permanently captured by Li, K. Z. H., Linden- for the most part consists of such mul- sensorimotor functions that are virtual- berger, U., Freund, A. titask situations. In the context of life- ly automatized in younger adults. These M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Walking while span development, age brings with it cognitive resources in turn are no memorizing: A SOC different adaptive demands for individ- longer available for other cognitively study of age-related differences in compensa- uals at different parts of their life demanding tasks (such as reading, writ- tory behavior under course. Basic sensorimotor functions ing, and conversing) or the acquisition dual-task conditions. like postural stability and walking accu- of new skills. Because the conventional Psychological Science. racy lose efficiency in later adulthood assessment of intelligence does not because of decreased muscular strength even touch interindividual differences and reduced peripheral vision, as exam- in resource allocation capabilities, stan- ples. As a corollary, we argue that such dard IQ assessment likely misses impor- emerging deficits in the coordination of tant dimensions of adaptive intelligent bodily functions require more and more behavior. We aim at developing tasks cognitive resources. To illustrate: in our and paradigms that reflect the contexts studies we systematically combined of the second half of life and permit sensorimotor tasks of varying difficul- the assessment of these characteristics. ties (i.e., walking with or without obstacles) with cognitively demanding

70 Figure 3. Differential lifespan trajectories of cognitive mechanics and pragmatics. Plot- 60 ted are means of 31 age groups (on average n = 10 per group). 50 Pragmatics T scores are computed Knowledge Verbal fluency based on unit-weight composite of 9 and 6 T score T variables for cognitive 40 Mechanics mechanics and prag- Speed matics, respectively Memory Reasoning (data from Li, Linden- 30 berger, Prinz, Baltes, & the CoOP-MIND Research Team, 2000). 0 0 102030405060708090 Age

129 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References The Psychology of Wisdom Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. Our research on wisdom is the counter- ment toward higher levels of function- (2000). Wisdom: A part of the two other lines of research ing (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). To be metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind on cognitive mechanics and focuses pri- sure, memory, analytical, creative, so- and virtue toward excel- marily on the cognitive pragmatics. The cial, and emotional skills are all impor- lence. American Psy- original raison d’être for this work was tant for living a good life as an individ- chologist, 55, 122-136. the conclusion that wisdom might be a ual, but they are not enough if the goal Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., & Kunzmann, U. (in positive marker of aging; a marker that is a balance between individual well- press). Wisdom: Its cannot be found empirically because it being and social well-being. In our view, structure and function in regulating successful has not been included in the traditional the special strength of wisdom is that it lifespan development. In tests of intelligence and personality. We selects and orchestrates more specific C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The hand- have defined wisdom as “expert know- abilities and bodies of knowledge to- book of positive psychol- ledge system in the fundamental prag- ward maximizing the individual and ogy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. matics of life” (Baltes & Smith, 1990; common good. For instance, when Baltes & Staudinger, 1993; Staudinger guided by wisdom, individuals would Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). Toward a psy- & Baltes, 1996). The term "fundamental consider only those goals and means as chology of wisdom and pragmatics of life" refers to important ways of self-development that do not its ontogenesis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: and difficult issues concerning life mea- violate the rights of others and, in addi- Its nature, origin, and ning and conduct including knowledge tion, coproduce resources for others to development (pp. 87–- 120). Cambridge, UK: about life planning, review, and man- develop. It is in this sense that we have Cambridge University agement. considered wisdom as the integration Press. However, wisdom expands conven- of mind and virtue. tional models of intelligence not only in that it involves general and specific knowledge about ill-defined life dilem- mas having no clear-cut solutions. As we have discussed recently, two core features set wisdom apart from other more limited cognitive abilities: wisdom is holistic and integrative knowledge about the world of human affairs; and it involves an orientation toward the common good defined as individual and collective well-being (Baltes & Staudin- ger, 2000; Baltes, Glück, & Kunzmann, in press). Both core features signal that wisdom may have functions for successful lifespan development which are different from those abilities that typically are considered in conventional models of intelligence. Furthermore, the concept of wisdom extends beyond “intellectual” subject matters to include notions of virtues versus vices. In this sense, wisdom can be seen as a body of knowledge, skills, and motives that functions as a metaheuristic to orchestrate human develop-

130 Center for Lifespan Psychology

The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Key References Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psycho- Compensation (SOC) logical perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective opti- A second general theoretical orientation of research in mization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & the Center for Lifespan Psychology is motivated by the M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Suc- cessful aging: Perspec- question of how people develop successfully. To gain tives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). better understanding of factors contributing to success- Cambridge, UK: Cam- bridge University Press. ful development, that is, the simultaneous maximization Baltes, M. M., & Carstensen, L. L. (1996). of gains and minimization of losses, we attempt to spec- The process of successful ageing. Aging and ify the behavioral and cognitive strategies by which peo- Society, 16, 397–422. Marsiske, M., Lang, F. R., ple, individually and collectively, master their lives. The Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1995). Selective focus of our theory is on the orchestration of selection, optimization with compensation: Life-span optimization, and compensation. perspectives on successful human development. In R. A. Dixon & L. Bäck- Throughout the entire life span, a model of development defining univer- man (Eds.), Compensa- person’s (internal and external) re- sal processes of developmental regulation for psychological deficits and declines: sources are finite. There are, however, tion. These processes vary phenotypical- Managing losses and age-related changes in the availability ly depending on socio-historical and promoting gains (pp. 35–79). Mahwah, and efficiency of resources. Starting out cultural context, domain of functioning, NJ: Erlbaum. to be highly positive, the ratio of gains as well as on characteristics of the sys- to losses in functional capacities and its tem or unit of interest (e.g., person, consequences becomes less favorable group, society). The meta-theory of SOC with age. Thus, with increasing age, in- needs to be embedded in a specific the- dividuals have to allocate more and oretical framework for applying it to more of their resources into the mainte- various domains of functioning (e.g., nance of functioning and compensation identity formation and maintenance, of losses rather than into processes of social relations, athletic performance) growth (Heckhausen, 1999; Staudinger, and to different levels of analysis (e.g., Marsiske, & Baltes, 1995). According to societal, group, or individual level). the model of selection, optimization, On a macro-analytical level, it is and compensation (SOC) developed by possible to apply SOC-related perspec- Paul and Margret Baltes (1990; see also tives to questions of societal function- Baltes & Carstensen, 1996; Freund & ing. How do the American, German, and Baltes, 2000; Marsiske, Lang, Baltes, & Japanese cultures differ in goals, ways Baltes, 1995), successful development to optimize, and strategies of compen- encompasses selection of functional do- sation? This would be one example for a mains on which to focus one‘s re- macro-analytic, comparative study. An sources, optimizing developmental po- example of a micro-analytic level ap- tential (maximization of gains), and proach to the study of SOC would be compensating for losses, ensuring the the investigation of cognitive and motor maintenance of functioning (minimiza- performance in dual-task conditions tion of losses). and the way people of varying ages al- The SOC model constitutes a general locate resources differentially to memo-

131 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References ry and walking (Li, Lindenberger, Freund, more accessible than others, and per- (cont’d) & Baltes, in press). sonal characteristics, such as age or Freund, A. M., & (1) Selection Throughout the life gender. We need to recognize also that Baltes, P. B. (2000). The orchestration of selec- span, biological, social, and individual in most cases there are different path- tion, optimization, and opportunities and constraints specify a ways of optimization; consistent with compensation: An action-theoretical concep- range of alternative domains of func- the saying ”There are many ways to tualization of a theory tioning. From this large number of op- Rome.” of developmental regulation. In W. J. Perrig & tions, individuals in collaboration with (3) Compensation When encoun- A. Grob (Eds.), Control of other forces, such as norms and tering transient or permanent losses or human behavior, mental parental expectations, select a subset decline in goal-relevant means threat- processes, and consciousness (pp. 35–58). on which to focus their resources. Se- ening one’s level of functioning, it is Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. lection of personal goals gives direction necessary to invest resources into coun- Heckhausen, J. (1999). to development by focusing resources teracting the losses in order to maintain Developmental regulation in adulthood: Age- on specific life domains and by guiding a given level of functioning. The process normative and socio- behavior across situations and time. The of activating or finding such alternative structural constraints as adaptive challenges. function of selection is nicely illustrated means we call compensation. For in- New York: Cambridge by the saying "Those who follow every stance, when knee problems do not al- University Press (250 p.). path, never reach any destination.” low for going for walks any longer, us- Li, K. Z. H., Linden- berger, U., Freund, A. Selectivity can also be an adaptive re- ing a wheelchair as a compensatory M., & Baltes, P. B. (in sponse to losses in means threatening means of transportation can help to press). Walking while one‘s goals. This, in contrast to elective maintain one’s routine of spending an memorizing: A SOC study of age-related dif- selection, we call loss-based selection. hour in the park every day. As is true in ferences in compensa- An example of loss-based selection is to the case of optimization, it depends on tory behavior under dual-task conditions. concentrate on one’s most important the domain of functioning, the social Psychological Science. goals (e.g., enjoying to be with one’s and cultural context, and personal char- family) and giving up personally less acteristics which means are best suited important goals (e.g., cultural activities) for compensating transient or perma- when an illness constraints the level of nent losses in previously available energy one can spend on various acti- means. vities. (2) Optimization To achieve higher levels of functioning, goal-relevant "Those who means, that is, means that are con- follow every ducive to goal attainment, need to be path, never acquired, refined, coordinated, and ap- reach any plied in the selected goal domains. The destination.” acquisition and orchestration of such means for goal attainment we call optimization. An example of optimization is to practice scales when starting to learn the piano. By practicing scales, one can acquire flexibility in finger movements and stroke technique, both important skills for playing the piano. Of course, which means are best suited for achieving one’s goals depends on the goal domain (e.g., sports, friendships), the social and cultural context providing opportunity structures making certain means

132 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Research Project 1 Scientific Investigators The Interplay of Sensorimotor and Cognitive Ralf T. Krampe Functioning (since 2000) Paul B. Baltes This project has several conceptual foundations within Alexandra M. Freund Ulman Lindenberger the research framework of the Center for Lifespan (until 1999) Psychology. First, it speaks to the question of changing Karen Li resource allocations across the life span and the use (until 2000) Albina Bondar of selection, optimization, and compensation to mas- Michael A. Rapp ter the changing demands and contexts of lifespan (predoctoral fellows) development. Second, it illustrates how intelligence— or cognitive resources in the broader sense—is consti- tuted and applied to varying domains as life unfolds. Intelligence is not only a subject matter of logical reasoning or academic-cultural knowledge, it is also involved in such matters as the coordination of bodily movements. Third, the project is an outgrowth of the BASE finding that intelligence and sensorimotor functioning evince a higher and higher interdomain correlation as people reach old age. We attempt to understand this systemic connection and see it "in action."

Let us begin with two backgrounds, research with dual-task paradigms. Nu- one from everyday observations, the merous experimental studies have other from past research. Everyday ob- demonstrated that people find it hard servations suggest that older individuals to attend to more than one task at a invest much attention into the control time or to integrate sensory input from of their motor behavior. For instance, more than one source. It has also been when hiking in the mountains and fac- shown that dual-task costs are often ing an obstacle, such as a rock in the greater in old persons than in younger path, they stop talking and resume their ones. At the same time, everyday life conversations after the obstacle has for the most part consists of settings in been navigated. Younger people seem which multiple sensory inputs are rele- to show a lesser effect of this kind. This vant to behavior or in which concurrent is an example of the role of both: lesser tasks must be coordinated: examples cognitive resources with aging and a are walking while trying to memorize a greater need in advancing ages of cog- shopping list or maintaining one’s bal- nitive resources for motor behavior. ance on a bus while trying to read an Second, there is a long tradition of advertisement on the other side of the

133 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key Reference road. How is it possible for individuals vidual’s pool of limited cognitive re- Li, K. Z. H., Linden- to adapt to these multiple demands and sources. In a way, they require "intelli- berger, U., Freund, A. their changes across situational con- gence." M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Walking while texts? Do individuals from different age When more than one task or sensory memorizing: A SOC groups differ in their efficiency at which input channel are relevant to the con- study of age-related differences in compensa- they can cope with related performance current behavior, the cognitive system tory behavior under constraints? must allocate the available resources at dual-task conditions. Psychological Science. In line with these perspectives, in any given time. In line with the theory this project we investigate the efficien- of SOC (but also other theoretical ac- cy of basic information processes and counts such as executive control), one the allocation of cognitive resources in possible strategy is to prioritize (select) a lifespan developmental context. Relat- one task over another or by carefully ed phenomena are referred to as as- scheduling the processing of concurrent pects of cognitive mechanics in the lit- tasks. The focus of our investigations is erature. Examples for basic information on the age-related developmental processes are the perception of visual changes in resource allocation in and auditory stimuli, their memoriza- multiple-task settings (such as walking tion, and their later retrieval from mem- and thinking) that have a high degree ory. In addition, this category includes of everyday validity. A vast literature sensory information processing in the exists on the simultaneous performance service of motor functions like walking, of multiple movements or the perceptu- maintaining an upright posture (bal- al integration from different input ance), or the temporal coordination of channels. Thus, different from these movements. Our basic assumption is earlier studies we are mainly interested that all of these processes tax an indi- in the interplay of sensorimotor functions and cognition in settings that matter in everyday life. Are there age differences in resource allocation? Individuals from different age groups differ with respect to the amount of Do young and old adults differ in overall resources available? cognitive resources that they have available for a given task. The relation Are there age differences in the symmetry of attentional between age and available processing allocation between two concurrent tasks? resources takes a U-shape function. In young children the processing resources are still developing and growing. Older Walking adulthood is characterized by decre- Walking ments in available cognitive resources. Many cognitive tasks have been demon- Thinking Thinking strated to exert higher resource demands on older than on young adults. In the light of reduced capacity and in- Young adults Old adults creased task demands the necessity to (20–30) (60–70) optimize the allocation of available processing resources must be even higher Note. Young group shows equal emphasis between memorizing and walking tasks. In contrast, old adults have lower overall resources to devote in older than in young adults. Optimal to each task (smaller circle), and allocate more to walking than to memorizing resource allocation as a means to adapt (selection). overall performance is a critical marker Figure 1. SOC: Overview of the central questions examined in the Dual-task of successful aging as described by the Thinking & Walking Project. SOC theory (Baltes & Baltes, 1990;

134 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999). One central compensation. Specifically, Li, Linden- Key References question in our project is whether indi- berger, Freund, and Baltes (in press) sys- (cont’d) viduals from different age groups differ tematically combined sensorimotor Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, only in terms of their available re- tasks of varying difficulties (i.e., walking P. B. (2000). Memorizing sources or whether the efficiency of re- with or without obstacles) with a cog- while walking: Increase in dual-task costs from source allocation as such is subject to nitively demanding task (memorization) young adulthood to old developmental changes (Fig. 1). (Fig. 3). In some testing conditions par- age. Psychology and Ag- Current work on this topic includes ticipants were given the option of using ing, 15, 417–436. the study of walking and the investiga- compensatory external aids (a handrail tion of postural stability. To this end, we to optimize walking speed and accuracy have developed during 2000 a new lab- and a button-box that delayed the pres- oratory. This laboratory consists of two entation of auditory stimuli). While balance machines that permit dynamic young adults optimized their memoriza- posturography and a parcours that per- tion performances, older adults focused mits the assessment of walking accura- on the optimization of their walking by cy. In both experimental settings partic- more frequent usage of the handrail. ipants either perform the sensorimotor Again, these results can be interpret- task (walking or balancing) in isolation ed in the context of the SOC model as or in combination with cognitive tasks. differences in overall resources as well Completed work focuses on ques- as older adults’ specific selection of at- tions of walking and thinking. For in- tentional emphasis on walking over stance, two studies demonstrate—as memorizing. These results highlight the predicted—that older adults invest con- differential ecological relevance of tasks siderable cognitive resources presum- for young and older adults and its ef- ably to compensate for the decreased fects on resource allocation: walking or efficiencies of their sensorimotor func- maintaining balance is more critical for tions. Specifically, Lindenberger, Mar- older than for young adults. Consequen- siske, and Baltes (2000) had participants tially, older adults prioritize sensori- of three age groups walk different motor over cognitive functioning. tracks while memorizing word lists. They Ongoing studies in this project add a found (see Fig. 2) that speed and accu- third sensorimotor component, namely racy of walking were reduced when participants had to si- Which suffers when doing both (walking and memorizing)? multaneously walk and mem- Older adults show larger losses in memory orize. The size of this decre- but not in walking ment, however, was consider- Loss in memorizing Loss in walking ably larger in older than in while walking while memorizing young adults. However, as Older more than younger Same amount for old and young shown in the right side of 50 50 Figure 2, there were no age Young Young 40 Old 40 Old differences in dual-task costs for memory. In our interpreta- 30 30 tive posture, older adults se- 20 20 lected walking efficiency over memory efficiency when their 10 10 cognitive resources were 0 0 challenged. Memory Walking A subsequent study added Figure 2. Suggested interpretation: When cognitive resources are tested at limits, older to the design opportunities for adults prioritize walking over memorizing (Lindenberger, Marsiske, & Baltes, 2000).

135 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Figure 3. Dual-task performance: Memorizing while walking (research participants have the opportunitiy to compensate: either by using a handrail or a button to slow down the presentation rate of memory stimuli). balance. Specifically, we use dynamic posturography for dual- or potentially triple-task experiments with similar questions. Dynamic posturography means that participants stand on a platform that can move (i.e., tilt) at different angular velocities (Fig. 4). The platform contains sensors that measure participants’ stability (i.e., the distribution of their weights) at any given point in time. Our participants are individuals from different age groups (children, young, and older adults). In addition, we study groups that are assumed to have deficits in attentional control or resource allocation (Alzheimer’s patients or children with AD-HD syndromes). In the long run, we are also interested in performing cognitive and motor training studies to explore the plasticity of the behavior systems involved. In this context we will also investigate resource allocation in young and older adults who have presumably optimized their sensorimotor functioning through long- term practice in balance-related forms Figure 4. The new laboratory, which as been developed to examine dual-task of expertise. performance includes apparatus to test dynamic posturography. One of our new studies investigates the capacity to memorize while keeping balance (memory stimuli are presented by ear phone).

136 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Research Project 2 Scientific Investigators Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue in Paul B. Baltes Development Ute Kunzmann Ursula M. Staudinger (until 1999) Proceeding from the everyday meaning of wisdom as Monisha Pasupathi sound judgment and good advice concerning important (until 1999) but uncertain matters of life, we have defined wisdom as Judith Glück (until 2000) “expert knowledge system in the fundamental pragmat- (postdoctoral fellows) ics of life” (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, Antje Stange 2000; Staudinger & Baltes, 1996). The term "fundamen- (predoctoral fellow) tal pragmatics of life" refers to knowledge about significant aspects concerning the meaning and conduct of life, and includes knowledge about life planning (e.g., what life goals should we pursue and how?), life management (e.g., how can we deal with severe problems, such as suicide, violence, or family confict?), and life interpretation (e.g., how can we make sense of our past, present, and anticipated experiences?). Wisdom involves general knowledge referring to those aspects of life meaning and conduct that are universal across cultural contexts and historical periods as well as more specific knowledge about the cultural, historical, and individual relativity of the human life course.

Although wisdom is not necessarily a married right away. What could one/she property of individuals, but can also be consider and do?" A panel of trained found in written material, such as the raters evaluates our participants' re- bible or legal texts, most of our past responses with reference to five criteria search has focused on wisdom-related that we believe indicate wisdom, name- knowledge as expressed in a person's ly, rich factual and procedural knowl- thoughts and judgments. To assess wis- edge about the fundamental pragmatics dom on the individual level, we present of life, lifespan contextualism, value rel- to participants short vignettes describ- ativism or tolerance, and awareness and ing difficult life problems of fictitious management of uncertainty. Two ex- people and ask them to think aloud treme responses to the wisdom task de- about these problems. To illustrate, a scribed above are depicted in Figure 1. problem concerning life management Past research in the wisdom project reads: "A 15-year-old girl wants to get (for review see Baltes & Staudinger,

137 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Task: A 15-year-old girl wants to get married right away. What could one/she consider and do?

Figure 1. Illustration of two extreme responses to a Low wisdom score wisdom task. A 15-year-old girl wants to get married? No, no way, marrying at age 15 would be utterly wrong. One has to tell the girl that marriage is not possible. (After further probing) It would be irresponsible to support such an idea. No, this is just a crazy idea.

High wisdom score Well, on the surface, this seems like an easy problem. On average, marriage for 15-year-old girls is not a good thing. I guess many girls might think about it, however, when they fall in love for the first time. And, then, there are situations where the average case does not fit. Perhaps in this instance, special life circumstances are involved, such that the girl has a terminal illness. Or the girl has just lost her parents. And also, this girl may not be from this country. Perhaps she lives in another culture and historical period.

Key References 2000) was concerned primarily with maintenance of wisdom-related knowl- Baltes, P. B., & testing the validity and reliability of our edge might be the best possible out- Staudinger, U. M. psychological approach to the concept come that adulthood and old age can (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragma- of wisdom, studying age-related bring about. tic) to orchestrate mind changes, and exploring the antecedents Note also that our theoretical orien- and virtue toward excellence. American Psy- and plasticity of wisdom-related knowl- tation never implied that wisdom-relat- chologist, 55, 122–136. edge. In this context, we were able to ed knowledge is strictly tied to process- Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., show that the activation of wisdom-re- es of age. Rather, we argued that a & Kunzmann, U. (in press). Wisdom: Its lated knowledge is facilitated by condi- coalition of factors are involved, only structure and function tions of social discourse including the some of which might be age-related in regulating successful lifespan development. In use of inner voices associated with in- (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Figure 3 C. R. Snyder & S. J. ner dialogue (Staudinger & Baltes, presents the empirical associations of Lopez (Eds.), The hand- 1996). Much of our work on age-related multiple person-related and environ- book of positive psychology. Oxford, UK: Oxford changes in wisdom was motivated by mental factors with wisdom-related University Press. the idea that wisdom might be one of knowledge in three samples of adults Staudinger, U. M., & the very few gains associated with ag- (see Fig. 3). The acquisition and opti- Baltes, P. B. (1996). In- teractive minds: A facili- ing and, thus, may show improvement mization of wisdom-related knowledge tative setting for wis- across the entire life span. What have seems to require a wide range of sup- dom-related performance? Journal of we found? As seen in Figure 2, wisdom- portive conditions and processes related Personality and Social related knowledge seems to increase to an individual's personality, cognitive Psychology, 71, 746–- 762. during adolescence and young adult- capacities, environment, and life history. hood (Pasupathi, Staudinger, & Baltes, Most certainly, wisdom-related knowl- Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. (in press). Human in press) and then remains stable, at edge is different from academic intelli- strength as the orches- least up to age 75. At first sight, the gence in that it integrates intellectual tration of wisdom and SOC. In L. G. Aspinwall stability of wisdom across most of with emotional and motivational di- & U. M. Staudinger adulthood is at odds with the idea that mensions of knowledge about the (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths: Per- wisdom is a positive aspect of aging. meaning and conduct of life. Moreover, spectives on an emerg- The finding is more in line with the no- as we have demonstrated in research on ing field. Washington, DC: APA Books. tion of successful adulthood than a suc- the correlates of wisdom, wisdom as we cess story of old age. Given that basic define and measure it, carries a sizeable cognitive functions lose efficiency rela- proportion of unique variance (Staudin- tively early in the life span, however, ger, Lopez, & Baltes, 1997). Even when

138 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Wisdom-related knowledge Wisdom-related knowledge Figure 2. Cross-sectional High age gradients and scatter plots for wisdom-related performance. The left panel show data from Pasu- pathi, Staudinger, and Baltes (in press) including outcomes of a spline analysis. The right panel summarizes results from several studies with adult samples (see also Baltes & Low Staudinger, 2000). 13 18 23 28 33 38 1009080706050403020 Age in years Age in years

partialling out the covariations with knowledge that are wisdom-prone. Key References over 30 measures of intelligence, per- In a second line of research, we are (cont’d) sonality, and cognitive style, two paral- interested in expanding our conceptual- Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). Toward a psy- lel tests of wisdom maintain a sizeable ization of wisdom as knowledge to also chology of wisdom and degree of uniqueness. include motivational and emotional fea- its ontogenesis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: In our ongoing work, we have two tures. To date, our research program on Its nature, origins, and new research foci. A first focus refers wisdom has not considered explicitly development (pp. 87–- 120). Cambridge, UK: to the question whether it is useful to the role of emotional factors, for in- Cambridge University conceptualize wisdom as a cognitive stance in the acquisition of wisdom- Press. meta-heuristic. Findings from our stud- related knowledge or the initiation of Pasupathi, M., ies on the plasticity of wisdom have wisdom-salient dialogues. Stimulated by Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). shown that wisdom-related perform- work on lay person's conceptions of Seeds of wisdom: Ado- ance can be enhanced relatively early by wisdom, we plan to examine under lescents’ knowledge and judgment about difficult certain supportive conditions, such as which conditions people who have wis- life problems. Develop- the availability of social interaction, dom-related knowledge are also per- mental Psychology. provision of inner voice dialogues, or ceived as being wise or as desirable Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). certain memory strategies. This evidence counselors in matters of the fundamen- Beyond the traditional led us to conclude that many people tal pragmatics of life. We are particular- scope of intelligence: Wisdom in action. In R. may have the bodies of knowledge that ly interested in the social-emotional J. Sternberg, J. Lautry, & are required for thinking wisely avail- competencies that—in addition to wis- T. I. Lubart (Eds.), Models able. However, they may not use these of intelligence for the dom-related knowledge—make a person next millenium. bodies of knowledge until the concept appear to be wise and sought out as an Staudinger, U. M., of wisdom is prompted, and one either advisor. In the tradition of explicit theo- Lopez, D. F., & Baltes, explicitly or implicitly tries to think ries of wisdom, we will investigate un- P. B. (1997). The psychometric location of wisely. We are in the process of testing der what conditions wisdom-related wisdom-related per- this hypothesis (Glück & Baltes, 1999) knowledge is reflected in people’s be- formance. Personality and Social Psychology by having participants engage in wis- havior as they deal with uncertain life Bulletin, 11, 1200–1214. dom-priming tasks including as one problems and interact with others. Emo- condition the instructional objective of tional competence, as reflected by one’s "acting wisely." Support for our predic- level of emotional reactivity, regulation, tion that such tasks will lead to marked and reflection, most likely is one of the increases in wisdom-related perform- main factors that can either facilitate or ances, would confirm the notion that hinder the translation of wisdom-relat- wisdom can act as a meta-heuristic that ed knowledge into our actions in every- is conducive to activate those bodies of day life (Kunzmann & Baltes, in press).

139 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Figure 3. Predictors of wisdom- related knowledge. Data are Intelligence (4 scales) based on three studies with ado- e.g. lescent and adult samples. Not logical reasoning Age vocabulary subtest 15% n.s. presented in this figure is our finding that intelligence plays a stronger role as predictor of wis- Personality-intelligence Life experience dom-related knowledge in ado- interface (17 scales) 35% Wisdom- 26% e.g. e.g. related lescence than in adulthood performance general life experience (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). creativity cognitive style specific professional experience Personality (12 scales) 21% e.g. openness to experience personal growth

Note. Unique predictive variances in descending order of magnitude: personality-intelligence interface, life experience, personality, intelligence.

In the long run, our goal is to move ship between the theories of wisdom toward a more comprehensive concep- and the theory of selective optimization tualization of wisdom that highlights its with compensation (SOC). In this con- special strength, namely, the integra- text, we argue that, whereas wisdom tion of mind and virtue as the opti- defines the general range of acceptable mum of human functioning (Baltes, means and goals, SOC offers the prag- Glück, & Kunzmann, in press). This work matic techniques necessary to reach permits us also to spell out the relation- whatever goals are delineated.

The Center for Lifespan Psychology 2000

Left to right: (front row) Alexandra M. Freund, Albina Bondar, Judith Glück, Li Shu-Chen; (middle row) Ute Kunzmann, Kurt Kreppner, Jutta Heckhausen, Michaela Riediger, Jacqui Smith, Antje Stange, Paul B. Baltes; (back row) Tania Singer, Ralf Krampe, Susanne Ehrhorn, Regina Wolf, Julia Delius, Paolo Ghisletta, Florian Schmiedek, Michael Rapp.

140 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Research Project 3 Scientific Investigators Personal Goals in Lifespan Development Alexandra M. Freund Paul B. Baltes The purpose of this project is the investigation of cogni- Bettina S. Wiese tive-motivational processes regulating human develop- (postdoctoral fellow, ment across the life span. To investigate these issues, the until 1999) meta-model of selection, optimization, and compensa- Michaela Riediger (predoctoral fellow) tion (SOC) is adopted as a theoretical framework. In the SOC meta-model, successful development, defined as simultaneous maximization of gains and minimization of losses over time, results from an interplay of three processes: selection, optimization, and compensation (Baltes, 1997; Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999; Marsiske, Lang, Baltes, & Baltes, 1995). The project focuses on the action- questionnaire, study participants are theoretical study of SOC-related pro- asked to indicate whether they engage cesses in the structure and function of in behaviors that we categorize as se- personal goals (Freund & Baltes, 2000). lection, optimization, and compensation In this line of inquiry, we assume that or in alternative, that is, non-SOC be- people actively shape their development haviors. Such alternatives are, for in- through (1) the selection of personal stance, keeping one’s options open goals, (2) the optimization of function- rather than committing to a set of goals ing in selected goal domains, and (3) (selection), being content with results of the compensation of losses in goal rele- first trials rather than trying to maxi- vant means. mize one’s performance (optimization), We have investigated the role of or waiting for solutions and betterment personal goals for life management in of a loss situation rather than engaging several studies. For purposes of illustra- in compensatory behaviors. Table 1 lists tion and the use of varying methodolo- sample items for each of the processes. gy, we highlight three different kinds The psychometric properties of this of approaches: (1) a self-report questionnaire are highly satisfactory. method, (2) a proverb method, and (3) One finding consistent with our lifespan process-oriented approaches. framework is that it is during midlife, (1) Self-report measure of SOC individuals express the strongest prefe- One methodological line of inquiry fo- rence for SOC-related behaviors (see cuses on what people report about their Fig. 1). Older adults report less engage- SOC-related behaviors. For this purpose, ment in the strategies of goal pursuit. and together with the FU Berlin re- We interpret this decline of self-repor- search group of the late Margret Baltes, ted optimization and compensation as we constructed a questionnaire (Baltes, being due to an age-associated limita- Baltes, Freund, & Lang, 1999). In this tion of resources that constrain the im-

141 Center for Lifespan Psychology plementation of goal-pursuit strategies. Table 1 This is so because engaging in strategies Sample items for elective selection, loss-based selection, of goal pursuit itself is effortful and re- optimization, and compensation (Baltes, Baltes, Freund, & quires more resources than might be Lang, 1999). Items in right column indicate alternative available in old age. Future studies need (non-SOC) behaviors to investigate the role of resources for 1a. Elective Selection the acquisition and implementation of I always focus on the most important I am always working on several goals goal-related life-management strategies goal at a given time. at once. more directly. I have set my goals clearly and stick to I often adapt my goals to small A second pattern of findings demon- them. changes. strates substantial predictive validity of 1b. Loss-Based Selection SOC involving a variety of life out- When I can't carry on as I used to, I di- When I can't carry on as I used to, I direct my attention to my most impor- rect my attention, like usual, to all my comes, even after controlling for a large tant goal. goals. number of alternative predictors. When something becomes increasingly When something becomes increasingly Table 2 summarizes some of these find- difficult for me, I consider which goals difficult for me, I accept it. ings. Note that these results are based I could achieve under the circum- on samples varying in age and on diffe- stances. rent outcome criteria (Freund & Baltes, 2. Optimization I make every effort to achieve a given I prefer to wait for a while and see if 1998, 2000; Wiese, Freund, & Baltes, goal. things will work out by themselves. 2000). People who report to engage in When I want to get ahead, I take a When I want to get ahead, only I my- selection, optimization, and compensa- successful person as a model. self know the best way to do it. tion of personal goals also report higher 3. Compensation well-being (e.g., frequency of experi- When things don't go as well as they When things don't go as well as they encing positive emotions, having a pur- used to, I keep trying other ways until I used to, I accept it. can achieve the same result I used to. pose in life, life satisfaction). Commit- When something in my life isn't work- When something in my life isn't work- ting to personal goals, pursuing these ing as well as it used to, I ask others ing as well as it used to, I decide what goals and investing into their mainte- for help or advice. to do about it myself, without involv- nance in the face of losses appears to ing other people. contribute to positive subjective states across adulthood. Similarly, young adults who set clear priorities instead of

Middle-aged adults report more SOC-related behavior than younger and older adults. There is one exception: elective selection increases throughout adulthood

54 Compen- Optimi- Loss-based Elective sation zation selection selection 53 52 51 50 Figure 1. Life management strategies of SOC: Cross-sectional age differ- 49 ences in adulthood (N = 181) (Freund & Baltes, 2000). SOC (T scores) SOC (T 48 47 46 Age x SOC-component: F (6,352) = 6.01, p = .000, Eta2 = .06 45 Younger Middle Older (18–43 years) (43–67 years) (67–89 years)

142 Center for Lifespan Psychology pursuing work- and family/partnership- Table 2 related goals at the same time report Overview: SOC (self-report) predicts successful more goal progress, now and three years development (outcomes) later. (2) Proverb method To check on Outcome SOC prediction (correlation) method artifacts and provide multi-me- Berlin Aging Study (72–102 yrs.; N = 200) (Freund & Baltes, 1998) thod evidence, we explored evidence Satisfaction with age .33** about goals and SOC-related behaviors Positive emotions .47** gathered with a rather different metho- Emotional loneliness -.31** dology, namely the use of proverbs. We Adulthood and Well-Being (14–89 yrs.; N = 395) (Freund & Baltes, 2000a) argued that if personal goals are impor- Positive emotions .32** tant for development, there should also Environmental mastery .35** be some implicit folk knowledge about Personal growth .37** Purpose in life .44** this fact. Proverbs can be considered as condensed forms of folk knowledge re- Work and Family in Young Adulthood (25–36 yrs.; N = 206) flecting cultural knowledge about fun- (Wiese, Freund, & Baltes, 2000) damental aspects of life. Often, proverbs Overall well-being .49** Emotional balance .37** are expected to give advice about how Self-esteem .21** to manage one’s life. Are there proverbs reflecting the importance of selecting, ** p < .01. pursuing, and maintaining personal goals for life management? The results were strongly supportive of our hypothesis. Using comprehensive Preference scores collections of German proverbs as sour- Selection Optimization Compensation ces, we were able to identify a substan- 0.9 tial number of proverbs reflecting the importance of personal goals in terms 0.8 of selection, optimization, and compen- 0.7 sation. This can be seen as evidence for cultural knowledge about the role of 0.6 personal goals for managing one‘s life. 0.5 no Moreover, individuals also make use preference of these proverbs. We presented indivi- 0.4 duals with life problems and asked them to identify proverbs that would match 0.3 these situations. The proverbs they 0.2 could select were either SOC-related or not. The contrasted proverbs did not 0.1 differ in other characteristics, such as 0 familiarity. In several studies, we found Young adults Older adults that adolescents, young, middle-aged, (n = 99, 19–32 years) (n = 96, 59–85 years) and old adults judged proverbs reflec- Figure 2. Young and old adults choose SOC-related proverbs more often as adapting selection, optimization, and com- tive in dealing with life problems than alternative (non-SOC) but equally familiar pensation to be more adaptive in the and meaningful proverbs. life-problem situations presented than alternative proverbs (see Fig. 2). Thus, folk knowledge about the role of personal goals is not only reflected in pro-

143 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References verbs but also used by individuals when when aiming at maximum performance Freund, A. M., & judging how to manage one’s life in (Freund, A. M. [2000]. Processes of goal- Baltes, P. B. (1998). Se- terms of proverbs. selection and goal-pursuit in early and lection, optimization, and compensation as (3) Process-oriented studies A late adulthood. Congress of the German strategies of life-man- third line of inquiry aimed at a closer Psychological Association, Jena, Germa- agement: Correlations with subjective indica- measurement of behavioral indicators of ny). Further studies are planned to in- tors of successful aging. selection of goals. In this set of studies, vestigate the role of goal framing for Psychology and Aging, 13, 531–543. we investigate the mechanisms and persistence in personally important go- Freund, A. M., Li, K. Z. functions of setting, pursuing, and als. H., & Baltes, P. B. maintaining personal goals. To give one Taken together and when placed into (1999). Successful development and aging: example for this kind of work, we report the larger conceptual context of the The role of selection, findings from a study investigating the SOC theory, this project highlights the optimization, and com- process of selection as setting goals and importance of personal goals for indi- pensation. In J. Brandt- städter & R. M. Lerner building a goal hierarchy by prioritiz- vidual development across the life span. (Eds.), Action and self ing certain goals over others. Using different approaches to study development: Theory and research through the life The central question of this study how personal goals impact on develop- span (pp. 401–434). was how young adults manage two of mental outcomes (well-being, goal- Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. the central developmental tasks of their related performance), we consistently Wiese, B. S., Freund, age, (a) establishing themselves in their find that selection of goals, optimiza- A. M., & Baltes, P. B. work life and (b) founding a family tion of goal attainment, and compensa- (2000). Selection, optimization, and compen- (Wiese, 2000). As mentioned above, we tion of losses in goal domains help to sation: An action- found that those younger adults who understand how individuals actively related approach to prioritize goals reported higher general shape the direction and level of their work and partnership. Journal of Vocational and domain-specific well-being. One of development. Behavior, 57, 273–300. the processes that might contribute to such results is that prioritized goals lead attention to goal-relevant information, thereby enhancing knowledge useful for achieving the goal and also alerting a person to good opportunities to act upon a goal. Consistent with this assumption, we found that the prioritizing of goals also seems to influence information processing, such as faster recognition and a preference for goal-relevant information. In a set of ongoing studies, we investigate age-differential effects of framing goals either in terms of optimization (i.e., achieving maximum gains) or compensation (i.e., counteracting a loss in goal-relevant means) on persistence. In these studies, we found that younger adults are more motivated and persistent when trying to achieve higher levels of performance than when trying to counteract a loss. Conversely, older adults show higher persistence when engaged in compensation of a loss than

144 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Research Project 4 Scientific Investigators Trends and Profiles of Psychological Aging Jacqui Smith Alexandra M. Freund The opportunity for this project developed in the con- Ute Kunzmann Shu-Chen Li text of the Berlin Aging Study (Mayer & Baltes, 1996; Ulman Lindenberger Baltes & Mayer, 1999; Smith & Baltes, 1999b). Our ef- (until 1999) Tania Singer forts focus on understanding changes in psychological Ursula M. Staudinger functioning in the last years of life (especially the (until 1998) Fourth Age; e.g., Baltes, 1997). Data collected within Julia Delius Paul B. Baltes the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) clarified the health and Paolo Ghisletta social challenges faced by men and women between Judith Glück the ages of 70 to 100+ years. We obtained valuable in- Heiner Maier (until 1998) formation about age-related change in three aspects of (postdoctoral fellows) psychological functioning involved in adaptation (cog- Susanne Ehrhorn nitive ability, personality, and social relationships). BASE Florian Schmiedek is one of the few studies to have a wide range of psy- (predoctoral fellow) chological test data from sufficient numbers of persons aged over 85 years as well as younger comparison groups to enable us to test hypotheses about change during old age and to examine the question whether very old age (the Fourth Age) represents a condition of life that is quali- Psychological Aging from Age 70 to 100+: Central Findings tatively different from young-old age The psychology unit of BASE examined (the Third Age). BASE findings com- three basic domains of functioning: (a) intelligence and cognition, (b) self and plement and extend those reported personality, and (c) social relationships. by researchers from the MacArthur In general, findings in BASE suggest that the amount, onset time, and rate Successful Aging Network as well as of age-related change differs across other large studies of older adults in psychological dimensions (Smith & Baltes, 1999b). In the area of intelli- the USA, England, Sweden, and gence and cognitive functioning, Canada. negative age differences between 70 and 100+ years are substantial (representing a 1.8 SD difference in performance level and 35% of the interindividual variance) and are associated with indicators of biological dete-

145 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Overview of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) www.base-berlin.mpg.de The multidisciplinary Berlin Aging Study (BASE), directed by Paul B. Baltes and Karl Ulrich Mayer, was initiated in 1989 under the sponsorship of the former West Berlin Academy of Sciences and Technology and its Com- mittee on Age and Societal Development. Subsequently, and in connection with the re-establishment of the Key References Prussian Academy, the study came under the auspices of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, As of 2000, the study involves five measurement occasions spaced over 10 years. In addition, subsamples K. U. (Eds.). (1999). The have been recruited for intensive study (e.g., Singer, below). The distinguishing features of BASE include (1) a Berlin Aging Study. Ag- focus on the very old (70–100+ years), (2) a locally representative sample, stratified by age and sex, and (3) a ing from 70 to 100. New broad-based interdisciplinarity (involving two research groups from the Free University of Berlin, Internal York: Cambridge Univer- Medicine and Psychiatry, and two from this Institute, Sociology and Psychology). In addition to discipline-spe- sity Press (552 p.). cific topics, four integrative theoretical orientations guide the study: (1) differential aging, (2) continuity ver- Mayer, K. U., & Baltes, sus discontinuity of aging, (3) range and limits of plasticity and reserve capacity, and (4) aging as a systemic P. B. (Eds.). (1996). Die phenomenon. Berliner Altersstudie. The initial focus of BASE (1990–1993) was to obtain an age by sex stratified heterogeneous sample of 70- Berlin: Akademie-Verlag to 100+-year-olds who completed a 14-session Intensive Protocol (involving detailed measures from the four (672 p.). disciplines). 516 men and women from the western districts of Berlin participated. Four longitudinal follow- Baltes, P. B., & Smith, ups of the survivors from this initial sample involving different amounts of assessment have been completed J. (1997). A systemic- at approximately two-yearly intervals. A single-session multidisciplinary assessment was collected wholistic view of psy- in1993–1994 (N = 361), reduced versions of the Intensive Protocol (six sessions) were collected in the periods chological functioning 1995–1996 (N = 206) and 1997–1998 (N = 132), and a repeat of parts of the Psychology Battery together in very old age: Intro- with multidisciplinary outcome variables in 2000 (e.g., screening for dementia, assessment of well-being: N = duction to a collection of articles from the 90). In addition, we also follow the mortality of the entire BASE sample. Berlin Aging Study. Psy- The initial sample of 516 individuals formed the basis of the cross-sectional analyses reported in a German chology and Aging, 12, monograph first published in 1996 (Mayer & Baltes, 1996), in a featured section of Psychology and Aging 395–409. (1997), and an English monograph published with Cambridge University Press (Baltes & Mayer, 1999). Key Smith, J., & Baltes, P. multidisciplinary findings about the challenges and constraints of old age are summarized on the next page. B. (1999). Trends and Special interests of the Psychology Unit of BASE include: issues of sample selectivity and representativeness, profiles of psychological cognitive aging, subgroup profiles of psychological functioning, the Fourth Age, gender differences, mortality functioning in very old prediction, self-definition, well-being, and models of successful aging such as selective optimization with age. In P. B. Baltes & K. compensation. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study. Ag- ing from 70 to 100 (pp. Graduate Training Program (Graduiertenkolleg) in Psychiatry and 197–226). New York: Psychology of Aging jointly with the Freie Universität Berlin Cambridge University Since 1998, the data bank of BASE offers the primary foundation for a DFG-funded graduate research training Press. program (Graduiertenkolleg). The focus of this Kolleg is on the “Psychiatry and Psychology of Old Age.” Founded by the late Margret M. Baltes, the graduate training program is currently co-directed by psychiatrist Hanfried Helmchen and psychologist Paul B. Baltes. Other key psychologists involved are Ralf Schwarzer (Freie Universität Berlin) and Jacqui Smith. The total number of anticipated doctoral fellows is 25. In 2000, the program included 15 fellows. www.fu-berlin.de/age rioration (Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997; latter finding is in line with the nega- Lindenberger & Reischies, 1999). In con- tive implications for very old age (the trast, age-related differences in person- Fourth Age) derived from an overall ality, self-related beliefs, and social re- metatheory about the incomplete archi- lationships are fewer and considerably tecture of ontogeny (Baltes, 1997). smaller (approximately 0.5 SD; Smith & Baltes, 1999b). Interindividual differ- Intellectual Functioning ences are substantial in all areas of Up to age 80, previous research has functioning, reflecting the combined in- shown that performance on two broad fluences of biogenetic factors and life- categories of intellectual abilities, the history experiences. BASE findings also fluid-like mechanics and crystallized indicate that, among the oldest-old pragmatics of intelligence, exhibit dif- (over 85 years), a large number of indi- ferent patterns of maintenance and de- viduals show decline or dysfunction in cline. The fluid mechanics, thought to multiple areas of psychological func- reflect the neurophysiological architec- tioning and that these losses contribute ture of the human brain, display in- to decreased subjective well-being. This stances of decline already in middle

146 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Beliefs about Old Age: Key Multidisciplinary Findings from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE)* 1. The majority of older people fer significantly across the BASE 14. Most older people are no 21. The number of social part- are prescribed too many drugs— age groups. longer able to learn new things ners decreases with old age— False —False True Although 92% of older adults 8. Most persons aged 70+ have Despite memory decline, older 70- to 74-year-olds named 12.7 take at least one drug, under- serious impairments in cogni- people are capable of learning persons for their social network, medication was found in 24% of tive functioning—False new things even into very old whereas those aged 95+ only cases. Quality and not quantity 17% of older persons exhibit age. nominated 6.6. is clearly the main problem of some form of pathological cog- medical treatment in old age. nitive impairment and 14% are 15. A good education and chal- 22. Most of those aged 95+ are affected by dementia. However, lenging job are protective institutionalized—False 2. Most older people have at there is a general decline in in- against age-related intellectual 37% of West Berliners aged 95+ least one illness—True tellectual functioning. decline—False live in a nursing home. From a medical perspective, The rate of intellectual decline nearly all older persons can in- 9. About half of those aged 90+ (from 70 years onwards) for in- 23. Children are the main care- deed be diagnosed as having at exhibit dementia—True dividuals with an above-average givers of older persons who live least one illness. However, life- The prevalence of dementia in- education, socially prestigious in private households—False threatening illnesses were ob- creases steeply with age. No professions, and higher incomes Only 54% of those in need of served only one third of cases. cases were diagnosed in the 70- is virtually equal to that of assistance had children in Berlin. to 74-year-olds, but 43% of those with below-average re- Of these, 8% received regular 3. Most older people report that persons aged 90+ were affected sources. household assistance or nursing their health is poor—False by some level of dementia. care from their children. Prime 29% of BASE participants rated 16. Most older people believe sources of regular care and as- their somatic health as good or 10. Most older people receive that they can no longer control sistance were spouses and pro- very good, 38% as satisactory, too many psychotropic drugs— what happens in their life—False fessional community/ nursing and only 33% as fair (19%) or False 70% of BASE participants stated services. poor (14%). Two thirds of older adults take that they felt in control of their psychotropic drugs. Overdosage lives. 24. People who were more so- 4. Older women live longer and was not detected. Undermedica- cially active in their youth par- therefore have fewer illnesses tion was found in 36% of cases, 17. Only very few older persons ticipate more in social life in old than men—False and in a surprising 44% of per- still have life goals—False age—True Although women have a longer sons with depression. 94% of BASE participants de- There was a positive association life expectancy, as a group their scribed scenarios for the future between the former and current profile of illnesses is not really 11. Everyday life for older adults covering a broad range of life levels of social activities re- very different from that of men consists mainly of passive activi- domains and goals. ported. of the same age. ty and rest—False Reconstruction of a typical day 18. Older adults live mainly in 25. The poor are more ill in old 5. The majority of very old for BASE participants shows that the past—False age, the rich healthier—False women need help to bathe or on average only 19% of waking 40% of participants reported There were few differences in shower—True hours were spent resting. In the thinking mostly about the pres- physical or mental health asso- 60% of women aged 85+ re- 70 to 84 age group it was only ent, 30% about the past, and ciated with social class or finan- ported needing assistance to 12%. 25% about the future. cial situation. bathe or shower compared to only 32% of men in this age 12. Older people are preoccupied 19. Most older people have a 26. Women who were house- group. with death and dying—False confidant with whom they can wives are worse off in old age Of ten life domains, 70% of talk about difficult problems— than women who were in paid 6. Most biochemical reference BASE participants reported that False employment—False values do not change in old age— the well-being of family and rel- Almost half of the BASE partici- The duration of employment of True atives occupied their houghts pants said that they had nobody the married and widowed BASE There were few significant age- and actions to a large degree. with whom they could discuss women was not related to related deviations from the ref- Only 30% claimed to think a lot personal problems. household financial status in old erence ranges valid for younger about death and dying. age. adults on the broad range of 20. In West Berlin many older biochemical analyses of blood 13. Memory gets worse with adults are poor—False age—True parameters in BASE. Old age is not associated with * Mayer, Baltes, Baltes, Borchelt, Sizeable negative correlations large financial disadvantages. Delius, Helmchen, Linden, 7. Depressive disorders become were found between age and However, financial needs can Smith, Staudinger, Steinhagen- more frequent in old age—False performance in memory tests. rise disproportionately in very Thiessen, & Wagner (1999). The prevalence of clinically di- old age, e.g., when help is need- agnosed depression did not dif- ed due to frailty and disability.

147 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References adulthood (30–50 years) and exhibit ro- ing was assessed using a computerized (cont’d) bust and more general decline in old battery of 14 subtests covering five Baltes, P. B., & age. In contrast, the crystallized prag- abilities (perceptual speed, memory, rea- Lindenberger, U. (1997). Emergence of a power- matics, understood as the culture- and soning, fluency, and knowledge). As in- ful connection between knowledge-based software of the the dicated by the scatterplots in Figure 1, sensory and cognitive functions across the mind, generally shows a relatively stable individuals in old age continue to dif- adult life span: A new development pattern at least into the fer in their level of cognitive per- window to the study of cognitive aging? Psy- 60s and 70s. formance at all ages. chology and Aging, 12, Contrary to this differential pattern There are several findings that are 12–21. obtained for middle and young-old age, helpful in understanding the pervasive Lindenberger, U., & BASE findings regarding the age range decline in intellectual efficacy obtained. Baltes, P. B. (1997). In- tellectual functioning in from 70 to 100 suggest general rather All point to the relative increase in the old and very old age: than dimension-specific age trends in role that biological-genetic factors play Cross-sectional results from the Berlin Aging the mechanics and the pragmatics of in advanced old age. Study. Psychology and intelligence (Lindenberger & Baltes, First, dissertation research by Tania Aging, 12, 410–432. 1997; see Fig. 1). Intellectual function- Singer (2000) on a subsample of the Lindenberger, U., & Reischies, F. M. oldest-old participating in BASE demon- (1999). Limits and strated that the quantity and quality of Age-related and individual differences in potentials of intel- cognitive plasticity shows a sizeable loss lectual functioning intellectual functioning from 70 to 100+ in old age. In P. B. in old age. Using a cognitive training Baltes & K. U. paradigm and instruction in a memory Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study. technique (the Method of Loci), the 70- Aging from 70 to to 100-year-olds evinced little potential 100 (pp. 329–359). r = –.59 New York: Cam- for new learning. bridge University Second, Lindenberger and Baltes Press. (1997) showed that individual differ- Singer, T. (2000). Testing the limits ences in advanced old age are closely of memory skill: An connected with biological indicators investigation of r = –.51 cognitive plasticity of function, such as vision, hearing, in very old age. and gait/balance. They also showed Doctoral disserta- that these factors become dominant in tion, Freie Univer- sität Berlin. that category of the mind, that is crys- r = –.49 tallized pragmatics, where in adulthood socio-environmental and learning factors are the predominant explanatory conditions. In the same vein, the 70- to 100-year cross-sectional age gradients r = –.41 of intellectual abilities did not differ for persons above or below the mean on life-history variables, such as education, prestige, social class, or income. Figure 1. Negative While these findings await further cross-sectional age testing with longitudinal data, their gradients (70–100+ years) for five intel- r = –.46 pattern is consistent with the lifespan lectual abilities. Each architecture and the dual-process model ability is assessed by Fluency Knowledge Memory Reasoning Perceptual speed of intelligence (i.e., fluid mechanics and several subtests (Lin- crystallized pragmatics) outlined by denberger & Baltes, 1997). 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 Baltes (1997). When it comes to the Age in years "hardware-like" mechanics and the

148 Center for Lifespan Psychology

speedy and accurate functioning of ba- ence the process of dealing with life Key References sic mechanisms of information process- problems: for example, an interest in (cont’d) ing, old age takes its toll. Constraints being with others (extraversion), open- Kunzmann, U., Little, T. D., & Smith, J. (in and losses associated with the mechan- ness to new ideas and experiences press). Perceiving con- ics of intelligence are closely linked to (openness), frequent experience of posi- trol: A double-edged sword in old age. Jour- biological and physical indicators of tive emotions (positive affect), and a nals of Gerontology: Psy- functioning. Conversely, whereas the feeling of being in control of one's life chological Sciences. lifelong contributions of life history and (internal control). Psychologically less Kunzmann, U., Little, T. D., & Smith, J. cultural factors to the pragmatics of in- desirable characteristics are those (2000). Is age-related telligence continue to provide an ad- which are known to signal elements of stability of subjective vantage in terms of absolute level of dysfunctionality, such as neuroticism, well-being a paradox? Cross-sectional and lon- functioning, they do not appear to pro- negative affect, and the belief that gitudinal evidence from tect against the rate of decline and loss one's life is controlled by others (exter- the Berlin Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, of intellectual capacity. In old age, the nal control). Although the age correla- 15, 511–526. compensatory role of culture and cul- tions found in BASE for these dimen- Smith, J., Fleeson, W., ture-based resources becomes less effi- sions were relatively small and mean Geiselmann, B., Setter- sten, R. A., & Kunz- cient. differences amounted to less than 0.5 mann, U. (1999). SD, the trends were nevertheless in line Sources of well-being in very old age. In P. B. Personality, Self, and Well-Being in with the stereotypical expectations Baltes & K. U. Mayer Old Age (Smith & Baltes, 1999b; see Fig. 2). (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Stereotypes of old age suggest that As a whole, these trends toward in- Study. Aging from 70 to de- 100 (pp. 450–471). New sirable personality characteristics decreased dysfunction could be interpret- York: Cambridge Univer- crease and less desirable ones in- ed as a type of chronic stress reaction. sity Press. crease in old age. BASE data allowed Such an interpretation would also be Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A. M., Linden, us to examine this. Desirable character- consistent with the architectural M., & Maas, I. (1999). istics were defined as those which re- metatheory outlined by Baltes (1997). In Self, personality, and life regulation: Facets of searchers have found to positively influ- advanced old age, individuals may be psychological resilience in old age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Age differences in personality characteristics Berlin Aging Study. Ag- Desirable characteristics Less-desirable ing from 70 to 100 decline characteristics increase (pp. 302–328). New 3,9 3,9 York: Cambridge Univer- sity Press.

3,4 3,4 Figure 2. Cross-sectional age-gradients in desir- 2,9 2,9 able and less-desirable personality characteristics. Considered together, the small but nega- 2,4 2,4 tive age differences in

desirable characteristic Mean score (5-point scale) (5-point score Mean Mean score (5-point scale) (5-point score Mean and the positive age 1,9 1,9 differences in less- desirable characteristics 70 75 80 85 90 95+ 70 75 80 85 90 95+ Age/cohort group suggest something like Age/cohort group a chronic stress reaction in the self in old age. Internal control External control Such a picture supports Well-being Emotional loneliness theses regarding gener- Extraversion Neuroticism alized loss-related de- Positive affect Negative affect cline (Smith & Baltes, Openness Social loneliness 1999b). Goal investment

149 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Gender differences in psychological functioning: ones: 72% added new hopes about per- 70 to 100+ years sonal projects over a four-year period and 27% added highly elaborated possi- Positive differences in favor of ble self-images (i.e., ideas about the fu- men women ture self that were both positive and Subjective well-being Positive affect negative). The majority of possible Negative affect (low) selves were related to personal charac- Social network size teristics and health issues. Instrumental support received How about general well-being? Instrumental support given Emotional support received Within the cross-sectional BASE sample, Emotional support given Emotional loneliness (low) there was some indication that overall Social loneliness (low) subjective well-being, expected future

Neuroticism (low) life satisfaction, and especially the ex- Extraversion perience of positive emotions including Openness Goals happiness may decrease from age 70 to Internal control 100 (Smith et al., 1999). Subsequent External control (low) analyses of longitudinal data from the Perceptual speed BASE sample have indicated that these Reasoning Fluency small age-related correlations do repre- Memory sent age-related change and that older Knowledge age in association with declining health 54321012345 predicts decreases in positive well-being % of variance explained (Kunzmann, Little, & Smith, 2000; Figure 3. Older men and women in BASE differed on 11 of 21 psychological con- Smith, Maier, & Borchelt, in press). structs examined (e.g., well-being, social support, neuroticism, and intellectual functioning). For 8 constructs differences favored men. The percent of individual difference variance explained by gender was small, but overall this pattern of Gender Differences in Psychologi- findings together with the generally lower social status and greater disability cal Functioning in Old Age levels of women suggests that life quality is lower for older women in very old age (Smith & Baltes, 1998; M. M. Baltes et al., 1999). Are there gender-related differences in psychological functioning in late life pushed to the limits of their adaptive and do these reflect the life contexts psychological capacity (Staudinger et and cumulative life histories of older Key References al., 1999). First longitudinal analyses of men and women? In old age, gender as (cont’d) the BASE data support this conclusion. a variable carries differences in physical Freund, A. M., & Smith, Aspects of the self (e.g., self-defini- frailty and life conditions (e.g., educa- J. (1999). Content and function of the self- tions, future self-scenarios) are expect- tion, marital status, income, types of ill- definition in old and ed also to show differential and age-re- ness) that likely have consequences for very old age. Journals of Gerontology: Psychologi- lated change and to reflect the dynamic psychological functioning. cal Sciences, 54B, interaction between individuals and When we examined this question in 55–63. their environment. In BASE, we found the context of BASE, we indeed found Smith, J., & Baltes, M. M. (1998). The role of small negative age differences in the significant differences between men gender in very old age: content of self-definitions obtained us- and women: On 11 of 21 psychological Profiles of functioning ing the “Who am I” task (Freund & constructs examined, the direction of and everyday life patterns. Psychology and Smith, 1999). Longitudinal analyses of the difference favored men (Smith & Aging, 13, 676–695. hopes and fears about the future self M. M. Baltes, 1998; see Fig. 3). In terms Smith, J., & Freund, revealed that this motivational system of level, these differences represented A. M. (in press). The dynamics of possible selves is intact in old age (Smith & Freund, in less than 0.5 SD and accounted for be- in old age. Journals of press). BASE participants focus more on tween 1% and 8% of the individual dif- Gerontology: Psychologi- cal Sciences. achieving new aspects of hoped-for ferences variance. In comparison, for selves than on maintaining present the same set of variables, 0% to 14% of

150 Center for Lifespan Psychology the variance was age-related. The total Psychological predictors of mortality in old age picture, however, suggests that old age may be a less positive experience for Low intellectual functioning older women than for older men. Low perceptual speed * Low reasoning * Low memory * Does Psychological Functioning Low knowledge * Low fluency * Predict Mortality? Low subjective well-being The psychological literature includes Low positive affect Negative affect ns several proposals suggesting that in old Agitation ns age, lower levels of psychological Dissatisfaction with aging * functioning are associated with immi- Dissatisfaction with life Less-desirable personality nent death. Of course, illness and Neuroticism ns frailty are primary predictors of mortali- Low extraversion ty in old age. However, it is also impor- Low openness Less-desirable social relations tant to know if some dimensions of psy- Emotional loneliness chological functioning (i.e., behavior in- Social loneliness ns Low support ns dicators) are unique predictors. Few close confidants ns The explicit goal of our work in BASE 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 has been to compare the predictive Death risk ratio power of intellectual functioning, subjective well-being, personality charac- Figure 4. At the teristics, and social relationships in rela- Third and a Fourth Age is empirically zero-order level, tion to mortality in very old age (Maier useful. Note in this context that this psychological con- & Smith, 1999; see Fig. 4). Our analyses structs predicted in- distinction while approximated by the creased risks of suggest that the prediction of mortality distinction between 60- and 80-year- death in the BASE in old age may not just be specific to olds is not fixed. In general, for theoret- sample. For example, intellectual functioning, but rather ex- for every 1 SD de- ical reasons (Baltes, 1997), we consider crease in perceptual tends to self-related evaluations of per- the point of discontinuity between speed, the risk of sonal well-being. As a domain, intellec- young-old age and the oldest-old to be death was 2 times tual functioning certainly provided the a moving target. The best approach may higher. 6 of the 11 predictors remained strongest and most robust set of predic- be to use the age at which 50% of the significant (indicated tors. Effects associated with predictors birth cohort have died. Currently, that by *) after control- from the personality, self-related, and would place the age point around 80 ling for age, SES, social domains appear to be more sub- and health (Cox re- years. gression) (Maier & tle. With one exception (dissatisfaction One approach to examine systemic Smith, 1999). with aging), as shown in Figure 4, these and Third versus Fourth Age effects is predictors were only revealed as signifi- to consider a large number of indica- cant risks in analyses that did not first tors. In this vein, Smith and Baltes control for associations between age, (1997; see also Baltes, 1997; Mayer et SES, health, and mortality. al., 1999; Smith & Baltes, 1998) used cluster analysis as an “unbiased” Subgroup Profiles: A Fourth Age? method to identify individuals who psy- The following analyses are generated by chologically were more or less similar to two lines of thinking. One reflects one each other based on their “profile” clus- of the theoretical orientations of BASE, ter membership. These profiles were de- namely a concern with systemic aspects rived from scores on 12 measures of in- of aging. The second is our interest in tellectual, social, and self-related func- examining whether the theoretical tioning. The cluster analysis illustrated proposition to distinguish between a that, even if such multivariable profile

151 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References comparisons were considered, major age of psychological aging, there was con- (cont’d) differences resulted. Of the 9 subgroups siderable overlap in age membership Maier, H., & Smith, J. extracted, 4 reflected different patterns among the 9 subgroups. No subgroup (1999). Psychological predictors of mortality of desirable functioning (47% of the was exclusively associated with one of in old age. Journals of sample) and 5 less desirable functioning the age/cohort groups in the BASE Gerontology: Psycholo- gical Sciences, 54B, (53%; see Fig. 5). study design. Clearly, however, different 44–54. Specifically, among the 70- to 84- proportions of each age group were Smith, J., & Baltes, P. year-olds in BASE, 70% were included represented in each of the profile sub- B. (1997). Profiles of psychological function- in the high functional status (desirabili- groups (see Fig. 5). ing in the old and oldest ty) groups. Among individuals over 85 These are dramatic age and gender old. Psychology and Ag- years, only 25% were in the desirable differences in risk ratios. While longitu- ing, 12, 458–472. groups and 75% in the less desirable dinal analyses need to be conducted to groups. The relative risk of membership substantiate this pattern of results, the in the less desirable profile groups was central outcome is unlikely to change. 2.5 times higher for the oldest-old than The oldest-old are at a much higher risk for the 70- to 84-year-olds. Women for dysfunctionality than the young-old. were more prevalent in the less func- Psychologically speaking, advanced tional profile groups. The relative risk old age appears to be a situation of for women was 1.25 compared to men. great challenge and a period charac- Whereas 53% of the men in BASE were terized by chronic stress. Advanced old members of desirable profile groups, age, the Fourth Age, is a kind of test- only 41% of the women were. These ing-the-limits situation for psychologi- risks remain if individuals with diag- cal resilience. noses of dementia were excluded from Indeed, subsequent analyses have the analyses. shown that there are considerable sub- At the same time, and these findings group differences in the likelihood of speak to the continuing heterogeneity survival over a six-year period after baseline assessment. Individuals in the Age distribution in 9 profile subgroups ranked desirable clusters lived significantly from 1 (high) to 9 (low) for desirability (functional status) longer than individuals in the less desirable clusters. The odds of death signifi- 100 9 cantly increased by a factor of 2.3 with 90 8 membership in a less desirable profile 80 7 group (Smith & Baltes, in prep.). A 70 unique effect for cluster categorization 60 6 5 remained after controls were added to 50 4 the analysis for age, gender, physical Percent 40 3 30 health, and functional capacity. The sur- 20 2 vival differential based on cluster mem- 10 1 bership was seen for people aged 70 to 0 84 years as well as over 85 years. 70 75 80 85 90 95+ Among individuals over 85 years (where Age/cohort group fewer than 50% survived longer than 6 years), the finding is highly significant: Figure 5. Cluster analysis of 12 psychological constructs suggested 9 subgroups in BASE characterized by different profiles of functioning that were ranked from On average individuals over 85 years in 1 (high) to 9 (low) for desirability (functional status). The finding that 70% of the desirable clusters lived about 2 people aged 70 to 84 belonged to subgroups with desirable profiles (1–4) com- years longer than individuals in the less pared with only 25% of the oldest-old, supported proposals that it is possible to desirable clusters. distinguish a Third and a Fourth Age in terms of psychological functioning (Smith & Baltes, 1997).

152 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Scientific Research Project 5 Investigators Regulating Development by Controlling the Jutta Heckhausen (until 2000) Environment and the Self Carsten Wrosch (postdoctoral fellow, In general conceptual agreement with the theoretical until 1999) orientation of viewing successful lifespan development Regina Wolf (predoctoral fellow) as the result of processes of selection, optimization, and compensation, Jutta Heckhausen (in collaboration with Key References Richard Schulz, University of Pittsburgh) elaborated a Heckhausen, J. (1999). Developmental regula- theory of successful development that took research and tion in adulthood: Age- normative and socio- theory of the psychology of control as a starting point. structural constraints as adaptive challenges. In this vein, she argues that most individuals try to take New York: Cambridge University Press (250 p.). charge of their development, and attempt to influence transitions and the course of change in their lives. The way they do this is by striving to control important events and changes in their immediate environment in the workplace, the family, and other important venues of everyday life. One important component in this striving for control is to control oneself, one’s emotions, one’s goals and motivations, one’s hopefulness and Heckhausen, J. & Schulz, R. (1993). Opti- energy to act. misation by selection and compensation: Bal- These two aspects of control, con- lective with regard to the goals pursued. ancing primary and sec- trolling the environment and controlling Moreover, such goal selections and the ondary control in lifespan development. In- the self, are the key elements of the inevitable losses encountered through- ternational Journal of lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen, out life and particularly in old age re- Behavioral Development, 16, 287–303. 1999; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1993, quire mechanisms, which compensate Heckhausen, J., & 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996, for the negative effects of failure on Schulz, R. (1995). A life- 1997). This theory addresses basic moti- motivational resources. span theory of control. Psychological Review, vational phenomena and their implica- Both these basic challenges are mas- 102, 284–304. tions for development throughout the tered by the use of two types of con- Heckhausen, J., Fleeson, life span. The fundamental assumption trol strategies. Primary control strate- W., & Wrosch, C., (in is that individuals at different ages, and gies address the external world and rep- press). Developmental regulation before and under different socio-economical and resent attempts to control effects in the after a developmental historical conditions need to master two environment. Secondary control strate- deadline: The sample case of “biological fundamental challenges of developmen- gies, by contrast, target the internal clock” for child-bearing. tal regulation: selectivity and failure world of the individual and represent Psychology and Aging. compensation. Human development attempts to protect motivational re- and behavior in general needs to be se- sources and emotional balance (hope-

153 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Figure 1. Action-phase Rubicon Action/developmental deadline model of developmental regulation.

Goal selection Action without Action under Post-actional time constraint time constraint phase after failure

optimized goal goal engagement: intensified goal protect and spare choice based on: engagement: motivational resources: age-graded investing primary selective and com- goal disengagement opportunities control resources pensatory primary and self-protection control by compensatory long-term conse- volitional commit- secondary control quences ment by selective intensified selec- secondary control tive secondary consequences control for other goals

Key References fulness, positive self-regard). The life- external factors). (cont’d) span theory of control proposes that In successful development, these Schulz, R., & Heck- both types of control strategies ulti- control strategies of goal engagement hausen, J. (1996). A life-span model of suc- mately serve the function to promote and of goal disengagement are acti- cessful aging. American the long-term potential of primary con- vated in accordance with the actual Psychologist, 51, 702–- 714. trol across the life span. The general re- chances to attain goals. Thus, goal en- Schulz, R., & Heck- search strategy in this project is the in- gagement is intensified when opportu- hausen, J. (1997). Emo- vestigation of individuals’ attempts to nities are favorable, and goal disen- tions and control: A lifespan perspective. In regulate their own development as a gagement takes place when opportuni- K. W. Schaie & M. P. function of relevant constraints and ties have vanished (e.g., “biological Lawton (Eds.), Annual challenges in the biological (including clock” for childbearing). In particular, review of gerontology and geriatrics (Vol. 17, aging and health-related) and social we have studied developmental transi- pp. 185–205). New York: (including sociostructural, cultural, his- tions, when the indivduals undergoing Springer. torical) context. these transitions knew in advance that Wrosch, C., & Heck- hausen, J. (1999). Con- We study three kinds of control their opportunities for reaching certain trol processes before processes, which serve to promote the important goals in life (e.g., find a long- and after passing a developmental deadline: engagement for a particular life goal term partnership, bear a child) would Activation and deactiva- (e.g., bearing a child, establishing a ca- become severely impoverished after tion of intimate relationship goals. Journal reer): Selective primary (invest resources passing a certain deadline. Such chal- of Personality and Social in primary goal attainment), compensa- lenges for appropriate timing of goal Psychology, 77, 415–427. tory primary (involving external assis- engagement and disengagement are not tance), and selective secondary (motiva- uncommon in development, since we all tional focusing on selected goal striv- are undergoing radical changes in phys- ing). In contrast to the control processes iology and in social roles across the life of goal engagement, processes of com- span. pensatory secondary control help the Thus, transitions around develop- individual to disengage from a goal mental deadlines are highly active (e.g., by finding disadvantages of the phases of developmental regulation. De- goal) that is or has become unattain- velopmental deadlines are characterized able and protect the individual from the by age-graded changes in opportunity motivational-emotional costs of failure structures and require controlled shifts or losses (e.g., by attributing failure to between a primarily primary control-

154 Center for Lifespan Psychology oriented mode of goal engagement to a mental regulation during the transition mode of goal disengagement dominated from school to vocational training. by compensatory secondary control. During the tenth grade of high school Four types of deadlines were ad- (German Realschule) applying for and dressed. First, we investigated the de- attaining a position for an apprentice- velopmental deadline associated with ship is an urgent task that typically childbirth for women in their thirties should be completed before the adoles- (Heckhausen, Fleeson, & Wrosch, in cents’ graduation from school. However, press). The findings suggest that women the economic crisis has rendered this before compared to women after the transition into vocational training a deadline hold different mind-sets with highly challenging one, since many ado- regard to the topic of childbearing and lescents fail to find a position. Develop- upbringing. Pre-deadline women were mental regulation during this important more engaged with childbearing goals, life-course transition thus requires a and reported to use goal engagement skillful orchestration of primary control control strategies. Post-deadline women striving, goal adjustment in terms of as- were more focused on other goals (e.g., pirations for high status vocations, and work, friends, self) and used more com- self-protection to avoid motivational pensatory secondary control strategies depletion. to distance themselves from family- Finally, in a collaborative study with related goals. These motivational mind- Richard Schulz (University of Pittsburgh) sets can be empirically demonstrated the relationship between depression not only at the level of explicit control and health-related engagement ver- strategies but also in terms of biased sus disengagement was studied in older information processing. adults who faced either chronic or A second study addressed another acute health stress. The findings showed type of deadline-ridden developmental that older adults who face chronic dis- task, partnership and separation eases reported reduced depression if (Wrosch & Heckhausen, 1999). In this they disengaged from health goals. In study, recently committed and separat- contrast, older adults confronted with ed individuals were compared at two acute health stress benefited from en- age levels, early adulthood and late gagement in health goals. Based on this midlife. The contrasting opportunity and study, collaborative work is continued goal structures of the subjects in the that addresses possible interventions to different groups were found to be re- optimize motivation and control flected in the preferred strategies of processes in depressed elderly to facili- control in this domain (goal engage- tate their mental health. (As of 2001, ment vs. goal disengagement control Jutta Heckhausen is full professor of strategies), and in differential incidental psychology at the University of Califor- memory for positive versus negative as- nia, Irvine.) pects of partnerships. In addition, a 15- month longitudinal follow-up revealed that deadline-consistent compared to deadline-inconsistent control strategies predicted greater psychological well- being. A study currently underway and funded by the German Research Foun- dation addresses adolescents’ develop-

155 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Research Project 6 Parent-Adolescent Relationships: Family and Differential Perspectives We must begin to An important assumption underlying our research identify individuals, on successful development is that development is a couples, and families, who are more dynamic process of both reacting to and proactive- likely than others to ly shaping one's environment as well as oneself. have difficulty in Relevant developmental environments involve both coping with transi- tional change. institutional structures (e.g., educational system, (Cowan, 1991, p. 19) labor market) and specific social systems, such as the family. The importance of mutual adaptation and dynamic interaction is apparent in the family where not only Scientific the individual member (e.g., the adolescent) develops, but Investigators the other family members and the family system as a whole Kurt Kreppner change in a coordinated manner. Manuela Ullrich The following project exemplifies this perspective in (predoctoral fel- the context of parent-adolescent development. A total of low, until 1999) 67 families with two or more children were studied longi- tudinally over three-and-a-half years in eight waves. Among other measures, interactions between parents and their children were videotaped (Kreppner, 1996, 2000).

From Childhood to Adolescence in the Family When children run through major devel- child and, under a more holistic per- opmental transitions, parents have to spective, the role of the relational con- pay special attention to their offspring's text of the entire family has become a physical and psychological changes. major focus in developmental research New needs emerge and have to be sat- for the analysis of differential develop- isfied, and new skills and competencies mental pathways. Such differences of- in the child may challenge the parental tentimes were traced back to various routines to handle everyday life. During social backgrounds, parental education- these developmental transitions, the real styles, personal history, or family lationship between parents and the structure, but it remained unclear, how child has to be adapted to the child's a child is experiencing his or her proxi- new developmental level. The role of re- mal environment and the relational lationships between parents and the conditions inside the family. The mode

156 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Key References and quality of communication inside were included in the study. One source Kreppner, K. (2000). the family by which the relationship consisted in adolescents' self-reports Entwicklung von Eltern- between parents and children can be about relationship quality inside the Kind-Beziehungen: Nor- mative Aspekte im renegotiated during critical transition family, such as everyday dependability Rahmen der Familien- periods has become an important indi- and ambivalence, another included entwicklung. In K. A. Schneewind (Ed.), Fami- cator for the essential condition that well-being and various aspects of self- lienpsychologie im Auf- fosters or impedes the family's coping esteem, and still another source encom- wind (pp. 174–195). Göttingen: Hogrefe. with stress associated with the child's passed concrete communication behav- Kreppner, K. (1996). development. Transition from childhood ior between family members, including Kommunikationsverhal- to adolescence is a unique period in an not only parent-child dyads but also ten zwischen Eltern und ihren jugendlichen Kin- individual's life where major changes in parent-parent and sibling-sibling dyads. dern und der Zusam- both body and ego development occur. Naturalistic and semi-structured obser- menhang mit Indika- One major goal of this vations (on videotape) provided a rich toren des Selbstwert- longitudinal gefühls. Praxis der study was the exploration of differ- record of the families' patterns of inter- Kinderpsychologie und ences in communication patterns action and communication. Kinderpsychiatrie, 45, 130–147. within the family, as they occur in General trends of changes in com- Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, parent-child as well as in parent-parent munication patterns were found in par- M. (2000, April). Re- or in sibling communications during the ent-adolescent discussions over time. negotiations of family relationships: A compari- transition period. In order to explore di- Communication formats indicating son between well- and vergent types of families and their ways parental modes of talking to the child malfunctioning adolescents and their commu- to deal with children's developmental as a child like "teaching" or "giving at- nication behavior. Eighth changes, various sources of information tention" decreased during the three- Biennial Meeting of and-a-half year peri- the Society for Re- search on Adoles- Change of communication patterns od, whereas frequen- cence, Chicago, IL, Mothers with adolescents over time cies for behaviors like USA. "negotiation" or "ex- Kreppner, K., & Exchange of statements Giving attention Teaching Negotiation Ullrich, M. (1999). change of state- Ablöseprozesse in ments" (signifying Trennungs- und Nicht- 40 Trennungsfamilien: affirmation of one’s Eine Betrachtung von 30 own position) in- Kommunikationsver- halten in Familien mit 20 creased in both Kindern im frühen bis mothers' and fathers’ 10 mittleren Jugendalter. Wave 1 Wave 8 communication In S. Walper & B. Percent of frequencies Waves Schwarz (Eds.), Was modes (Kreppner, wird aus Kindern? 2000; see Fig. 1). Chancen und Risiken für die Entwicklung Change of communication patterns The impact of von Kindern aus Tren- Fathers with adolescents over time parental socialization nungs- und Stief- familien (pp. 91–120). activities varies con- München: Juventa. Exchange of statements Giving attention Teaching Negotiation siderably among families and accord- 40 ing to children's de- 30 velopmental stages. Adolescents' assess- 20 ments of the quality 10 of relationship with Wave 1 Wave 8 Percent of frequencies Waves their parents and self-reports were Figure 1. Changes of communication patterns between mothers and adolescents as well as between fathers and adolescents during the transition period from child- used as a criterion to hood to adolescence: General trends (Kreppner, 2000d). distinguish among

157 Center for Lifespan Psychology

different types of families. Three groups from the ambivalent group (Kreppner, Key References of adolescents were distinguished on 1996). (cont’d) the basis of having provided consistent Another series of data analyses dealt Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. (1998). Talk to mom responses over time on three relation- with differences in communication pat- and dad, and listen to ship scales. These three groups de- terns between mothers and adolescents what is in between. In M. Hofer, P. Noack, & J. scribed adolescents as showing "secure," in divorced and non-divorced families. Youniss (Eds.), Verbal in- "habitual," or "ambivalent" relationships Results indicate that negotiations be- teraction and development in families with with their parents over time. The most tween mothers and their children con- adolescents (pp. 83–- striking changes in family communica- cerning the reorganization of an extant 108). Greenwich, CT: tion were found for groups in which relationship end up more frequently in a Ablex. adolescents had rated the quality of the more egalitarian and partner-oriented relationship with the parents as being communication than this is the case in consistently "secure" or "ambivalent." non-divorced families, where rule- and For example, in the families of "secure" principle-oriented controversial commu- adolescents, fathers' integrative modes nication between mother and adoles- of communication, on the one hand, cent prevail (Kreppner & Ullrich, 1999). and the use of "statements" in discus- Finally, further data analyses cen- sions (exchange of different opinions tered on a comparison between parent- without a common solution) changed first child and parent-second child com- considerably over time. The adolescents munication patterns pointing to a high from the secure group, for their part, degree of family consistency with re- experienced this changes in a climate of emotional closeness. In contrast, in Integrative mode of communication families of "ambivalent" adolescents, Fathers with adolescents over time fathers did not show such time-specific Fathers of secure adolescents variations in discussing different opin- Fathers of ambivalent adolescents ions, and adolescents did not experience a comparable degree of closeness 65 during discussions with their fathers 55 45 (Kreppner & Ullrich, 1998). 35 25 One interpretation of these findings 15 is that fathers of secure adolescents Frequencies 5 Wave 1 Wave 4 Wave 6 Wave 8 very sensitively lead their children to- Waves ward a more "adult" way of discussing controversial issues, they decrease step by step the more child-oriented mode Exchange of statements of integrative communication and in- Fathers with adolescents over time crease slowly the exchange of state- Fathers of secure adolescents ments. In contrast, fathers of ambiva- Fathers of ambivalent adolescents lent adolescents do not show this age sensitive variation in their behavior (see 55 45 Fig. 2). 35 Moreover, when adolescents from 25 the secure and ambivalent group were 15 Frequencies 5 compared, major differences were found Wave 1 Wave 4 Wave 6 Wave 8 in various aspects of self-esteem, point- Waves ing to a continuously higher level of Figure 2. Comparison of development-sensitive with development-insensitive self-esteem in adolescents from the se- communication modes of fathers during their children’s transition period: Trends cure group compared to adolescents for fathers of secure and ambivalent adolescents (Kreppner, 2000b).

158 Center for Lifespan Psychology gard to the creation of high or low terns appropriate to meet their chil- closeness across all family relationships dren's changing demands for more au- (Kreppner & Ullrich, 2000). tonomy and adult formats of communi- In sum, parent-child relationships cation. Research centered on the de- undergo considerable changes during tailed description of differential the passage from childhood to adult- communication modes inside the family hood. Families do not only adapt their may slowly reveal the complexity of present repertoires of communication communication patterns which are typi- skills while dealing with transition prob- cal of families that either successfully lems, but also differ in their flexibility or unsuccessfully master developmental to produce new communication pat- transitions during the life span.

International Encyclopedia of the Scientific Investigators Social and Behavioral Sciences Paul B. Baltes Together with Neil J. Smelser, director of the Center for Julia Delius Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, USA, Paul B. Baltes is the co-editor-in-chief of the new International Encyclopedia of the Behavioral and Social Sciences. It will be published by Elsevier Science Ltd. in Fall 2001 and will comprise 24 volumes. Julia Delius www.iesbs.com serves as Scientific Editorial Assistant. The major administrative tasks lie with the publisher.

Smelser, N. J., & Work on this project began in 1997. ond and final review by the editors-in- Baltes, P. B. (Eds.- Working closely with the two editors- chief, who are assisted by a team of ex- in-chief). (in press). International Ency- in-chief, 51 section editors are respon- perienced readers. clopedia of the So- sible for a wide range of areas (from The authors come from more than cial and Behavioral Sciences. Oxford, UK: evolutionary sciences to the behavioral 50 countries. About 79% are men, 21% Elsevier Science. and social sciences to philosophy, see women. Regarding continents, about Table). Institute co-director Karl Ulrich 57% are North American (more than Mayer is the responsible editor for the 2,000 are from the USA), 35% European section on biographies. (more than 400 are from Germany and More than 90% of the 4,000 antici- the UK, respectively, and over 100 from pated entries have been submitted to France and the Netherlands), and 8% the publisher. They are now either in re- from the other regions of the world view or in the production process. Re- (e.g., more than 50 from Japan, 40 from view involved two stages: a first review Israel, and 25 from India). by the responsible section editor, a sec-

159 Center for Lifespan Psychology

International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences: Basic Plan Neil J. Smelser & Paul B. Baltes (Editors-in-Chief), Elsevier, 2001 Sections, Section Editors, and Planned Number of Articles (January 2001)

History/Theory/Methodology Disciplines Intersecting Fields Applications

1.1 Institutions and 36 3.1 Anthropology 195 1.5 Integrative Concepts 35 3.12 Clinical and Applied 150 Infrastructure U. Hannerz, Sweden and Issues Psychology D. L. Featherman, USA R. Scott & R. M. Lerner, T. Wilson, USA 3.2 Archaeology 51 USA 1.2 History of the Social 91 M. Conkey & P. Kirch, 5.1 Organizational and 88 & Behavioral Sciences USA 4.1 Evolutionary Sciences 67 Management Studies P. Wagner, Italy W. Durham & A. Martinelli, Italy 3.3 Demography 129 M. W. Feldman, USA 1.3 Ethics of Research 45 J. Hoem, Sweden 5.2 Media and 86 and Applications 3.4 Economics 95 4.2 Genetics, Behavior, 57 Commercial Appli- R. McC. Adams, USA, & O. Ashenfelter, USA and Society cations J. Mittelstraß, Germany M. W. Feldman, USA, & M. Schudson, USA 3.5 Education 134 R. Wehner, Switzerland 1.4 Biographies 150 F. E. Weinert, Germany 5.3 Urban Studies and 80 K. U. Mayer, Germany 4.3 Behavioral and 219 Planning 3.6 Geography 130 E. Birch, USA 2.1 Statistics 134 Cognitive Neuroscience S. Hanson, USA R. F. Thompson & S. Fienberg & 5.4 Public Policy 91 J. B. Kadane, USA 3.7 History 156 J. L. McClelland, USA K. Prewitt & J. Kocka, Germany I. Katznelson, USA 2.2 Mathematics and 139 4.4 Psychiatry 80 M. Sabshin, USA, & Computer Sciences 3.8 Law 165 5.5 Modern Cultural 55 F. Holsboer, Germany A. A. J. Marley, Canada M. Galanter & Concerns (Essays) L. Edelman, USA R. A. Shweder, USA 2.3 Logic of Inquiry and 86 4.5 Health 148 R. Schwarzer, Germany, Research Design 3.9 Linguistics 129 T. Cook & C. Ragin, USA B. Comrie, Germany & J. House, USA 4.10 Science and 73 3.10 Philosophy 102 4.6 Gender Studies 78 P. England, USA Technology Studies P. Pettit, Australia, & S. Jasanoff, USA A. Honneth, Germany 4.7 Religious Studies 54 3.11 Political Science 192 D. Martin, UK N. W. Polsby, USA 4.8 Expressive Forms 33 3.13 Cognitive Psychology 182 W. Griswold, USA & Cognitive Science 4.9 Environmental/ 75 W. Kintsch, USA Ecological Sciences 3.14 Developmental, 174 B. L. Turner II, USA Social, Personality, 4.11 Area and 137 & Motivational International Studies Psychology M. Byrne McDonnell & N. Eisenberg, USA C. Calhoun, USA 3.15 Sociology 204 R. Boudon, France

Note. Encyclopedia will be arranged alphabetically by titles of articles.

160 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Publications 1998–2000

Antonucci, T. C. Lansford, J. E. – (2000d). Der unfertige (1999). The measurement of se- Baltes, P. B., & Singer, T. Schaberg, L., Smith, J., Baltes, Mensch. Der Spiegel, 46, 176–- lection, optimization, and com- (2001). Plasticity and the aging M. M., Akiyama, H., Fuhrer, R., & 179. pensation (SOC) by self report: mind: An exemplar of the Dartigues, J.-F. (in press). Wid- – (1999a). Alter und Altern als Technical report 1999. Berlin: biocultural orchestration of owhood, financial strain, and ill- unvollendete Architektur der Max Planck Institute for Human brain and behavior. European ness: A comparison of social Humanontogenese. Nova Acta Development (Materialien aus Review, 9. network characteristics in Leopoldina, 81, 379–403. der Bildungsforschung, Vol. 66). France, Germany, Japan, and the – (1999b). Alter und Altern als Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (in United States. Psychology and unvollendete Architektur der Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. press-a). Learned helplessness. Aging. Humanontogenese. Zeitschrift (in press-a). Human strength as In G. Maddox (Ed.), Encyclopedia für Gerontologie und Geriatrie, the orchestration of wisdom of aging (3rd ed.). New York: Baltes, M. M., Freund, A. M., & 32, 433–448. and SOC. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. Springer. Horgas, A. L. (1999). Men and – (1999c). L’architettura incom- M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychol- – (in press-b). Lifespan develop- women in the Berlin Aging piuta dell’ontogenesi umana. ogy of human strengths: Per- mental psychology. In G. Mad- Study. Theoretical considera- Implicazioni per il futuro della spectives on an emerging field. dox (Ed.), Encyclopedia of aging tions and empirical findings. In quarta età. In C. M. Lucchetti & Washington, DC: APA Books. (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), A. Venturelli (Eds.), Ambiente e – (in press-b). The intermarriage – (1999). Multilevel and sys- The Berlin Aging Study. Aging invecchiamento: Politiche e of wisdom and selective optimi- temic analyses of old age: Theo- from 70 to 100 (pp. 259–281). strategie di ricerca in Germania zation with compensation retical and empirical evidence New York: Cambridge University e in Italia (pp. 169–192). Milan: (SOC): Two meta-heuristics for a fourth age. In V. L. Bengt- Press. Guerini Studio. guiding the conduct of life. In C. son & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Hand- – (1999d). Psychologie als So- L. M. Keyes (Ed.), Flourishing: book of theories of aging (pp. zialwissenschaft. Festrede. In W. 153–173). New York: Springer. Baltes, M. M., Maas, I., Wilms, The positive person and the good Prinz (Ed.), F. E. W. Festreden an- H., Borchelt, M., & Little, T. D. life. Washington, DC: APA (1999). Everyday competence in läßlich der Emeritierung von Books. Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. old and very old age. Theoretical Franz Emanuel Weinert (pp. M. (2000). Wisdom: A meta- considerations and empirical 27–67). München: Max-Planck- Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., & Kunz- heuristic (pragmatic) to orches- findings. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Institut für Psychologische For- mann, U. (in press). Wisdom: Its trate mind and virtue toward Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging schung. structure and function in regu- excellence. American Psycholo- Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. – (1998a). L’avenir du vieillisse- lating successful lifespan devel- gist, 55, 122–136. 384–402). New York: Cambridge ment d’un point de vue psycho- opment. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. – (1998). Wisdom. In H. Fried- University Press. logique: Optimisme et tristesse. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of man (Ed.), Encyclopedia of men- In J. Dupâquier (Ed.), L’espérance positive psychology. Oxford, UK: tal health (pp. 699–706). San de vie sans incapacités (pp. Oxford University Press. Diego, CA: Academic Press. Baltes, P. B. (in press-a). On the 243–264). Paris: Presses Univer- incomplete architecture of hu- sitaires de France. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. man ontogeny. Psychology, Jour- – (1998b). Gegen Vorurteile und Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). nal of the Hellenic (Greek) Psy- Klischees über das Alter: Neue & Staudinger, U. M. (1998a). Lifespan psychology: Theory and chological Society. Erkenntnisse aus der Berliner Life-span theory in developmen- application to intellectual func- – (in press-b). Meet the re- Altersstudie. In A. Lepenies (Ed.), tal psychology. In R. M. Lerner tioning. Annual Review of Psy- searcher: Paul Baltes. In R. M. Alt und jung: Das Abenteuer der (Ed.) & W. Damon (Ed.-in-chief), chology, 50, 471–507. Lerner (Ed.), Adolescence: Devel- Generationen (pp. 156–161). Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of hu- opment, diversity, context, and Basel: Stroemfeld (reprint of the Bluck, S. (in press). Autobio- application. Englewood Cliffs, 1997 article in Häusliche Pflege, man development (pp. 1029–- graphical memories: Building NJ: Prentice Hall. 2, 46–51). 1143). New York: Wiley. blocks of life narratives. In G. – (2000a). Autobiographical re- – (1998c). The Social Science – (1998b). Die zwei Gesichter Kenyon, B. de Vries, & P. Clark flections: From developmental Research Council: 75 years der Intelligenz im Alter. Spek- (Eds.), Narrative gerontology: methodology and lifespan psy- young. Items (Social Science Re- trum der Wissenschaft. DIGEST, Theory, research, and practice. chology to gerontology. In J. E. search Council), 52, 69–72. 2, 78–87. New York: Springer. Birren & J. J. F. Schroots (Eds.), – (1998d). Testing-the-limits of History of geropsychology (pp. the ontogenetic sources of tal- Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, K. U. 7–26). Washington, DC: APA ent and excellence. Behavioral (Eds.). (1999). The Berlin Aging Books. and Brain Sciences, 21, 407–408. Study. Aging from 70 to 100. – (2000b). David L. Magnusson: New York: Cambridge University The footprints of wisdom. In L. Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. Press (552 p.). Bergman (Ed.), Developmental (1999). Harvesting the fruits of science and the holistic ap- age: Growing older, growing Baltes, P. B., Mayer, K. U., proach (pp. 11–29). New York: wise. Science and Spirit, 10, Helmchen, H., & Steinhagen- Cambridge University Press. 12–14. Thiessen, E. (1999). The Berlin – (2000c). Gegen Vorurteile und – (1998). Savoir vivre in old age: Aging Study (BASE). Sample, de- Klischees: Die Berliner Alters- How to master the shifting bal- sign, and overview of measures. studie—Neue Erkenntnisse über ance between gains and losses. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer die Zielgruppe alte Menschen. In National Forum, 78, 13–18. (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study. T. Nikolaus (Ed.), Klinische Geri- Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. 15–- atrie (pp. 80–87). Heidelberg: Baltes, P. B., Baltes, M. M., 55). New York: Cambridge Uni- Springer. Freund, A. M., & Lang, F. R. versity Press.

161 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Bluck, S., & Habermas, T. (in tive power of subjective lifetime chologie des Selbst (pp. 115–- Gelder, J. J. Lopez-Ibor, & N. C. press). The lifestory schema. personality. Journal of Research 131). Weinheim: Beltz. Andreasen (Eds.), New Oxford Motivation and Emotion. in Personality, 32, 411–430. textbook of psychiatry (pp. Freund, A. M., & Baltes P. B. 267–271). Oxford, UK: Oxford Bluck, S., & Levine, L. J. (1998). Fleeson, W., Staudinger, U. M., (2000). The orchestration of se- University Press. Reminiscence as autobiographi- & Baltes, P. B. (in press). The lection, optimization, and com- cal memory: A catalyst for remi- better-than-average effect and pensation: An action-theoretical Friederici, A. D., Schriefers, H., & niscence theory development. well being: The distinction be- conceptualization of a theory of Lindenberger, U. (1998). Differ- Ageing and Society, 18, 185–- tween thinking that oneself is developmental regulation. In W. ential age effects on semantic 208. good and thinking that oneself J. Perrig & A. Grob (Eds.), Con- and syntactic priming. Interna- is better than others. Journal of trol of human behavior, mental tional Journal of Behavioral De- Bluck, S., & Li, K. Z. H. (in Personality and Social Psychol- processes and consciousness (pp. velopment, 22, 813–845. press). Predicting memory com- ogy. 35–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pleteness and accuracy: The role – (1999). Selection, optimiza- Glück, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). of emotion and exposure in re- Frensch, P. A. (in press). Zur tion, and compensation as Wisdom as a meta-heuristic: peated autobiographical recall. Rolle der Informationsreduktion strategies of life management: How the concept of wisdom Applied Cognitive Psychology. beim Erwerb kognitiver Fertig- Correction to Freund and Baltes moderates the production of keiten. In E. Witruk & G. Frie- (1999). Psychology and Aging, wisdom-related outcomes. Böhmig-Krumhaar, S. A. drich (Eds.), Pädagogische Psy- 14, 700–702. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for (1998). Leistungspotentiale chologie im Streit um ein neues – (1998). Selection, optimiza- Human Development (Research wert-relativierenden Denkens. Selbstverständnis. Proceedings tion, and compensation as proposal). Die Rolle einer wissensaktivie- of the 5th meeting of pedagogi- strategies of life-management: renden Gedächtnisstrategie. cal psychology. Leipzig: Univer- Correlations with subjective in- Glück, J., Ernst, R., & Unger, F. Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für sity of Leipzig Press. dicators of successful aging. (in press). How creatives define Bildungsforschung (Studien und – (2000). The Max Planck Insti- Psychology and Aging, 13, creativity: Definitions reflect Berichte, Vol. 65). tute for Human Development 531–543. different types of creativity. and Education. In A. E. Kazdin Creativity Research Journal. Böhmig-Krumhaar, S. A., (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology Freund, A. M., Li, K. Z. H., & Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. (Vol. 5, pp. 124–126). Washing- Baltes, P. B. (1999). Successful Glück, J., & Eye, A. von (2000). B. (in press). Mehr Toleranz tut ton, DC: APA Books. development and aging: The role Including covariates in configur- Not: Läßt sich wert-relativieren- of selection, optimization, and al frequency analysis. Psycholo- des Wissen und Urteilen mit Frensch, P. A., Lin, J., & Buch- compensation. In J. Brandt- gische Beiträge, 42, 405–417. Hilfe einer wissensaktivierenden ner, A. (1998). Learning vs. be- städter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Gedächtnisstrategie verbessern? havioral expression of the learn- Action and self development: Glück, J., & Heckhausen, J. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsy- ed: The effects of a secondary Theory and research through the (2000). Kognitives Training im chologie und Pädagogische Psy- tone-counting task on implicit life span (pp. 401–434). Thou- Alter: Potential und Grenzen der chologie. learning in the serial reaction sand Oaks, CA: Sage. Plastizität. In K. J. Klauer (Ed.), task. Psychological Research, 61, Handbuch Kognitives Training Boyer, P., & Heckhausen, J. 83–89. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (pp. 431–466). Göttingen: (2000). Potential and limits of (in press-a). Successful aging. In Hogrefe. an evolutionary psychology ap- Frensch, P. A., Lindenberger, R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks, proach: Introductory notes. In J. U., & Kray, J. (1999). Imposing & J. Mistry (Eds.), Comprehen- Glück, J., & Indurkhya, A. Heckhausen & P. Boyer (Eds.), structure on an unstructured sive handbook of psychology: (2001). Assessing changes in the Evolutionary psychology: Poten- environment. Ontogenetic Vol. 6. Developmental psycholo- longitudinal salience of items in tial and limits of a Darwinian changes in the ability to form gy. New York: Wiley. constructs. Journal of Adoles- framework for the behavioral rules of behavior under condi- – (in press-b). What I have and cent Research, 16, 169–188 sciences. American Behavioral tions of low environmental pre- what I do: The role of resource (Special Issue: Methodology for Scientist, 43, 917–925 (Special dictability. In A. Friederici, D. loss and gain throughout life. Research on Adolescence—Issues Issue). Angela, & R. Menzel (Eds.), Applied Psychology: An Interna- and Solutions). Learning: Rule extraction and tional Review. Brendgen, M., Little, T. D., & representation (pp. 139–162). Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, Krappmann, L. (2000). Rejected Berlin: de Gruyter. Freund, A. M., & Smith, J. G. (1998). The emergence and children and their friends: A (1999a). Content and function implementation of health goals. shared evaluation of friendship Frensch, P. A., Wenke, D., & of the self-definition in old and Psychology and Health, 13, quality? Merrill-Palmer Quarter- Rünger, D. (1999). A secondary very old age. Journals of Geron- 687–715. ly, 46, 45–70. tone-counting task suppresses tology: Psychological Sciences, expression of knowledge in the 54B, 55–67. Grob, A., Little, T. D., & Wan- Eye, A. von, Indurkhya, A., & serial reaction task. Journal of – (1999b). Temporal stability of ner, B. (1999). Control judge- Kreppner, K. (2000). CFA as a Experimental Psychology: Learn- older persons’ spontaneous self- ments across the lifespan. Inter- tool for person-oriented re- ing, Memory, and Cognition, 25, definition. Experimental Aging national Journal of Behavioral search—Unidimensional and 260–274. Research, 25, 95–107. Development, 23, 833–854. within-individual analyses of – (1998). Wie definieren sich nominal level and ordinal data. Freund, A. M. (in press). Devel- alte und sehr alte Menschen? In Habermas, T. (in press-a). Eine Psychologische Beiträge, 42, opmental psychology of life M. Malwitz-Schütte (Ed.), Ler- nicht ganz zufällige Begegnung: 383–401. management. In N. J. Smelser & nen im Alter (pp. 29–55). Mün- Feldtheorie Kurt Lewins und P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International ster: Waxmann. Psychoanalyse Siegfried Bern- Fleeson, W., & Baltes, P. B. encyclopedia of the social and felds im Berlin der späten 20er (1998). Beyond present-day per- behavioral sciences. Oxford, UK: Freund, A. M., & Staudinger, Jahre. Zeitschrift für Psycholo- sonality assessment: An encour- Elsevier Science. U. M. (2000). Lifespan psychol- gie. aging exploration of the meas- – (2000). Das Selbst im hohen ogy: Illustrations from adult- – (in press-b). History and life urement properties and predic- Alter. In W. Greve (Ed.), Psy- hood and old age. In M. G. story. Commentary on Grob,

162 Center for Lifespan Psychology

King, and Bangerter, 2000. Hu- 231). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. of the life-span theory of con- tionen in der kognitiven Alters- man Development. – (2000b). Evolutionary perspec- trol. Psychological Review, 106, forschung. In A. Kruse (Ed.), Psy- – (in press-c). Material objects. tives on human motivation. In J. 605–609. chosoziale Gerontologie: Grund- In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes Heckhausen & P. Boyer (Eds.), – (1999b). Selectivity in life- lagen (Vol 1. ). Stuttgart: Ho- (Eds.), International encyclope- Evolutionary psychology: Poten- span development. Biological grefe. dia of the social and behavioral tial and limits of a Darwinian and societal canalizations and sciences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier framework for the behavioral individuals’ developmental Krampe, R. T., & Engbert, R. (in Science. sciences [Special Issue]. Ameri- goals. In J. Brandtstädter & R. press). Produktion und Synchro- can Behavioral Scientist, 43, M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self- nisation von Rhythmen. In T. H. Habermas, T., & Bluck, S. 1015–1029. development (pp. 67–103). Stoffer & R. Oerter (Eds.), Allge- (2000). Getting a life: The emer- – (Ed.). (2000c). Motivational Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. meine Musikpsychologie: Allge- gence of the life story in ado- psychology of human develop- meinpsychologische Grundlagen lescence. Psychological Bulletin, ment. Developing motivation musikalischen Handelns. Göttin- 126, 748–769. and motivating development. gen: Hogrefe (Enzyklopädie der Oxford, UK: Elsevier (370 p.). Psychologie, D. Vol. VII). Haider, H., & Frensch, P. A. – (2000d). Wo hängen die (1999a). Eye movement during süßen Trauben? Entwicklungs- Krampe, R. T., Engbert, R., & skill acquisition: More evidence und motivationspsychologische Kliegl, R. (in press-a). Age-spe- for the information-reduction Überlegungen zur Funktionalität cific problems in rhythmic tim- hypothesis. Journal of Experi- des Bereuens. Psychologische ing. Psychology and Aging, 16. mental Psychology: Learning, Rundschau, 51, 123–134. – (in press-b). The effects of ex- Memory, and Cognition, 25, – (1999). Developmental regula- pertise and age on rhythm pro- 172–190. tion in adulthood: Age-norma- duction: Adaptations to timing – (1999b). Information reduc- tive and sociostructural con- and sequencing constraints. tion during skill acquisition: The straints as adaptive challenges. Brain and Cognition. influence of task instruction. New York: Cambridge University – (Eds.). (in press-c). Movement Journal of Experimental Psychol- Press (250 p.). timing and coordination. Brain ogy: Applied, 5, 129–151. and Cognition (Special Issue). Heckhausen, J., & Boyer, P. Hawley, P. H. (1999). The onto- (Eds.). (2000). Evolutionary psy- Krampe, R. T., Kliegl, R., Mayr, genesis of social dominance: A chology: Potential and limits of – (1998). Developmental regula- U., Engbert, R., & Vorberg, D. strategy-based evolutionary a Darwinian framework for the tion in adulthood: Selection and (2000). The fast and the slow of perspective. Developmental Re- behavioral sciences [Special Is- compensation via primary and skilled bimanual rhythm produc- view, 19, 97–132. sue]. American Behavioral Sci- secondary control. In J. Heck- tion: Parallel vs. integrated tim- entist, 43 (126 p.). hausen & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ing. Journal of Experimental Hawley, P. H., & Little, T. D. Motivation and self-regulation Psychology: Human Perception (1999). On winning some and Heckhausen, J., & Dweck, C. S. across the life span (pp. 50–77). and Performance, 26, 206–233. losing some: A social relations (1998a). Introduction: Process- New York: Cambridge University approach to social dominance in oriented approaches to motiva- Press. Kray, J., & Lindenberger, U. toddlers. Merrill-Palmer Quar- tion and self-regulation across (2000). Adult age differences in terly, 45, 185–214. the life span. In J. Heckhausen Heckhausen, J., & Singer, T. (in task switching. Psychology and & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation press). Plasticity in human be- Aging, 15, 126–144. Heckhausen, J. (in press-a). and self-regulation across the havior across the life-span: Psy- Adaptation and resilience in life span (pp. 1–11). New York: chological perspectives. In N. J. Kreppner, K. (in press-a). Retro- midlife. In M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Cambridge University Press. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), In- spect and prospect in the psy- Handbook of midlife develop- – (Eds.). (1998b). Motivation ternational encyclopedia of the chological study of families as ment. New York: Wiley. and self-regulation across the social and behavioral sciences. systems. In J. McHale & W. – (in press-b). Developmental life span. New York: Cambridge Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Grolnick (Eds.), Retrospect and regulation of life-course transi- University Press (461 p.). prospect in the psychological tions: A control theory ap- Kliegl, R., Phillipp, D., Luckner, study of families. Mahwah, NJ: proach. In L. Pulkkinen & A. Heckhausen, J., Fleeson, W., & M., & Krampe, R. T. (in press). Erlbaum. Caspi (Eds.), Paths to successful Wrosch, C. (in press). Develop- Face memory skill acquisition. In – (in press-b). Social relations development: Personality in the mental regulation before and N. Charness, D. C. Park, & B. A. and affective development in life course. Cambridge, UK: after a developmental deadline: Sabel (Eds.), Communication, the first two years in family Cambridge University Press. The sample case of “biological technology and aging: Opportu- contexts. In J. Valsiner (Ed.), – (in press-c). Personal control: clock” for child-bearing. Psy- nities and challenges for the fu- Handbook of developmental psy- Psychological perspectives. In N. chology and Aging. ture (pp. 169–186). New York: chology. London: Sage. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), Springer. – (in press-c). Variations in chil- International encyclopedia of Heckhausen, J., & Mayr, U. dren's perceived relationship the social and behavioral sci- (1998). Entwicklungsregulation Kliegl, R., Krampe, R. T., & quality and changes in commu- ences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Sci- und Kontrolle im Erwachsenen- Mayr, U. (in press). Formal mod- nication behaviors within the ence. alter und Alter: Lebenslaufpsy- els of age differences in cogni- family during the child's transi- – (2000a). Developmental regu- chologische Perspektiven. In H. tive complexity effects. In U. M. tion to adolescence: A differen- lation across the life span: An Keller (Ed.), Lehrbuch für Ent- Staudinger & U. Lindenberger tial approach. In J. R. M. Gerris action-phase model of engage- wicklungspsychologie (pp. (Eds.), Understanding human de- (Ed.), Dynamics of parenting. ment and disengagement with 399–422). Bern: Huber. velopment: Life-span psychology New York: Cambridge University developmental goals. In J. Heck- in exchange with other disci- Press. hausen (Ed.), Motivational psy- Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. plines. Boston, MA: Kluwer. – (2000a). Die Bedeutung famil- chology of human development. (1999a). The primacy of primary ialer Beziehungen und Kommu- Developing motivation and mo- control is a human universal: A Kliegl, R., Mayr, U., & Krampe, nikationsmuster für die Persön- tivating development (pp. 213–- reply to Gould’s (1999) critique R. T. (in press). Prozessdissozia- lichkeitsentwicklung von

163 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Kindern. In A. Herlth, A. Engel- tion and development in families Li, K. Z. H. (1999). Selection dedifferentiation of cognitive bert, J. Mansel, & C. Palentien with adolescents (pp. 83–108). from working memory: On the abilities in old age. In L.-G. (Eds.), Spannungsfeld Fami- Greenwich, CT: Ablex. relationship between processing Nilsson & H. J. Markowitsch lienkindheit (pp. 136–154). and storage components. Aging, (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Kunzmann, U. (1999). Being Neuropsychology, and Cognition, memory (pp. 103–146). Toronto: – (2000b). The child and the and feeling in control: Two 6, 99–116. Hogrefe. family: Interdependence in de- sources of older people’s emo- velopmental pathways. Psicolo- tional well-being. Berlin: Max Li, K. Z. H., Hasher, L., Jonas, Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., & gia: Teoria e Pesquisa, 16, 11–22. Planck Institute for Human De- D., Rahhal, T. A., & May, C. P. Frensch, P. A. (2000). Unifying – (2000c). Einführung: Die Er- velopment (Studien und Be- (1998). Distractibility, circadian cognitive aging: From neuro- forschung der Beziehungen richte, Vol. 66) (242 p.). arousal, and aging: A boundary modulation to representation to Jugendlicher und junger Er- condition? Psychology and Ag- cognition. Neurocomputing, wachsener zu ihren Eltern— Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. ing, 13, 337–346. 32/33, 879–890. Bemerkungen zu fünf Studien. (in press). Beyond the tradition- Zeitschrift für Sozialisation der al scope of intelligence: Wisdom Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, U., Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., Erziehung und Sozialisation, 20, in action. In R. J. Sternberg, J. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. Prinz, W., Baltes, P. B., & the 337–342. Lautry, & T. I. Lubart (Eds.), (in press). Walking while memo- CoOP-MIND Research Team – (2000d). Entwicklung von El- Models of intelligence for the rizing: A SOC study of age-re- (2000). A lifetime from differen- tern-Kind-Beziehungen: Norma- next millenium. lated differences in compensa- tiation to dedifferentiation: The tive Aspekte im Rahmen der tory behavior under dual-task fall and rise of covariations be- Familienentwicklung. In K. A. Kunzmann, U., Little, T. D., & conditions. Psychological Sci- tween intelligence, information Schneewind (Ed.), Familienpsy- Smith, J. (in press). Perceiving ence. processing and sensory func- chologie im Aufwind (pp. 174–- control: A double-edged sword tioning across the lifespan. Ber- 195). Göttingen: Hogrefe. in old age. Journals of Gerontol- Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, U., lin: Max Planck Institute for Hu- – (2000e). Parent-adolescent ogy: Psychological Sciences. Rünger, D., & Frensch, P. A. man Development (Project re- relationship. In A. E. Kazdin – (2000). Is age-related stability (2000). The role of inhibition in port). (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psycholo- of subjective well-being a para- the regulation of sequential ac- gy (Vol. 6, pp. 50–55). Washing- dox? Cross-sectional and longi- tion. Psychological Science, 11, Lindenberger, U. (in press-a). La ton, DC: APA Books. tudinal evidence from the Berlin 343–347. connexion liée à l’âge entre – (1999a). Beziehung und Ent- Aging Study. Psychology and fonctionnement sensoriel, sen- wicklung in der Familie. Konti- Aging, 15, 511–526. Li, S.-C. (in press-a). Aging sorimoteur et cognitif: Descrip- nuität und Diskontinuität bei mind: Facets and levels of tion, problèmes Lacouture, Y., & Mar- der Konstruktion von Er- Li, S.-C., analyses. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. méthodologiques et interpréta- ley, A. A. J. (1998). The roles of fahrungswelten. In M. Grund- Baltes (Eds.), International ency- tion. In Le vieillissement normal: stimulus and response set size mann (Ed.), Konstruktivistische clopedia of the social and be- Approche cognitive. Belgium: in the identification and cate- Sozialisationsforschung (pp. havioral sciences. Oxford, UK: DeBoek. gorization of unidimensional 180–207). Frankfurt a.M: Elsevier Science. – (in press-b). Lifespan theories stimuli. Australian Journal of Suhrkamp. – (in press-b). Connecting the of cognitive development. In N. Psychology: Special Issue on – (1999b). Enactivism and mon- many levels and facets of cog- J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), Mathematical Psychology, 50, adology: Where are Baerveldt nitive aging. Current Directions International encyclopedia of 165–174. and Verheggen taking the indi- in Psychological Science. the social and behavioral sci- vidual and cultural psychology? ences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Sci- Lang, F. R., Staudinger, U. M., Culture and Psychology, 5, & Carstensen, L. L. (1998). So- Li, S.-C., Aggen, S. H., Nessel- ence. 207–216. cioemotional selectivity in late roade, J. R., & Baltes, P. B. – (2000a). Anwendungsorien- – (1998a). Entwicklungstheo- life: How personality does (and (2001). Short-term fluctuations tierte Interpretation zentraler rien, historisch betrachtet. In H. does not) make a difference. in elderly people’s sensorimotor Befunde kognitiver Forschung. Keller (Ed.), Lehrbuch Entwick- Journals of Gerontology: Psycho- functioning predicts text and In H.-W. Wahl & C. Tesch- lungspsychologie (pp. 121–146). logical Sciences, 53B, 21–30. spatial memory performance: Römer (Eds.), Angewandte Bern: Huber. The MacArthur successful aging Gerontologie in Schlüsselbegriff- – (1998b). Reflections about a Lange, L., & Frensch, P. A. studies. Gerontology, 47, 100–- en (pp. 83–89). Stuttgart: far away transition period. Can (1999). Gaining scientific recog- 116. Kohlhammer. cultural psychologists learn nition by position: Does editor- – (2000b). Intellektuelle En- something from it? A review of ship increase citation rates? Li, S.-C., Jordanova, M., & twicklung über die Lebens- Siegfried Kracauer: The mass or- Scientometrics, 44, 459–486. Lindenberger, U. (1998). From spanne: Überblick und aus- nament. Weimar essays. Culture good senses to good sense: A gewählte Forschungsbrennpunk- and Psychology, 4, 473–486. Lehrner, J. P., Glück, J., & Laska, link between tactile information te. Psychologische Rundschau, M. (1999). Odor identification, processing and intelligence. In- 51, 135–145. Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. consistency of label use, olfac- telligence, 26, 99–122. (1999). Ablöseprozesse in Tren- tory threshold and their rela- Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. nungs- und Nicht-Trennungs- tionship to odor memory over Li, S.-C., & Li, K. Z. H. (in B. (2000). Lifespan psychology: familien. Eine Betrachtung von the human lifespan. Chemical press). Aging and intelligence. Theory. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), En- Kommunikationsverhalten in Senses, 24, 337–346. In W. E. Craikhead & C. B. cyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 5, Familien mit Kindern im frühen Nemeroff (Eds.), Encyclopedia of pp. 52–57). Washington, DC: bis mittleren Jugendalter. In S. Lerner, R. M., Freund, A. M., De psychology and behavioral sci- APA Books. Walper & B. Schwarz (Eds.), Was Stefanis, I., & Habermas, T. (in ence. New York: Wiley. – (1999). Die Entwicklungspsy- wird aus den Kindern? (pp. 91–- press). The selection, optimiza- chologie der Lebensspanne 120) München: Juventa. tion, and compensation model Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. (Lifespan-Psychologie): Johann – (1998). Talk to mom and dad, as a frame for understanding (1999). Cross-level unification. Nicolaus Tetens (1736–1807) zu and listen to what is in be- developmental regulation in A computational exploration of Ehren. Zeitschrift für Psychologie tween. In M. Hofer, P. Noack, & adolescence. Human Develop- the link between deterioration mit Zeitschrift für angewandte J. Youniss (Eds.), Verbal interac- ment. of neurotransmitter systems and Psychologie, 207, 299–323.

164 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Lindenberger, U., Gilberg, R., perceptions of friendship quality Weisheitsparadigma. Zeitschrift Kennwerten der kognitiven Nuthmann, R., Pötter, U., Little, in the sociocultural contexts of für Entwicklungspsychologie und Plastizität bei der Früherken- T. D., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). East and West Berlin. Interna- Pädagogische Psychologie, 30, nung dementieller Erkrankun- Sample selectivity and general- tional Journal of Behavioral De- 2–12. gen. Zeitschrift für Neuropsy- izability of the results of the velopment, 23, 63–89. chologie, 10, 153–167. Berlin Aging Study. A computa- Maier, H., & Smith, J. (1999). tional exploration of the link Little, T. D., Lindenberger, U., Psychological predictors of mor- Nesselroade, J. R., & Ghisletta, between deterioration of neuro- & Maier, H. (2000). Selectivity tality in old age. Journals of P. (1999). Beyond static con- transmitter systems and dedif- and generalizability in longitu- Gerontology: Psychological Sci- cepts in modeling behavior. In L. ferentiation of cognitive abili- dinal research: On the effects of ences, 54B, 44–54. R. Bergman, R. B. Cairns, L.-G. ties in old age. In P. B. Baltes & continuers and dropouts. In T. D. Nilssons, & L. Nystedt (Eds.), De- K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Little, K. Schnabel, & J. Baumert Marsiske, M., Delius, J., Maas, velopmental science and the ho- Aging Study. Aging from 70 to (Eds.), Modeling longitudinal I., Lindenberger, U., Scherer, H., listic approach (pp. 121–135). 100 (pp. 56–82). New York: and multilevel data. Practical is- & Tesch-Römer, C. (1999). Sen- Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cambridge University Press. sues, applied approaches, and sory systems in old age. In P. B. specific examples (pp. 187–200). Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Oettingen, G. (2000). Expectan- Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Berlin Aging Study. Aging from cy effects on behavior depend & Baltes, P. B. (2000). Memo- 70 to 100 (pp. 360–383). New on self-regulatory thought. So- rizing while walking: Increase in Little, T. D., Lindenberger, U., York: Cambridge University cial Cognition, 18, 101–129. dual task costs from young & Nesselroade, J. R. (1999). On Press. – (1999a). Free fantasies about adulthood to old age. Psycholo- selecting indicators for multi- the future and the emergence gy and Aging, 15, 417–436. variate measurement and mod- Mayer, K. U., Baltes, P. B., of developmental goals. In J. eling with latent variables: Baltes, M. M., Borchelt, M., Brandtstädter & R. M. Lerner Lindenberger, U., & Pötter, U. When "good" indicators are bad Delius, J., Helmchen, H., Linden, (Eds.), Action and self-develop- (1998). The complex nature of and "bad" indicators are good. M., Smith, J., Staudinger, U. ment (pp. 315–342). Thousand unique and shared effects in hi- Psychological Methods, 4, M., Steinhagen-Thiessen, E., & Oaks, CA: Sage. erarchical linear regression: 192–211. Wagner, M. (1999). What do – (1999b). Zukunftsdenken und Consequences for cross-section- we know about old age and ag- irrationales Handeln an der al developmental research. Psy- Little, T. D., Lopez, D. F., Oet- ing? Conclusions from the Berlin Schwelle zum 3. Jahrtausend. chological Methods, 3, 218–230. tingen, G., & Baltes, P. B. (in Aging Study. In P. B. Baltes & K. Gedanken zur Zeitenwende aus press). A comparative-longitudi- U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging psychologischer Sicht. In M. Lindenberger, U., & Reischies, F. nal study of action-control be- Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. Baumgartner (Ed.), Zeit—Zeiten- M. (1999). Limits and potentials liefs and school performance: 475–519). New York: Cambridge wende—Ewigkeit (pp. 62–84). of intellectual functioning in old On the role of context. Interna- University Press. Regensburg: Pustet. age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. tional Journal of Behavioral De- Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging velopment. Oettingen, G., & Maier, H. Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. (1999). Where political system 329–359). New York: Cambridge Little, T. D., Schnabel, K., & meets culture. Effects on effica- University Press. Baumert, J. (Eds.). (2000). Mod- cy appraisal. In Y.-T. Lee, C. R. eling longitudinal and multilevel McCauley, & J. G. Draguns Lindenberger, U., Scherer, H., & data. Practical issues, applied (Eds.), Personality and person Baltes, P. B. (in press). The approaches, and specific exam- perception across cultures (pp. strong connection between sen- ples. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum 163–190). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- sory and cognitive performance (297 p.). baum. in old age: Not due to sensory acuity reductions operating dur- Little, T. D., Stetsenko, A., & Okagaki, L., & Frensch, P. A. ing cognitive assessment. Psy- Maier, H. (1999). Action-control (1998). Parental beliefs and chology and Aging. beliefs and school performance: children’s school achievement: A A longitudinal study of Moscow multiethnic perspective. Ameri- Lindenberger, U., Singer, T., & children and adolescents. Inter- can Educational Research Jour- Baltes, P. B. (in press). Longitu- national Journal of Behavioral nal, 35, 123–144. dinal selectivity in aging popu- Development, 23, 63–89. lations: Separating mortality- associated versus experimental Lopez, D. F., Little, T. D., McArdle, J. J., & Ghisletta, P. Pasupathi, M. (1999). Age dif- components in the Berlin Aging Oettingen, G., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). A review of “Interaction ferences in response to con- Study (BASE). Journals of Geron- (in press). Action-control beliefs and nonlinear effects in struc- formity pressure for emotional tology: Psychological Sciences. and self regulated performance: tural equation modeling” by R. and nonemotional material. Psy- Is there an optimal level of ac- E. Schumaker & G. A. Mar- chology and Aging, 14, 170–174. Little, T. D. (1998). Sociocultur- tion-control? Journal of Experi- coulides. Contemporary Psychol- al influences on the developmental Child Psychology, 69. ogy, 45, 91–95. Pasupathi, M., & Baltes, P. B. ment of children’s action-con- – (1998). Self-regulation and (2000). Wisdom. In A. E. Kazdin trol beliefs. In J. Heckhausen & school performances: Is there an Murphy, D. R., Craik, F. I. M., Li, (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation optimal level of action-control? K. Z. H., & Schneider, B. A. (Vol. 8, pp. 249–253). Washing- and self-regulation across the Journal of Experimental Child (2000). Comparing the effects ton, DC: APA Books. life span (pp. 281–315). New Psychology, 70, 54–74. of aging and background noise York: Cambridge University on short-term memory perform- Pasupathi, M., Carstensen, L. L., Press. Maercker, A., Böhmig- ance. Psychology and Aging, 15, Levenson, R. W., & Gottman, J. Krumhaar, S. A., & Staudinger, 323–334. M. (in press). Responsive listen- Little, T. D., Brendgen, M., U. M. (1998). Existentielle Kon- ing in long-married couples: A Wanner, B., & Krappmann, L. frontation: Eine Untersuchung Neher, K. M., & Sowarka, D. psycholinguistic perspective. (1999). Children’s reciprocal mit einem psychologischen (1999). Vergleich von zwei Journal of Non-Verbal Behavior.

165 Center for Lifespan Psychology

Pasupathi, M., Stallworth, L. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Or- M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and lescence and youth. New York: M., & Murdoch, K. (1998). How ganisationspsychologie, 42, self-development: Theory and Cambridge University Press. what we tell becomes what we 43–50. research through the life span – (in press-b). Life review: Rem- know: Listener effects on mem- (pp. 223–255). Thousand Oaks, iniscence. In G. Maddox (Ed.), ory for narratives. Discourse Schmitz, B., & Wiese, B. S. CA: Sage. Encyclopedia of aging (3rd ed.). Processes, 26, 1–25. (1999). Eine Prozeßstudie New York: Springer. selbstregulierten Lernverhaltens Smith, J., & Baltes, M. M. – (in press-c). Psychology of Pasupathi, M., & Staudinger, im Kontext aktueller affektiver (1998). The role of gender in wisdom. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. U. M. (in press-a). Do advanced und motivationaler Faktoren. very old age: Profiles of func- Baltes (Eds.), International en- moral reasoners also use wis- Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsy- tioning and everyday life pat- cyclopedia of the social and be- dom? Linking moral reasoning chologie und Pädagogische Psy- terns. Psychology and Aging, 13, havioral sciences. Oxford, UK: and wisdom-related knowledge chologie, 31, 157–170. 676–695. Elsevier Science. and judgment. International – (in press-d). Theory of lifespan Journal of Behavioral Develop- Schnabel, K., Little, T. D., & Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. development. In N. J. Smelser & ment. Baumert, J. (2000). Modeling (1999a). Lifespan perspectives P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International – (in press-b). A “talent“ for longitudinal and multilevel on development. In M. H. Born- encyclopedia of the social and knowledge and judgment about data. In T. D. Little, K. Schnabel, stein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), De- behavioral sciences. Oxford, UK: life: The lifespan development & J. Baumert (Eds.), Modeling velopmental psychology: An ad- Elsevier Science. of wisdom. In K. Heller, F. J. longitudinal and multilevel data. vanced textbook (4th ed., pp. – (in press-e). Viele Gründe Mönks, R. J. Sternberg, & R. Practical issues, applied ap- 197–226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erl- sprechen dagegen und trotzdem Subotnik (Eds.), International proaches, and specific examples baum. fühlen viele Menschen sich handbook for research in gifted- (pp. 9–13). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- – (1999b). Trends and profiles wohl: Das Paradox des subjek- ness and talent. Oxford, UK: baum. of psychological functioning in tiven Wohlbefindens. Psycholo- Pergamon. very old age. In P. B. Baltes & K. gische Rundschau. Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging – (in press-f). Wisdom. In G. Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, U. (1999). Aging, culture and con- Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. Maddox (Ed.), Encyclopedia of M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). trol: Setting a new research 197–226). New York: Cam- aging (3rd. ed.). New York: Seeds of wisdom: Adolescents’ agenda. Journals of Gerontol- bridge University Press. Springer. knowledge and judgment about ogy: Psychological Sciences, – (2000). Selbst und Persön- difficult life problems. Develop- 54B, 139–145. Smith, J., Fleeson, W., Geisel- lichkeit aus der Sicht der mental Psychology. mann, B., Settersten, R. A., & Lebensspannen-Psychologie. In Singer, T. (2000a). Testing-the- Kunzmann, U. (1999). Sources W. Greve (Ed.), Psychologie des Raykov, T., & Little, T. D. Limits in einer mnemonischen of well-being in very old age. In Selbst (pp. 133–147). Wein- (1999). A note on procrustean Fähigkeit: Eine Studie zur kogni- P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), heim: Beltz. rotation in exploratory factor tiven Plastizität im hohen Alter. The Berlin Aging Study. Aging – (1999a). Older and wiser? In- analysis: A computer intensive Doctoral dissertation, Freie Uni- from 70 to 100 (pp. 450–471). tegrating results on the rela- approach to goodness-of-fit versität Berlin. New York: Cambridge University tionship between age and wis- evaluation. Educational and – (2000b). Testing the limits of Press. dom-related performance. In- Psychological Measurement, 59, memory skill: An investigation of ternational Journal of 47–57. cognitive plasticity in very old Smith, J., & Freund, A. M. (in Behavioral Development, 23, age. Doctoral dissertation, Freie press). The dynamics of possible 641–664. Reischies, F. M., & Lindenber- Universität Berlin. selves in old age. Journals of – (1999b). Perspektiven der Re- ger, U. (in press). Diskontinuität Gerontology: Psychological Sci- silienzforschung aus der Sicht zwischen altersbedingter kogni- Singer, T., & Lindenberger, U. ences. der Lebensspannen-Psychologie. tiver Leistungsbeeinträchtigung (2000). Plastizität. In H.-W. In G. Opp, M. Fingerle, & A. und Demenz: Testpsycholo- Wahl & C. Tesch-Römer (Eds.), Smith, J., & Goodnow, J. J. Freytag (Eds.), Was Kinder gisches Profil. In U. H. Peters, Angewandte Gerontologie in (1999). Unasked-for support stärkt—Erziehung zwischen M. Schifferdecker, & A. Krahl Schlüsselbegriffen (pp. 39–43). and unsolicited advice: Age and Risiko und Resilienz. München: (Eds.), 150 Jahre Psychiatrie. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. the quality of social experience. Reinhardt. Köln: Martini. Psychology and Aging, 14, – (1999c). Social cognition and – (1999). Limits and potentials Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. 108–121. a psychological approach to an of intellectual functioning in (Eds.). (in press). International art of life. In F. Blanchard-Fields old age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. encyclopedia of the social and Smith, J., Maas, I. Mayer, K. & T. M. Hess (Eds.), Social cog- Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging behavioral sciences. Oxford, UK: U., Helmchen, H., & Baltes, P. nition, adult development, and Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. Elsevier Science. B. (in press). Two-wave longitu- aging (pp. 343–375). New York: 329–359). New York: Cam- dinal findings from the Berlin Academic Press. bridge University Press. Smith, J. (in press-a). Develop- Aging Study. Journals of Geron- mental psychology. In D. J. tology: Psychological Sciences. Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. Riediger, M., Linden, M., & Ekerdt (Ed.), Macmillan encyclo- B. (2000). Entwicklungspsy- Wilms, H.-U. (1998). Die pedia of aging. New York: Smith, J., Maier, H., & chologie der Lebensspanne. In deutsche Version der CES-D als Macmillan. Borchelt, M. (in press). Health H. Helmchen, F. A. Henn, H. Instrument der gerontolo- – (in press-b). Old age and cen- and wellbeing in old age. Jour- Lauter, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), gischen Forschung. Zeitschrift tenarians. In N. J. Smelser & P. nal of Social Issues. Psychiatrie der Gegenwart: für Klinische Psychologie, Psy- B. Baltes (Eds.), International Vol. 1. Wissenschaftliche Grund- chopathologie und Psychothera- encyclopedia of the social and Staudinger, U. M. (in press-a). lagen der Psychiatrie (4th ed, pie, 46, 344–364. behavioral sciences. Oxford, UK: Interactive minds: A paradigm pp. 3–17). Berlin: Springer. Elsevier Science. from lifespan psychology. In A. Riediger, M., & Rolfs, H. (1998). – (1999). Life planning: Antici- N. Perret Clermont, C. Pontecor- Staudinger, U. M., & Bluck, S. Computergestützte Postkorbver- pating future life goals and vo, L. B. Resnick, & T. Zittoun (in press). Lifespan psychology fahren: Mailbox ’90, PC-Office managing personal develop- (Eds.), Joining society: Social in- and midlife development. In M. und PC-Postkorb “Seeblick.” ment. In J. Brandtstädter & R. teractions and learning in ado- E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of

166 Center for Lifespan Psychology

midlife development. New York: Stetsenko, A., Little, T. D., velopment (pp. 233–249). Ox- Wiley. Gordeeva, T. O., Grasshof, M., & ford, UK: Elsevier. Oettingen, G. (2000). Gender Staudinger, U. M., & Fleeson, effects in children's beliefs Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. M., & W. (in press). Resilience of the about school performance: A Baltes, P. B. (2000). Selection, self in very old age. Develop- cross-cultural study. Child De- optimization, and compensa- ment and Psychopathology. velopment, 71, 517–527. tion: An action-related approach to work and partnership. Staudinger, U. M., Fleeson, W., Stetsenko, A., Little, T. D., Journal of Vocational Behavior, & Baltes, P. B. (1999). Predic- Oettingen, G., & Baltes, P. B. 57, 273–300. tors of subjective physical (in press). Razvitije predstavlenij health and global well-being o shkolnoj dejatelnosti u detej: Wrosch, C. (1999). Entwick- similarities and differences be- Kross-kulturnoje issledovanije lungsfristen im Partnerschafts- tween the United States and [Development of children's con- bereich. Bezugsrahmen für Germany. Journal of Personality ceptions about school perform- Prozesse der Aktivierung und and Social Psychology, 76, ance: A cross-cultural study]. Deaktivierung von Entwicklungs- 305–319. Voprosi Psihologii [Psychological zielen. Münster: Waxmann (In- Issues]. ternationale Hochschulschriften, Staudinger, U. M., & Freund, 300) (224 p.). A. M. (1998). Krank und "arm" Ullrich, M. (1999). Wenn Kinder im hohen Alter und trotzdem Jugendliche werden. Die Bedeu- Wrosch, C., & Heckhausen, J. guten Mutes? Untersuchungen tung der Familienkommunika- (in press). Being on-time or off- im Rahmen eines Modells psy- tion im Übergang zum Jugendal- time: Developmental deadlines chologischer Widerstands- ter. Weinheim: Juventa (247 p.). for regulating one’s own devel- fähigkeit. Zeitschrift für Klini- opment. In A. N. Perret-Cler- sche Psychologie, 27, 78–85. mont, J. M. Barrelet, A. Flammer, D. Miéville, J. F. Perret, & W. Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A. Perrig (Eds.), Thinking time: A M., Linden, M., & Maas, I. multidisciplinary perspective. (1999). Self, personality, and life Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber. regulation: Facets of psycholog- – (1999). Control processes be- ical resilience in old age. In P. B. fore and after passing a devel- Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The opmental deadline: Activation Berlin Aging Study. Aging from and deactivation of intimate re- 70 to 100 (pp. 302–328). New lationship goals. Journal of Per- York: Cambridge University sonality and Social Psychology, Press. 77, 415–427.

Staudinger, U. M., & Joos, M. Wrosch, C., Lachman, M. E., & (in press). Interactive minds—A Heckhausen, J. (2000). Primary paradigm for the study of the and secondary control strategies social interactive nature of hu- for managing health and finan- man cognition. Schweizerische cial stress across adulthood. Zeitschrift für Psychologie. Wagner, M., Schütze, Y., & Psychology and Aging, 15, Lang, F. R. (1999). Social rela- 387–399. Staudinger, U. M., Maciel, A., tionships in old age. In P. B. Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Zacks, R. T., Hasher, L., & Li, K. (1998). What predicts wisdom- Berlin Aging Study. Aging from Z. H. (2000). Human memory. In related knowledge? A first look 70 to 100 (pp. 282–301). New F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse at personality, intelligence, and York: Cambridge University (Eds.), The handbook of aging facilitative experiential con- Press. and cognition (2nd ed, pp. texts. European Journal of Per- 293–357). Mahwah, NJ: Erl- sonality, 12, 1–17. Wiese, B. S. (2000). Berufliche baum. und familiäre Zielstrukturen. Ein Staudinger, U. M., & Pasupathi, Anwendungsbeispiel zum Meta- M. (2000). Lifespan perspectives Modell der Selektiven Opti- on self, personality and social mierung mit Kompensation. cognition. In T. A. Salthouse & Münster: Waxmann (272 p.). F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. 633–688). Hillsdale, NJ: Erl- (in press). Zum Einfluss persön- baum. licher Prioritätensetzungen auf Masse der Stimuluspräferenz. Staudinger, U. M., & Werner, I. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle (in press). Older and wiser? The Psychologie. psychological study of wisdom – (2000). The interplay of work from a developmental-cultural and family in young and middle perspective. In J. Valsiner & K. adulthood. In J. Heckhausen Conolly (Eds.), Handbook of de- (Ed.), Motivational psychology of velopmental psychology. Lon- human development. Developing don: Sage. motivation and motivating de-

167

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Contents

Research Program and Research Projects ………………………………………………… 171 Education, Training, and Occupational Careers: Recent West German Experiences in an Historical and Cross-National Perspective …………………… 177 Education and Mismatch in the Labor Market ………………………………………… 186 East German Life Courses during the Transformation of the Former GDR … 191 Further Projects and Activities ……………………………………………………………… 198

Publications 1998–2000 ………………………………………………………………………… 201

Scientific Staff (1998–2000)

Felix Büchel, Michael Corsten, Martin Diewald (as of 2000: Universität Duis- burg), Henriette Engelhardt (as of 2000: Max Planck Institute for Demo- graphic Research, Rostock), Anne Goedicke, Steffen Hillmert, Erika M. Hoerning, Gero Lenhardt, Ineke Maas (as of 2000 on leave: University of Utrecht), Karl Ulrich Mayer, Antje Mertens, Heike Solga (as of 2000: Head of the Independent Research Group), Heike Trappe, Helga Zeiher Postdoctoral Research Fellows Tak Wing Chan (as of 1998: University of Surrey), John C. Dencker (as of 1999: University of Illinois), Pascale Dorenlot, Susana Garcia Diez (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid), Fabien Jobard (as of 2000: Centre Marc Bloch, Berlin), Bogdan Mach (Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw) Predoctoral Research Fellows Aleksej Bukov (as of 1999: Deutsche Post Direct GmbH, Bonn), Reiner Gilberg (as of 1998: infas, Bonn), Marita Jacob, Thomas Lampert (as of 1999: Institut für Gesundheitswissenschaften, Berlin), Britta Matthes, Matthias Pollmann-Schult, Maike Reimer, Alessandra Rusconi, Holger Seibert, Sylvia Zühlke (as of 1999: Landesamt für Datenverarbeitung und Statistik, Düsseldorf)

170 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Research Program and Research Projects

Sociological Research at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development Sociology as a scientific discipline is interested in the formation of institutions and in the social behavior and actions of individuals embedded in institutions. Within the specific context of an interdisciplinary institute for human development, sociology can make two kinds of contributions. First, it examines the roles which the family, the educational and training system, the occupational structure, and the welfare state play in the development and life courses of individuals. Second, it examines the way in which specific life-course patterns express and affect the distribution of life chances.

We share substantive topics, theo- and early labor market experience. We retical perspectives, and methodological are currently cooperating with the Cen- approaches with the other Centers of ter for Educational Research in the new the Institute. With the Center for Edu- version of the German Education Re- cational Research we share an interest port. With the Center for Lifespan Psy- in the conditions of attainment in edu- chology we share an interest in the full cation and training. We are also inter- life course from birth to death, particu- ested in both the individual and social larly the interplay between social envi- consequences of differential education- ronments and individual development. al attainment. The longitudinal surveys These common interests resulted in the of the two Centers overlap in the life joint Berlin Aging Study and joint re- phase occurring at the end of schooling search on psychological covariates of

171 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Key References employment trajectories in East Ger- given conditions of their own prior Mayer, K. U. (Ed.). many during the unification process. biography, their immediate family and (1990). Lebensverläufe With the Center for Adaptive Behavior work environments, and the genera- und sozialer Wandel. Opladen: Westdeutscher and Cognition we share an interest in tional contexts of their peer birth co- Verlag (Kölner Zeitschrift assumptions about rational behavior. horts? Here we are primarily interested für Soziologie und So- zialpsychologie, Sonder- Although our primary goal is to find and in the proximate influences of the heft 31) (467 p.). use appropriate individual-level as- mesolevel of informal groups, formal Mayer, K. U. (2001). sumptions in models of institutions, we organizations, and local opportunity Lebensverlauf. In B. Schäfers & W. Zapf also maintain an interest in the ways structures, as well as microlevel en- (Eds.), Handwörterbuch social structures shape and bound ra- dogenous processes of the individual zur Gesellschaft Deutschlands (2nd ed., tionality. life course. The relevant time dimen- pp. 446–460). Opladen: sions here are chronological age and Leske + Budrich. Goals of the Research Program the individual aging process, the dura- Mayer, K. U. (in press). The Center's research program is orient- tion of membership in families, house- The sociology of the life course and lifespan psy- ed toward answering three sets of holds, and firms, as well as the time chology: Diverging or questions: dimension of cohort and generational converging pathways? In U. M. Staudinger & U. (1) The first set of questions focuses succession. Lindenberger (Eds.), Un- on the relationships between the (3) The third set of questions focus- derstanding human development. Lifespan psy- macrolevel structure of societies and es on feedback processes from the chology in exchange patterns of the life course. In what microlevel of individual action to the with other disciplines. Dordrecht: Kluwer. manner and with which outcomes do macrolevel of structural and institution- institutions shape the patterns and dis- al constraints. How do changes in life- tributions of individual life courses? We course patterns shape distributional and look at life courses as generated by so- aggregative features of social structure cial norms, by institutional configura- and institutional arrangements? What tions, and by opportunity structures, all are the implications of such processes of which vary across social groups as for social policies? Irrespective of how well as specific national and historical they arise, life-course patterns are pow- contexts. Life courses are a summary erful contexts for individual and group concept for the intertwined processes of action. Life courses form the qualitative residential migration, family history, and quantitative basis for macrosocial education and training trajectories, em- change and for collective political deci- ployment, and occupational careers, as sion-making. Accordingly, the empirical well as the temporal patterns of rela- and descriptive social accounting of tionships to the social insurance sys- life-course patterns is an important re- tems. Therefore, with respect to institu- search task. tions, we are primarily interested in We use four perspectives in investi- schools and training institutions, the gating life courses. First, we see indi- occupational structure and labor mar- vidual life courses as part and product ket, the family, and the welfare state. of social and historical processes oper- The relevant time dimension here is the ating on different levels. Individual life historical time of socioeconomic courses are linked to the life courses of change. other persons (parents, partners, chil- (2) The second set of questions fo- dren, colleagues, and friends) and are cuses on the levels of individual and embedded in the dynamics of small group action. How do individuals and groups, especially the family. But life families actively construct their lives? courses are also subject to the influ- How do they experience their individual ences of social organization and the and collective life histories under the macroinstitutions of society, including

172 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

their development over time. Second, both on their later collective life history the life course is a multidimensional (e.g., in the relationship between work- process. On the one hand, it unfolds in ing lives and life in old age) and on the the different but mutually related life adjacent cohorts. The different age domains (e.g., family cycle and working groups live together in the same time life); on the other hand, it is dependent period, but they bring to the present on intraindividual processes of organic their distinctive past histories. Fourth, and psychological development. Third, through the manner in which persons the life course is a self-referential shape their own life courses, they repro- process. The individual behaves and acts duce and transform the social structure. self-reflectively on the basis of past ex- This can happen via ”simple” processes periences and resources, making the life of aggregation or in the form of institu- course to some extent an endogenous tional feedback. causal process. This is also partially true for the collective life history of birth cohorts. The past and initial conditions and characteristics of a cohort impact

Research Areas The Center's research program is currently organized into the following areas:

Education, Training, and Employment quired skills in the labor market? Our Research Area 1 The transition between education, guiding hypothesis in this research area training, and employment is a major is that despite massive distributional topic of investigation in the Center. This shifts and intense pressure for labor life phase is crucial for both intergener- market flexibilization, the close linkage ational status allocation and the later between education, training, and occu- life history. In reconstructing the collec- pation persists. tive transition experiences of successive cohorts, we gain empirical insights in Key References Mayer, K. U., & the changing institutional linkages be- (1998). Büchel, F. (1998). Zuviel Konietzka, D. tween the school and training systems, gelernt? Ausbildungs- Formation profession- on the one hand, and between the labor inadäquate Erwerbs- nelle et débuts de car- tätigkeit in Deutschland. rière: Crise ou stabilité market and the occupational structure, Bielefeld: W. Bertels- du modèle allemand? on the other. Moreover, we can examine mann (288 p.). Revue française de sociologie, XXXIX-2, 269–- controversial hypotheses about the Konietzka, D. (1999). 304. lengthening and fragmentation of this Ausbildung und Beruf. Die Geburtsjahrgänge transition period and about the increas- 1919–1961 auf dem ing polarization of the opportunities for Weg von der Schule in das Erwerbsleben. Opla- skill acquisition and early occupational den: Westdeutscher Ver- careers. Other topics of research inter- lag (Studien zur Sozial- wissenschaft, No. 204) est include the following: What are the (355 p.). consequences of educational expansion for working lives? Is there a crisis in the dual system of vocational training and how can this be accounted for? How widespread and serious are problems of mismatch between acquired and re-

173 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Research Area 2 Life Courses in the Transformation of have intensified research cooperation Former Socialist Societies with Polish social scientists for the pur- The opening of the Berlin Wall and the poses of comparative study. Our current unification of Germany not only provid- investigations concentrate on the ed a major challenge for the social sci- micromechanisms of individual adjust- ences to understand and guide this ment, adaptation in the domains of transition, it also provided unique op- family and work, the life-course conse- portunities for theory-guided research. quences of institutional transfer from On the one hand, the transformation West to East Germany, and individual- allowed the functioning and nonviabili- level processes in the transformation of ty of the former socialist society to be the system of social stratification and examined. On the other hand, it provid- class. Our studies have revealed some ed ample opportunities for the investi- rather surprising findings: Despite a gation of life courses under the impact rapid increase in labor market mobility of sudden dramatic institutional and considerable breaks in individual change. We have collected selected careers, the pattern of social stratifica- cohort/life-course data on both the tion has remained very stable. German Democratic Republic and the transformation process. In addition, we

Key References Lebensverläufe und Per- Mayer, K. U., Diewald, Solga, H., Diewald, M., sönlichkeitsentwicklung & (1999). & (2000). Huinink, J., Mayer, K. U., M., Solga, H. Goedicke, A. et al. (1995). Kollektiv im gesellschaftlichen Transitions to post-com- Arbeitsmarktmobilität und Eigensinn. Lebensver- Umbruch: Kohorten- munism in East Germany: und die Umstrukturierung läufe in der DDR und da- schicksale und Kontroll- Worklife mobility of des ostdeutschen Be- nach. Berlin: Akademie verhalten in Ostdeutsch- women and men be- schäftigungssystems. Verlag (414 p.). land nach der Wende. tween 1989 and 1993. Mitteilungen aus der Ar- Kölner Zeitschrift für So- Acta Sociologica, 42, beitsmarkt- und Berufs- Diewald, M., Huinink, J., ziologie und Sozialpsy- 35–53. forschung, 33, 242–260. & Heckhausen, J. (1996). chologie, 2, 219–248.

Research Area 3 Welfare State, Life Courses, and regimes and policies. Our guiding hy- Social Inequalities pothesis for Germany holds that life In this research area we focus on con- courses are still relatively protected ceptual and empirical studies on the from pressures for flexibility, and that impact of various national institutional stability and continuity prevail. configurations on life-course outcomes.

The macroinstitutions of the modern Key References welfare state and the specific provisions Mayer, K. U. (2001). The and rules of the social insurance sys- paradox of global social tems are among the major determining change and national path dependencies: Life course factors in the life course and in the dis- patterns in advanced so- tribution of life chances. The role of the cieties. In A. E. Wood- ward & M. Kohli (Eds.), welfare state may prove to be especially Inclusions/exclusions. important in current societal adapta- London: Routledge. tions to global competition and de- Hillmert, S. (2001). Aus- bildungssysteme und Ar- creasing public finances. Microanalytic beitsmarkt. Lebensver- and cross-national studies are required läufe in Großbritannien und Deutschland im Ko- to unravel the mechanisms and conse- hortenvergleich. Opladen: quences of different welfare state Westdeutscher Verlag.

174 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Life-Course Research and Analysis: studies and putting the data documen- Research Area 4 Theory, Methods, and Synthesis tation into an electronic format. This research area focuses on overarch- The Research Center's own data sets ing topics and tasks: the provision of are complemented with other German the empirical data base for our studies, and non-German longitudinal studies, methodological problems of measure- including the German Socio-Economic ment, analysis, and modeling, issues of Panel (GSOEP), the Microcensus, the 1% general theory, and empirical work on sample of the Employment Register, the the full set of cohort studies. BIBB/IAB Employment Survey, and the The Center's research program is em- British Household Panel Study. Our pirically based on a series of six retro- major methodological tools consist of spective surveys. These surveys rely on dynamic models of discrete change in population probability samples and were continuous time. Ongoing tasks include conducted from the early 1980s up to maintaining expertise and updating sta- the present. They now comprise quanti- tistical software in this area, as well as fied life histories of 5,591 West German improving practices of exploratory data women and men (the cohorts born in analysis and representation. 1919–21, 1929–31, 1939–41, 1949–51, 1954–56, and 1959–61) and 2,923 East Key References German men and women (the cohorts Brückner, E., & Mayer, born in 1929–31, 1939–41, 1951–53, K. U. (1998). Collecting life history data. Experi- 1959–61, and 1971). Moreover, field- ences from the German work has been concluded and data edit- Life History Study. In J. Z. Giele & G. H. Elder, Jr. ing is in progress for an additional 2,911 (Eds.), Methods of life women and men born in West Germany course research: Qualita- tive and quantitative ap- in 1964 and 1971. Detailed life histories proaches (pp. 152–181). were also obtained for the 516 partici- Thousand Oaks, CA: pants of the Berlin Aging Study, who Sage. were born between 1887 and 1922. All Mayer, K. U. (2000). Promises fulfilled? A re- of these surveys are retrospective stud- view of 20 years of life ies. We also carried out a panel study in course research. Archives Européennes de 1996/97, re-interviewing our East Ger- Sociologie, XLI,2, 259–- man respondents from 1991/92. Data 282. editing, the development and maintenance of the data banks, and data documentation form an important part of our ongoing research work. In the coming years our efforts will concentrate on establishing a more user-friendly data bank containing all of these cohort

175 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Current Research Projects and Research Associates of the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Research Area 1 Research Area 2 Education, Training, and Employment East German Life Courses after Unification (LV-Ost)

Education, Training, and Michael Corsten, Steffen Transformation of the East Anne Goedicke Occupation: Life Courses of Hillmert, Karl Ulrich Mayer, German Labor Market the 1964 and 1971 Birth Antje Mertens, Heike Trappe; • Dissertation Project Anke Höhne Cohorts in West Germany Stefan Bender (IAB), Working Lives in Family Contexts (MPI/IAB)—Cooperative Project Hans Dietrich (IAB) with the German Institute for Transformation Processes in Anne Goedicke, Labor Market Research Poland and East Germany Bogdan Mach, • Dissertation Project Marita Jacob Karl Ulrich Mayer Patchwork or Career? Causes and Consequences of Multiple Educational Bourgeois and Non-Bourgeois Erika M. Hoerning Episodes Intelligentsia in the German • Dissertation Project Holger Seibert Democratic Republic: A Study The German Apprenticeship System of Biographical Upheaval in the 1990s and Its Effects on Individual Employment Chances

Education and Mismatch in Felix Büchel the Labor Market

• Dissertation Project Matthias Pollmann-Schult School Performance, Occupational Choice, and Labor Market Outcomes

Children in the Family Division Helga Zeiher of Labor

Research Area 3 Research Area 4 Welfare State, Life Courses, and Life-Course Research and Analysis: Social Inequalities Theory, Methods, and Synthesis

Political Economy and the Life Fran McGinnity, Steffen Post-War Social Development as Karl Ulrich Mayer Course in Advanced Societies Hillmert, Karl Ulrich Mayer a History of Cohorts (POLIS) International Encyclopedia for Karl Ulrich Mayer • Dissertation Project Alessandra Rusconi Leaving Home In Germany and Italy the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Section on Education Report: Karl Ulrich Mayer Biographies)—Editorial Project Higher Education • Dissertation Project Maike Reimer Psychology of Autobiographical Higher Education in Germany Gero Lenhardt Memory and the Reliability of and the US Retrospective Measurements

Projects Concluded in 1998-2001 P

Occupations as Socialization Michael Corsten, DFG-Project Long-Term Trends in Social Ineke Maas, HISMA-Project Processes Mobility in Comparative Perspective Changes of the Occupational Sylvia Zühlke, Dissertation Project Structure and Work Life Histories Education, Training, and Steffen Hillmert, Dissertation Project in East Germany Transition into the Labor Market: Life Courses and Institutional Organizational Contexts of Anne Goedicke, Dissertation Project Change in Britain and Germany Occupational Careers in East Germany after 1989 Berlin Aging Study (BASE)— Ineke Maas, Karl Ulrich Mayer Sociology and Social Policy Bridges and Traps: Labor Market Britta Matthes, Dissertation Project Entry of Young East Germans Social Participation in Old Age Alexej Bukov, Dissertation Project under System Transformation Social Inequality, Life Course, Thomas Lampert, Dissertation Project and Health at Advanced Ages The Integration of the West and Fabien Jobard, Postdoctoral Project East Berlin Police Force Support and Illness in Old Age Pascale Dorenlot, Postdoctoral Project Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Education, Training, and Occupational Careers: Recent West German Experiences in an Historical and Cross- National Perspective

The research project Education, Training, and Occupation: Life Courses of the 1964 and 1971 Birth Cohorts in West Germany constitutes the latest part of the German Life History Study and focuses on the links between the West German education and employment systems during the 1980s and 1990s. Among the crucial factors shaping the life course during these two decades were educational expansion, occupational change, varying demand on the labor market, and demographic developments.

Including the new data (see text box generational status allocation and to below), our analyses can draw upon the the later life history observed in our life-course data of seven West German data. In reconstructing the collective birth cohorts that enable us to describe transition experiences of successive co- the patterns of transition from general horts, we gain empirical access to the education to vocational or academic historical development of educational training and from training to employ- and occupational patterns in Germany ment. This is important because this from the 1930s onwards. transition process is central to inter-

In 1998 and 1999, we added new data to the German Life History Study by interviewing a sample of 2,911 residents of West Germany born in 1964 and 1971. As a result, the work of the last two years has been mainly concerned with the process of thorough data checking and editing. We have also drawn up a conceptual framework taking up issues that have attracted much attention in public and academic debate (cf. Corsten & Hillmert, 2000). Compared to earlier stages of the German Life History Study, the project has a stronger focus on the details of vocational training and occupational careers. The research has been carried out in collaboration with the Institute of Employment Research (IAB) in Nuremberg. Special methods for enhancing data quality have been introduced to the data collection. For example, computer-aided telephone interviewing was combined with instant consistency checking of major biographical information. The raw data then underwent detailed checking and a process of constantly monitored, rule-based correction; if necessary, respondents were re-interviewed by members of the research group. We intend to combine the close monitoring of this process with our methodological studies.

177 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Labor Market Entry—What Are of the 20th century), rich sequential Scenarios and What Are Facts? data on various domains of life, and the In recent sociological discussions over great efforts that have been made to the future status of work and qualifica- ensure their validity. Our basic assump- The future status tions a popular argument goes that full- tion is that the concepts of the “institu- of work and time employment has lost its role as a tionalization” and “social differentia- qualifications dominant (and realistic) goal in socie- tion” of occupational careers can be ty—standardized forms of employment investigated more closely from an his- no longer play a dominant role in indi- torical perspective. vidual life courses; careers have become highly individualized and increasingly How Stable Have Major Institutions independent of formal qualifications. and Life Courses Been over the Past There is no consensus at all as to Decades? whether this reflects a fundamental in- In Germany, the majority of school- crease in risks for individuals or whether leavers pass through the vocational it constitutes an increase in individual training system. Since the Second World freedom. In any case, empirical ac- War, this has increasingly become the counts of these trends are rare to be standard path taken by young people. In found. While this also applies to macro- his historical study on the development sociological analyses, it is particularly of the German system of vocational true of hypotheses referring to the mi- training, Konietzka (1999a) found crolevel. strong evidence for the stability of both In response to these contemporary the institutional setting and the individ- debates on education and employment, ual consequences of vocational training. we need to acknowledge empirical ob- He was able to show that there are still servations, such as massive distribution- strong links between vocational training al shifts, intense pressure for labor mar- and the first job taken, as well as later ket liberalization, and, at the same time, career choices. continuing educational expansion even These linkages were reconstructed in the youngest cohort, that is, during for five cohorts, including the younger the 1990s. However, our guiding hy- ones born in 1954–56 and 1959–61. At pothesis in this research area is that least two significant results of this in- these recent developments do not nec- vestigation deserve to be mentioned essarily contradict the persistence of a here. First, a lengthening of the transi- close link between education/training tion phase from vocational training to and occupational careers. On the con- the first occupational entries was found trary, our assumption is that institution- in the younger cohorts. This was bal- alized training forms, especially the dual anced out by swifter upward mobility in system of vocational training, and edu- the first phase of employment, however. cational qualifications are still the key Second, with respect to quality and structures in this transition process. This content, 60% of those who completed hypothesis is supported by empirical ev- vocational training subsequently worked idence from our earlier research. in this occupational field, and those Our collection of life-history studies who stayed in the same occupation had represents a unique source of infor- a much better chance of stabilizing or mation, enabling us to shed more light improving their occupational status. on these issues. Major advantages in- Vocational training has become a clude the ability to make long-term his- typical (if not crucial) element of the torical comparisons (covering almost all “normal career” in Germany, and the

178 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course proportion of those successfully com- during the 1980s and 1990s (cf. Hill- pleting their vocational training has in- mert, in press-c). creased across the birth cohorts under It is this very stability in the pat- investigation—not least among women. terns of labor market integration (cf. At the same time, the proportion of also the figure below) that raises fur- those attaining qualifications in other ther questions about the ability of the educational forms in addition to voca- German institutional system to adapt to tional training has also increased. An rapid economic change. Is the dual interpretation of this somewhat para- system of vocational training able to doxical observation could be that voca- provide trainees with the qualifications tional training is a necessary, but not they need for the frequently changing always sufficient, qualification on the demands of the workplace? In this labor market. The first analyses with sense, the need for life-long learning our new data suggest that these rela- has been a major issue over the past tionships have remained rather stable few years.

Dimensions of early careers in Germany–median durations, by birth cohort

8 Job 6 Occupation EGP 4

0 1929–31 1939–41 1949–51 1959–61 Birth cohorts

The figure shows the median durations with the first employer, in the first occupation (ISCO68), and in the first social class (EGP 11) on the basis of Kaplan-Meier estimates (years) for the first stable job. Both the absolute level of mobility and relative differences between the dimensions have remained relatively stable over time. The different stability of jobs and occupations means that employees often stay in the same occupation when changing employers, that is, that the human capital they have acquired can be transferred.

Is There (Still) a “Normal” Life employment continue to be the basic Course? form of “social inclusion” in modern While it is often disputed that full-time welfare states and, on a mesolevel, in employment will persist as the core ele- modern organizations? ment of the individual occupational ca- This project attempts to identify the reer, the structure of the social security extent to which the transitions from system impacts directly on the connec- education to work still reflect the so- tion between employment and retire- called “normal biography,” with a well- ment in the life course. Will full-time defined sequence of events and stages.

179 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

As shown by previous analyses of West cohorts they have shown that male/fe- German life-course data (Mayer, 2001a), male differences in income and social the full-time career was typical of the status can be attributed to different male life-course model, whereas part- constellations of the family and that time work has been an alternative for this is mediated by different institution- women in all birth cohorts. Is the “femi- al contexts. In recent works they have nization” of occupational career pat- looked at occupational gender segrega- terns an expectable trend for the begin- tion in East and West Germany before ning of the new century? Will we be and after unification. able to observe a change in the Finally, educational expansion has male/female distribution of career mod- produced “new” social groups, for ex- els and occupational chances in life? ample, new middle classes and new In order to answer these questions forms of upward mobility into the serv- we need to consider and account for ice sector. What have these changes im- the social context of educational and plied for the structures of social in- working careers, looking, for example, at equality? Have the institutional mecha- the impact of career decisions on family nisms which led to inequality been formation and the effects of changes in weakened or enforced by educational family composition on educational ca- expansion? These questions point to reers. Trappe and Rosenfeld (1998) have links with the issues addressed by the looked at the reproduction of social in- Independent Research Group “Lack of equalities between men and women in Training: Employment and Life life-course data gathered in East and Chances of the Less Educated.” West Germany. Looking at various birth

Average duration of education, full- and part-time employment, and interruption of employment between the age of 15 and time of interview— FRG (birth cohorts 1954–56, 1959–61)

% 100 90 80 70 60 All people at No children at One child at interview interview interview 50 Two children at Three or more interview children at 40 interview 30 20 10 0 Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women (N = 987) (N = 924) (50.7%) (37.0%) (22.7%) (30.6%) (20.6%) (24.9%) (6.0%) (7.5%)

Education Part-time employment Full-time employment Interruption of employment

A dynamic view of social structures: “Life-time budgets” of men and women living in different family constellations (at time of interview).

180 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

How Do (Training) Institutions Func- ... and How Are Individuals Socialized tion and How Do They Compare with within Them? Normative Standards? From this point of view it can be argued Our ongoing research continues to pur- that the dual vocational training system sue questions of institutional adapta- serves as a specific institution of social- Conference “The Future of Training tion. In particular, we aim to evaluate ization. This aspect was further investi- and Work: Challenges recent institutional changes, individual gated in the project “Socialization Cul- for Vocational Training” consequences of the dual system of vo- tures in Occupational Education” (cf. (Jacobs Foundation Conference) cational training, and possible innova- Corsten, 2001). November 2000 tive forms of training and to assess the Three different forms of training Organizers: degree to which training institutions were distinguished: the dual system of Marlis Buchmann & can support individual mobility as a occupational education in vocational Karl Ulrich Mayer, means of adapting to structural occupa- schools and companies, exclusively together with Michael Corsten tional change. school-based learning in training col- When we endeavor to relate institu- leges, and forms of on-the-job training. tional structures to individual lives, we The empirical focus was on occupation- regard occupational careers not only in al groups from the service sector. Cul- terms of qualifying young people for the tures of socialization were analyzed in labor market, but also from the per- three dimensions: (1) qualification, spective of learning and biographical defined in terms of different ways of development. Lifelong learning could be mediating technical competencies, (2) regarded as a temporal pattern of em- discipline, defined in terms of different ployment trajectories and careers. On modes of mediation and normative ori- the other hand, the acquisition and use entations, and (3) the relationship be- of further qualifications in and after the tween selection criteria and the support initial phase of education and training of trainees (and workers). is also an increasingly important aspect from a more cultural perspective. Solga This project was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). and Trappe (2000) have discussed this The aim of the project was to describe how occupational fields of action which are institutionalized in certain forms of vocational new perspective with respect to the ef- training function in terms of socialization. In order to analyze the fects of the German dual vocational processes of occupational socialization in detail and from the trainees’ biographical perspective, we chose an interpretative and training system on the life course. Voca- ethnographic research design. We conducted expert interviews (in- tional training can be observed as a cluding group discussions) with vocational teachers, leaders of oc- phase on three time axes: educational cupational associations, and heads of company departments and working groups. We also conducted semi-structured biographical in- time, work time, and life time. On these terviews with workers trained in five different occupations and held levels, Solga and Trappe have identified group discussions with classes of trainees. ambivalent effects of changing educational patterns. The increasing variabili- We found that in each occupational ty of educational time and work time group a specific socialization pattern causes deviancies from the ideal model was apparent in the process of selec- (in the dimensions of life and education/support, discipline, and mode of tional time) with serious consequences qualification. In the case of hairdressers, for young people’s life planning and cri- for example, we found a correlation be- teria of orientation. Nevertheless, the tween a selection process focusing on dual model of vocational training can the expressive style of the applicant, a still be regarded as providing an interval form of discipline based on traditional of “protected time” within the life norm mediation, and a mode of qualifi- course. cation relying on pedagogically supplemented learning-by-doing. When look-

181 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course ing at the dimensions separately, Life Courses in Advanced Societies re- East/West differences were shown to search network. play an important role in the One part of the life-course project selection/support dimension of social- has been a comparison of the systems ization experiences. On the discipline of education and training in the Unit- level, the specific characteristics of the ed Kingdom and West Germany, and health-care system were significant in their consequences for individual life the three groups of nurses, physiothera- courses (cf. Hillmert, 2001). Using a pists, and (to a lesser extent) beauti- general model that distinguishes be- cians. This was particularly apparent in tween a horizontal, a vertical, and a the rigid performance and insistence on temporal dimension of the process of bureaucratic norms of teachers and in- integration into the labor market, we structors. Gender differences were have shown that the two national sys- found in the qualification dimension: tems of formal institutions represent Women often described difficulties in different modes of coordination be- coping with discrepancies between the- tween the educational system and the oretical and practical learning, whereas labor market. Further pursuing these dimen gained more self-assurance from Employment status of young men (aged 14–30) in Germany (above) training situations in and Britain (below): 1960 birth cohorts which they gained % occupational respon- 100 sibility as fully 90 trained workers. 80 70 Mil. service et al. Are There Different 60 Unemployed “Political Economies 50 Employment 40 Return to education of Life Courses”? Still in education The political situa- 30 tion of post-war 20 Germany is unique, 10 and comparisons of 0 the two parts of Ger- 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 many have had a % prominent position 100 in the German Life 90 History Study (Solga 80 & Konietzka, 1999). 70 We have now begun 60 Mil. service et al. to look for further Unemployed 50 Employment possible comparisons 40 Return to education Still in education in order to extend 30 our research into a 20 broader international 10 context. Here, we 0 have benefited from 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 discussions with the The main international differences include the longer duration of full-time education in Germany (including members of the Poli- “returns” after short interruptions as well as the impact of compulsory military service) and higher rates of tical Economy and youth unemployment in the United Kingdom.

182 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

mensions in empirical terms, the main search has helped to explain why this is stages of research have been to describe so. Rapid institutional changes, espe- the period of transition, to analyze the cially in the United Kingdom during the multidimensional stability of entry posi- 1980s, have led to a much higher de- tions in early careers, and to assess the gree of labor market liberalization. In effects of formal qualifications on the turn, this has undermined collective ef- quality of first jobs. The empirical re- forts to establish common standards for sults suggest that, in Britain, labor mar- vocational training. Overall, the analyses ket entry is largely determined by the provide evidence for institutional path criteria of timing, the hierarchical grad- dependencies and their links to individ- ing of qualifications, and social status, ual life courses in the realm of educa- whereas in Germany, occupational skills tion and training. also play a major role. Historical re-

Mertens (1999) compared patterns cession. As “outsiders” are more likely of job stability in West Germany with to have difficulties finding stable jobs the United States and the United in rough times, separate analyses were Kingdom, where the literature reports carried out for those who had entered some evidence of slightly decreasing their jobs directly from unemployment job stability. Using cross-sectional data or non-participation, and for workers and calendar information from the Ger- who had entered the labor market hav- man Socio-Economic Panel 1984-1997, ing just completed their highest qualifi- a decline in job stability which cannot cation. These groups were compared to fully be explained by the business cycle the “insiders” who had switched from was indeed identified. The median one job to another. While “insiders” elapsed tenure of male workers has de- were less likely to leave their new job, clined from around 10 years to 8.5 “outsiders” faced increasing risks of dis- years; the probability of short-term em- missal. It was also shown that the dis- ployment seems to have increased rela- placement of workers is likely to be the tively steadily for both males and fe- driving force behind this development. males; and the risk of redundancy has Another “case study” within the life- continued to rise, despite the fact that course project has compared the the economy experienced a post-unifi- process of leaving home in Italy and cation boom before the subsequent re- Germany (Rusconi, in press). Leaving

1.0 International and gender differences in the age at 0.9 which children leave the 0.8 parental home: “Survival 0.7 curves” for Germany and Italian men 0.6 Italy, indicating the pro- Italian women portion of those who 0.5 have not yet left home. 0.4 West German men West German women 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 Age in months

183 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course home is considered to be an important ticularly important to further link the event in the transition to adulthood, but life-history (cohort) information to data in its interdependencies and conse- sources that reflect the macrosocial and quences, it is also closely connected to macroeconomic situation in calendar educational and occupational “trajecto- time. From an international perspective, ries” and family decisions. The welfare the question to be asked is whether states of Italy and Germany share com- other societies have developed in a sim- mon features: Although somewhat more ilar way, or whether there has been accentuated in Italy, there is strong variation and institutional path depend- pressure in both countries for parents to ency in these developments. remain financially responsible for their Going back even further in history, children, even when they enter young another project has compared long- adulthood. In the first decades of the term trends in occupational and marital post-war period, the process of leaving mobility in Western countries (Leeuwen home was rather similar in Italy and et al., 1998). Against the background of Germany. Now, however, the process has relatively stable mobility patterns and developed quite differently in the two small between-country differences after countries. Young Italians seem to have the Second World War, we ask whether adopted the strategy of living with their trends were clearer and between-coun- parents for a longer period of time and try differences larger during the 19th do not usually “leave the nest” until and early 20th centuries. International they get married. In contrast, young differences in general mobility rates and Germans become residentially inde- trends will be related to the timing and pendent at an earlier age and experi- extent of industrialization, urbanization, ence various forms of living arrange- educational expansion, and social policy. ments. These developments suggest that Differences in mobility chances within explanations of international differences countries will be related to individual can only be found in a combination of characteristics, such as occupation and macro- and microlevel analyses. literacy, and regional factors, like degree of urbanization and rates of geographi- Can We Distinguish “Eras” of Domi- cal mobility. The main data sources for nant Life-Course Models? What Have the project are church registers and Been the Long-Term Trends in Social censuses. Data sets on occupational Mobility? mobility in 19th-century Sweden, Bel- In political economy, it is common to gium, the Netherlands, France, England, talk about different eras of economic Canada, and the United States have development, work organization, and in- been collected and a network of mobili- stitutional regulation (the “Fordist” ty researchers from these countries model probably being most prominent). (HISMA) has been created. The question arises whether this approach can be transferred to life-course How Do We Ensure the Appropriate research: Has there been an historical Analysis of Life Courses and How Do sequence of dominant life-course mod- We Improve the Quality of Our Data? els and typical “life packages” of events The German Life History Study has al- that are expected to be achieved by a ways been associated with methodolog- given time? The alternative would be ical advances, drawing especially on that there has been only a very loose methods of event-history analysis. In connection of rather continuous devel- the life-course analyses we have con- opments. In this respect, it will be par- ducted over the past few years, we have

184 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course also made use of recent methodological data from our survey and official (longi- innovations, for example, introducing tudinal) data from the Beschäftigten- Heckman-type econometric models that statistik, which is based on data from account for sample selection effects (cf. social security files. (The interviewees’ Engelhardt, 1999). Life history data consent is required for the information essentially represent information about to be matched in each individual case.) individual sequences of activity states, This linkage will allow us to investi- and various attempts have been made gate, for example, the effects of retro- to use the full sequential information spective underestimation of mobility contained in the data. One possibility is due to memory failure, drawing on a re- Optimal-Matching Analysis (Halpin & port that has reviewed the literature on Chan, 1998), which allows whole this topic (Reimer, 2001). It will also al- sequences of life courses—rather than low us to conduct detailed investiga- single transitions—to be compared and tions into the relationships between classified. Another step will be to in- firm characteristics, firm dynamics, and clude techniques of multilevel modeling individual working careers. (Jacob, 2000) and simulation to our re- This will enable us to further pro- search. mote the German Life History Study as As our latest wave of data collection a reliable source of information, espe- (1964 and 1971 cohorts) was carried cially for external researchers interested out in collaboration with the govern- in dynamic analyses on the recent social ment-based Institute of Employment structure of Germany, as well as those Research (IAB), we have a unique op- interested in the more historical and/or portunity to link two independent international context. sources of information: the life-history

Open questions: re-interviewing respondents in the latest part of the German Life History Study.

185 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Education and Mismatch in the Labor Market

Productivity Losses Caused by Unemployment and Overeducation It is widely assumed that the human capital which a society accumulates in the form of edu- Key References cation is a crucial location factor in the context of glob- Büchel, F. (1998). Zuviel gelernt? Ausbildungs- inadäquate Erwerbs- al economic competition. It should, however, be noted tätigkeit in Deutschland. Bielefeld: W. Bertels- that the capital in question here is not the total volume mann (288 p.). of human capital produced by the education system, but Büchel, F., & Weißhuhn, G. (1997a). Ausbil- the human capital invested “productively” in the econo- dungsinadäquate Be- schäftigung der Absol- venten des Bildungssys- my. Because of the mass unemployment currently pre- tems. Berichterstattung zu Struktur und Entwick- vailing in Germany, substantial amounts of human capi- lung unterwertiger Be- schäftigung in West- tal are lying dormant, resulting in overall economic und Ostdeutschland. Berlin: Duncker & underachievement. “Superfluous” skills and qualifica- Humblot (Volkswirt- schaftliche Schriften, tions—those for which there is no demand on the labor 471) (128 p.). market—are not only temporarily sidelined, they are rapidly devalued owing to disuse and a lack of training opportunities. One of the main aims of this project ect was initiated in 1998, Büchel pre- is to draw attention to the fact that the pared a monograph summarizing essen- actual surplus of skills and qualifica- tial information on the subject of over- tions produced by the education system education in Germany (Büchel, 1998). considerably exceeds the surplus indi- Büchel and Weißhuhn also authored a cated in the unemployment statistics, number of other monographs on behalf even when hidden labor reserves are of the German Ministry of Education taken into account. The reason for this and Research (Büchel & Weißhuhn, is that the unused and, therefore, un- 1997a, 1997b, 1997c). productive skills of individuals who are The project is relevant to the re- obviously overqualified must also be search intentions of the Center of Soci- taken into consideration. In Germany, ology and the Study of the Life Course similar to other industrialized for two main reasons. First, the issue of economies, about one sixth of the em- overeducation involves several socioeco- ployed population is considered to be nomic aspects which cannot be dis- overeducated. This calls the efficiency of cussed from a purely economic perspec- the education system into question and tive, but have far-reaching social impli- raises the question of the resultant eco- cations. Second, most of the nomic losses. overeducation research carried out thus German research focusing explicitly far has been cross-sectional. In the mis- on overeducation is still a rare com- match project, we are able to take ad- modity. Before the MPIB mismatch proj- vantage of the Center’s extensive expe-

186 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

rience with longitudinal methodology to overeducated counterparts. This result is Key References establish a longitudinal research per- validated by the finding that overedu- (cont’d) spective for the field of overeducation cated workers seem to be systematically Büchel, F., & Weißhuhn, G. (1997b). Unter Wert research. The project is of particular rel- excluded from on-the-job training verkauft—Ausbildungs- evance to Research Area 1 (”Education, (Büchel & Mertens, 2000). inadäquate Beschäfti- gung von Frauen in Training, and Employment”) since all re- (3) A largely unexplored field in West- und Ostdeutsch- searchers in this area share an interest overeducation research is the motiva- land: Arbeitsbedingun- gen und sozio-ökonomi- in identifying the factors which impede tion of firms to tolerate skill mismatch- sche Bestimmungs- the transition from education to quali- es. The few existing studies conclude gründe. Bielefeld: W. fied employment, that is, to an occupa- that overeducated workers are less pro- Bertelsmann (71 p.). tion which fits in with the expectations ductive than their correctly allocated Büchel, F., & Weißhuhn, G. (1998). Ausbildungs- of those who have acquired specific counterparts as a consequence of frus- inadäquate Beschäfti- skills in the vocational training or uni- tration. These findings raise the ques- gung der Absolventen des Bildungssystems II. versity system. tion of why firms not only refrain from Fortsetzung der Be- dismissing overeducated workers, but in richterstattung zu Struk- tur und Entwicklung un- What Did We Find out? fact hire them in large numbers. Our terwertiger Be- (1) Overeducation researchers have not findings reveal that overeducated work- schäftigung in West- und Ostdeutschland yet reached a consensus on how best to ers are less productive only when com- (1993–1995). Berlin: measure skill mismatch. The lack of a pared with correctly allocated workers Duncker & Humblot standard approach means that tradi- with similar skills, that is, workers with (Volkswirtschaftliche Schriften, 471/II) (85 p.). tional labor market researchers are very the same educational level, but higher Büchel, F. (in press). hesitant to accept this young discipline. job requirement levels. This is not sur- Overqualification—Rea- Thus, the first phase of the project con- prising, because the overeducated—by sons, measurement issues, and typological sisted in a broad analysis of measure- definition—work in jobs with lower skill affinity to unemployment problems within the context of requirements. When job requirement ment. In P. Descy & M. Tessaring (Eds.), Training overeducation research. The typological levels are kept constant, however—as is in Europe. Background similarity between unemployment and the case when personnel managers are report to the second report on vocational train- overeducation was also carved out by charged with filling a specific vacancy— ing research in Europe analyzing standard subjective measures the reverse was found to be the case. 2000. Luxembourg: in unemployment research, for example, Office for Official Publi- Overqualified employees were healthier, cations of the European the life satisfaction and political apti- more strongly work- and career-minded, Communities (CEDEFOP tude of unemployed, overeducated, and more likely to participate in on-the-job reference document). correctly allocated workers (Büchel, in training, and had longer periods of Büchel, F. (in press). The effects of overeducation press-b). tenure with the same firm than their on productivity in Ger- (2) One of the most popular expla- correctly allocated colleagues who—by many—The firms' viewpoint. Economics of Edu- nations for the existence of overeduca- definition—were less well-educated. No cation Review. tion is the career mobility theory devel- significant differences in job satisfac- oped by Sicherman and Galor. According tion were found. These findings are con- to this theory, it may be rational for sistent with the established fact that employees to accept an overeducated overeducated workers receive wage pre- status at the beginning of their career miums for their surplus schooling. The path because wage losses are (over-) overall results make the hiring of over- compensated by better promotion qualified applicants understandable and prospects. We found no empirical evi- could explain the employers’ motivation dence to support this theory, however. to accept persistent overeducation in When controlling for the starting level— the labor force (Büchel, in press-a). which is crucial—the career paths of (4) A major issue in German overed- correctly allocated workers are signifi- ucation research is the question of cantly steeper than those of their whether overeducation patterns are

187 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Key References mainly determined by (inefficient) insti- overeducated. One of several competing (cont’d) tutional characteristics of the education explanations is that gender-specific dif- Daly, M. C., Büchel, F., system, or whether some degree of skill ferences in rates of overeducation are & Duncan, G. J. (2000). Premiums and penalties mismatch is inevitable in highly differ- caused by spatial constraints on married for surplus and deficit entiated labor markets (as anticipated women. According to the theory of dif- education: Evidence from the United States by neoclassical theory in the case of ferential overqualification developed by and Germany. In H. ”natural” unemployment). This question Frank (1978), married women living in Oosterbeek (Ed.), The economics of over- and was addressed by conducting a compar- rural areas run a higher risk of working underschooling. Eco- ative analysis of data gathered in Ger- in jobs for which they are overqualified. nomics of Education many and the US. Together with co-au- This is due to the problem of a dual job Review, 19, 169–178 (Special Issue). thors from the US, we compared simi- search being much more difficult to op- larities and differences in the incidence timize than a single job search. In such and wage effects of over- and under- a situation, husbands tend to follow the education in the US and West Germany. "Male Chauvinist Family Location Deci- Two points in time were analyzed in the sion Rule" (Frank) and optimize their US, and it emerged that there were personal job search—possibly by inter- more similarities between the two regional migration. Wives are "tied countries than over time in the US. movers" or "tied stayers" (Mincer, 1978), Bearing in mind the substantial differ- and look for a job only under the condi- ences in the structuring of the education their husbands already have found tion system and the labor market in the their optimal job—which determines two countries, this is a remarkable re- their specific local labor market. Partic- sult (Daly, Büchel, & Duncan, 2000). ularly in rural areas with small local la- (5) In Germany, women are not only bor markets, this leads to a higher risk more likely than men to be unemployed, of mismatch between formal qualifica- they are substantially more likely to be tions and job requirements. Only McGoldrick and Educational mismatch in the German labor market Robst (1996) and Battu, Seaman, and % Sloane (2000) have 100 Overeducated men Correctly allocated men Undereducated men previously tested this 90 Overeducated women Correctly allocated women Undereducated women theory empirically, and their results led 80 them to reject the 70 theory. In contrast, our own findings are 60 consistent with 50 Frank’s theory (Büchel, 2000b). 40 However, at this 30 stage of research we can only speculate 20 about the factors 10 that produce this un- satisfactory discrep- 0 Graduates from University Graduates from University ancy in result pat- vocational schools graduates vocational schools graduates terns. There is an ob- West Germany East Germany vious need for Source: Own calculations from the German Socio-Economic Panel GSOEP (1998). further research.

188 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

What Would We Like to Know? GSOEP (1994–1998) and the 1991/92 (1) Spatial factors implying a higher risk BIBB/IAB Employment Survey, and US of overeducation have, as yet, only been data from the Panel Study of Income analyzed in the very specific context of Dynamics (PSID, 1993–1997) and the Further research married women (see above). We plan to 1992 Highschool & Beyond Survey perspectives analyze the impact of local labor (HS&B). This project will be sponsored markets and regional mobility on the by the Federal Ministry of Education risk of skill mismatch in a more general and Research, and the central results form. For this purpose, multilevel re- are expected to be included in the Min- gression models (individual level, house- istry’s annual Report on Germany’s hold level, and regional level) will be Technological Capability. developed using data from the German (3) In Germany, overeducation is Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP). The data much more widespread among non- protection commissioner has already graduates with vocational qualifica- granted us special permission to use in- tions than among graduates. formation on the GSOEP individuals' Neubäumer has developed a plausible place of residence. This information can theoretical framework to explain this be matched with information about lo- kind of mismatch (Neubäumer, 1999). cal labor market structures, local unem- According to Neubäumer, branches that ployment rates, branch structures, etc. offer jobs with poor working conditions The research will be conducted in co- tend to train more apprentices than will operation with Maarten van Ham be required as skilled workers. This from the Faculty of Geographical Sci- strategy compensates for the above- ences at the University of Utrecht, the average rates of anticipated dropout, Netherlands. resulting in a systematic overproduction (2) Overeducated status can be of skills in specific occupations (ironi- taken as evidence of a jobholder's flexi- cally, mainly in those occupations with bility. Flexibility and mobility are impor- a low market applicability, such as hair- tant mechanisms which enhance the dressing). Hence, those trained in these efficiency of allocation on the labor branches tend to have above-average market. In general, the level of flexibil- rates of overeducation (and unemploy- ity and mobility displayed by German ment). The planned analyses will be per- employees is considered to be below formed in cooperation with Renate average. We intend to analyze flexibility Neubäumer and will be based on data and mobility on the labor market, look- from the BIBB/IAB Employment Survey. ing for as many objective and subjective (4) Although the German school sys- indicators as possible. This will enable tem is characterized by a strong and us to consider skill mismatch in a persistent trend toward higher educa- broader context than is usually the tion, most German school-leavers still case. Seen from the individual perspec- enter into vocational training. It is thus tive, is mismatch primarily a voluntary a matter of interest to determine or an involuntary outcome? Are there whether the vocational training sys- specific groups with atypically low flex- tem is able to adapt to the changed cir- ibility and mobility? Can efficient policy cumstances, that is, to continue to offer measures to improve flexibility and mo- young people a form of training which bility be identified? Special emphasis will protect them from later unemploy- will be placed on the graduate labor ment or overeducation. The analyses market, and on a German/US compar- will focus on long-term trends in the ison based on German data from the training-to-work transition in Germany

189 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course and will also be based on data from the 1964 and 1971 (collected by our Center BIBB/IAB Employment Survey. in 1998), contains information on both (5) A general assumption underlying the grades attained in apprenticeships overeducation research is that overedu- and on any skill mismatch in the job cated workers are less ”able” than cor- performed at the date of interview. rectly allocated workers with compara- These data will be used to analyze the ble formal qualifications. However, this correlation between ability and assumption—which is consistent with a overeducation, measuring ability not by neoclassical view of labor markets—has the type of qualification acquired, as is never been explicitly proved. This could usually the case, but by the grades be due to the fact that ability-related achieved within comparable types of information (beyond the school-leaving qualification. Questions about school certificate held) is rare in micro-eco- grades will be included in the GSOEP for nomic data sets, particularly in Ger- the first time in the 2001 questionnaire. many. However, the German Life History This information (expected to be avail- Study (GLHS) which provides life-course able for public use in fall 2002) will be data for West German cohorts born in used to validate our results.

The Longitudinal Working Group Berlin and Brandenburg (LWBB) (Längsschnitt-Werkstatt Berlin-Brandenburg [LWBB])

The LWBB was founded in 1996 by an initiative of 17 young researchers working in the Berlin/Brandenburg area. These founding members included several researchers from our Center (Martin Diewald, Götz Rohwer, and Heike Solga). Two of the other founding members subsequently joined the Center (Felix Büchel from the Technical University of Berlin and Antje Mertens from Berlin's Humboldt University). The main impulse behind this initiative was the unanimous opinion that longitudinal research needs to be promoted. The aim was to create a local network to facilitate data access and improve the transfer of technical and methodological know-how. In addition, the LWBB was set up to stimulate cooperation among its members, with a special accent being placed on interdisciplinarity. The founding members included sociologists, economists, and political scientists. The LWBB is affiliated with the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW) in Berlin, the workplace of the initiative's spiritus rec- tor, Jürgen Schupp. All expenses incurred in the work of the LWBB (over DM 200,000 in total) have been fully funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research. One of the working group's main activities has been the establishment of a powerful server at the DIW, providing access to about 20 of the most important longitudinal data sets from Germany and abroad. Public access to these data is made easier than usual by providing support for users in terms of data-protection declarations and the technical assistance of a student worker. The data server at the DIW provides guest researchers with access to longitudinal studies including the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), the British Household Panel Study (BHPS), the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey (RLMS), the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), and, of course, the German Socio-Economic Panel survey (GSOEP). Different data formats are available, and access and links to the Geo- code information are included. Other LWBB activities have included arranging a series of seminars on methodological issues, inviting distinguished lecturers to address the group (Prof. M. A. Ferber, Prof. J. A. Nelson, and others), holding workshops on specific datasets, and organizing or co-organizing the following conferences: • Labor market statistics between reality and fiction (September 1997, Berlin) • Longitudinal data in social stratification monitoring (March 1998, Berlin) • The polarization of occupational and life chances—Is Germany establishing an underclass? (October 1998, Berlin) • Recent trends and methods of social stratification research (April 1999, Potsdam) • Low pay—low qualification? Opportunities and risks of a low pay sector in Germany (May 2000, Berlin) The following publications have resulted from these conferences: Schupp, J., Büchel, F., Diewald, M., & Habich, R. (Eds.). (1998). Arbeitsmarktstatistik zwischen Realität und Fiktion (Labor market statistics between reality and fiction), Berlin: edition sigma (Series "Sozialstruktur und Sozialberichterstattung" of WZB Berlin) (240 p.). Büchel, F., Diewald, M., Krause, P., Mertens, A., & Solga, H. (Eds.). (2000). Zwischen drinnen und draußen. Arbeitsmarktchancen und soziale Ausgrenzung in Deutschland (Labor market prospects and social exclusion in Germany), Leverkusen: Leske + Budrich (236 p.). All papers presented at the "Low pay—low qualification?” conference are available on a CD jointly released by our Center and the DIW. The members of the LWBB are currently engaged in intense discussion on the future of the initiative. The main question is whether to apply for additional funding and for which specific purposes.

190 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

East German Life Courses during the Transformation of the Former GDR

Despite considerable research to document and describe the political, social, and economic changes that have taken place in East Germany since 1989, accounts of these transition processes are still characterized by a weak understanding of their dynamics, long-term causes, and lasting consequences. The unique expertise of the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course enables the societal transformation of East Germany to be placed in an historical and cross-national perspective, thus allowing theoretical generalizations to be drawn. Drawing on a series of quantitative life-course studies, as well as qualitative accounts of institution (re-)building, we are able to systematically investigate the new, post-1989 society in East Germany and to compare it to the past society. In the first half of the 1990s, our re- perhaps as a result of their state-social- search on East Germany (primarily with- ist specificity? Have new social posi- in the project "Life Courses and His- tions emerged, possibly as a result of torical Change in the German Demo- the market character of the “destina- cratic Republic”) focused on a tion” society? Assuming that a change reconstruction of GDR society and its in social positions has occurred, which social history. Based on these results, a mechanisms were operating and how follow-up project "East German Life were people matched to the new posi- Courses after the Transformation” (in tions? How did individuals and families progress since 1995) was designed to in East Germany cope with institutional investigate the process of transforma- and organizational change on the labor tion in East Germany and the associated market and in society in general? Since process of German unification. This societal transformation in East Germany project involves studying the life cours- was accompanied by a massive transfer es of different birth cohorts as "mirrors" of institutions from West to East Ger- of social change, while bearing in mind many, a baseline hypothesis is that sim- the inner dynamics of individual trajec- ilarities and differences between insti- tories. tutions in the GDR (the society of One of our research questions is how “departure”) and institutions in West the system of social inequality has Germany (the society of “destination”) changed in East Germany since 1989. are of great consequence for individu- Have old social positions disappeared, als' success or failure after 1989.

191 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

A first phase of the project "Life toral thesis on the labor market entry of Courses and Historical Change in the young East Germans is in preparation. German Democratic Republic” was com- In addition to these studies, research pleted in the summer of 2000. Research findings have been presented in a series here concentrated on restructuring of publications. Furthermore, important processes in the labor market, one of results were discussed with external Conference the main domains of social stratifica- scholars at a conference that we or- “The Incomplete tion and social inequality. We explored ganized in November 1999 on the oc- Unification: Social Inequalities and the shaping of employment histories by casion of the tenth anniversary of the Occupational institutions and organizations, and en- fall of the Berlin Wall. Since studies re- Trajectories in dogenous causalities of individual ca- stricted to East German data continually East Germany” reers, with special emphasis on time- raise questions about the extent and November 1999 dependencies. Patterns and causal con- specificity of change, we relate our Organizers: Karl Ulrich Mayer, ditions of individual employment analyses on East German societal trans- Martin Diewald, & histories in post-1989 East Germany formation to the pre-1989 GDR, to Heike Solga have been analyzed in two doctoral the- West Germany, and to Poland as an ex- ses and one habilitation thesis. A doc- ample of another post-socialist society.

The East German Life History Study The main empirical basis for our life-course analyses of East Germans is a data set that combines a panel survey with an event-history design. In 1991/92, a total of 2,331 East German men and women from four birth cohorts were interviewed about their whole life history. These interviews were conducted as part of the project "Life Courses and Historical Change in the Former GDR." In 1996/97, we succeeded in re-interviewing 1,394 of these participants by applying a combined CATI and CAPI strategy. The participants were again asked to give complete employment and family histories for the period since December 1989. These longitudinal data are suitable for use with methods of event-history analysis. Compared to earlier life-course studies, more detailed information was collected about organizational contexts of occupational careers within firms and subjective dimensions of developmental regulation, such as control beliefs, perceived primary and secondary control, and self-esteem. The latter information was combined with the first measurement of a postal follow- up survey carried out in 1993, thus allowing investigation of the interplay between life courses and individual development. A non-response study produced an additional 200 cases for the initial four birth cohorts. A new birth cohort was added in 1996/97, namely 610 men and women who were born in 1971. The special focus here was on the investigation of processes of labor market entry and family formation under the conditions of system transformation. The field work for the three data samples (panel study, non-response study, and 1971 birth cohort) was carried out in 1996/97, and since then a considerable amount of effort has been put into editing, completing, and documenting these complex data sets.

New Patterns of Social Inequality: rates of job mobility in East Germany The East German Labor Market since was mainly a result of individual at- 1989 tempts to avoid unemployment after In the 1990s, the East German labor firm closures or downsizing. The pro- market was characterized by a mixture portion of external job shifts (i.e., shifts of upheaval and continuity with the old between firms) grew, while the propor- system. Economic transformation and tion of internal shifts declined (Diewald, the transfer of institutions from West 2000b). Older cohorts, in particular, to East Germany led to the rapid estab- were forced to become mobile at a lishment of high and seemingly perma- point in life at which they would nor- nent unemployment. Job mobility in- mally have entered stable careers with- creased, but most changes of job or in firm-internal labor markets. Individ- employer did not result in enhanced ca- ual job mobility did not only rise in reer prospects or promotions. On the comparison to the former GDR—it was contrary, the tendency toward higher also much higher than in West Ger-

192 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course many or even Poland. Rather surprising- Despite widespread discontinuity in ly, the devaluation of biographical as- East Germans’ occupational careers, the sets, breaks in occupational careers, and pattern of social inequality was not the risk of unemployment were much completely changed. Institutional simi- more prevalent in East Germany than in larities between the GDR and West Ger- post-socialist Poland. However, the many, on the one hand, and the transfer higher instability in occupational ca- of institutions from West to East after reers was compensated for by much 1989, on the other, resulted in continu- higher wages and unemployment bene- ities in social status over the course of fits than in Poland (see Diewald, 2000b; the transformation (see Mayer, 2001c). Mach & Solga, 1997; Diewald, Mach, & Such similarities are of special interest Solga, 2000). to us with respect to job-shift patterns

Life time budget: %-distributions of occupational position (incl. nonemployment statuses) between December 1989 and March 1996—East German women Cumulative % Born 1939–41 Born 1951–53 Born 1959–61 100 100 100 90 90 90 80 80 80 70 70 70 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 Managers, civil servants ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 (upper and high grade) Date Professionals Middle white-collar, civil servants (middle grade), masters Life time budget: %-distributions of occupational position Lower white-collar, civil servants (incl. nonemployment statuses) between December 1989 and (lower grade) March 1996—East German men Self-employed, independent Cumulative professionals, % Born 1939–41 Born 1951–53 Born 1959–61 (co-operative) farmers 100 100 100 Skilled workers, foremen 90 90 90 Un- and semi-skilled workers Unemployed, retraining 80 80 80 Nonemployed 70 70 70 Pensioners 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 0 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 Date

193 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

and the system of occupational train- qualified workers, and older employees, ing and certification. The determinants suffer from displacement, but the of job-shift rates suggest that before mechanisms of their exclusion are often 1989 work-life mobility in both coun- subtle and blurred by labor market seg- tries was governed in a similar way by mentation. The theoretical framework of labor-force experience and educational life-course research predicts differences credentials (Solga & Konietzka, 1999), between birth cohorts, and our research although East Germany was less seg- indeed reveals remarkable differences in mented by gender, social class, and the the post-unification labor market op- industrial sector, and was instead char- portunities of different birth cohorts. acterized by a stronger tendency toward Older individuals (born around 1930) internal job shifts. It emerged that were excluded from the labor market by mechanisms operating in both East and early retirement. Of those who entered West Germany prior to 1989, such as the labor market before 1989 and who the German form of “occupationalized were not hit by early retirement, men credentialism” and internal labor mar- and women born around 1940 were kets, did not lose their efficacy after the most vulnerable to the risks of the Berlin Wall came down. Yet because of changing labor market and experienced the interplay with the opportunity significantly more “losses” than other structure, these similarities resulted in cohorts. different outcomes in East and West Historical time turned out to be a Germany. Such findings contribute to central factor in the distribution of la- the theoretical understanding of the bor market opportunities after 1989. In regime-specific embedding of “general” addition to the major breaks that oc- institutions (Solga & Diewald, 2001). curred around 1989, the transformation Notable differences were observed in process can be divided into historical the opportunity structures of differ- periods characterized by different op- ent social groups. It comes as no sur- portunity structures and mechanisms of prise that groups, such as women, less- allocating persons to jobs and other social positions. For a Historical rates for selected mobility types in East Germany number of reasons, 0,020 the first two years ABC Transition into D 0,018 unemployment of the transforma- 0,016 Shifts between occupations tion were much 0,014 Direct firm shifts more open to “ir- 0,012 regular” occupa- 0,010 tional shifts and 0,008 external job shifts 0,006 than the years after 0,004 1992. After 1992, Monthly transition rate* 0,002 the competition for 0,000 jobs again began to 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 increase, and the chances of disad- * Monthly transition rate = number of events occurring in a given month divided vantaged groups by the number of persons at risk. declined further A – Unification, October 3, 1990; (see Solga, Diewald, B – End of short-time work schedule; & Goedicke, 2000). C – End of first period “window of opportunity”; D – End of “bad-weather allowance” for construction workers.

194 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

The Processing of Occupational groups hitherto unconcerned with edu- Change: Occupational Shifts and cation (workers and peasantry). But Training since the children of this first genera- Occupational qualifications continue to tion of graduates demanded the same represent a major allocation mechanism level of education as their parents, GDR in the East German labor market. How- society shifted increasingly toward stra- ever, East Germans have had to adapt to tum-specific differentiation and a re- rapid shifts in the occupational struc- production of societal structures. Case ture and new demands for qualifica- studies of the "socialist intelligentsia" tions. In her doctoral thesis, Sylvia Zühl- conducted by Erika Hoerning examine ke analyzed the consequences of occu- the role of the profession in biographi- pational change—that is, changes in job cal (re-)orientation. The professional requirements and responsibilities (a and life histories (narratives) of 31 qualitative dimension) and shifts in women and men born between 1929 demand for certain qualifications (a and 1938 (the generation that rebuilt quantitative dimension)—for individual Germany after the Second World War) occupational careers. She investigated and between 1950 and 1960 were processes of individual occupational re- recorded on repeated occasions, allow- orientation between 1989 and 1996 in ing us to describe the social character two professional groups: clerks and of the educated class (the new socialist manual workers. Occupational shifts intelligentsia) and the professional cul- were differentiated into further qualifi- tures of the former GDR, as well as the cations and professional reorientations, life courses of both bourgeois and non- and these were explored as individual bourgeois members of the intelligentsia. (time-dependent) responses to experi- It was then possible to observe the re- ences of unemployment. Furthermore, orientation process retrospectively by occupational shifts were analyzed in an examining the transition to "new" so- institutional context, with reference to cial, cultural, and political structures, two settings: training provided by firms and obtaining information about how and government training schemes. The retrospective assessments change over results show that the two professional the course of time and life. The study groups displayed very different patterns shows that success (or failure) in coping of adaptation to the new labor market with the transformation process is not conditions. These patterns appear to be only a function of the individual biogra- dependent on the transferability of hu- phical capital, but is highly dependent man capital and on continuities in indi- on the historical development of the in- vidual employment histories (see Zühlke, stitutions (professions) to which individ- 2000). uals belong. The institutional and biographical transfer to/integration into the Professions as Frames in Times of "new" Federal Republic is being ex- Biographical Upheaval: Bourgeois and plored in case studies on a number of Non-Bourgeois Intelligentsia in the professional groups: medical, law, me- GDR and after 1990 dia, and science professionals, university The socialist intelligentsia, or the edu- professors, managers in industry and cated class, appeared with the founda- science, the clergy. These case studies tion of the GDR in 1949 and was dis- will be discussed within the framework solved along with the state in 1990. The of current theoretical debates on pro- original intention was for the ranks of fessions in a book in progress: "Intelli- the intelligentsia to be open to social genz, Experten, Professionen."

195 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Institutions as Bridges and Traps: The tween the restructuring of the East Labor Market Entry of Young East German industrial landscape and the Germans individual employment trajectories of A central question in the dissertation East German employees after 1989. Two currently being prepared by Britta organizational characteristics were as- Matthes is how the institutions of the sumed to be of particular importance educational system, the system of oc- with regard to exits from and entries cupational education, and the labor into firms: the renewal of the firm pop- market overlap and connect with one ulation in East Germany after 1989 (in- another. Matthes examines the early cluding the founding, downsizing, clos- employment careers of young East Ger- ing, and restructuring of enterprises) mans under system transformation— and the orientation of personnel strate- more specifically, the process of labor gies toward internal or external labor market entry of those who were born in markets. Different conceptions of or- the former GDR in 1971 and, thus, ex- ganizations (in particular as job systems perienced the fall of the Wall at the and as purposeful agents) were com- age of 18. She addresses the question bined to trace the impact of these fac- of whether the specific institutional tors on individual employment histories. settings during system transformation The study linked individual mobility to have led to a more open or closed situ- shifts in employers' demand for labor ation with respect to the impact of the and demonstrated that individuals' em- social background, the reversibility of ployment histories have been strongly life events, occupational selection, and influenced by the fate of industries and stigmatization. A major theoretical con- single companies in East Germany. tribution of this study consists in the Mechanisms of discrimination against link between intergenerational and in- women, less-educated workers, and tragenerational patterns of social selec- older employees could be attributed tion. Decisions about the level of edu- more specifically to selection processes cation that were made within families at firm entry and/or exit, and it was in the GDR are seen as structuring shown that these groups of people suf- training and employment opportunities fered from different types of disadvan- after 1989. However, individual assets tages. Time dependencies in the em- acquired in the GDR were devaluated by ployment system could be attributed to the change of regime, even if they did organizational change (see Goedicke, affect early employment careers. The 2000). training experiences and first jobs of the 1971 birth cohort are compared to The Usefulness of Resources Acquired those of the 1959/61 East German birth in the GDR before 1989 cohort, and, thus, embedded into an Any societal transformation challenges historical context. “normal” expectations of cumulative causal contingencies of the individual Organizational Contexts of Employ- life course. Our collection of East Ger- ment Careers: Firm Development and man employment histories shows that Personnel Strategies after 1989 many former “investments” (e.g., in ed- Formal organizations such as firms play ucation, firm commitments, work expe- an important role in mediating between rience) have been devaluated, while institutions and the individual life former barriers to occupational success course. The doctoral thesis prepared by (e.g., “lack” of political loyalty) have Anne Goedicke studied the nexus be- disappeared. Yet continuities in occupa-

196 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course tional behavior and success can also be bor market; third, a time dimension, observed. The question thus arises of meaning that the transformation is not where and under which circumstances just a single “event,” but a process di- continuity as opposed to “interruption” vided into different developmental can be found in the life courses of indi- phases. In his habilitation thesis, Martin viduals. It is crucial for the interplay be- Diewald looked at contingencies of East tween individual characteristics (e.g., German life courses before and after functional skills, self-esteem, etc.) and 1989. He conceptualized the link be- structural opportunities (e.g., job vacan- tween structural and individual perspec- cies, gender segregation, age discrimi- tives via processes of selection and nation, etc.) to be considered from a adaptation in different historical and developmental perspective. Three di- institutional contexts (see Diewald, mensions are especially important: first, 2000b). a before-after dimension—the “legacy” While occupational qualifications of life in the GDR was not simply de- and firm tenure acquired in the GDR stroyed by the abolition of its political, emerged to be very important for em- economic, and social institutions, but is ployment stability after 1989, a surpris- incorporated into individual life courses ing and somewhat perplexing empirical which reflect a variety of selection and result is that GDR residents who showed adaptation processes in different phases initiative in their job seeking had a proof GDR history; second, a dimension of fessional orientation and experience of individual-institution interdependence, firm and job mobility and were general- emphasizing that the interplay between ly no better off in the labor market after personal and situational characteristics 1989 (see Diewald, 1999c; Diewald, might vary between segments of the la- Goedicke, & Solga, 2000).

Research Perspectives Over the coming years, life-course research at the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course will continue to systematically examine patterns of social stratification under conditions of rapid social change. Three types of research will be central to our work: (1) comparative analyses of East and West Germany (including the labor market entry of East and West Germans born in 1971) as well as comparisons between East Germany and other post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries; (2) further investigation of the nexus between different institutions and organizations shaping employment trajectories under conditions of rapid social change (e.g., the nexus between firms and occupations, or that between households and labor markets); (3) longitudinal analyses that, from a life-course perspective, explore long-term developments within careers through different societal settings, thus exploit- ing the unique potential of our data on the GDR. Ten years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, transformation research is slowly dissolving as a separate topic of empirical inquiry. It has to be replaced by a pan- German and international comparative perspective, as well as by a deeper theoretical understanding of the long-term causes and consequences of system change.

197 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Further Projects and Activities

The Berlin Aging Study (BASE)—Sociology and Social Policy The Sociology and Social Policy Unit of - Wagner, M., Schütze, Y., & Lang, the Berlin Aging Study formally con- F. R. Social relationships in old age cluded its main research activities with (pp. 282–301). the joint publication of the English Three dissertation theses have been Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, version of the BASE monography completed: K. U. (Eds.). (1999). The (Baltes & Mayer, 1999). The unit con- - Bukov, A. (2001). Social participation Berlin Aging Study. Ag- ing from 70 to 100. New tributed to 11 of the 18 chapters of the in old age. Free University of Berlin. York: Cambridge Univer- book, not least in the area of interdisci- - Gilberg, R. (2000). Hilfe- und sity Press (552 p.). plinary studies such as: Pflegebedürftigkeit im höheren Alter. - Baltes, M. M., Maas, I., Wilms, H.-U., Eine Analyse des Bedarfs und der Borchelt, M., & Little, T. D. Everyday Inanspruchnahme von Hilfeleistun- competence in old and very old age: gen. Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Theoretical considerations and empir- Bildungsforschung (Studien und ical findings (pp. 384–402). Berichte, 68) (293 p.). - Linden, M., Horgas, A. L., Gilberg, R., - Lampert, T. (2001). Social inequali- & Steinhagen-Thiessen, E. The utiliza- ties, life course and health in older tion of medical and nursing care in age. Berlin: Free University of Berlin. old age (pp. 430–474). Moreover, the project's longitudinal - Maas, I., Borchelt, M., & Mayer, K. data on the relationships between mor- U. Generational experiences of old tality, on the one hand, and socioeco- people in Berlin (pp. 83–110). nomic inequalities and social support, - Marsiske, M., Delius, J., Maas, I., on the other, have been analyzed as Lindenberger, U., Scherer, H., & part of a postdoctoral research project Tesch-Römer, C. Sensory systems in by Pascale Dorenlot, who joined the old age (pp. 360–383). Institute in the framework of the MPG- - Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A. M., CNRS cooperation program in connec- Linden, M., & Maas, I. Self, personali- tion with the Centre Marc Bloch in ty, and life regulation: Facets of psy- Berlin. chological resilience in old age (pp. 302–328).

The Unification of the Berlin Police Force: An Example of Institution Rebuilding after 1989 Another MPG-CNRS postdoctoral fel- West Berlin Police force took over its low, Fabien Jobard, has worked on a counterpart in the East of the city. From case study examining the process of in- then on, police officers in the former tegration of the West and East Berlin GDR had to implement laws and regu- police forces in the years following uni- lations with which they were not famil- fication (see Jobard, 2000). At the end iar. Several aspects of institution build- of 1989, two coexisting police forces ing were observed, including the efforts were charged with protecting one pub- of the East German police chiefs to lic order in the administratively divided shape new administrative languages city of Berlin. In October 1990, the and programs, the East German officers'

198 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

resistance to the loss of public legitima- ranks of the West Berlin police force, cy and of their institution, and various where many rank-and-file-officers sim- attempts made by the West Berlin ply refused to collaborate with their police force to gain control over the "colleagues" from the East, and in the process of unification of the two forces ranks of the East Berlin police force, and deal with the new agenda. These where deep and sudden uncertainty was observations help to explain the non- felt, as well as individual and collective mobilization that occurred both in the stigmatization.

Children in the Family Division of Labor Only recently have sociologists began to trends toward more maternal participa- analyze the kind of intergenerational tion in the labor market may challenge relationships that are actually practiced these patterns. Case studies of ten- in real family life. The division of do- year-old children have been conducted, mestic labor between children and with each child being followed through adults in the family is an important the entire sequence of his or her activi- topic in this context (Hengst & Zeiher, ties on seven days. Analysis starts with 2000a; Zeiher, 2000a, in press-b). The the investigation of transitions from dominating social pattern of childhood one activity to the next in order to re- as a period of development and learn- construct every decision in its situa- ing has increased the care dependency tion-specific and biographical contexts. of today's children. If children do not The results of these decision analyses participate in domestic work serving form the basis of subsequent analysis common needs and reciprocal care, the on the specificity of intergenerational question may arise of whether this processes in each family. Comparisons might dissolve the links between chil- are made in order to outline differences dren and adults and result in further and similarities in individual childhoods, separation of the generations. On the and to reveal general characteristics of other hand, recent changes in the roles social childhood which are apparent in of the mother and the housewife and the daily life of particular individuals.

Higher Education: A Comparative Study of Germany and the United States The system of higher education has also ory of the "expert culture." Both are attracted increased public attention theories of social development, institu- over recent years, with reform proposals tional rationalization, and socialization. often alluding to the situation in the It emerges that Parsons' professional- USA. This is the background to our ization theory is congruent in all three comparative analysis of higher educa- of these respects with Humboldt's con- tion in Germany and the United States cept of the modern research university, (Higher Education and Professionalism). which is still a prominent feature in The study focuses on the institutional contemporary debate. Common denom- structures and their links to moderniza- inators include the concepts of individ- tion in the two countries (see Lenhardt ualism as an institutional characteristic & Spear, 2000). The theoretical point of of the democratic society, academic departure is provided by Parsons' theory freedom in higher education, and the of professionalization and Weber's the- culture of professionalism. It is general-

199 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course ly assumed that the systems of higher project, the progress of individualism is education in Germany and the USA are reconstructed with regard to the rela- increasingly giving institutional expres- tionship between higher education, the sion to the normative concept of citi- state and the civil society, the rationali- zenship. Yet, the German system seems zation of the internal structure of uni- to be doing so only with some delay. versities, the distinction between "pure" The German system still bears traces of and "applied" science, and the social the anti-individualist "expert culture" role of students. dating back to feudal absolutism. In this

Higher Education in Germany: Institutional Development, Personnel Structure and Careers, and Labor Markets Higher education in Germany has also member of the Wissenschaftsrat com- been the focus of a number of further mittees on Higher Education and the research activities of both basic and Labor Market (1999) and Personnel applied concern. Karl Ulrich Mayer Structures and Qualification Processes joined the editors and authors of the (2001), and as co-chair of the Commit- new Bildungsbericht, contributing a tee for the Development of Higher Edu- major chapter on the structure and re- cation in Saxony (2000/2001). A by- cent developments of the tertiary sec- product of this kind of "fieldwork" has tor. This undertaking builds on his in- been a smaller study on "Science as tensive committee work as chair and Vocation or Career?" (Mayer, in press-a).

The Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 2001

Left to right: Marita Jacob, Maike Reimer, Holger Seibert, Steffen Hillmert, Karl Ulrich Mayer, Michael Corsten, Erika M. Hoerning, Felix Büchel, Helga Zeiher, Matthias Pollmann-Schult, Anne Goedicke, Britta Matthes, Alessandra Rusconi; not pictured: Antje Mertens, Heike Trappe, Gero Lenhardt.

200 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Publications 1998–2000

Baltes, M. M., Maas, I., Wilms, 403–429). New York: Cambridge – (1999). Productivity effects of Büchel, F., & Engelhardt, H. (in H., Borchelt, M., & Little, T. D. University Press. overeducation in West Germany: press). Missing the partner and (1999). Everyday competence in First results. Vierteljahrshefte his earnings: Income situation old and very old age. Theoretical Braun, N., & Engelhardt, H. zur Wirtschaftsforschung, 68, and labour market participation considerations and empirical (1998). Diffusionsprozesse und 199–203. of single mothers in West and findings. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Ereignisanalyse. Kölner Zeit- – (1998a). Arbeits-Pendler zwis- East Germany. In R. Anker, B. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging schrift für Soziologie und Sozial- chen West- und Ostdeutsch- Garcia Guzman, & A. Pinnelli Study. Aging from 70 to 100 psychologie, 50, 263–282. land—Personen-, Haushalts- und (Eds.), Women in the labour (pp. 384–402). New York: Cam- Arbeitsplatzstrukturen. In Insti- market in changing economies: bridge University Press. Brückner, E., & Mayer, K. U. tut für Regionalentwicklung und Demographic issues. Oxford: Ox- (1998). Collecting life history Strukturplanung (IRS) (Ed.), Mi- ford University Press. data. Experiences from the Ger- Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, K. U. gration in Stadtregionen der man Life History Study. In J. Z. (Eds.). (1999). The Berlin Aging neuen Bundesländer (pp. 31–- Büchel, F., & Frick, J. R. (in Giele & G. H. Elder Jr. (Eds.), Study. Aging from 70 to 100. 48). Erkner: IRS (Materialien des press). Markteinkommen, öf- Methods of life course research: New York: Cambridge University IRS, Vol. 16). fentliche Transfers und Umver- Qualitative and quantitative ap- Press (552 p.). – (1998b). Mädchen und Frauen teilung—Eine Analyse für ver- proaches (pp. 152–181). Thou- in Ausbildung und Beruf: Inter- schiedene Bevölkerungsgruppen sand Oaks, CA: Sage. view. Der Ausbilder, 46, 4–7. in Deutschland. In W. Schmähl (Ed.), Wechselwirkungen zwi- Brüderl, J., Diekmann, A., & – (1998c). Unterwertig Erwerbs- tätige—Eine von der amtlichen schen Arbeitsmarkt und sozialer Engelhardt, H. (1999). Artefak- Sicherung I. Berlin: Duncker & te in der Scheidungsursachen- Statistik übersehene Problem- Humblot (Schriften des Vereins forschung: Eine Erwiderung auf gruppe des Arbeitsmarktes. In J. für Socialpolitik). einen Artikel von Yasemin Niep- Schupp, F. Büchel, M. Diewald, – (2000). The income portfolio haus. Kölner Zeitschrift für So- & R. Habich (Eds.), Arbeits- of immigrants in Germany— ziologie und Sozialpsychologie, marktstatistik zwischen Realität Effects of ethnic origin and 51, 744–753. und Fiktion (pp. 113–130). Berlin: edition sigma. assimilation or: Who gains from Büchel, F. (in press-a). The ef- – (1998d). Zuviel gelernt? Aus- income re-distribution? Bonn: fects of overeducation on pro- bildungsinadäquate Erwerbs- Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft ductivity in Germany—The firms' tätigkeit in Deutschland. Biele- der Arbeit (Discussion Paper viewpoint. Economics of Educa- feld: W. Bertelsmann (288 p.). No. 125). tion Review. – (in press-b). Overqualification- Büchel, F., & Bausch, T. (1998). Büchel, F., Frick, J. R., & Krause, —Reasons, measurement issues, Zum Einkommenseffekt einer P. (2000a). Arbeitslosigkeit, öf- Baltes, P. B., Mayer, K. U., and typological affinity to un- vor dem Universitäts-Studium fentliche Transferzahlungen und Helmchen, H., & Steinhagen- employment. In P. Descy & M. absolvierten Berufsausbildung. Armut—Eine Mikro-Simulation Thiessen, E. (1999). The Berlin Tessaring (Eds.), Training in Eu- Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftswissen- für West- und Ostdeutschland. Aging Study (BASE). Sample, de- rope. Background report to the schaften, 49, 93–107. In F. Büchel, M. Diewald, P. sign, and overview of measures. second report on vocational Krause, A. Mertens, & H. Solga In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer training research in Europe Büchel, F., Diewald, M., (Eds.), Zwischen drinnen und (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study. 2000. Luxembourg: Office for Habich, R., & Schupp, J. (1998). draußen. Arbeitsmarktchancen Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. 15–- Official Publications of the Eu- Arbeitsmarktstatistik zwischen und soziale Ausgrenzung in 55). New York: Cambridge Uni- ropean Communities (CEDEFOP Realität und Fiktion—Zur Genese Deutschland (pp. 167–180). versity Press. reference document). einer unbefriedigenden Situa- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. – (in press-c). Produktivitäts- tion: Einleitung. In J. Schupp, F. – (2000b). Zur armutsreduzie- Bellmann, L., & Büchel, F. effekte durch Überqualifikation. Büchel, M. Diewald, & R. Habich renden Wirkung öffentlicher (2001). Betrieblich finanzierte In R. K. von Weizsäcker (Ed.), (Eds.), Arbeitsmarktstatistik zwi- Transfers—Ergebnisse einer Mi- Weiterbildung und Unterneh- Bildung und Beschäftigung. schen Realität und Fiktion krosimulation für Westdeutsch- menserfolg. Eine Analyse für Berlin: Duncker & Humblot (pp. 11–13). Berlin: edition land. In S. Ryll & A. Yenal (Eds.), West- und Ostdeutschland unter (Schriften des Vereins für So- sigma. besonderer Berücksichtigung cialpolitik). von Selektionseffekten. In U. – (2000a). Institutseffekte bei Büchel, F., Diewald, M., Krause, Backes-Gellner & P. Moog (Eds.), Befragungen. Auswirkungen auf P., Mertens, A., & Solga, H. Bildungssystem und betriebliche Datenqualität und Analyse- (Eds.). (2000). Zwischen drinnen Beschäftigungsstrategien ergebnisse. Allgemeines Statis- und draußen. Arbeitsmarktchan- (pp. 75–92). Berlin: Duncker & tisches Archiv, 84, 417–446. cen und soziale Ausgrenzung in Humblot (Schriften des Vereins – (2000b). Tied movers, tied Deutschland. Opladen: Leske + für Socialpolitik). stayers: The higher risk of over- Budrich (236 p.). education among married wom- Borchelt, M., Gilberg, R., en in West Germany. In S. Büchel, F., & Duncan, G. J. Horgas, A. L., & Geiselmann, B. Gustafsson & D. Meulders (Eds.), (1998). Do parents’ social activi- (1999). On the significance of Gender and the labour market: ties promote children’s school morbidity and disability in old Econometric evidence of ob- attainments? Evidence from the age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. stacles to achieving gender German Socio-Economic Panel. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging equality (pp. 133–146). London: Journal of Marriage and the Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. Macmillan. Family, 60, 95–108.

201 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Politik und Ökonomie—Problem- sozialer Beteiligung im Alter. In European youth (pp. 91–124). Corsten, M., & Hillmert, S. sicht aus klassischer, neo- und Anwendungsorientierte Interpre- Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. (2000). Qualifikation, Berufsein- neuklassischer Perspektive (pp. tation zentraler Befunde kogni- – (1999d). Institutionelle und stieg und Arbeitsmarktverhalten 173–187). Marburg: Metropolis. tiver Forschung (pp. 187–214). biographische Konstruktion be- unter Bedingungen erhöhter Opladen: Leske + Budrich. ruflicher Wirklichkeit. Vorklä- Konkurrenz. Was prägt Bildungs- Büchel, F., Frick, J. R., Krause, P., rung einer Theorie beruflicher und Erwerbsverläufe in den & Wagner, G. G. (2001). The im- Burda, M., & Mertens, A. Sozialisation. In M. Grundmann achtziger und neunziger Jahren? pact of poverty on children's (1998). Arbeitsplatzverlust und (Ed.), Konstruktivistische Soziali- Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für school attendance: Evidence Lohnentwicklung—Eine empiri- sationsforschung (pp. 267–289). Bildungsforschung (Project from West Germany. In K. Vlem- sche Analyse für Westdeutsch- Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. “Ausbildungs- und Berufsver- inckx & T. Smeeding (Eds.), Child land. Konjunkturpolitik, Bei- – (1999e). Mythos oder Zu- läufe der Geburtskohorten 1964 well-being, child poverty, and heft 48. kunftsmodell? Patchworkbiogra- und 1971 in Westdeutschland”, child policy in modern nations phien werden normal. Karriere- Working Paper No. 1). (pp. 151–174). Bristol, UK: Poli- Corsten, M. (in press-a). Beruf, führer Hochschulen, 13, 34–38. cy Press. Inklusion und die Transforma- – (1999f). Schwere Seelen und Daly, M. C., Büchel, F., & Dun- tion der Arbeitsgesellschaft. In T. leichte Körper? Zur Semantik can, G. J. (2000). Premiums and Büchel, F., & Hauser, R. (in Kurtz (Ed.), Aspekte des Berufs in von Körperlichkeit und Biogra- penalties for surplus and deficit press). Dynamic approaches to der Moderne. Opladen: Leske + phie in Milan Kunderas Roman education: Evidence from the comparative social policy analy- Budrich. "Die unerträgliche Leichtigkeit United States and Germany. In sis: A methodological frame- – (in press-b). Qualitative So- des Seins." In P. Alheit, B. Dau- H. Oosterbeek (Ed.), The econo- work. In W. Voges (Ed.), Dynam- zialforschung: Vol. 9. Interpre- sien, W. Fischer-Rosenthal, A. mics of over- and underschool- ic approaches to comparative tative Verfahren der Arbeits-, Hauses, & A. Keil (Eds.), Biogra- ing. Economics of Education Re- social research. Aldershot, UK: Berufs- und Organisationssozio- phie und Leib (pp. 306–328). view, 19, 169–178 (Special Is- Ashgate. logie. Eine pragmatische Einfüh- Gießen: Psychosozial-Verlag. sue). rung. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. – (1999g). The time of genera- Büchel, F., & Mertens, A. – (in press-c). Sociological im- tions. Time and Society, 8, Diekmann, A., & Engelhardt, H. (2001). Berufliche Aufstiegs- ages of contemporary Germany. 249–272. (1999). The social inheritance of chancen von Über- und Unter- International Journal of Politics, – (1999h). Treulose Arbeitsindi- divorce: Effects of parent’s fam- qualifizierten—Ein Test der Kar- Culture and Society. viduen ohne berufliche Bindung? ily type in postwar Germany. rieremobilitäts-Theorie. In U. – (in press-d). Was hält Szene- Mythen und Anti-Mythen zur American Sociological Review, Backes-Gellner & P. Moog (Eds.), Events in Schwung? In R. Hitzler Krise der beruflichen Sozialisa- 64, 783–793. Bildungssystem und betriebliche & M. Pfadenhauer (Eds.), Tech- tion. In C. Honegger, S. Hradil, & Beschäftigungsstrategien (pp. no-Soziologie. Opladen: Leske + F. Traxler (Eds.), Grenzenlose Ge- Diewald, M. (2000a). Causal 113–124). Berlin: Duncker & Budrich. sellschaft (Vol. 1, pp. 290–306). understanding and the scientific Humblot (Schriften des Vereins – (2001, February). Sozialisato- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. division of labor. Experiences für Socialpolitik). rische Milieus in der beruflichen – (1998a). Between construc- and prospects of life course re- – (2000). Overeducation, under- Bildung. Final report to the tivism and realism—Searle’s the- search in Germany and beyond. education, and the theory of ca- German Research Association ory of the construction of social Canadian Studies in Population reer mobility. Bonn: Forschungs- (DFG), Berlin. reality. Philosophy of the Social (Special Issue on Longitudinal institut zur Zukunft der Arbeit – (2000). Der praktische Sinn Sciences. An International Jour- Research). (Discussion Paper No. 195). für erotische Körperinszenierun- nal, 28, 102–121. – (2000b). Entwertungen, Um- gen. Geschlechterdifferenzen wertungen, Aufwertungen. Ost- Büchel, F., & Trappe, H. (in – (1998b). Biographical compo- press). Die Entwicklung der Ein- und Strategien sexueller Inter- sitions in the life-stories of deutsche Erwerbsverläufe zwi- kommenssituation kinderreicher aktion in Kunderas Roman “Die young German social profes- schen Kontinuität und Wandel. Familien in West- und Ost- unerträgliche Leichtigkeit des sionals. In J. S. Markantonis & Habilitationsschrift, Freie Uni- deutschland. Zeitschrift für Fa- Seins.” In C. Koppetsch (Ed.), A.-V. D. Rigas (Eds.), Qualitative versität Berlin. milienforschung. Körper und Status (pp. 163–- analysis in human sciences. New – (1999a). Aufbruch oder Ent- 188). Konstanz: Universitätsver- perspectives in methodology (pp. mutigung? Kompetenzentfal- Büchel, F., & Wagner, G. G. lag Konstanz. 301–313). Athens: Mavromatis. tung, Kompetenzentwertung (2000). Zur empirischen Bedeu- – (1999a). Absturzgefahr! Der – (1998c). Die Kultivierung be- und subjektive Kontrolle in den tung eines wichtigen positiven aktivierbare Speicher grenzen- ruflicher Handlungsstile. Einbet- neuen Bundesländern. In M. externen Effektes des Sports: loser Kongreßkommunikation tung, Nutzung und Gestaltung Schmitt & L. Montada (Eds.), Der Einfluß von elterlichem am Rande der Erschöpfung. Ber- von Berufskompetenzen. Frank- Gerechtigkeitserleben im wie- Sporttreiben auf die Bildungs- liner Journal für Soziologie, 9, furt a.M.: Campus (209 p.). dervereinigten Deutschland (pp. chancen der Kinder. Sportwis- 123–127. 99–132). Opladen: Leske + senschaft, 30, 40–53. – (1999b). Berufsbildungsfor- Budrich. schung in der Soziologie. In J. – (1999b). Brüche und Kontinu- Büchel, F., & Weißhuhn, G. van Buer, A. Kell, & E. Wittmann itäten. Erwerbsverläufe, persön- (1998). Ausbildungsinadäquate (Eds.), Berufsbildungsforschung liche Entwicklung und die Ver- Beschäftigung der Absolventen in ausgewählten Wissenschaften änderung der Lebensbedingun- des Bildungssystems II. Fortset- und multidisziplinären gen in Ostdeutschland nach zung der Berichterstattung zu Forschungsbereichen (Vol. 1, pp. 1989. In L. Marschner (Ed.), Be- Struktur und Entwicklung unter- 43–116). Berlin: Institut für ratung im Wandel (pp. 29–41). wertiger Beschäftigung in West- Wirtschafts- und Erwachsenen- Mainz: Grünewald. und Ostdeutschland (1993–- pädagogik der Humboldt-Uni- – (1999c). Continuities and 1995). Berlin: Duncker & Hum- versität. breaks in occupational careers blot (Volkswirtschaftliche – (1999c). Ecstasy as "this- and subjective control. The case Schriften, Vol. 471/II) (85 p.). worldly path to salvation." The of the East German transforma- techno youth scene as a proto- tion. In J. Bynner & R. K. Silber- Bukov, A. (2000). Individuelle religious collective. In L. Tomasi eisen (Eds.), Adversity and chal- Ressourcen als Determinanten (Ed.), Alternative religions among lenge in life in the new Germany

202 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

and in England (pp. 239–267). Dorenlot, P. (1999). Education Ostdeutschland. Dissertation, – (in press-b). Historische und Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. bilingue: L'échec Californien. Freie Universität Berlin. internationale Vergleiche: Der – (1998). Persönliche Bindung Education et sociétés pluri- Einsatz von Längsschnittdaten in oder Bedeutungsverlust? Ver- lingues, 6, 67–75. Halpin, B., & Chan, T. W. der Berufsbildungsforschung. wandtschaftsbeziehungen in – (1998). Identité nationale ou (1998). Class careers as sequen- Luxembourg: CEDEFOP Pano- Ostdeutschland nach der Wen- supranationale de jeunes. Edu- ces: An optimal matching anal- rama. de. In M. Wagner & Y. Schütze cation et sociétés plurilingues, 4, ysis of work-life histories. Euro- – (in press-c). Stabilität und (Eds.), Verwandtschaft. Sozial- 63–73. pean Sociological Review, 14, Wandel des deutschen Modells. wissenschaftliche Beiträge zu 111–130. Lebensverläufe im Übergang einem vernachlässigten Thema Engelhardt, H. (1999). Lineare zwischen Schule und Beruf. In (pp. 183–202). Stuttgart: Enke. Regression mit Selektion: Mög- Hengst, H., & Zeiher, H. (Eds.). M. Wingens & R. Sackmann lichkeiten und Grenzen der (2000a). Die Arbeit der Kinder. (Eds.), Bildung und Beruf. Ausbil- Diewald, M., & Goedicke, A. Heckman-Korrektur. Kölner Zeit- Kindheitskonzept und Arbeits- dung und berufsstruktureller (2000). Im Osten nichts Neues? schrift für Soziologie und Sozial- teilung zwischen den Generatio- Wandel in der Wissensge- Berufliche Mobilitätsprozesse psychologie, 51, 706–723. nen. Weinheim: Juventa sellschaft. Weinheim: Juventa. nach der Wende innerhalb und (255 p.). – (2001). Ausbildungssysteme zwischen Betrieben. In H.-G. Engelhardt, H., Trappe, H., & – (2000b). Unter Legitimations- und Arbeitsmarkt. Lebensver- Brose (Ed.), Die Reorganisation Dronkers, J. (1999). Verschilt de druck. Das Arbeitsverbot im läufe in Großbritannien und der Arbeitsgesellschaft (pp. 85–- intergenerationele overdracht Kindheitsprojekt der Moderne. Deutschland im Kohortenver- 116). Frankfurt a.M.: Campus. van echtscheidingsrisico’s tus- In H. Hengst & H. Zeiher (Eds.), gleich. Opladen: Westdeutscher sen samenlevingen? Een ver- Die Arbeit der Kinder. Kindheits- Verlag. Diewald, M., Goedicke, A., & gelijking tussen de Bondesrepu- konzept und Arbeitsteilung zwi- – (2000). Social positioning at Solga, H. (2000). Arbeitsmarkt- bliek en de DDR. Mens & maat- schen den Generationen (pp. 7–- labour market entry in the UK kompetenzen in Ostdeutsch- schappij, 74, 360–379. 20). Weinheim: Juventa. and Germany. In Norwegian So- land—Nicht vorhanden oder cial Research Council (Ed.), nicht gefragt? Aus Politik und Frick, J. R., Büchel, F., & Krause, Transitions and mobility in the Zeitgeschichte, B 40, 39–46. P. (2000). Public transfers, in- youth labour market (pp. 343–- come distribution, and poverty 364). Oslo: NOVA. in Germany and the United – (1999). The "complex" event Diewald, M., & Konietzka, D. States. In R. Hauser & I. Becker of transition into the labour (1998). Beschäftigungsverhält- (Eds.), The personal distribution market: Comparing the UK and nisse und die Analyse von Ar- of income in an international Germany over time. In D. Raffe, beitsmarktprozessen in den 90er perspective (pp. 176–204). Hei- R. van der Velden, & P. Werquin Jahren—Probleme der Messung delberg: Springer. (Eds.), Education, the labour von Karrieremobilität in einer market and transitions in youth: sich verändernden Arbeitswelt. Friedrichs, J., Lepsius, M. R., & Cross-national perspectives (pp. In J. Schupp, F. Büchel, M. Die- Mayer, K. U. (Eds.). (1998a). Die 313–331). Edinburgh, UK: Cen- wald, & R. Habich (Eds.), Ar- Diagnosefähigkeit der Soziolo- tre for Educational Sociology, beitsmarktstatistik zwischen Re- gie. Opladen: Westdeutscher University of Edinburgh. alität und Fiktion (pp. 269–298). Verlag (Kölner Zeitschrift für Berlin: edition sigma. Soziologie und Sozialpsycholo- Hoerning, E. M. (in press-a). gie, Sonderheft 38). Biographische Methode/Biogra- Diewald, M., & Mach, B. (1999). – (1998b). Diagnose und Prog- phieforschung. In W. Gieseke Market transition, institutions, nose in der Soziologie. In J. Frie- (Ed.), Handbuch der Frauen- and the restructuring of earn- drichs, M. R. Lepsius, & K. U. Hillmert, S. (in press-a). De- bildung. Opladen: Leske + ings: East Germany and Poland Mayer (Eds.), Die Diagnosefähig- regulierung des Arbeitsmarktes Budrich. during the first five years of the keit der Soziologie (pp. 9–31). und relative Beschäftigungs- – (in press-b). Der gesellschaft- transformation process. Berlin: Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag chancen: Das Beispiel Großbri- liche Ort der Intelligenz in der Max Planck Institute for Human (Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie tannien. In P. A. Berger & D. DDR. In B. Krais (Ed.), An der Development. und Sozialpsychologie, Sonder- Konietzka (Eds.), Neue Ungleich- Spitze. Konstanz: UVK. heft 38). heiten und Unsicherheiten in der – (in press-c). Sozialer Wandel. Diewald, M., Mach, B., & Solga, Erwerbsgesellschaft. Opladen: In R. Arnold, S. Nolda, & E. H. (2000). Erfolge und Probleme Gieraths, C., & Solga, H. (1998). Leske + Budrich. Nuissl (Eds.), Wörterbuch Er- der ostdeutschen Arbeitsmarkt- Von der Realität zur Vision: Das wachsenenpädagogik. Bad Heil- transformation in vergleichen- Modell einer "differenzierten" brunn: Klinkhardt. der Perspektive. In R. Habich & Hochschule. Academia, 13-97/- – (2000a). Biographie. In F. H.-H. Noll (Eds.), Vom Zusam- 98, 18–22. Stimmer (Ed.), Lexikon der So- menwachsen einer Gesellschaft. zialpädagogik und der Sozial- Analysen zur Angleichung der Gilberg, R. (2000). Hilfe- und arbeit (pp. 100–105). München: Lebensverhältnisse in Deutsch- Pflegebedürftigkeit im höheren Oldenbourg. land (pp. 107–132). Frankfurt Alter. Eine Analyse des Bedarfs – (Ed.). (2000b). Biographische a.M.: Campus. und der Inanspruchnahme von Sozialisation. Stuttgart: Lucius Hilfeleistungen. Berlin: Max- & Lucius (Der Mensch als so- Diewald, M., & Solga, H. Planck-Institut für Bildungsfor- ziales und personales Wesen, (1998). Chancen und Risiken auf schung (Studien und Berichte, Vol. 17) (346 p.). dem ostdeutschen Arbeitsmarkt Vol. 68) (293 p.). – (2000c). Biographische Sozia- nach 1989. In Jahrbuch der lisation. Theoretische und for- Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zu För- Goedicke, A. (2000). Beschäfti- schungspraktische Verankerung. derung der Wissenschaften (pp. gungsfolgen betrieblichen Wan- In E. M. Hoerning (Ed.), Biogra- 731–736). Göttingen: Vanden- dels. Eine Studie zu Betriebs- phische Sozialisation (pp. 1–20). hoeck & Ruprecht. wechseln und Arbeitslosigkeit in Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius (Der

203 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Hoerning, E. M., & Kupferberg, Lampert, T. (2000). Sozioökono- Deutschland, 1999-01-02/03, F. (1999a). Die anhaltende Loya- mische Ungleichheit und Ge- p. 14. lität der ostdeutschen Intelli- sundheit im höheren Lebens- – (1999c). Weltgesellschaft, Na- genz. BIOS, 12, 28–49. alter. Alters- und geschlechts- tionalismus und Bildungssystem. – (1999b). Profession und Staat: spezifische Differenzen. In G. M. Neue Sammlung, 39, 513–530. Öffentliche Commitments und Backes & W. Clemens (Eds.), Le- – (1998). Die optimistische Vi- biographische Investionen. In benslagen im Alter. Gesellschaft- sion der Einheitsschule. Grund- H. Ummel (Ed.), Konstruktion liche Bedingungen und Grenzen schule, Leistungsprinzip und De- von Professionalität im beruf- (pp. 159–185). Opladen: Leske + mokratie. Berliner Zeitung—Bil- lichen Alltag: Dokumentation Budrich. dung und Hochschule, 175, des 4. Workshops des Arbeits- 28.7.1998, p. 12. kreises "Professionelles Han- Lampert, T., & Wagner, M. deln," 27./28. November 1998 (1998). Zur Bedeutung der Ge- Lenhardt, G., & Spear, N. (pp. 1–28). Jena: Universität sundheit für die soziale Integra- (2000). Higher education in Ger- Jena, Institut für Soziologie. tion und die subjektive Befind- many and the USA. Berlin: Max lichkeit im Alter. In W. Clemens Planck Institute for Human De- Jacob, M. (2000). Extra-binomi- & M. Backes (Eds.), Altern und velopment (mimeograph). al variation in logistic multilevel Gesellschaft. Gesellschaftliche Mensch als soziales und perso- models: A simulation study. Modernisierung durch Alters- Lenhardt, G., & Stock, M. nales Wesen, Vol. 17). Multilevel Modelling Newsletter, strukturwandel (pp. 187–215). (2000). Hochschulentwicklung – (2000d). Gemeinwohlorientie- 12, 8–14. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. und Bürgerrechte in der BRD rung im staatssozialistischen und der DDR. Kölner Zeitschrift System der DDR. In M. Meuser Lempert, W. (1999). Der Ge- für Soziologie und Sozialpsycho- Jobard, F. (in press). Une inves- & M. Pfadenhauer (Eds.), Im werbelehrerberuf—Eine Profes- logie, 52, 520–540. tigation sociologique. Dévoiler Dienste der Menschheit? Ge- sion? Professionalisierungsbe- – (1999). Selbstvertrauen läßt l'habilitation à l'usage de la meinwohlorientierung als Ma- dürftige Komponenten berufs- sich nicht ins Heft diktieren. force policière. Déviance et so- xime professionellen Handelns. pädagogischer Tätigkeiten und Neues Deutschland, 1999-03- ciété (Paris), 3. Dortmund: Universität Dort- ihre Konsequenzen für die Ge- 26, p. 14. – (2000a). L'ordre du risque. Le mund. werbelehrerbildung. Eine Sy- – (1998). Getrennte, aber ähn- passant ordinaire. Bordeaux, 27, (http://soziologie.fb14.uni-dort- nopse neuerer Publikationen. liche Wege: Deutsch-deutscher janv.–févr., 13–14. mund.de/hitzler/akprofHandeln- Zeitschrift für Berufs- und Schulvergleich. Erziehung und – (2000b). Un et un font un. dokus.html). Wirtschaftspädagogik, 95, Wissenschaft, 50, 20/21. L'alchimie policière dans le Ber- – (1999). Profession und Loya- 403–423. lin en voie de réunification. lität. In A. Plato (Ed.), DDR—Stu- Lenhardt, G., & Wernet, A. Cahiers de la sécurité intérieure dien zur Geschichte eines unter- & (1999). Lehrer und Deutsche (Paris), 41, 119–140. Lempert, W., Corsten, M. gegangenen deutschen Staates (1998). Soziale Bedingungen Einheit: Über Schwierigkeiten – (1999a). Drogue et délin- (pp. 141–159). Hagen: Fernuni- moralischen Lernens in Küchen der deutsch-deutschen Verstän- quance. Quelles politiques pub- versität (Kurseinheit 5: Erfah- und Labors—Resultate einer digung. Die Deutsche Schule, 91, liques souhaitables? Florence: rungsquelle). explorativen Studie des Max- 68–84. European University Institute – (1998a). The analysis of per- Planck-Instituts für Bildungs- (EUI policy papers: RSC, sonal documents. In J. S. Mar- forschung. In P. F. E. Sloane, A. Leschinsky, A., & Mayer, K. U. No. 1999/5). kantonis & A.-V. D. Rigas (Eds.), Schelten, & G. A. Straka (Eds.), (1999a). Comprehensive schools – (1999b). Les violences poli- Qualitative analysis in human Beiträge zur Berufs- und Wirt- and inequality of opportunity in cières. État des recherches dans sciences. New perspectives in schaftspädagogik (pp. 9–24). the Federal Republic of Ger- les pays anglo-saxons. Paris: methodology (pp. 157–171). Opladen: Leske + Budrich many. In A. Leschinsky & K. U. L’Harmattan. Athens: Mavrommatis. (Schriften der Deutschen Gesell- Mayer (Eds.), The comprehensive – (1998b). Intelligenz, Profes- schaft für Erziehungswissen- school experiment revisited: Evi- sion und Loyalität. In A. Bro- Jobard, F., & Fillieule, O. (1999). schaften). dence from Western Europe (pp. sziewski & C. Maeder (Eds.), Or- Action publique sous dépen- 13–39). Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. ganisation und Profession. Do- dance: Conditions et effets du Lenhardt, G. (2000a). Rahvus- – (Eds.). (1999b). The compre- kumentation des 2. Workshops changement de paradigme dans liku identiteedi tulevik. Euroliit hensive school experiment revis- des Arbeitskreises "Professio- la lutte contre la délinquance ütleb aina enam lahti rahvuslik- ited: Evidence from Western nelles Handeln," 24./25. Oktober associée à la drogue en Europe. est erinevutest. Eesti Päevaleht Europe. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang 1997, veranstaltet von der HFS Revue Française de Science Poli- Postimees, 11. Mai 2000, 108, (211 p.). Ostschweiz in Kooperation mit tique, 49, 803–834. p. 13. dem Soziologischen Seminar der – (2000b). Wer den “neuen Linden, M., Horgas, A. L., Gil- Universität St. Gallen (pp. 34–- Konietzka, D. (1999a). Ausbil- Menschen" will, darf ihn nicht berg, R., & Steinhagen-Thies- 47). Rorschach: Universitäts- dung und Beruf. Die Geburts- wollen. Neues Deutschland, sen, E. (1999). The utilization of Druck. jahrgänge 1919–1961 auf dem 2000-03-11/12, p. 17. medical and nursing care in old – (1998c). Die Volkshochschul- Weg von der Schule in das Er- – (1999a). Ethnische Quotierung age. In P. B. Baltes & K. U. dozentin: Zwischen Lebenser- werbsleben. Opladen: West- und Gerechtigkeit im Bildungs- Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Aging fahrungen und Professionalität. deutscher Verlag (Studien zur system. In D. Kiesel, A. Messer- Study. Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. In R. Arnold et al. (Eds.), Lehren Sozialwissenschaft, No. 204) schmidt, & A. Scherr (Eds.), Die 430–449). New York: Cambridge und Lernen im Modus der Ausle- (355 p.). Erfindung der Freiheit: Zur Kon- University Press. gung. Erwachsenenbildung zwi- – (1999b). Berufliche Aus- und troverse um Gleichheit und Dif- schen Wissensvermittlung, Deu- Fortbildung in der Lebensver- ferenz im Sozialstaat (pp. 89–- Lindenberger, U., Gilberg, R., tungslernen und Aneignung (pp. laufsperspektive: Ein Vergleich 100). Frankfurt a.M.: Brandes & Nuthmann, R., Pötter, U., Little, 159–167). Baltmannsweiler: des Ausbildungsverhaltens sechs Apsel. T. D., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). Schneider-Verlag Hohengehren westdeutscher Geburtskohorten. – (1999b). Ob Gleichheitsnorm Sample selectivity and general- (Grundlagen der Berufs- und Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 45, oder formale Freiheit. Getrennte, izability of the results of the Erwachsenenbildung, No. 17). 807–831. aber ähnliche Wege. Neues Berlin Aging Study. A computa-

204 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

tional exploration of the link – (in press-b). The sociology of – (1998b). James Colemans Un- (Materialien aus der Bildungs- between deterioration of neuro- the life course and lifespan psy- tersuchungen zum amerikani- forschung, Vol. 71) (184 p.). transmitter systems and dedif- chology: Diverging or converg- schen Bildungswesen und ihr ferentiation of cognitive abili- ing pathways? In U. M. Staudin- Verhältnis zu seiner Handlungs- Rendtel, U., & Büchel, F. (1998). ties in old age. In P. B. Baltes & ger & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), und Gesellschaftstheorie. In H.- A bootstrap strategy for the de- K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin Understanding human develop- P. Müller & M. Schmid Norm tection of a panel attrition bias Aging Study. Aging from 70 to ment: Lifespan psychology in ex- (Eds.), Herrschaft und Vertrauen. in a household panel with an 100 (pp. 56–82). New York: change with other disciplines. Beiträge zu James S. Colemans application to the German Cambridge University Press. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Grundlagen der Sozialtheorie Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP). – (2001a). Lebensverlauf. In B. (pp. 180–192). Opladen: West- In A. Koch & R. Porst (Eds.), Maas, I. (2000). Germany: De- Schäfers & W. Zapf (Eds.), deutscher Verlag. Nonresponse in survey research. mography and aging after re- Handwörterbuch zur Gesell- Proceedings of the Eighth Inter- unification. In V. L. Bengtson, schaft Deutschlands (2nd ed., Mayer, K. U., Baltes, P. B., national Workshop on House- K.-D. Kim, G. C. Myers, & K.-S. pp. 446–460). Opladen: Leske + Baltes, M. M., Borchelt, M., hold Survey Nonresponse (pp. Eun (Eds.), Aging in east and Budrich. Delius, J., Helmchen, H., Linden, 273–284). Mannheim: ZUMA west: Families, states, and the – (2001b). The paradox of global M., Smith, J., Staudinger, U. (ZUMA-Nachrichten Spezial, elderly (pp. 141–167). New York: social change and national path M., Steinhagen-Thiessen, E., & No. 4). Springer. dependencies: Life course pat- Wagner, M. (1999). What do Rohwer, G., & Trappe, H. (in terns in advanced societies. In we know about old age and ag- Maas, I., Borchelt, M., & Mayer, press). Possibilities and difficul- A. E. Woodward & M. Kohli ing? Conclusions from the Berlin K. U. (1999). Generational expe- ties in life course description. In (Eds.), Inclusions/exclusions. Aging Study. In P. B. Baltes & riences of old people in Berlin. W. Voges (Ed.), Dynamic ap- London: Routledge. K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin In P. B. Baltes & K. U. Mayer Aging Study. Aging from 70 to proaches to comparative social (Eds.), The Berlin Aging Study. – (2001c). Soziale Mobilität und research: Recent developments Erwerbsverläufe in der Transfor- 100 (pp. 475–519). New York: Aging from 70 to 100 (pp. 83–- Cambridge University Press. and applications. Aldershot, UK: 110). New York: Cambridge Uni- mation Ostdeutschlands. In W. Ashgate. versity Press. Schluchter & P. Quint (Eds.), Der Vereinigungsschock—Zehn Jahre Mayer, K. U., Diewald, M., & Rusconi, A. (in press). Leaving Maas, I., & Settersten, R. A. danach. Eine vergleichende Be- Solga, H. (1999). Transitions to the parental home in West Ger- (1999). Military service during trachtung. Weilerswist: Velbrück post-communism in East Ger- many and Italy: Opportunities wartime: Effects on men’s ocu- Wissenschaft. many: Worklife mobility of and constraints. European Re- pational trajectories and later – (2000a). Arbeit und Wissen. women and men between 1989 search Network on Transition in economic well-being. European Die Zukunft von Bildung und and 1993. Acta Sociologica, 42, Youth, Antwerpen. Sociological Review, 15, 213–- Beruf. In J. Kocka, C. Offe, & B. 35–53. 232. Redslob (Eds.), Geschichte und Schupp, J., Büchel, F., Diewald, Zukunft der Arbeit (pp. 383–- Mayer, K. U., & Konietzka, D. M., & Habich, R. (Eds.). (1998). Mach, B., & Solga, H. (1997). 409). Frankfurt a.M.: Campus. (1998). Formation profession- Arbeitsmarktstatistik zwischen Political loyalty and career mo- – (2000b). Karl Ulrich Mayer: nelle et débuts de carrière: Crise Realität und Fiktion. Berlin: edi- bility in the German Democratic Die Bildungsgesellschaft. Auf- ou stabilité du modèle alle- tion sigma (240 p.). Republic and the People’s Repub- stieg durch Bildung. In A. Pongs, mand? Revue française de so- lic of Poland. Berlin: Max Planck In welcher Gesellschaft leben ciologie, XXXIX-2, 269–304. Schütze, Y., & Wagner, M. Institute for Human Develop- wir eigentlich? (Vol. 2, pp. 193–- (1998). Verwandtschaft—Begriff ment (Working Paper No. 7, Pro- 218) München: Dilemma- Mayer, K. U., Maas, I., & Wag- und Tendenzen der Forschung. ject “Ostdeutsche Lebensverläufe Verlag. ner, M. (1999). Socioeconomic In M. Wagner & Y. Schütze im Transformationsprozeß”). – (2000c). Promises fulfilled? A conditions and social inequali- (Eds.), Verwandtschaft. Sozial- review of 20 years of life course ties in old age. In P. B. Baltes & wissenschaftliche Beiträge zu Marsiske, M., Delius, J., Maas, research. Archives Européennes K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Berlin einem vernachlässigten Thema I., Lindenberger, U., Scherer, H., de Sociologie, XLI,2, 259–282. Aging Study. Aging from 70 to (pp. 7–16). Stuttgart: Enke. & Tesch-Römer, C. (1999). Sen- – (2000d). Science planning and 100 (pp. 227–255). New York: sory systems in old age. In P. B. Solga, H. (in press). Aspekte der research perspectives in Ger- Cambridge University Press. Baltes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The Klassenstruktur in der DDR in many: Views from the German Berlin Aging Study. Aging from den 70/80er Jahren und die Science Council and from the Mertens, A. (1999). Job stability 70 to 100 (pp. 360–383). New Stellung der Arbeiterklasse. In R. Max Planck Institute for Human trends and labor market (re-)- York: Cambridge University Hürtgen & T. Reichel (Eds.), Der Development. In Sino-German entry in West Germany 1984–- Press. Schein der Stabilität—DDR-Be- Centre for Science Promotion in 1997. Berlin: Humboldt-Univer- triebsalltag in der Ära Honecker. Martens, G., Dambrine, C., Gros- Bejing (Ed.), The impact of na- sität zu Berlin (SFB 373, Discus- Berlin: Metropol-Verlag. jean, P., & Mayer, K. U. (1999). tional goals on basic research. sion Paper No. 60/1999). – (1998a). "Differenzierte Hoch- The present labour market needs Results of a symposium (p. 9). schulen"—Ein Plädoyer für mehr for postgraduates: Debate. In Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Mertens, A., & Burda, M. (in Effizienz und Durchlässigkeit. Office for Official Publications – (1999). Empirische Sozialfor- press). Estimating wage losses Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, of the European Communities, schung in den neunziger Jahren. of displaced workers in Ger- 48, 20–30. The future of postgraduate edu- ZUMA-Nachrichten, 45, 32–43. many. Labour Economics. – (1998b). The fate of the East cation in Europe (pp. 31–48). – (1998a). Causality, compar- German upper service class after Luxembourg: Publications of the isons and bad practices in em- Reimer, M. (2001). Die Zuver- 1989: Types of system transfor- European Community. pirical social research. A com- lässigkeit des autobiographi- mation and changes in elite re- ment on Stanley Lieberson’s schen Gedächtnisses und die cruitment. In I. Srubar (Ed.), Eli- Mayer, K. U. (in press-a). Sci- chapter. In H.-P. Blossfeld & G. Validität retrospektiv erhobener ten, politische Kultur und Priva- ence as vocation or career? Prein (Eds.), Rational choice Lebensverlaufsdaten—Kognitive tisierung in Ostdeutschland, Berlin: Max Planck Institute for theory and large-scale data und erhebungspragmatische Tschechien und Mitteleuropa the History of Science (Working analysis (pp. 146–157). Boulder, Aspekte. Berlin: Max-Planck- (pp. 97–117). Konstanz: Univer- Paper). CO: Westview Press. Institut für Bildungsforschung sitäts-Verlag.

205 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

– (1998c). The necessity of inter? A comparison of gender ship in the family life course: A 45–69). Weinheim: Juventa. creasing differentiation at Ger- earnings inequality for young West German-Dutch compari- – (2000d). Kindstatus und Ar- man universities: A model pro- adults in the former East Ger- son. Urban Studies, 35, 687–713. beitswelt. Geschichten aus den posed by young scientists, doc- many and the former West Ger- schwedischen Sommerferien. In toral and graduate students. In many. In T. van der Lippe & L. Wagner, M., & Schütze, Y. H. Hengst & H. Zeiher (Eds.), Die J. A. Dormany & J. Mittelstrass van Djk (Eds.), Women's employ- (Eds.). (1998). Verwandtschaft. Arbeit der Kinder. Kindheitskon- (Eds.), The future role at the uni- ment in a comparative perspec- Sozialwissenschaftliche Beiträge zept und Arbeitsteilung zwi- versities in the scientific and active: Integrating micro and zu einem vernachlässigten The- schen den Generationen (pp. ademic system (pp. 37–46). macro approaches. New York: de ma. Stuttgart: Enke (281 p.). 159–166). Weinheim: Juventa. Berlin: Ernst Schering Research Gruyter. – (Ed.). (2000e). Themenschwer- Foundation. – (2000). How do children mat- Wehner, S. (1999). Exploring punkt: Entgrenzungen von Ler- ter? A comparison of gender and visualizing event history nen, Leben, Arbeiten. Zeitschrift Solga, H., & Diewald, M. earnings inequality for young data. Berlin: Max Planck Insti- für Soziologie der Erziehung und (2001). The East German labour adults in the former East Ger- tute for Human Development Sozialisation 20, 115–166. market after German unification: many and the former West Ger- (Materialien aus der Bildungs- – (1999a). Kinder als Bürger. Die A study of structural change and many. Journal of Marriage and forschung, Vol. 65) (76 p.). veränderte Sicht der Kindheits- occupational matching. Work, the Family, 62, 489–507. forschung. In C. Lost & P. Ober- Employment & Society, 15. – (1998). A comparison of job- Weißhuhn, G., & Büchel, F. huemer (Eds.), Auch Kinder sind – (1999). Wendezeit. Max shifting patterns in the former (1998). Germany. In Federal Bürger (pp. 57–64). Baltmanns- Planck Forschung, 3, 30–39. East Germany and the former Ministry of Education, Science, weiler: Schneider-Verlag Hohen- (Engl. version [1999]: Times of West Germany. European Socio- Research, and Technology, Bonn gehren. change. Max Planck Research, 2, logical Review, 14, 343–364. (Ed.), Pathways and participa- – (1999b). Die Räume der Kin- 14–23.) tion in vocational and technical der: Kindheit als institutionali- Voges, W., Frick, J. R., & Büchel, education and training (pp. sierte Lebensform. Theorie und Solga, H., Diewald, M., & F. (1998). The integration of im- 195–239). Paris: OECD (OECD Praxis der Sozialpädagogik, 2, Goedicke, A. (2000). Arbeits- migrants into West German so- Report). 51–55. marktmobilität und die Um- ciety—The impact of social as- – (1999c). Themenschwerpunkt: strukturierung des ostdeutschen sistance. In H. Kurthen, J. Fijal- Zeiher, H. (in press-a). Chil- Rhetorik des Kinderschutzes. Beschäftigungssystems. Mittei- kowski, & G. G. Wagner (Eds.), dren's islands in space and time. Zeitschrift für Sozialisationsfor- lungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt- Immigration, citizenship, and the The impact of spatial differen- schung und Erziehungssoziolo- und Berufsforschung, 33, 242–- welfare state in Germany and tiation on children's ways of gie, 19, 115–162. 260. the United States—Part A (pp. shaping social life. In M. du – (1998a). Kinder und ihre Ver- 159–174). Greenwich, CT: JAI Bois-Reymond, H. Sünker, & H. wandten. In M. Wagner & Y. Solga, H., & Konietzka, D. Press (Immigrant Incorporation, H. Krüger (Eds.), Childhood in Schütze (Eds.), Verwandtschaft. (1999). Occupational matching Industrial Development and So- Europe. Approaches—Trends— Sozialwissenschaftliche Beiträge and social stratification: Theo- cial Fabric Series, Vol. 14 [A]). Findings. New York: Lang. zu einem vernachlässigten The- retical insights and empirical – (in press-b). Dependent, inde- ma (pp. 127–145). Stuttgart: observations taken from a Ger- Wagner, G. G., Büchel, F., Frick, pendent and interdependent re- Enke. man-German comparison. Euro- J. R., & Krause, P. (2000). Die lations. Children as members of – (1998b). Kindheit. In B. Schä- pean Sociological Review, 15, Bildungsbeteiligung von Kindern the family household. In L. Ala- fers (Ed.), Grundbegriffe der So- 25–47. in (West) Deutschland—Empiri- nen & B. Mayall (Eds.), Concep- ziologie (pp. 166–169). Opladen: sche Befunde und (wirtschafts-) tualizing child-adult-relation- Leske + Budrich. Solga, H., & Trappe, H. (2000). politische Schlußfolgerungen. ships. London: Falmer Press. – (Ed.). (1998c). Themenschwer- Die Duale Ausbildung: Ambiva- Beihefte zur Konjunkturpolitik, – (in press-c). Leben in der Zeit punkt: Ökonomische Verhält- lenzen veränderter Übergangs- Vol. 51, Sonderband: Bildungsre- führen—Im Wandel der Zeit. In nisse der Kinder. Zeitschrift für biographien. Zeitschrift für Be- form aus ökonomischer Sicht. I. Behnken & J. Zinnecker (Eds.), Soziologie der Erziehung und rufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik, Bericht über die 63. Jahresta- Kinder—Kindheit—Lebensge- Sozialisation, 18, 6–52. 96, 244–260. gung der Arbeitsgemeinschaft schichte. Ein Handbuch. Han- deutscher wirtschaftswissen- nover: Kallmeyer. Zeiher, H., & Zeiher, H. J. (in Staudinger, U., Freund, A. M., schaftlicher Forschungsinstitute, – (2000a). Der Blick auf Kind- press). Freundschaften führen Linden, M., & Maas, I. (1999). 11.–12. Mai in Berlin, 319–338. heitsgenerationen: 1980 und als Teil der alltäglichen Lebens- Self, personality, and life regula- zwanzig Jahre danach. In H. führung? Ein Forschungsansatz. tion. Facets of psychological re- Wagner, G. G., Büchel, F., Hai- Thomas & N. H. Weber (Eds.), In J. Wagner (Ed.), Kinderfreund- silience in old age. In P. B. Bal- sken-DeNew, J. P., & Spieß, C. K. Kinder und Schule auf dem Weg. schaften. Münster: Waxmann. tes & K. U. Mayer (Eds.), The (1998). Education as a keystone Bildungsreformpolitik für das Berlin Aging Study. Aging from of integration of immigrants: 21. Jahrhundert (pp. 56–66). Zühlke, S. (2000). Beschäfti- 70 to 100 (pp. 302–328). New Determinants of school attain- Weinheim: Beltz. gungschancen durch berufliche York: Cambridge University ment of immigrant children in – (2000b). Familienalltag und Mobilität? Arbeitslosigkeit, Wei- Press. West Germany. In H. Kurthen, J. Kindheit. In A. Herlth, A. Engel- terbildung und Berufswechsel in Fijalkowski, & G. G. Wagner bert, J. Mansel, & C. Palentien Ostdeutschland. Berlin: edition Trappe, H. (2000). Work and (Eds.), Immigration, citizenship, (Eds.), Spannungsfeld Familien- sigma (207 p.). family in women's lives in the and the welfare state in Ger- kindheit. Neue Anforderungen, German Democratic Republic. In many and the United States— Risiken und Chancen (pp. 121–- Zühlke, S., & Goedicke, A. T. L. Parcel & D. B. Cornfield Part A (pp. 35–46). Greenwich, 135). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. (2000). Mobilität oder Immobi- (Eds.), Work and family: Re- CT: JAI Press (Immigrant Incor- – (2000c). Hausarbeit. Zur Inte- lität? Zur Bedeutung interner search informing policy (pp. 5–- poration, Industrial Develop- gration der Kinder in die häus- Arbeitsmärkte in beiden deut- 29). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage ment and Social Fabric Series, liche Arbeitsteilung. In H. schen Staaten vor 1989. Kölner (reprint). Vol. 14 [A]). Hengst & H. Zeiher (Eds.), Die Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Arbeit der Kinder. Kindheitskon- Sozialpsychologie, 52, 81–95. Trappe, H., & Rosenfeld, R. A. Wagner, M., & Mulder, C. H. zept und Arbeitsteilung zwi- (in press). How do children mat- (1998). First time home-owner- schen den Generationen (pp.

206

Independent Research Group Lack of Training: Employment and Life Chances of the Less Educated Independent Research Group

Contents

Why do We Need to Know More about the Less Educated? ……………………… 211 Research Program ………………………………………………………………………………… 212 Research Activities and Results ……………………………………………………………… 215

Publications …………………………………………………………………………………………… 219

Duration: January 2000–December 2004

Head of Research Group: Heike Solga Doctoral Candidates: Justin Powell Sandra Wagner

210 Independent Research Group

Why do We Need to Know More about the Less Educated?

Despite their group’s relatively small size—at about 15% of all present-day school-leavers, or between 80,000 and 100,000 youth, depending on the birth cohort—"less-educated” persons represent a significant object of both German policy and public debate. They face extremely high unemployment risk. They constitute half of all long-term unemployed persons in Germany. Their higher vulnerability is usually attributed to the following: (1) the number of jobs for less-educated workers has decreased and will continue to decrease, and (2) due to the current job shortage, less-educated persons are forced out of the labor market because they lose in the job competition with better-qualified persons. The underlying cause of their higher unemployment risk seems to be their lack of qualifications, making the acquisition of vocational qualifications seem a fitting solution to the problem. Germany spends billions on so-called "training offensives” at both the federal and Länder levels to increase the number of training positions so that as many young people as possible can benefit from opportunities for training. But no one really In fact, our research agenda emphasizes an explanation other than displace- knows whether this money is well- ment. The "selection” hypothesis locates spent. It is not yet known whether inequality of opportunities earlier in the these efforts will succeed in (1) rea- life course—the result of selection processes in educational systems—and does sonably decreasing the number of not simply state that at labor market youth who hold no formal vocation- entry higher-educated persons outperform the less educated. Our perspective al certificate, and (2) actually is historical, institutional, and compara- improving their subsequent employ- tive, as we examine changes in composition of the group of less-educated per- ment chances if they do complete sons over time, in shifting institutional such special training programs. contexts, and in different regions and countries.

211 Independent Research Group

Research Program

The main reason for uncertainty as to the success of Germany’s “training offensives” is that present-day policy mainly focuses on the question of what is to be done about less-educated youth once their lack of qualifications has become reality, reducing the problem solely to the qualification dimension. The research group will go beyond this perspective by addressing three main research questions:

(1) We explore why there are still all social strata, but we do not. Thus, less-educated young persons at all and the sociological question to be ad- who constitutes this group today. dressed first is: Which societal factors (2) We re-introduce the sociological produce this group? The two disserta- explanation that selection on the basis tions investigate the segregating Ger- of formal qualifications is not a natural man education system as a “producer” law, but the result of social action. Thus, of differently-certified groups, the dif- we investigate the educational experi- ferent school types as a form of institu- ences and labor market opportunities of tionalized inequality in learning and less-educated persons from an historical socialization environments, and the sig- and institutional perspective and ex- nificance of family background and dis- plore whether lack of training is a gen- ability labeling for individual careers in eral or an historically defined, dynamic the German school and vocational educational deficit in labor markets. training system. Sandra Wagner’s dis- (3) We investigate whether less- sertation, Family background and school educated Germans are socially excluded, careers of less-educated youth in (West- and if so, whether their disadvantaged ern) Germany, focuses on historical labor market situation is in fact the changes in the composition of the less- cause of their social exclusion. educated group in terms of social back- Two dissertation projects begun in ground and ethnicity, and the effects of January 2000 address the first two changes in the German education sys- research questions. To answer the ques- tem on their resources for socialization tion of why there are still less-educated and ability development over the past youth after an extraordinary education- 50 years. Justin Powell’s dissertation, al expansion and who they are from a Does school integration matter? Com- sociological perspective, the disserta- paring educational attainments of youth tions investigate why particular socio- with physical disabilities in Germany and structural groups are over-represented the United States, attempts to offer new among the ranks of less-educated insights into the social mechanisms and youth. If innate ability differences alone schooling structures responsible for de- were the cause of the variance in edu- fining and labeling “failures” in educa- cational outcomes, we should find equal tional systems, about how educational proportions of less-educated youth in institutions themselves contribute to

212 Independent Research Group such definitions, and why certain groups labor market. The functional irrelevance (here youth with disabilities) bear far or superfluousness of less-educated higher risks of educational disadvan- persons is produced by an oversupply of tage. In both countries, these youth qualified labor and/or a decline in labor make up a large proportion of those demand. who do not attain the minimum degree (2) Selection hypothesis In socio- usually required for further training. By logical research, one explanation for the investigating this particularly disadvan- disadvantaged labor market position of taged group, we may more clearly dis- less-educated persons is that more cover selection processes and discrimi- highly qualified persons displace less nation based on so-called ascriptive qualified persons. This project presents characteristics, such as disability. another, less established explanation, The third question is addressed by namely “selection.” It is reasonable to Heike Solga’s research. Less-educated assume that the persons who escaped persons’ labor market participation from the “camp of the less educated” since 1950 will be examined. Entry into over the last decades were not a ran- the labor market, career paths, and dom sample of the population. The re- opportunities to gain qualifications later maining individuals are most probably a in life will be analyzed for different “negative” selection in terms of learning cohorts. The central complementary and cognitive competencies. Their in- theses are: creasing labor market vulnerability (1) Superfluousness hypothesis In would still result from increased job general, employment opportunities are competition, but the disadvantages determined by the qualification struc- caused thereby would be analyzed more ture of the labor force (supply side) and as a consequence of this “creaming-out” the quality and quantity of the available process and less as a sign of mere dis- jobs (demand side). Thus, lack of train- placement (see chart 1). Moreover, since ing does not in itself result in less-edu- those who remain untrained are not cated persons’ marginalization in the randomly distributed within the social

Chart 1: Two explanations of the increasing labor market vulnerability of less-educated persons

Displacement Selection

before e.e. after e.e. + job shortage before e.e. after e.e. + job shortage

unemployment unemploy- Applicant’s queue Applicant’s ment

e.e. educational expansion

low-skilled jobs trained persons untrained persons

213 Independent Research Group

Since May 2000 we stratification system, this hypothesis (2) Such differences only exist when have cooperated with must and does include an explanation less-educated persons are especially the Department of Special Education, of how this lack of ability and skill is disadvantaged in the labor market, that University of Cologne: socially produced and constructed. In is, in times of low demand for labor. The Sociological research contrast to the displacement argument, real reason for their disadvantaged liv- evaluating the model project “Job-coaching it locates inequality of opportunities ing conditions, then, would not be their for school under- earlier in the life course—as selection less-educated status in itself, but the achievers” (funded by processes in the educational system— instability of their employment status the Krupp Foundation and does not simplistically state that and their growing marginalization in and the state government of North Rhine- more highly educated persons outper- the labor market due to long-term Westphalia). form the less educated at labor market unemployment and/or changes in their entry. group composition (see selection With respect to living conditions of hypothesis). less-educated persons, the project ex- The answers to our three research plores the extent to which discernible questions may lessen the uncertainties differences in lifestyle can be attributed mentioned above. From a scientific per- either to their “less-educated status” or spective, this research focused on the to their labor market exclusion. The for- less educated contributes to the specifi- mer would be correct if we find differ- cation of education’s significance in ences to higher-educated groups for all society and in labor markets, and the cohorts; the latter if differences are interrelations between employment only found for less-educated persons in opportunities and other domains of life. cohorts with poor employment chances. The two competing hypotheses are: (1) Less-educated persons generally display different patterns in these domains of life compared to persons who have completed a vocational training program, even when they are in stable employment. If this is correct, any differences identified could generally be attributed to these individuals’ less- educated status. This certainly does not imply that the less educated can or should be personally blamed for their fate. Instead, it would indicate the fact of their general disadvantage and their restricted access to the life options enjoyed by those with qualifications.

214 Independent Research Group

Research Activities and Results

The research group’s work started with an inaugural conference entitled “Low-paid = low-skilled? Opportunities and Risks of a Low-Wage Sector in Germany” (in collaboration with the Network on Longitudinal Research Berlin-Branden- burg [LWBB] at the German Institute for Economic Research [DIW]). Held at the Max Planck Institute for Human Develop- ment, Berlin, on May 11–12, 2000. The conference was successful in stimulating interdisciplinary discussions between economists, sociologists, and political scientists from Germany and abroad. Conference contributions have been published on a CD-ROM and are also available via internet. The main result drawn from the conference contributions with respect to the research group’s focus was that an increase in the number of low-wage jobs would most probably not improve the employment opportunities of the less educated. On the contrary, this increase might even result in a growing number of young people without formal qualifications. It might have negative effects on firms’ willingness to provide training opportunities, because cheap labor without the time and task restrictions of training requirements would be available in the German labor market and on young people’s motivation to accept Deutsches Institut für Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung Wirtschaftsforschung Max Planck Institute for Human Development apprenticeship when the risk Längsschnitt Werkstatt Nachwuchsgruppe Ausbildungslosigkeit: Berlin-Brandenburg (LWBB) Bedingungen und Folgen mangelnder of remaining low-paid after Berufsausbildung completion of training would Niedrig entlohnt = be high (cf. conference paper niedrig qualifiziert? presented by Heike Solga,

Chancen und Risiken “Consequences of a low-wage eines Niedriglohnsektors in sector on the training system Deutschland Beiträge der Konferenz in Berlin am 11.-12. Mai 2000

215 Independent Research Group

y % 100 Lowest secondary school type "Hauptschule" 90 Intermediate secondary school type "Realschule" 77 80 Highest secondary school type "Gymnasium" 70 70

60 56 52 50 45 40 37 34 28 30 29 30 30 2727 26 2525 24 24 20 21 21 18 20 20 15 13 12 10 7 0 1940 1950 1955 1960 1964 1971 1976 1983 1985 Birth cohort Cohorts before 1983: only West Germans. Cohort from 1983: West and East Germans. The difference to 100 percent = special schools for “disabled” youth, comprehensive schools, Waldorf and private schools.

Source: Official statistics.

Figure 1. School attendance of 13-year-old West Germans.

Further research results of the first they have experienced negative life year are: events during childhood. They are not Educational expansion has led to a only faced with fewer resources for social homogenization of the lowest educational attainment by virtue of secondary school track in Germany their own family background, but their (Hauptschule), which negatively im- peers also come mainly from less-ad- pacts the school environment of chil- vantaged families. Thus, they have lost dren attending this school type. Anal- compensatory resources in their school yses on “A side effect of educational environment, which they had in the expansion: The increased social homo- past when the Hauptschule was the geneity of the Hauptschule” (by Heike standard school type and attended by Solga and Sandra Wagner, 2001) have the majority of youth. shown that today, children attending Similar anti-discrimination protec- the Hauptschule are doubly disadvan- tions and calls for social integration taged. Decreases in the number of chil- in Germany and the U.S. have not led dren attending the Hauptschule (see to similar levels and types of school Fig. 1) have not only been a quantita- integration for children with disabili- tive process, but have also led to qualities. Research presented by Justin tative changes in the school environ- Powell, “Disability discrimination and ment. Increasingly, children attending equality in Germany and the United the Hauptschule come from deprived States: Changing legal conceptions and families; their parents over-proportion- social realities,” at the 30th Biennial ally work as unskilled workers; and Meeting of the German Sociological more than those in other school types, Association, Cologne, September 2000,

216 Independent Research Group showed that while Germany and the 40% spent about 80% of their school U.S. both protect the civil rights of citi- days mainstreamed in regular class- zens with disabilities, their educational rooms in 1996 compared with around systems differ in levels of integration 30% in the late 1980s) have been ac- and inclusion and access to certifica- companied by higher rates of high tion. In Germany, the rapid growth of school graduation and steadily increas- special schools during the post-war ing college and university participation educational expansion and their stabili- rates, but Americans with disabilities ty since hinders these individuals’ edu- still face extremely poor labor market cational attainment. Only a fraction of opportunities as do Germans with dis- Germany’s Sonderschulen offer higher abilities. education or even middle-level certifi- “Creaming-out” effect and educa- cation. In 1998, youth with disabilities tional disadvantages of persons with who attended Sonderschulen constitut- less-advantaged family backgrounds ed over 40% of all school-leavers who contribute to explain the increasing did not receive even the lowest certifi- vulnerability of less-educated persons cate, the Hauptschulabschluss (see in labor markets. In the paper “Dis- Fig. 2). In the same year, less than 10% placement or selection? Two explana- graduated with an intermediate certifi- tions for the increasing vulnerability of cate (Realschulabschluss) and only less-educated persons” (Independent 0.4% of these school-leavers attained a Research Group Working Paper 2/2000), certificate needed for university study. Heike Solga reintroduced the selection Given the declining value of the lowest- argument to explain the increasing vul- level certificates, students labeled dis- nerability of less-educated persons over Figure 2. Percentage of abled face reduced opportunities in fur- the course of educational expansion. In school-leavers without ther education and employment. In the sociology and economics, the dominant formal school certificate (without “Haupt- United States, rising levels of integra- explanation of this vulnerability has schulabschluss”) from tion of youth with disabilities (over been the displacement hypothesis, special schools (Son- derschulen), West Germany 1960–98* % 50 Aktionsprogramm zur Förderung der Rehabilitation (1970)

0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991*1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics, Fachserie 11, Reihe 1, several years. * Figures as of 1991 include all German states.

217 Independent Research Group

namely, that the less qualified are dis- One could argue that it does not placed by higher qualified persons. Our matter whether one calls it “selection” analyses have shown that instead of or “displacement,” the result of the in- such displacement, the higher (negative) creased job competition is the same: selectivity of this group is an essential ultimately, less-educated persons have cause of their poorer employment op- poorer employment opportunities today portunities today. By analyzing the than in the past. Both hypotheses would chances of less-educated persons to “agree” that today the new quality of enter into skilled jobs and how these less-educated persons’ vulnerability is chances have changed as the less-edu- that they are those who are legitimately cated group has become smaller, the defined as being economically obsolete. paper shows that those who constitute However, whereas the displacement the less-educated group today have al- hypothesis explains the exclusion of the ways had the poorest employment op- less educated by the newly emergent (at portunities. Due to the outflow of per- labor market entry) displacement phe- sons with relatively higher ability and nomenon, the selection hypothesis de- advantageous social background char- fines labor market disadvantage as sole- acteristics into higher educational ly a new feature and higher visibility of groups over the course of educational the continuing social disadvantages expansion, these lessened opportunities that less-educated persons suffer. become increasingly visible. The analy- Whereas “displacement” occurs at a ses show that—especially for men—the particular moment in time at the micro social selectivity of less-educated per- level, after educational investments sons has increased over the cohorts. already have been made, the selection Due to this selectivity, certificates have hypothesis locates inequality of oppor- increasingly replaced personal, ascrip- tunities earlier in the life course—as a tive characteristics in job competition. continuous selection process in educa- Whereas in the older cohorts, employers tional systems—and does not simply had to observe several personal charac- state that at labor market entry higher- teristics alongside the indicator of “vo- educated persons outperform or out- cational certificate” in order to choose qualify less-educated persons. In doing the relatively best applicants, after edu- so, it emphasizes the idea that it is not cational expansion they put “trust” in an individual’s failure, but the social the single indicator of certification, be- environment that produces and is re- cause more than ever before it simulta- sponsible for his or her lower achieve- neously indicates the less-advantaged ment, through disadvantages accumu- social background characteristics of the lated in schooling and socialization. untrained and, with them, the relatively disadvantaged environment of ability development in families and schools. This finding must be strengthened through an investigation of the relationship between the creaming-out process and other labor market outcomes—such as unemployment, upward mobility, and opportunities of acquiring formal qualification later in life.

218 Independent Research Group

Publications

Powell, J. (2000). Staatliche For- Solga, H., & Wagner, S. (2001). Publications by Heike Solga that originated schungsförderung der Sozialwissen- Paradoxie der Bildungsexpansion: from her previous work within the schaften: Die Deutsche Forschungs- Die doppelte Benachteiligung von Center for Sociology and the Study of the gemeinschaft (DFG) und die ameri- Hauptschülern. Zeitschrift für Life Course can be found there. kanische National Science Founda- Erziehungswissenschaft, 4. tion (NSF) im Vergleich. Berlin: Max – (2000). “Beiwerk” der Bildungs- Planck Institute for Human Devel- expansion: Die soziale Entmischung opment (Independent Research der Hauptschule. Berlin: Max Group Working Paper 3/2000). Planck Institute for Human Devel- opment (Independent Research Schupp, J., & Solga, H. (Eds.). Group Working Paper 1/2000). (2000). Niedrig entlohnt = niedrig qualifiziert? Chancen und Risiken eines Niedriglohnsektors in Deutschland. Documentation (CD- ROM) of the conference at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development, May 11–12, 2000. Berlin: German Institute for Econo- mic Research (DIW).

Solga, H. (in press). Longitudinal surveys and the study of occupational mobility: Panel and retrospective design in comparison. Quality & Quantity. – (2001). Jugendliche ohne Berufs- ausbildung—die neue Qualität eines alten Problems. Gewerkschaftliche Monatshefte, 1, 41–48. – (2000a). Displacement or selection? Two explanations for the increasing vulnerability of less-educated persons. Berlin: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (Independent Research Group Working Paper 2/2000). – (2000b). Konsequenzen eines Niedriglohnsektors für die berufliche Ausbildung in Deutschland. In J. Schupp & H. Solga (Eds.), Niedrig entlohnt = niedrig qualifiziert? Chancen und Risiken eines Niedrig- lohnsektors in Deutschland. Docu- mentation (CD-ROM) of the conference at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development, May 11–12, 2000. Berlin: German Insti- tute for Economic Research (DIW).

Solga, H., & Konietzka, D. (2000). Das Berufsprinzip des deutschen Arbeitsmarktes: Ein geschlechts- neutraler Allokationsmechnismus? Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 26, 111–147. Left to right: Heike Solga, Justin Powell, Sandra Wagner. Solga, H., & Trappe, H. (2000). Die Duale Ausbildung: Ambivalenzen veränderter Übergangsbiographien. Zeitschrift für Berufs- und Wirt- schaftspädagogik, 96, 244–260.

219

Service Units

Service Units Service Units

Contents

Library and Research Information …………………………………………………………… 223 Information Processing Center ………………………………………………………………… 226

Publications 1998–2000 ………………………………………………………………………… 228

Scientific Staff (1998–2000)

Library and Research Information: Lydia Lange, Diann Rusch-Feja Information Processing Center: Peter Grund, Jürgen Hess

222 Service Units

Library and Research Information

Overview The Library and Research Information Unit of the Max Planck Institute for Human Devel- opment is a service unit for the research activities in the Institute. To this end, the Unit supplies printed and electronic media as well as information which is necessary to meet the needs of internationally oriented basic research in various fields of the social and behavioral sciences. This media and information offering is built up and maintained according to the research Media and information for the collec- profile of the Institute. Currently, the tion in the Library and Research Infor- mation Unit are processed according to collection includes approximately library and information science stand- 185,000 volumes and approximately ards, placed into the active collection as rapidly as possible and provided with 630 current periodicals. ease of access. Scientific literature and information are acquired immediately upon request by the researchers, if the requested material is not already present in the Library collection. In addition to the Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC), we offer direct access to a wide variety of relevant databases, filtered and value- added information from external sources including web-based resources which are relevant to the research projects. A comprehensive intranet with the service offerings is continuously monitored and expanded according to the needs of the

223 Service Units

researchers. Institute publications and available on the project Web pages research results are indexed comprehen- without extra update procedures to sively in the online Library catalog which recreate the HTML pages. is available via a Z 39.50 interface. Cooperating with three of the Re- The staff of the Library and Research search Centers of the Institute, the Li- Information continue to actively support brary and Research Information Unit users with personal reference consul- has begun archiving and making a se- tancy, regular introductions to the Li- lection of electronic full texts of the In- brary services, training courses in using stitute publications publicly accessible various databases, relevant Internet rein various formats (HTML, PDF, etc.) and sources, and electronic journals, citation with direct links from the Library cata- frequency analyses, etc. log. Since January 2000, this has evolved into a "Preprint/Archive Server" Electronic Library which contains over 80 full text Insti- The last years have been dominated by tute publications. Towards the end of the increasing digitalization of the Li- the year, procedures were created to brary services and resources. The follow- augment these electronic documents ing gives just a cursory overview of with Dublin Core Metadata in accor- these developments: dance with the Open Archives Initiative The Web-server for the online Library specifications. This "Preprint/Archive catalog using Allegro-C was expanded Server" will continue to be developed, through the integration of the Z 39.50 making additional electronic texts avail- protocol. The Library database is thus able with supplementary metadata on now available via the Z 39.50 interface the Institute Web site. for other information retrieval and Since February 2000, Institute staff database programs. This is especially members searching a title in the online useful for those researchers in the Insti- Library catalog can determine the circu- tute who use EndNote as a bibliograph- lation status of a work and, if on loan, ic administration program for their who is currently using it. most-frequently cited literature, and Since August 2000, a Z 39.50 Gate- who now have direct access and down- way has been integrated into the Li- loading facilities from the Library cata- brary offerings which enables a simulta- log into their individual EndNote sys- neous search in the most important ar- tem. This alleviates incorrect citation of ticle databases, as well as other titles and tedious individual input. important library online catalogs (in- In the Intranet and Internet of the cluding the Library of Congress). Library and Research Information Unit, The offering of electronic full texts various lists of publications are generat- within the context of the Max Planck ed on demand directly from the Library Society wide library cooperation and database thus representing the most Grundversorgung through the Advisory current state of new publications. This Council for Information Provision includes, for instance, the new acquisi- (Beratender Ausschuss für Informa- tions list of the Library, list of periodical tionsversorgung [BI]) was expanded holdings, publications of an individual through consortial agreements with researcher or a specific project. Such Elsevier Science Direct, Springer LINK, lists can be structured in various for- Kluwer, Academic Press and Science. In- mats and sorted according to individu- stitute researchers in Max Planck Insti- ally chosen criteria. In this way, the tute for Human Development now have newest Institute publications are always full text access to articles in a total of

224 Service Units

2,364 electronic journals. In the context Librarian Trainees and Internships of the Max Planck Society Task Force During the period covered, the Library The Final Report summary in for Information Provision, a study on and Research Information participated German is available on the Task Force for Information the use and acceptance of electronic as the practicum library for students in Provision web site journals by researchers in the entire the Master's degree program in Library http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/ infoprojekt/evalkurz.html and Max Planck Society was conducted and Science at the Humboldt University, the an English-language presen- evaluated under the direction of Diann post-graduate Training Program for tation of the results has been published (see Rusch-Feja & Rusch-Feja and in cooperation with Uta Academic Librarians in Scientific Li- Siebeky, 1999a, 1999b). Siebeky, librarian of the Fritz Haber In- braries at the Humboldt University, the stitute. Librarian Certification Program (Diplom) The Library catalog is accessed on at the Archive, Library and Documenta- the average of 14,000 times monthly. tion Department of the Potsdam Univer- The publication lists of the Institute and sity of Applied Sciences (Fach- the Clearinghouse are used approxi- hochschule), and for an intern and for- mately 700 times monthly. mer Fulbright student entering an ALA-accredited graduate library school Databases program in the United States. In addi- Similarly, the number of subject-orient- tion, one thesis focused on impact of ed bibliographic databases available the transition from print to electronic through the Library has also increased. journals on the workflow procedures Various databases are no longer held as and services of the Library and Research CD-ROM databases on the Institute Information: Letzner, V. (2000). Das network, but are available via the zunehmende Angebot elektronischer WorldWideWeb at the GWDG (Society Zeitschriften in wissenschaftlichen for Scientific Data Processing). Various Spezialbibliotheken. Auswirkungen auf bibliographic databases are also ex- die Arbeitsvorgänge. Humboldt-Univer- panding their service to offer clickable sität zu Berlin. links to full texts, such as Web of Sci- ence, an additional service through the consorital agreements of the Max Planck Society available to all Society libraries.

225 Service Units

Information Processing Center

The Information Processing Center supports the projects and other service units at the Institute through its central facilities. The central cluster configuration provides compute servers for the decentralized workstations. The cluster strategy is based on the client-server concept, including six ALPHA servers (AXP), all running Compaq (former DEC) OpenVMS. Software that is supported includes: SAS, SPSS, BMDP, HLM, EQS, SIR-DBMS, LISREL. New servers are installed with Windows NT or Windows 2000 for dedicated purposes: internet/intranet servers, software server, etc. Three NT-cluster systems with big RAID storage installations provide the capacity for the central data management. Several powerful NT- terminal servers establish a CITRIX The decentralized personal computing capacity comprises about 240 Intel server farm. They allow the user to run PCs and 150 Apple computers. Apple programs (SPSS, SAS, MAT-Lab, etc.) on computers are running MacOS, Intel PCs are operating on Microsoft's Windows the server CPUs from their own work- NT 4.0 or Windows 2000. A central stations (Windows or Apple PC). "Serv- backup service is provided for all data on cluster disks. A wide array of soft- er-based computing” helps to overcome ware is available for the desktop sys- the constraints of the different work- tems. To provide the necessary security, a stations concerning CPU power and Cisco-PIX firewall system was installed local storage. which allows the failure of certain modules without a complete breakdown. Central virus scanner software—continu-

226 Service Units ously updated via the internet—monitor The Center’s services include all Intel and Apple workstations to • operating, optimizing, and developing avoid data loss caused by viruses. the devices of the central cluster and The Local Area Network (LAN) inte- network equipment; gration of all desktop computers pro- • mending and updating OpenVMS and vides access to central resources and Windows NT operating systems; cluster capacity. In 1998 the traditional • centralized printing capacity, includ- standard- and thin-wire Ethernet was ing high-speed and color printers; substituted by a new network based on • LAN integration of desktop comput- fiber optic cable. Now the desktop sys- ers and the continuous enhancement tems are directly connected with a of LAN facilities; maximum speed of 10 Mbit/s. • national and international connectiv- The Institute's connectivity to Wide ity (Wide Area Network); Area Networks (internet etc.) is provid- • internet services: Email, WWW, ed via the Research Network (WIN) of NEWS, FTP, and Telnet; German Telekom and the German Re- • maintenance and webmaster tasks of search Network Association (Deutsches the Institute’s internet and intranet Forschungsnetz [DFN]). The Max Planck servers. Society is a DFN member. The Institute Complementing departmental services is sharing a Berlin node (155 Mbit/s) for are all Max Planck Institutes managed by • user support and trouble-shooting the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max for Intel PCs and Apple computers; Planck Society. Late in the year 2000 • coordination and technical support the GIGA-WIN (1 Gbit/s) was installed for desktop computers and software; allowing the Institute to increase the • software acquisition. use of high-speed connectivity. The Center provides • general design and coordination of the Institute’s information technology equipment; • the documentation of data concerning the existing computer and network equipment; • an overview of market developments; • advice for the Institute's boards and departments; • the promotion of new concepts for state-of-the-art computer equipment.

227 Service Units

Publications 1998–2000

Botte, A., Rusch-Feja, D., & Information und Technologie, 1, Chaos: Kann ein globales, inte- digital libraries project. D-Lib Theers, R. (Eds.). (2000). Hat die 41–60. griertes Informationssystem er- Magazine, 5, p. 4. Fachinformation im Bildungswe- – (2000b). Digital Libraries—In- reicht werden? In A. Botte, D. sen eine Zukunft? 7. GIB-Fach- formationsform der Zukunft für Rusch-Feja, & R. Theers (Eds.), Rusch-Feja, D., & Richter, C. tagung, 3.–4. November 1997 in die Informationsversorgung und Innovation durch Kooperation. (1998). Strukturierung von In- Fuldatal. Berlin: Gesellschaft In- Informationsbereitstellung?— Neue Projekte, neue Partner, formationsquellen durch Meta- formation Bildung (94 p.). Teil 5. Zeitschrift für Bibliothek, neue Perspektiven. 6. GIB-Fach- daten am Beispiel des Deut- – (Eds.). (1999). Innovation Information und Technologie, 2, tagung, 29.–30. Oktober 1999, schen Bildungsservers. In durch Kooperation. Neue Projek- 199–210. Berlin (pp. 40–49). Berlin: Ge- A. Botte, D. Rusch-Feja, & R. te, neue Partner, neue Perspek- – (2000c). Dublin core educa- sellschaft Information Bildung. Theers (Eds.), Schritte zur Qual- tiven. Berlin: GIB (Schriftenreihe tional metadata. Entwicklungen – (1999g). Metadaten im Kon- itätsverbesserung von Bildungs- der Gesellschaft Information bei Metadaten für den Bil- text von Global Info. In Online- informationssysstemen. Prag- Bildung, 6) (115 p.). dungsbereich. Zeitschrift für Tagung der DGI (Vol. 21, pp. matische Ansätze zur Akzep- – (Eds.). (1998). Schritte zur Bibliothekswesen und Bibliogra- 83–91). Berlin: Deutsche Gesell- tanzsteigerung von Online- und Qualitätsverbesserung von Bil- phie, 47, 20–25. schaft für Informationswissen- Offline-Diensten. 5. GIB-Fach- dungsinformationssystemen. – (2000d). E-Publishing in schaft und Informationspraxis. tagung, 1.–2. Oktober 1997 in Pragmatische Ansätze zur Ak- Hochschulbibliotheken in den – (1998a). Aufbau von interna- Halle (pp. 87–121). Berlin: GIB. zeptanzsteigerung von Online- USA. In B. Tröger (Ed.), Wissen- tionalen Bildungsservern im In- und Offline-Diensten. 5. GIB- schaft Online. Elektronisches ternet. Die Rolle von Metadaten Rusch-Feja, D., & Siebeky, U. Fachtagung, 1.–2. Oktober 1997 Publizieren in Bibliothek und für Lehr- und Lernmaterialien- (1999a). Evaluation of usage in Halle. Berlin: GIB (70 p.). Hochschule (pp. 348–383). sammlungen. GIB-news, 1, 2–8 and acceptance of electronic Frankfurt a.M.: Klostermann. (www.educat.hu-berlin.de/gib/- journals. Results of an electron- Hess, J. (Ed.). (1999). Education – (2000e). Experiences with news/1998-1/ thema1.htm). ic survey of Max Planck Society and social change: Empirical consortia for electronic journals – (1998b). Educational libraries researchers including usage sta- studies for the improvement of in Germany. The Server, 2 (1), in Europe focussing on Germany tistics from Elsevier, Springer education in eastern Africa. 2–3, and 2 (2), 2–3. and the European school net- and Academic Press (Full re- Bonn: German Foundation for – (2000f). International meta- work. Education Libraries, 22, port). D-Lib Magazine, 5, p. 4 International Development, Ed- data initiatives—The latest de- 21–36. (www.dlib.org/dlib/october99/- ucation, Science and Documen- velopments. In Managing the – (1998c). Entwicklungen der rusch-feja/10rusch-feja- tation Centre (333 p.). digital future of libraries. The In- Dublin Core-Metadaten. Biblio- fullreport.html). ternational TACIS Conference, theksdienst, 32, 302–323 – (1999b). Evaluation of usage Hess, J., & Kalusopa, T. (1998). Moscow, April 2000. (www.dbi-berlin.de/dbipub/- and acceptance of electronic Challenges of building educa- – (2000g). International meta- bdart/980213.htm). journals. Results of an electron- tional research capacity in sub- data initiatives—The latest de- – (1998d). The library as a stan- ic survey of Max Planck Society Saharan Africa: The case of the velopments. Russian Digital Li- dard-setter: Metadata in con- researchers including usage sta- school of education, University braries, 3 (CD). text of the digital library (elec- tistics from Elsevier, Springer of Zambia. In L. Buchert (Ed.), – (2000h). Some consortial tronic version: and Academic Press. D-Lib Education reform in the South in models for acquiring electronic www. mpib-berlin.mpg.de/dok/ Magazine, 5, p. 4 the 1990s. Education on the resources in Germany. 66th IFLA metadata/gmr/ecdl98.htm). (www.dlib.org/dlib/october99/- move (pp. 325–336). Paris: Council and General Conference, – (1998e). Metadata: Standards rusch-feja/10rusch-feja- UNESCO Publishing. Jerusalem, 13–18 August 2000 for retrieving WWW documents summary.html). (www.ifla.org/IV/ifla66/papers/- (and other digitized and non- – (1998). Wege in die Zukunft— Lange, L. (1999a). Glücklich ist, 167-134e.htm). digitized resources). In U. Grot- Elektronische Zeitschriften. II. wer vergißt …: Über den Um- – (1999a). Aktivitäten Spezial- kopf, H. Andernach, S. Stevens- Workshop in Berlin. Bibliotheks- gang mit Reue. Psychologie bibliotheken. New book econo- Rayburn, & M. Gomez (Eds.), Li- dienst, 32, 712–723 heute, 26, 64–67. my. In Deutscher Bibliotheksver- brary and information services (www.dbi-berlin.de/dbi_pub/ – (1999b). Von Kriechern, Spei- band e.V. (Ed.), DBV-Jahrbuch in astronomy (Vol. III, pp. 153, bd_art/98_04_06.htm). chelleckern und Braunnasen. 1998 (pp. 177–179). 157–165). San Francisco: Astro- Psychologie heute, 26, 42–45. – (1999b). Digital Libraries—In- nomical Society of the Pacific Rusch-Feja, D., & Theers, R. formationsform der Zukunft für (electronic version by Harry E. (2000). Einleitung. In Hat die Lange, L., & Frensch, P. A. die Informationsversorgung und Payne: Fachinformation im Bildungs- (1999). Gaining scientific re- Informationsbereitstellung? www.eso.org/gen-fac/libraries/- wesen eine Zukunft? (pp. 3–6) cognition by position: Does edi- B.I.T. online, 2, 143–156. lisa3/ruschfejad.html). Berlin: GIB. torship increase citation rates? – (1999c). Digital Libraries—In- – (1998f). Metadaten und Bib- – (1998). Einleitung: Interna- Scientometrics, 44, 459–486. formationsform der Zukunft für liotheken. In R. Busch (Ed.), Be- tionale Entwicklungen und der die Informationsversorgung und rufsfeld Bibliothek. Kommunika- globale Druck auf die Bildungs- Rusch-Feja, D. (in press). Com- Informationsbereitstellung? tion—Qualitätsmanagement— institutionen und ihre Informa- munication, electronic net- B.I.T. online, 2, 281–306. Kundenorientierung: Vol. 12. tionsversorgung. In A. Botte, D. works/publications. In N. J. – (1999d). Digital Libraries—In- Beiträge zur bibliothekarischen Rusch-Feja, & R. Theers (Eds.), Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), In- formationsform der Zukunft für Weiterbildung (pp. 84–109). Schritte zur Qualitätsverbesse- ternational encyclopedia of the die Informationsversorgung und Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin. rung von Bildungsinformations- social and behavioral sciences. Informationsbereitstellung? – (1998g). Virtual national li- systemen. Pragmatische Ansätze Oxford: Elsevier Science. B.I.T. online, 2, 434–446. brary education? German librar- zur Akzeptanzsteigerung von – (2000a). Digital Libraries—In- – (1999e). E-journals in Ger- ies cooperate to support educa- Online- und Offline-Diensten. formationsform der Zukunft für many: Efforts, collections and tion. Inspel, 32, 243–261. 5. GIB-Fachtagung, 1.–2. Okto- die Informationsversorgung und organization. Serials, 12, 235–- ber 1997 in Halle (pp. 3–5). Informationsbereitstellung?— 253. Rusch-Feja, D., & Becker, H. J. Berlin: GIB. Teil 4. Zeitschrift für Bibliothek, – (1999f). Innovation oder (1999). Global info: The German

228

Appendix

Contents

1. Research Colloquia 1998–2000 ……………………………………………………………… 233 2. Visiting Scientists 1998–2000 ………………………………………………………………… 237 3. Other Professional Activities 1998–2000 ………………………………………………… 239 4. Academic Degrees 1998–2000 ………………………………………………………………… 243 5. Scientific and Professional Staff 1998–2000 …………………………………………… 245

232 Appendix

1. Research Colloquia 1998–2000

2000 January 14 Martin Abraham, Universität Leipzig: June 19 Willard Zangwill, University of With a little help from my spouse: Chicago: Mitarbeit der Ehepartner von beruflich Heuristics in electronic commerce Selbstständigen. firms—Bounded rationality or total irra- January 17 Robert N. Proctor, Pennsylvania State tionality. University: June 23 Peter Gerjets, Universität des Saar- The Nazi war on tobacco and the war landes: on tobacco today. Knowledge acquisition in combinatorics January 18 Peter Borkenau, Universität Halle- with example-based hypertext-environ- Wittenberg: ments: Experimental studies and in- Genetische und Umwelteinflüsse auf structional implications. Persönlichkeitsmerkmale. June 23 Jens Alber, Universität Konstanz: January 24 Robin M. Hogarth, University of Produzieren kontinentaleuropäische Chicago: Wohlfahrtsstaaten typische Beschäfti- Educating intuition. gungsprobleme? January 25 Ralf T. Krampe, Universität Potsdam: June 27 Gisela Labouvie-Vief, Wayne State Constraints and adaptations in move- University: ment timing: The role of expertise and Affect dampening and affect complexi- aging. ty in the life span. February 25 Stephen P. Jenkins, University of July 3 Maya Bar-Hillel, University of Essex: Jerusalem: Re-employment probabilities for Span- Where did 1850 happen first, in Europe ish men: What role does the Unemploy- or America: A cognitive look at a his- ment benefit system play? torical bias. March 3 David Soskice, Wissenschaftszentrum August 30 Kurt Danziger, Royal Society of Berlin: Canada: Patterns of innovations in the US and Searching for the concept of memory: Germany: Explaining increasing diver- A historical journey. gence. November 7 Alan D. Baddeley, University of Bristol: April 10 Londa Schiebinger, Pennsylvania State Working memory: What’s new? University: November 14 Robert J. Sternberg, Yale University: Has feminism changed science? Successful intelligence. April 17 Bernd Wollring, Universität Gesamt- November 27 Zhou Xialoin, University of Peking: hochschule Kassel: Reading processes and developmental Qualitative empirical investigations dyslexia in Chinese. concerning primary school children’s December 1 Hartmut Esser, Universität Mannheim: concepts of probability. Das Framing der Ehe und das Risiko zur April 18 Thomas D. Cook, Northwestern Univer- Scheidung. sity: A theory of generalization of causal connections. May 17 Joyce Moore, University of Iowa: 1999 Understanding the relationship between January 8 Friedrich Buttler, Ministerium für representations and their quantitative Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kultur, referents: A study in the domain of sta- Potsdam: tistics. Anreizkompatibilität und Hochschul- May 19 Paul Rozin, University of Pennsylvania: organisation. The psychology of food choice. January 19 Michael Tomasello, Max-Planck-Insti- May 23 Endel Tulving, University of Toronto: tut für evolutionäre Anthropologie, What is episodic memory? Leipzig: May 24 Susan Goldman, Vanderbilt University: The human adaption for culture. Learning from text in a mulitmedia age. January 22 Hans-Jürgen Andreß, Universität Biele- May 30 Robert W. Levenson, University of Cal- feld: ifornia, Berkeley: Armutsrisiko Scheidung. Emotion and age: From the inside out. January 26 Dirk Vorberg, Technische Universität June 15 Hans Bertram, Humboldt-Universität Braunschweig: zu Berlin: Priming-Effekte durch unbewusste und Familie, Ökonomie und Fürsorge. bewusste Reize.

233 Appendix

January 29 Wolfgang Zapf, Wissenschaftszentrum, June 4 Heiner Ganßmann, Freie Universität Berlin: Berlin: Sozialberichterstattung und Wohlfahrts- Wohlfahrtsstaaten und Arbeitslosigkeit messung: Rückblick und Ausblick. —Schweden, Dänemark, die Niederlande February 1 David Over, University of Sunderland: und die Bundesrepublik im Vergleich. Uncertain conditionals and the reliabili- June 8 Elizabeth Maylor, University of ty of inference. Warwick: February 10 Dietrich Albert, Universität Graz: Prospective memory across the lifespan. Die Wissensraumtheorie: Grundlagen June 11 James Shanteau, Kansas State Uni- und Anwendungen. versity: February 12 Wout Ultee, University of Nijmegen: Decision making by experts: Psychologi- The Jews in the Netherlands cal explorations of expertise. 1936–1945. Addressing questions on June 18 Martin Kohli & Harald Kühnemund, societal cohesion by analyzing life Freie Universität Berlin: courses in time of crisis. Der Alterssurvey: Konzeption und Ertrag February 16 Stephan Dutke, Freie Universität Berlin: eines neuen Beobachtungsinstruments. Multiple Repräsentationen beim Text- July 2 M. Rainer Lepsius, Universität Heidel- verstehen: Zur Replizierbarkeit des berg: Crossover-Effekts. Willensbildung und Entscheidungsfin- February 19 Jaap Dronkers, University of dung in der Europäischen Union. Amsterdam: July 5 Augusto Blasi, University of Massachu- Sind auch in Deutschland nicht öffent- setts, Boston: liche Schulen effektiver als öffentliche The moral ambiguity of moral emotions. Schulen? July 6 Lynn Hasher, Duke University: February 26 Helmut Seitz, Europa-Universität Aging and inhibitory control. Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder: July 7 Jianxin Zhang, University of Peking: Determinanten und Finanzierung der Differentiating between general and Sozialhilfeausgaben. specific trust: Evidence from mainland March 3 Peter Reimann, Universität Heidelberg: China and Hong Kong. Erwerb prozeduralen Wissens aus July 9 Peter Ayton, City University, London: Lösungsbeispielen. Sunk costs: Are wasps and mice more March 23 John Gabrieli, Stanford University: rational than behavioral scientists? Age-associated changes in memory: A September 8 Jacquelynne Eccles, University of cognitive neuroscience perspective. Michigan, Ann Arbor: April 13 Richard Nisbett, University of Activities, identity and adolescent de- Michigan: velopment. Culture and systems of thought: Holistic September 17 Denise Cummins, Califormia State Uni- vs. analytic cognition. versity: April 23 Viktor Steiner, ZEW Mannheim: How the social environment shaped the Evaluation von staatlich geförderter evolution of mind. Fortbildung und Umschulung. September 27 Nils-Eric Sahlin, Lund University: April 26 Leslie Smith, Lancaster University: Epistemic risk. Necessity in social reasoning. September 28 David Rubin, Duke University: April 27 Hannelore Weber, Universität A new method for the study of autobio- Greifswald: graphical memory. Die soziale und persönliche Konstruk- October 1 Daniel Guhr, The Boston Consulting tion angemessener Bewältigung. Group: April 28 Barbara Tversky, Stanford University: Wissensmanagement im Wirtschafts- Cognitive origins of graphic displays. alltag: Warum weniger oft mehr ist. May 4 Richard M. Lerner, Boston College: October 5 Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Institute of Adolescents and their communities: Ap- Child Health, London: plied developmental science and the What can genetic disorders tell us promotion of positive youth develop- about normal cognitive development? ment. October 7 Michael Frese, Universität Gießen & May 11 James McClelland, Carnegie Mellon University of Amsterdam: University: Action errors: The work and organiza- Complementary learning systems: In- tional psychology perspective. sights from the successes and failures October 15 Stavros Stavrou, CEDEFOP, Thessalo- of connectionist models of learning and niki: memory. Die Förderung des Unternehmertums May 25 Lola L. Lopes & Gregg C. Oden, Iowa und die potentielle Rolle der beruflichen University: Bildung. Attention and aspiration in risk choice: Putting it all together.

234 Appendix

October 18 Denis Hilton, Université de Toulouse II: November 19 Michael Burda, Humboldt-Universität Causal induction and causal explana- zu Berlin: tion. Blue Laws—Eine theoretische und em- October 26 Wolfgang Schneider, Universität pirische Untersuchung der Laden- Würzburg: schlussgesetzgebung in den Vereinigten Gedächtnisentwicklung im Kindes- und Staaten. Jugendalter: Klassische Positionen und November 30 Norbert Schwarz, University of neuere Trends. Michigan: November 5 Aviana Bulgarelli, ISFOL, Rom: Cognition, aging, and self-reports. Program evaluation and training poli- December 1 Beate Sodian, Universität Würzburg: cies: Approach, methodology and Theory of mind beyond age four— results. Understanding the nature of (scientific) November 8 Alexander Wearing, University of knowledge. Melbourne: December 7 Richard Shweder, Chicago: Person and task characteristics in multi- Why cultural psychology, not cross- ple person dynamic decision making. cultural psychology? November 16 Ed Diener, University of Illinois: December 8 Ulrich Schiefele, Universität Bielefeld: Measurement and findings of subjective Motivation und Handlungskontrolle als well-being. Bedingungen der Leistungsgüte und November 17 Ellen Bialystok, York University, -menge im Studium. Toronto/Ontario: Bilingualism and cognition: Searching for interactions in development.

1998 January 7 Heinrich Mintrop, University of Mary- formal model of inequality in the distri- land: bution of risk. Die Reform des pädagogischen Kern- March 16 David H. Jonassen, Pennsylvania State bereichs von Schule in vergleichender University: Perspektive. Representing what we know and learn: January 17 Friedrich Pfeiffer, Zentrum für Euro- Mindtools as an academic toolkit. päische Wirtschaftsforschung, Mann- March 18 Robert F. Boruch, University of Penn- heim: sylvania: Die Veraltung von Ausbildungswissen. Connections between large scale sur- Eine Analyse des dualen Ausbildungs- veys and controlled experiments in systems. educational and other social research. January 30 John C. Dencker, Harvard University: May 6 Norbert Bischof, Universität München: Who is laid off and why? An analysis of What is specifically human? workforce reductions in a large U.S. May 6 Joachim Brunstein, Universität firm, 1967–1993. Potsdam: February 3 Marcus Hasselhorn, Universität Motivationale Effekte der Bindung an Göttingen: ein Studienziel: Reaktionen auf Miß- Wird die dysphasische Sprachentwick- erfolge und selbstdefinierende Ideale. lungsstörung durch Dysfunktion im May 11 Antje Mertens, Humboldt-Universität phonologischen Arbeitsgedächtnis ver- zu Berlin: ursacht? Arbeitsplatzverlust und Lohnentwick- February 16 Christoph Klauer, Universität Bonn: lung—Eine empirische Analyse für On the interaction of logical validity Westdeutschland. and belief in syllogistic reasoning. May 11 Ryan Tweney, Bowling Green State February 17 Barbara Krahé, Universität Potsdam: University: Sexuelle Aggression zwischen Jugend- Cognition and scientific thinking: Levels lichen: Prävalenz und Prädiktoren. of analysis for a cognitive science of March 9 Reinhard Selten, Universität Bonn: science. Learning direction theory and the win- May 18 Friedhart Klix, Humboldt-Universität ner’s curse. zu Berlin: March 10 Robert Boyd, University of California: Zur Evolution intelligenzintensiver Population structure and equilibrium Module des Denkens. selection in evolutionary games. May 19 Axel Franzen, Universität Bern: March 13 Richard Breen, European University Persönliches Umweltverhalten zwischen Institute, Florence: kollektivem Nutzen und individuellem Risk and recommendation: Towards a Interesse.

235 Appendix

May 19 Winfried Hacker, Technische Univer- November 17 Willard W. Hartup, University of sität Dresden: Minnesota: Prospektives Gedächtnis—Bedingungen Risk and protective factors in peer rela- des Ausführens zurückgestellter Hand- tions in human development. lungen. November 20 Manfred Tessaring, CEDEFOP, Thessa- May 20 Peter Drewek, Freie Universität Berlin: loniki: Internationalisierungsprozesse zu Be- Qualifikationsungleichgewichte in ginn des 20. Jahrhunderts—Erziehungs- Europa. system, akademische Mobilität und Er- November 27 Jonathan Gershuny, University of ziehungswissenschaft im deutsch-ame- Essex: rikanischen Vergleich. Using life course data to establish June 2 Daniel M. Wegner, University of Vir- social position. ginia: December 1 Wolfgang Schnotz, Universität Landau: How to think, feel, or say precisely the Mentale Repräsentation beim Wis- most inappropriate thing for any occa- senserwerb mit Texten, Bildern und Di- sion: Ironic processes of mental control. agrammen. June 3 Hans Spada, Universität Freiburg: December 1 Klaus Fiedler, Universität Heidelberg: Spontaneous, schematic, and coherent Emotionseinflüsse auf Kognition und judgments in environmental risk evalu- Verhalten: Die Rolle von Assimilation ation: Model and data. und Akkommodation. June 9 Geert Hofstede, University of December 4 Gerhard Kleinhenz, Institut für Ar- Maastricht: beitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung der Entrepreneurship in Europe. Bundesanstalt für Arbeit, Nürnberg: June 25 Shelley E. Taylor, University of Califor- Ist hohe Beschäftigung noch ein rea- nia, Los Angeles: lisierbares Ziel der Wirtschafts- und Harnessing the imagination. Arbeitsmarktpolitik? IAB-AGENDER für July 6 Elisabetta Ruspini, Mannheimer Zen- Mehrbeschäftigung. trum für Europäische Sozialforschung: December 7 Orlando M. Lourenco, University of Lone mothers and dynamics of poverty Lisbon: in Europe. The psychology of my discontent: A July 22 David Uttal, Northwestern University, critical view on present psychology. Illinois: December 9 Hans N. Weiler, Europa-Universität Seeing the big picture: Map use and Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder: the development of spatial cognition. Hochschulfinanzierung, Hochschul- August 5 Herbert W. Marsh, University of West- strukturen, Hochschulreform: Feststel- ern Sydney Macarthur: lungen und Vermutungen zu einer Academic self-concepts and achieve- vergleichenden Fragestellung. ment: An overview. December 11 Ivan Szelenyi, University of California, August 10 Judy De Loache, University of Illinois: Los Angeles: Becoming symbol minded: Young chil- Changing social structure during mar- dren’s understanding and use of sym- ket transition: The case of central bols. Europe. August 12 Herbert W. Marsh, University of West- December 18 Wolfgang Schluchter, Max-Weber- ern Sydney Macarthur: Kolleg, Universität Erfurt: Student evaluations of university Handlungstheorien nach Max Weber. teaching effectiveness. September 9 Susan Stodolsky, University of Chicago: Why are some teachers willing to change their classroom practice? A comparison of secondary mathematics and English teachers. October 6 John A. Bargh, New York University: Automaticity of everyday life. October 30 Peter Sloane, University of Aberdeen: On gender wage differentials. November 4 Gavriel Salomon, Haifa University: New media: The cultivation of useful skills vs. the “butterfly effect.” November 13 Siv Gustafsson, University of Amsterdam: Optimal age of giving birth: Sweden, Germany, Britain and the Netherlands.

236 Appendix

2. Visiting Scientists 1998–2000

2000 July 1999–January 2000 June Seisoh Sukemune Thomas A. DiPrete Mukogawa Women’s University, Duke University Nishonomiya, Japan January–June John Nesselroade October 1999–July 2000 University of Virginia Andreas Ortmann October 1999–February 2000 Bowdoin College Batbold Enkhtuvshin September–December Mongolian Academy of Sciences Szymon Wichary Jagiellonian University, Cracow February–April K. Warner Schaie Sherry L. Willis November 1999–October 2000 Pennsylvania State University Katariina Salmela-Aro September 1999–March 2000 University of Helsinki Chin-fen Chang October–November Erich Ramseier Academia Sinica, Taiwan Amt für Bildungsforschung, Bern October 1999–March 2000 October–November Ödön Vanscó Johannes Huinink University of Budapest, Hungary Universität Rostock November Marilyn Binkley April–August Thomas Cook National Institute on Postsec- Northwestern University ondary Education Libraries and Lifelong Learning, Washington, May Robert Levenson Berkeley University DC since October 1999 May–June Janet Aisbett Tilmann Habermas Freie Universität Berlin Greg Gibbon Newcastle University, Australia June Gisela Labouvie-Vief Wayne State University

1999 November 1998–February 1999 June 1998–July 1999 Jaap Dronkers Tomas Korpi University of Amsterdam University of Stockholm March Laurel Bornholt July Tenko Raykov University of Sidney Fordham University April Richard Nisbett July Valentina McInerney University of Michigan University of Western Sydney April–August Heinz-Martin Süß July Ge Fang Universität Mannheim Academia Sinica, Peking April–September Susana Garcia Diez July Fuxi Fang Consejo Superior de Investiga- Academia Sinica, Peking ciones Cientificas July–August Peter Ayton May Richard Lerner City University, London Boston College August–September Jacquelynne Eccles May Michael Marsiske University of Michigan Wayne State University September Denise Cummins May Ann Horgas University of California, Davis Wayne State University September–October Hannah Brückner May–August Derek Isaacowitz Columbia University University of Pennsylvania

237 Appendix

September–December November Miguel Oliviera William Fleeson Universidade de Coimbra Wake Forest University November Norbert Schwarz September–December University of Michigan David Rubin November Edward Diener Duke University University of Illinois October Fritz Staub November Brett Laursen Universität Zürich University of Florida October 1998–September 1999 Elio Tuci National Research Council, Rome

1998 January Heinrich Mintrop August Herbert W. Marsh University of Maryland University of Western Sydney Macarthur February Jean Czerlinski University of Chicago September 1996–August 1998 February Geoffrey Miller Bogdan Mach College University London Polish Academy of Sciences September–November February William C. Wimsatt University of Chicago Friedrich Douglas University of West Florida February–March Glenn Carroll University of California, Berkeley September–December Anita Liberalesso Neri February–April X. T. Wang State University Campinas, Brazil University of South Dakota March Robert F. Boruch University of Pennsylvania March David H. Jonassen Pennsylvania State University April–December Jeremy Straughn University of Chicago May Kathryn Laskey George Mason University July Elisabetta Ruspini MZES Mannheim July–August David Uttal Northwestern University, Illinois July–September Mihai Gheorgiu Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris July–October Tenko Raykov University of Melbourne

238 Appendix

3. Other Professional Activities 1998–2000

Paul B. Baltes – Academia Europaea (Founding Member; Election Committee, Section on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences). – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Founding Member; Member of Executive Committee). – Freiberger Stiftung, Berlin (Member of Kuratorium). – US National Academy of Science, Future Research in Cognitive Aging (Member of Com- mittee). – International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Coeditor-in-Chief with Neil Smelser). – Jacobs Foundation (Member of Board of Trustees). – Social Science Research Council, USA (Chair of Board of Directors and Member of Execu- tive Committee). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Vice-President). – DaimlerChrysler Berlin Leadership Seminar (Chair of Steering Committee for Seminar 2001 and Member of Advisory Board).

Jürgen Baumert – Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Member of Senate and Main Committee; Member of Committee on Research Perspectives). – Review Committee Pedagogics and Education (RCPE), Utrecht (Member). – Academia Europaea (Member). – Programm “Steigerung der Effizienz des mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Unter- richts” (Chair of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zentrum für Schulforschung und Fragen der Lehrerbildung der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft (Coeditor). – Zeitschrift für Unterrichtswissenschaft (Coeditor). – International Journal of Educational Research (Editorial Board). – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zeitschrift Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht (Member of Board of Scientific Ad- visers). – Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik (JDM) (Member of Scientific Advisory Committee). – Waxmann Verlag, Reihe Pädagogische Psychologie und Entwicklungspsychologie, Mün- ster (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – School Effectiveness and School Improvement (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Organizing Committee, 9th European Conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI).

Felix Büchel – Economics of Education Review (Member of Editorial Board). – Verein für Socialpolitik, Sozialpolitischer Ausschuss (Member). – Verein für Socialpolitik, Bildungsökonomischer Ausschuss (Member). – Arbeitskreis Berlin-Brandenburgischer Wirtschaftswissenschaftler (Active). – Längsschnittwerkstatt Berlin-Brandenburg LWBB (Founding Member). – Project “New Indicators for Vocational Education and Training” (VOTEC), conducted by the European Commission (DG XXII), EUROSTAT, and CEDEFOP (German representative at the Board of Scientific Advisers). – Swiss Household Panel SHP (Member of Scientific Advisory Board).

Michael Corsten – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie, Working Group “Methoden der qualitativen Sozial- forschung” (Co-Speaker).

Wolfgang Edelstein – Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Co-Chair of Commission on “Responsible Conduct in Science”). – Ministerium für Bildung, Jugend und Sport des Landes Brandenburg (Chair of Board of Scientific Advisers for the new school subject Life Skills – Ethics – Religion). – Commission for the preparation of a model program “Learning Democracy in School and Community” to be implemented under the auspices of the Joint Commission of the Federal Government and the State Ministries of Education (BLK) (Member).

239 Appendix

– BLK-Programm “Qualitätsverbesserung in Schulen und Schulsystemen” (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Stiftung “Brandenburger Tor” der Bankgesellschaft Berlin (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Centre Marc Bloch—Centre Franco-Allemand de Recherches en Sciences Sociales (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Institut für angewandte Familien-, Kindheits- und Jugendforschung e.V., Potsdam (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Gerechtigkeitsforschung an der Universität Potsdam (Member of Board). – Suhrkamp Verlag, Reihe Beiträge zur Soziogenese der Handlungsfähigkeit (Editor). – Social Justice Research, New York (Editorial Board).

Gerd Gigerenzer – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Member). – Theory and Psychology (Coeditor). – Cognition (Editorial Board). – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board). – Humboldt Research Awards Committee (Member of Selection Committee). – Latsis Awards on Communications Sciences (Member of Selection Committee). – Evolution and Human Behavior (Editorial Board). – Max-Planck-Institut zur Erforschung von Wirtschaftssystemen (Member of Search Com- mittee).

Christa Händle – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Politische Bildung, Sektion Politische Bildung (Member of Board). – Förderprogramm “Demokratisches Handeln” (Member of Advisory Board). – Landesverband der Gemeinnützigen Gesellschaft Gesamtschulen (Member of Board).

Jutta Heckhausen – Gerontology (Editorial Board). – North American Journal of Psychology (Editorial Board).

Jürgen Hess – Newsletter “Specialist Group Computer Sciences and Development” of the Gesellschaft für Informatik (Editorial Board). – Union “Öffentliche Dienste, Transport und Verkehr” (Member of Executive Board of the Department for Science and Research, Berlin).

Erika M. Hoerning – International Sociological Association (Research Committee 38, Biography and Society, Member of Board). – International Yearbook of Oral History and Life Stories (Coeditor). – Oral History Association, USA (Corresponding Member). – BIOS, Zeitschrift für Biographieforschung und Oral History (Coeditor). – Konzil der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Soziologie (Member).

Ulrich Hoffrage – Memory, Special Issue “Hindsight Bias” (Coeditor).

Fabien Jobard – Centre Marc Bloch—Centre Franco-Allemand de Recherches en Sciences Sociales, Berlin (Associate Researcher). – Centre d’études sociologiques du droit et des institutions pénales, Paris (Associate Researcher). – Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches und internationales Strafrecht: Research project on police cooperation in Europe (Member).

Monika Keller – Jean Piaget Society for the Development of Knowledge (Member of Board of Directors). – Zeitschrift für Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften (Editorial Board).

Eckhard Klieme – Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Research Program “School Quality” (Group of Initia- tors). – OECD, Center for Educational Research and Information, Network for Student Outcome Indicators (Expert Group). – Program of International Student Assessment (PISA) (Member of the German National Scientific Consortium). – National Center of Education Statistics, Washington, DC (Scientific Adviser for the Inter- national Adult Literacy and Life Skills Study).

240 Appendix

Olaf Köller – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Lesson Lab, University of California, Los Angeles (Adviser for the TIMSS-Repeat-Video Study)

Lothar Krappmann – Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (Board of Scientific Advisers for Family Issues). – Universität Konstanz, Forschungsschwerpunkt “Familie und Gesellschaft” (Board of Sci- entific Advisers). – Empirische Pädagogik (Board of Advisers). – Zeitschrift für Familienforschung (Board of Advisers). – Neue Sammlung (Coeditor). – Haus der Politischen Bildung e.V., Berlin (Chairperson). – Lucius & Lucius (früher: Enke Verlag), Reihe “Der Mensch als soziales und personales Wesen” (Coeditor). – Newsletter of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (Co- editor). – Sachverständigenkommission für den 10. Kinder- und Jugendbericht (Chairperson).

Kurt Kreppner – From Past to Future. Clark Papers on the History of Psychology (Editorial Board). – Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa (Psychology: Theory and Research, Brazil) (Editorial Board).

Gero Lenhardt – Educação & Sociedade (Editorial Board).

Laura Martignon – Swedish Council for the Development of Science (Member). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik, Arbeitskreis Stochastik (Adviser). – International School for Advanced Studies, Neuroscience Section, Trieste (Member of Board of Advisers). – Stochastik in der Schule (Editorial Board). – Matemática Universitária (Associate Editor).

Karl Ulrich Mayer – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Member of Constitutional Coun- cil; Committee on “Young Academy”). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Senator, Founding Member of Section on Economics and Empirical Social Sciences). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (Member of Board). – Freudenberg Stiftung (Member of Working Group Youth in Education-Employment). – German-American Frontiers of the Behavioral and Social Sciences Symposium (GAFOSS) of the German-American Academic Council (GAAC) (Coordinator for Germany). – Kommission der Bundesregierung zur Verbesserung der informationellen Infrastruktur zwischen Wissenschaft und Statistik (Member). – Max-Planck-Institut für Demographie (Chair of Founding Committee; Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Max-Planck-Institut zur Erforschung von Wirtschaftssystemen (Member of Search Com- mittee). – Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung (Chair of Search Committee). – Sächsische Hochschulentwicklungskommission (Vice-chair). – University of Oxford (Member of Board of Electors for a new sociology professorship). – Wissenschaftsrat (1993–1999; Chairperson of the Scientific Committee 1996–1999; Member: Presidential Committee Future Science System, Personnel Structure in Higher Education; Chairperson of the following Working Groups: Evaluation Committee on Re- search on the Deutsches Jugendinstitut, Higher Education and Labor Market). – Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht (Member of Search Committee). – Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie (Coeditor). – Berliner Journal für Soziologie (Editorial Board). – European Academy of Sociology (Member). – Yale University, Center of Comparative Research (Member of Advisory Board). – Cornell University, Center for the Study of Inequality (Member of Advisory Board).

Justin Powell – National Science Foundation, Review Committee for the Science Resources Studies Divi- sion “Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering” (Member).

241 Appendix

Diann Rusch-Feja – International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (Secretary/Treasurer, Section of Information Technology; Secretary, Coordinating Board of Division 6, Library Management and Technology). – Special Librarians Association, GLOBAL 2000 (Program Committee). – BMB+F (Advisory Committee; “Untersuchung zur Nutzung elektronischer Fachinforma- tion, -publikation und -kommunikation in der Hochschulausbildung”). – Global-Info Consortium (Member). – Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (Advisory Committee; Usage Committee). – Arbeitsgemeinschaft Spezialbibliotheken (Advisory Committee). – Open Archives Initiative (Steering Committee). – International University Bremen (Library Consultant; Information Resources Center). – Deutscher Bibliotheksverband (Advisory Committee; Regionalverband Berlin-Branden- burg). – Information and Communications Commission of the German Learned Societies (IuK- Kommission) (DGfE-Delegate); Working Group “E-Journals” (Co-Speaker); “Metadata and Classification” (Member). – Gesellschaft Information Bildung e.V. (Co-Chair). – World Conference on Continuing Professional Education in the Information Professions 2002 (Co-Chair; Program Committee).

Jacqui Smith – The Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences (Editorial Board). – Research Group on Psychological Gerontology, Medical School, Freie Universität Berlin (Interim Chair). – XVth Biennial Meetings of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Devel- opment (ISSBD) (Program Committee). – XVIth Biennial Meetings of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Devel- opment (ISSBD) (Program Committee). – International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development (ISSBD) (Member of the Executive Committee). – Graduiertenkolleg “Psychiatry and Psychology of Aging” (Steering Committee). – 15. Tagung der Fachgruppe Entwicklungspsychologie (Program Committee).

Heike Solga – “Die Junge Akademie” an der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Member). – German-American Frontiers of the Behavioral and Social Sciences Symposium (GAFOSS) of the German-American Academic Council (GAAC) (Member of the Organizing Commit- tee). – GSOEP 2000 International Conference (Program Committee). – Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Arbitrator). – Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Senator).

Elsbeth Stern – Landesprüfungsamt Berlin (External Member of Board of Examiners for Psychology). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie (Board of Governors of the Subject Section “Päda- gogische Psychologie”).

Peter M. Todd – Animal Cognition, Springer Verlag (Associate Editor). – Adaptive Behavior, MIT Press (Associate Editor).

Heike Trappe – Arbeitsgemeinschaft sozialwissenschaftlicher Institute (Institute’s Representative). – European Sociological Review (Expert).

Helga Zeiher – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie, Sektion “Soziologie der Kindheit” (Chair). – International Sociological Association, Research Committee “Sociology of Childhood” (Member of Board). – Zeitschrift für Soziologie der Erziehung und Sozialisation (Coeditor). – COST (Coopération européenne dans le domaine de la recherche scientifique et technique)—Action 19 Children’s Welfare (Member of Management Committee).

242 Appendix

4. Academic Degrees 1998–2000

Habilitations Dencker, J. C. (1998). Workforce reductions and intra- Büchel, F. (1998). Unterwertige Erwerbstätigkeit in organizational mobility response: An analysis of pro- Deutschland. Technische Universität Berlin. motion and turnover in a large US firm, 1967–1993. Diewald, M. (2000). Entwertungen, Umwertungen, Harvard University. Aufwertungen. Ostdeutsche Erwerbsverläufe zwischen Engelhardt, H. (1998). Zur Dynamik von Ehescheidun- Kontinuität und Wandel. Freie Universität Berlin. gen. Universität Bern. Grundmann, M. (1998). Norm und Konstruktion. So- Goedicke, A. (2000). Beschäftigungsfolgen betrieb- zialisationstheoretische Überlegungen und Analysen lichen Wandels. Eine Studie zu Betriebswechseln und zum Bildungserwerbsprozeß. Humboldt-Universität zu Arbeitslosigkeit in Ostdeutschland. Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin. Händle, C. (2000). Lehrerinnen in System und Lebens- Gruehn, S. (1998). Unterricht und schulisches Lernen. welt. Erkundungen ihrer doppelten Sozialisation. Uni- Schüler als Quellen der Unterrichtsbeschreibung. Freie versität Oldenburg. Universität Berlin. Hoffrage, U. (2001). Urteilen und Entscheiden. Freie Hardy, I. (1998). The contribution of contextual varia- Universität Berlin. bles to conversation in a foreign language. University Klieme, E. (2000). Förderung mathematisch-naturwis- of Iowa. senschaftlicher und fächerübergreifender Kompeten- Hillmert, S. (1999). Ausbildung und Übergang in den zen. Freie Universität Berlin. Arbeitsmarkt. Lebensverläufe in Großbritannien und Lindenberger, U. (1998). Intellektuelle Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Kohortenvergleich. über die Lebensspanne: Überblick und Brennpunkte der Freie Universität Berlin. Forschung. Kurzmonographie im Rahmen des Habilita- Hosenfeld, I. (2000). Subjektive Theorien von Schülern tionsverfahrens. Freie Universität Berlin. über die Ursachen von Schulerfolg und der Zusammen- Martignon, L. (1998). Probabilistic inference in brain, hang zur Leistungsentwicklung. Freie Universität mind and machine. Universität Ulm. Berlin. Smith, J. (1999). Differential psychological aging: Kray, J. (1998). Adult age differences in task swit- Towards clarifying a longstanding concept. Freie Uni- ching: Components, generalizability and modifiability. versität Berlin. Freie Universität Berlin. Uhlendorff, H. (2000). Erziehung im sozialen Umfeld. Koerber, S. (2000). Der Einfluss externer Repräsenta- Eine empirische Untersuchung über Erziehung zwi- tionsformen auf proportionales Denken im Grundschul- schen elterlicher Kontrolle und Freiräumen für Kinder alter. Technische Universität Berlin. in Abhängigkeit vom persönlich gestalteten und ge- Kunzmann, U. (1998). Being and feeling in control: samtgesellschaftlichen Umfeld von Familien. Univer- Two sources of older people’s emotional well-being. sität Potsdam. Freie Universität Berlin. Lages, M. (1998). Bias in visual discrimination and detection. University of Oxford, UK. Doctoral Dissertations Marsh, B. (2000). Making the best choice: Judgement Alfeld-Liro, C. (1999). Gender, achievement, motiva- and decision making under conditions of risk and tion, and mental health among adolescents in the uncertainty. University of Oxford, UK. 1990s. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Mertens, A. (1998). Labor mobility and wage dyna- Artelt, C. (1999). Voraussetzungen und Effekte strate- mics: An empirical analysis for Germany in comparison gischen Lernens bei Schülern—Inhaltliche und metho- with the United States. Humboldt-Universität zu dische Aspekte. Universität Potsdam. Berlin. Barrett, H. C. (1999). Human cognitive adaptations to Noble, J. (1999). The evolution of animal communica- predators and prey. University of California, Santa Bar- tion systems: Questions of function examined through bara. simulation. University of Sussex, UK. Böhmig-Krumhaar, S. (1998). Die Entwicklung einer Offenberger, P. (1999). Konfliktbewältigung und wissensaktivierenden Gedächtnisstrategie im Bereich Freundschaft in der mittleren Kindheit. Universität der Pragmatik des Geistes am Beispiel des Weisheits- Potsdam. kriteriums "Wert-Relativismus". Freie Universität Berlin. Savelsbergh, E. R. (1998). Improving mental represen- Börner, K. (2000). Family dynamics following parental tations in physics problem-solving. University of loss: A comparison of mother- and father-headed Twente. families. Freie Universität Berlin. Singer, T. (2000). Testing-the-Limits in einer mnemo- Chase, V. M. (1999). Where to look to find out why: nischen Fähigkeit. Eine Studie zur kognitiven Plastizität Rational information search in causal hypothesis tes- im hohen Alter. Freie Universität Berlin. ting. University of Chicago. Stanat, P. (1998). Voicing unpopular views: Effects of Clausen, M. (2000). Wahrnehmung von Unterricht. majority similarity on public expressions of minority Übereinstimmung, Konstruktvalidität und Kriteriums- positions. University of Massachusetts. validität in der Forschung zur Unterrichtsqualität. Freie Universität Berlin.

243 Appendix

Ullrich, M. (1998). Differentielle Kommunikationsfor- Frauen der Geburtsjahrgänge 1939–41 und 1959–61 in men in Familien und ihre Bedeutung für die Entwick- Westdeutschland. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. lung Jugendlicher. Freie Universität Berlin. Hönig, G. (1998). Zukunftsdenken und Lernmotivation. Wiese, B. (1999). Prioritätensetzung im jungen Er- Technische Universität Berlin. wachsenenalter. Zur Dynamik beruflicher und partner- Hoppmann, C. (2000). Berliner Frauen der 20er Jahre: schaftlich-familiärer Zielstrukturen. Freie Universität Lebensentwürfe mit und ohne Kinder und Lebensstil im Berlin. Alter. Freie Universität Berlin. Zornemann, P. (1998). Hilfe und Unterstützung im Klemmert, H. (1998). Die Entwicklung des mathema- Kinderalltag. Eine qualitative Untersuchung von Inter- tischen und verbalen Selbstkonzepts. Technische Uni- aktionen unter Gleichaltrigen anhand von videogra- versität Berlin. phierten Beobachtungen in einer Grundschulklasse. Kolbe, S. (1998). Beziehung und Moral im kulturellen Freie Universität Berlin. Kontext (Master thesis). Humboldt-Universität zu Zühlke, S. (1999). Beschäftigungsabbau ohne Perspek- Berlin. tive? Zur Verarbeitung berufsstruktureller Wandlungs- Malti, T. (1998). Moralische Gefühle, Begründungen prozesse durch berufliche Mobilität. Freie Universität und Sozialverhalten in der Kindheit: Ein integrativer Berlin. Ansatz. Freie Universität Berlin. Müller-Heydenreich, A. (1999). Wohlbefinden im hohen Lebensalter: In Abhängigkeit von unterstützenden Master’s and Diploma Theses und stimulierenden Beziehungen zu Verwandten und Nichtverwandten. Freie Universität Berlin. Abdel-Karim, A. (2000). Zum Akzelerationsphänomen der psychometrischen Intelligenz: Eine Längsschnitt- Plaßmeier, N. (1998). Beliebtheit und personenbezo- studie. Freie Universität Berlin. gene Merkmale: Sekundäranalyse des Zusammenhangs bei Schülern der Sekundarstufe I. Universität Münster. Bromba, M. (1999). Sozialer Wandel und Kontrollüber- zeugungen: Eine empirische Untersuchung mit der Sauer, B. (2000). Die Fähigkeit zur Selbstreflexion und Lebensverlaufsstudie Ost. Freie Universität Berlin. Wohlbefinden im Alter. Freie Universität Berlin. (2000). Age differences in the regulation of Ebner, N. (2000). Physical activity and aging: Associa- Schäfer, S. tions between physical activity, subjective health, action sequences. Freie Universität Berlin. functional health, and control beliefs in late life. Freie Schindler, I. (2000). Die Optimierung der Zielauswahl Universität Berlin. und ihre Auswirkung auf die Zielbindung (Commit- ment). Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Fichtner, C. (1999). Persönlicher Umgang mit gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen. Verarbeitung des Wende- Stange, A. (2000). Untersuchung des Forced-Choice- einflusses auf die sozialen Beziehungen der Aufbau- Antwort-Formates des Fragebogens zur Erfassung von generation der DDR. Technische Universität Berlin. Selektion, Optimierung und Kompensation. Freie Uni- versität Berlin. Gerstorf, D. (2000). Transcending the rubicon: Psycho- logical predictors of longevity in centenarians. Freie Thebis, F. (2000). Die Entwicklung fremdenfeindlicher Universität Berlin. bzw. integrationsbereiter Einstellungen bei Jugend- lichen. Eine Sekundäranalyse anhand der Daten des Härtel, A. (1999). Evaluation arbeitsmarktpolitischer Instrumente in bezug auf Wiedereingliederungschan- BIJU-Projekts am Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungs- cen und Kontrollüberzeugungen: Eine empirische forschung. Freie Universität Berlin. Untersuchung der Studie “Ostdeutsche Lebensverläufe im Transformationsprozeß.” Universität Leipzig. Höhne, A. (2000). Berufsstruktur und Bildungsexpan- sion, Kontinuität und Wandel im Berufseinstieg von

Art exhibition by secondary school students in the Institute’s entrance hall.

244 Appendix

5. Scientific and Professional Staff 1998–2000

Artelt, Cordula (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1999, Univer- formal networks; family and social inequality (now at sität Potsdam): Research in learning (learning strate- the Universität Duisburg). gies and metacognition); cognitive, emotional, and motivational development. Engelhardt, Henriette (Dr. rer.soc. in Sociology, 1998, Universität Bern): Methods of empirical social re- Baltes, Paul B. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1967, Univer- search; sociology of family; social inequality; social sität des Saarlandes; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; demography. Co-director of the Institute; Professor of Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin): Lifespan human development: Freund, Alexandra M. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1994, evolution and ontogenesis; aging of the mind (intelli- Freie Universität Berlin): Processes of developmental gence, memory, personality, wisdom); theory of suc- regulation; motivation across the life span; develop- cessful development; science policy: interdisciplinarity, ment of self-regulated cognitions over the life span. history, and internationality. Gigerenzer, Gerd (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1977, Uni- Baumert, Jürgen (State Examination for Teachers, versität München; habil. in Psychology, 1982, Univer- 1968, Hamburg; Dr. phil., 1968, Universität Tübingen; sität München; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Co- habil. in Educational Sciences, 1982, Freie Universität director of the Institute; Professor of Psychology, Freie Berlin; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Co-director Universität Berlin): Models of bounded rationality; of the Institute; Professor of Educational Sciences, social intelligence; ecological rationality; heuristics of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu scientific discovery; philosophy, history, and methodo- Berlin): Research in teaching and learning; cultural logy of social sciences. comparisons, large-scale assessment, cognitive and Goedicke, Anne (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Humboldt-Univer- motivational development in adolescence. sität zu Berlin): Social stratification and formal organi- Baumgarten, Jürgen (Dr. phil. in German Language zations; transformation of former socialist countries; and Literature, 1973, Freie Universität Berlin; Head of life course; social mobility; labor market, firms, and the Editorial and Publications Unit): Prehistory of the occupations. Middle East; Intellectual and cultural history of Central Goldstein, Daniel G. (PhD in Psychology, 1997, Univer- and Eastern Europe. sity of Chicago): Fast and frugal models of cognition, Büchel, Felix (Dr. rer.pol. in Political Science, 1991, satisficing (how organisms make accurate and robust Freie Universität Berlin; habil. in Economics, 1998, inferences, given constraints of limited time, knowl- Technische Universität Berlin): Economics of education; edge, and computational might); behavioral economics labor market research; social policy research. (especially presenting information to make “risk aver- sion” disappear); scientific discovery. Corsten, Michael (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1991, Univer- sität Marburg; habil. in Sociology, 1997, Freie Univer- Grund, Peter (Dipl.-Inform., 1981, Technische Univer- sität Berlin): Interpretive sociology; cultural research sität Berlin; Member of the Information Processing on institutions, organizations, and professions; studies Center scientific staff): Statistical software and data on biographies, generational discourse, and youth cul- base management systems; data protection. tures. Gürtler, Christine (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität Davis, Jennifer N. (PhD in Psychology, 1996, McMas- Würzburg): Socio-cognitive development; social pro- ter University): Parental investment decisions and pa- cesses among children; familial relationships. rent-offspring conflict in humans and other animals; evolutionary explanations of decision-making; the use Händle, Christa (First and Second State Examination of socially transmitted information in decision-making, for Teachers, 1961, 1965; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1977, especially in food choice; use of the environment to Universität Bremen; habil. in Educational Sciences, make decisions for one; the evolution of human family 2000, Universität Oldenburg): The culture of educa- systems. tional institutions; the double socialization of teachers; transformation of the education system in the Delius, Julia (Dr. med. in Medicine, 1993, Universität new federal states. Frankfurt a.M.): Editorial responsibilities including the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavio- Hardy, Ilonca (PhD in Educational Psychology, 1998, ral Sciences; interdisciplinary gerontology; Berlin Aging University of Iowa): Learning environments incorpora- Study coordination and website design. ting the social character of cognition (emphasis: collaborative learning); the role of language in problem Diewald, Martin (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1991, Techni- solving; effects and uses of external representations. sche Universität Berlin; habil. in Sociology, 2000, Freie Universität Berlin): Social stratification and labor mar- Hartung, Dirk (Dr. rer.pol. in Sociology, 1973, Univer- ket; transformation of former socialist countries, espe- sität Bremen): Educational training and employment; cially GDR; life course and individual development; in- Chairman of the Gesamtbetriebsrat of the Max Planck

245 Appendix

Society (on leave from the Center for Sociology and text; contracts and the role of emotions in cheating the Study of the Life Course). detection.

Heckhausen, Jutta (PhD in Psychology, 1984, Universi- Klieme, Eckhard (Dipl.-Math., 1978, Universität Bonn; ty of Strathclyde, Glasgow; habil. in Psychology, 1996, Dipl.-Psych., 1981, Universität Bonn; Dr. phil. in Freie Universität Berlin): Lifespan developmental Psychology, 1988, Universität Bonn; habil. in Educatio- psychology; motivational psychology of human deve- nal Sciences, 2000, Freie Universität Berlin): Research lopment; primary and secondary control and their evo- on teaching and learning; problem solving in mathe- lutionary origin; developmental regulation across the matics and science; cross-curricular competencies; life span. large-scale assessment and evaluation.

Hertwig, Ralph (Dr. rer.soc. in Psychology, 1995, Uni- Köhler, Helmut (Dr. phil. in Educational Economics, versität Konstanz): Models of cognitive processes in 1975, Technische Universität Berlin): Statistical analy- hindsight bias and the reiteration effect; risk percep- sis of educational development; social background and tion and decision-making in the domain of crime per- educational careers; national and international educa- ception; ecological rationality; methodology (i.e., com- tion indicators; research on school statistics of the parison of the methodological approaches in psycholo- GDR. gy and experimental economics). Köller, Olaf (Dipl.-Psych., 1991, Universität Kiel; Dr. Hess, Jürgen (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1982, Freie Univer- phil. in Psychology, 1997, Universität Kiel): Empirical sität Berlin; Head of the Information Processing Cen- methods of social research; research in teaching and ter): Service management in research institutions; in- learning; motivational psychology. formation technology in the social sciences; computer- assisted qualitative social research; higher education in Körner, Nina (Second State Examination in Law, 1973, sub-Saharan Africa; application of information techno- Hamburg; Head Administrator of the Institute). logy and methods of empirical social research at uni- Krampe, Ralf T. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1992, Freie versities in sub-Saharan Africa. Universität Berlin): Expertise movement timing and coordination; cognitive aging; practice and motivation. Hillmert, Steffen (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Universität Bam- berg; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2000, Freie Universität Ber- Krappmann, Lothar (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1969, Freie lin): Life courses and institutional change; comparative Universität Berlin; Honorary Professor of Educational studies; education, training, and transitions into the Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin): Socialization theory; labor market; occupational careers; research methods. social and moral development of children in middle childhood; children’s peer interactions, relationships, Hoerning, Erika M. (Dr. rer.pol. in Sociology, 1977, Freie Universität Berlin; habil. in Sociology of Educa- and groups; links between family and peer relation- tion, 1994, Universität Bremen): Biographical and life ships; day-care institutions; observational research course research; qualitative methods; historical gene- methodology. rations and social change; professions, intelligentsia, Kreppner, Kurt (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1969, Techni- and intellectuals. sche Universität Darmstadt; habil. in Psychology, 1996, Freie Universität Berlin): Families as developing sys- Hoffrage, Ulrich (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, Univer- sität Salzburg): Risk communication, in particular, Bay- tems; family communication during infancy and ado- esian inference and the impact of external representa- lescence; methodological issues in the study of human tions of information; models of cognitive processes interaction; history of developmental psychology. underlying choices and probability judgments; analyti- Kunzmann, Ute (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1998, Freie cal study of simple heuristics; models of cognitive pro- Universität Berlin): Successful lifespan development; cesses in hindsight bias and the reiteration effect, and wisdom; emotion competence; personal values. the co-occurrence of both effects. Lange, Lydia (Dr. phil. in Social Psychology, 1966, Uni- Hutchinson, Christopher (PhD in Biology, 1990, Uni- versität Jena; Dr. sc. phil. [habil.] in Methods of Empiri- versity of York): Behavioral ecology; spatial optimiza- cal Social Research, 1986, Humboldt-Universität zu tion problems in biology and the social sciences, and Berlin; Member of the Library and Research Documen- the performance of simple rules of thumb; daily routi- tation Unit scientific staff): Bibliometrics; history of nes, with a particular interest in the dawn chorus of psychology. birds; what simple cues and rules might be used by organisms to predict weather; diverse aspects of snail Lenhardt, Gero (Dr. rer.soc. in Sociology, 1974, Univer- and slug biology; theoretical morphology; skylarks sität Konstanz; habil. in Sociology, 1983, Universität (alauda arvensis): singing behavior; extra-pair paterni- Frankfurt a.M.): Sociology of education, work, and de- ty; morphology. velopment; sociology of higher education; sociology of minority groups. Keller, Monika (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1974, Univer- sität Heidelberg; habil. in Psychology, 1994, Freie Uni- Li, Shu-Chen (PhD in Psychology, 1994, University of versität Berlin): Social perspective taking; domains and Oklahoma): Lifespan cognitive development and aging; moral development; social and moral reasoning; deci- computational models of child cognitive development sion-making and moral feelings in cross-cultural con- and aging; intraindividual variability in behavior and

246 Appendix

cognition; theoretical studies of computational com- Schnabel, Kai (Dipl.-Psych., 1989, Universität Mar- plexity. burg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1996, Freie Universität Berlin): Developmental and educational psychology: Lindenberger, Ulman (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1990, motivational and achievement development in adoles- Freie Universität Berlin; habil. in Psychology, 1998, cents in the context of schooling; pathways to adult- Freie Universität Berlin): Measurement, development, hood after high school; political socialization in late and structure of intelligence over the life span; the adolescence and beyond; methodology: multivariate role of executive function in learning and develop- statistical approaches in empirical research in the be- ment; methodological and theoretical issues in cogni- havioral sciences. tive development. Schrenk, J. K. (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Westfälische Wil- Maas, Ineke (Dr. in Sociology, 1990, University of helms Universität Münster): Socio-cognitive develop- Utrecht): Social mobility; social participation in old ment, social processes among children, processes in re- age; cultural participation. lationships. Martignon, Laura (Dr. rer.nat. in Mathematics, 1978, Schümer, Gundel (First and Second State Examination Universität Tübingen; habil. in Neuroinformatics, 1998, for Teachers, 1962, Stuttgart; 1970 Tübingen; Dr. phil. Universität Ulm): Simple heuristics vs. complex deci- in Educational Sciences, 1977, Universität Hamburg): sion machines; analysis of lexicographic algorithms for School systems and instruction; theories of instruction comparison, estimation, and categorization tasks; de- and methods of instructional research; comparative re- tection and measurement of higher-order correlations search on schools and instruction; the language of the in non-linear environments; Bayesian strategies for classroom. statistical inference and machine learning, compared to fast and frugal algorithms for human adaptive be- Schwippert, Knut (First State Examination in Electro- havior; model search in the Bayesian framework; the nics and Economy, 1993, Universität Hamburg; Dr. phil. didactics of Bayesian reasoning based on adequate in Educational Sciences, 1998, Humboldt-Universität information formats; stochastics and probability in zu Berlin): Large-scale assessment; effective schools; general. missing data. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2000, Freie Uni- Mayer, Karl Ulrich (Dr. rer.soc., 1973, Universität Kon- Singer, Tania stanz; habil. in Sociology, 1977, Universität Mannheim; versität Berlin): Lifespan psychology; cognition and Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Co-director of the aging; longitudinal research. Institute; Professor of Sociology, Freie Universität Ber- Smith, Jacqui (PhD in Psychology, 1984, Macquarie lin): Social stratification and mobility; comparative University, Sydney; habil. in Psychology, 1999, Freie analysis of social structure; sociology of the life Universität Berlin): Potentials and risks for develop- course; occupational structures and labor market pro- ment and successful aging; application of intelligence cesses. and life knowledge; profiles of psychological functioning in the old and oldest-old; psychological predictors Mertens, Antje (Dr. rer.pol. in Economics, 1998, Hum- of longevity. boldt-Universität zu Berlin): Labor economics; micro econometrics. Solga, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie Univer- sität Berlin; Head of the Independent Research Group: Müller-Brettel, Marianne (Dipl.-Psych., 1971, Freie Lack of Training: Employment and Life Chances of the Universität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, Freie Less Educated): Social stratification; social mobility; Universität Berlin): Scientometrics; history of psy- life course; labor market research. chology. Stanat, Petra (Dipl.-Psych., 1992, Freie Universität Neher, Karl M. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1996, Freie Berlin; PhD in Psychology, 1998, University of Massa- Universität Berlin): Geronto-psychiatry; diagnosis of chusetts at Amherst): Large-scale assessment; social dementia; cognitive development across the life span. competence; group processes.

Oesterreich, Detlef (Dipl.-Psych., 1968, Freie Univer- Staudinger, Ursula M. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1988, sität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1975, Freie Univer- Freie Universität Berlin; habil. in Psychology, 1997, sität Berlin): Theory of authoritarianism, authoritaria- Freie Universität Berlin): Lifespan development of the nism and political consciousness; civic education of integration of cognition, emotion, and motivation; me- adolescents. chanics and pragmatics of self and personality; interactive minds as paradigm for the study of cognition Rusch-Feja, Diann (PhD in German Literature, 1986; and cognitive development; life as unit for psychologi- MLS in Library and Information Science, 1981, State cal investigation. University of New York at Buffalo; Head of the Library and Research Documentation Unit): Scientific informa- Stern, Elsbeth (Dipl.-Psych., 1982, Universität Ham- tion systems and information management; electronic burg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1986, Universität Ham- information systems and networked information re- burg; habil. in Psychology, 1994, Universität München; sources; digital libraries, indexing, classification, and Univ.-Prof., 1994, Universität Leipzig): Cognitive devel- metadata; education in library and information-orien- opment; intelligence and knowledge; research in tea- ted professions. ching and learning.

247 Appendix

Thußbas, Claudia (Dipl.-Psych., 1994, Technische Uni- Trommer, Luitgard (Dipl.-Kfm. Applied Economics, versität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1999, Technische 1966, Universität München): Civic education; youth in- Universität Berlin): Cognitive and educational psycholo- tegration into the labor market; statistical evaluation gy: analogical transfer, learning, and teaching in math- and analysis, including that of foreign workers in Ger- ematics; cognitive development; media psychology. many and women’s employment.

Todd, Peter M. (PhD in Psychology, 1992, Stanford Vitouch, Oliver (Dr. rer.nat. in Psychology, 1999, Uni- University): Evolution of behavior (computer simula- versität Wien): Robustness (and related properties) of tions of populations of simple organisms adapting to fast and frugal heuristics (vs. optimization/maximiza- different environmental structures, both physical and tion models); methodological and epistemological is- social); simple heuristics for sequential search (inclu- sues in psychology (e.g., replicability and cross-valida- ding mate choice), categorization (including intention- tion of findings, problems of NHST, research and publi- from-motion), and multi-step processes (including pa- cation norms); methods and issues in cognitive rental investment); psychological selection; rhythmic neuroscience (functional brain imaging); problems of and time-based behavior (including music, sequence consciousness; cognitive psychology of music (exper- learning/production, and evolution of song); connec- tise and skill acquisition, absolute pitch, musical imag- tionist models of cognition. ery, cognitive effects of film music).

Trappe, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie Uni- Zeiher, Helga (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1973, Freie Uni- versität Berlin): Gender stratification; labor market re- versität Berlin): Sociology of childhood; shaping daily search; comparative research on gender and welfare life; intergenerational relationships. state.

Emeritus Members of the Max Planck Society Edding, Friedrich (Dr. phil. in History, 1934, Univer- socialization; social-cognitive and moral development; sität Kiel; Dr. rer.pol. h.c. in Economics, 1981, Freie developmental and structural aspects of curriculum Universität Berlin; until 1977 Director of the Institute; and instruction; developmental and school related Emeritus Professor of Educational Economics, Techni- conditions of successful learning; conditions of suc- sche Universität Berlin): Economics of the educational cessful school transformation. system; vocational training; adult education; relations between institutionalized and informal learning. Roeder, Peter M. (Dr. phil., 1960, Universität Marburg; habil. in Educational Sciences, 1966, Universität Mar- Edelstein, Wolfgang (Dr. phil. in Medieval Studies, burg; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; until 1995 Co- 1962, Universität Heidelberg; Fellow of the Max Planck director of the Institute; Special Professor of Educatio- Society; until 1997 Co-director of the Institute; Hono- nal Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin): Educational rary Doctoral Degree of Social Science, University of sciences; school research; history of educational sci- Iceland; Honorary Professor of Educational Science, ence. Freie Universität Berlin; Honorary Professor of Educa- tional Science, Universität Potsdam): Development and

Postdoctoral Research Fellows Alfeld-Liro, Corinne (PhD in Education and Psycholo- Bluck, Susan (PhD in Psychology, 1997, University of gy, 1999, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor): School- California, Irvine): Social cognition in adulthood: the to-work transition; adolescent identity development; relation of autobiographical memory to the self; func- transition to adulthood; social equity and opportunity tions of autobiographical memory across developmen- in secondary and post-secondary schools. tal life phases; reminiscence.

Barrett, H. Clark (PhD in Anthropology, 1999, Univer- Bullock, Seth (PhD in Artificial Intelligence, 1997, sity of California, Santa Barbara): Human cognitive University of Sussex): Evolutionary simulation mode- evolution; domain-specific cognition; predator-prey ling; methodological issues raised by evolutionary coevolution; South American hunter-horticulturalist simulation modeling; genetic algorithms; artificial societies (Shuar, Achuar, Shiwiar); folk psychology and neural networks; economic and evolutionary game folk biology; human cognitive development; cognitive theory; (co)evolution of natural signaling systems; the neuroscience; biological anthropology; evolutionary handicap principle; sexual selection. psychology.

248 Appendix

Dorenlot, Pascale (Doctorate in Social Psychology, Noble, Jason (Dr. phil. in Computer Science and Artifi- Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris): cial Intelligence, 1998, University of Sussex): Aggres- Identity construction in multicultural contexts; bilin- sive signals and threat displays; communication given gualism; national identities, European identity; multi- conflicting or congruent interests; methodological is- factorial analysis (physical, psychological, and social sues in the use of evolutionary simulations; sexual factors) of language learning, illness, aging processes. signaling and the handicap principle; simple mechanisms in animate vision; simple mechanisms in social Dencker, John C. (PhD in Sociology, 1998, Harvard learning. University): Labor markets; corporate restructuring; social mobility; stratification. Pasupathi, Monisha (PhD in Psychology, 1997, Stan- ford University): Cognitive performances in interperso- Fiddick, Laurence (PhD in Psychology, 1998, University nal contexts; particularly: development of wisdom- of California, Santa Barbara): Deontic reasoning; moral related knowledge across the life span and storytelling reasoning; logical reasoning and the history of logic; across the life span. folk-biology and its role in people’s understanding of evolutionary theory; folk-psychology/sociology and its Rode, Catrin (Dipl.-Psych., 1992, Universität Konstanz; role in deontic and moral reasoning; cultural psycholo- Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1996, Universität Münster): gy; the role of emotions in cognitive processes. Cognition; decision-making; domain-specific reasoning. Ghisletta, Paolo (PhD in Psychology, 1999, University of Virginia): Psychometric measurement; structural Savelsbergh, Elwin R. (Msc. in Physics, 1993, Univer- equation modeling in longitudinal research; cognitive sity of Utrecht; PhD in Psychology, 1998, University of and sensory aging. Twente): Development of expertises; learning physics; graphical presentation; mental models. Glück, Judith (PhD in Psychology, 1999, Universität Wien): Statistical methods in psychology (classification Takezawa, Masanori (MA in Social Psychology, 1997, methods for longitudinal data; item-response models); Hokkaido University): Distributive justice; social coope- wisdom (wisdom as a metaheuristic; assessment of ration; social intelligence; social exchange theory, wisdom); individual differences in cognitive strategies. game theory, and evolutionary game theory in general. (Dr. phil. in Political Science, 1998, In- Jobard, Fabien Wrosch, Carsten (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1997, Freie stitut d’études politiques de Paris): Police use of force; Universität Berlin): Developmental regulation across European policies in the field of drugs and drug depen- the life span; developmental deadlines; primary and dency; democratic transitions through law enforce- secondary control. ment force. Yang, Lixia (PhD in Psychology, 1999, Institute of Kurz, Elke M. (PhD in Psychology, 1997, Bowling Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Peking): Green State University, Ohio): Scientific practice and Cognitive and sensorimotor functions and aging; wor- expertise from a historical-cognitive perspective; the king memory; wisdom. history of the differential calculus; the history of linear regression models; history of psychology; Egon Bruns- wik’s methodological challenges to psychological expe- Predoctoral Research Fellows rimentation (Schloeßmann grant). Bondar, Albina (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Freie Universität Berlin): Balance and cognition: Resource allocation Lages, Martin (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1997, Universi- and dual-task costs in young and old adults. tät Heidelberg; Dr. phil. in Experimental Psychology, 1998, University of Oxford): Individual choice behavior: Bukov, Aleksej (Dipl.-Soz., 1991, Lomonossow Univer- bounded rationality and intransivity; selected topics sity Moscow; Dipl.-Soz., 1994, Institut für Höhere Stu- from applied mathematics, graph theory, and logic; dien, Wien): Participation in social activities; distribu- psychophysics of vision: adaptive cognitive mecha- tion and usage of individual resources in old age. nisms in discrimination and detection tasks. Chase, Valerie M. (PhD candidate, Psychology, Univer- Li, Karen Z. H. (PhD in Psychology, 1996, University of sity of Chicago): Ecological sensitivity to base rates in Toronto): Aging and cognition; executive control; inhi- causal hypothesis testing; conceptions of rationality; bitory processes. content effects in mathematical reasoning.

Liqi, Zhu (PhD in Developmental Psychology, 1998, Clausen, Marten (Dipl.-Psych., 1996, Universität Kiel; Chinese Academy of Sciences, Peking). Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2000, Freie Universität Berlin): Quality of instruction; classroom observation; educa- Marsh, Barnaby (Dr. phil. in Behavioral Ecology, 2000, tional productivity. University of Oxford; Juliana Cuyler Matthews Re- search Fellow, New College, Oxford): Decision making Daniels, Zoe (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Universität Hamburg): under risk and uncertainty; evolutionary psychology; Research in teaching and learning; motivational devel- comparative decision making in humans and animals; opment during adolescence. behavioral ecology; domain-specific reasoning; experimental economics; applied decision theory; research Demmrich, Anke (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität Pots- methodologies and the philosophy of science. dam): Research in instruction and learning; cooperative learning; working memory.

249 Appendix

Dhami, Mandeep K. (PhD candidate, Psychology, City Pollmann-Schult, Matthias (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Freie University, London): Evaluating the relative descriptive Universität Berlin): Parental background, school perfor- validity and prescriptive utility of regression and fast mance, and labor market outcomes. and frugal models of legal judgment; developing the methods of judgment analysis through considering is- Powell, Justin (MA, 1999, Humboldt-Universität zu sues of systems level analysis and representative de- Berlin; BA, 1992, Swarthmore College): Social stratifi- sign. cation; sociology of education; sociology of science; educational attainment and labor market participation Dudey, Thomas (Dipl. in Economics, 1998, Universität of youth with disabilities in Germany and the United Bonn): Game theory; experimental economics; bounded States. rationality; sequential search. Rapp, Michael (Medical Examination, 1997, Hum- Ehrhorn, Susanne (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Technische Uni- boldt-Universität zu Berlin, Campus Virchow): Cogni- versität Braunschweig): Social relationships and loneli- tive development in old and very old age, especially ness in old age. the connection between sensory and cognitive performance in old age; selective optimization with compen- Fanselow, Carola (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität Pots- sation in old and very old age; behavioral signs and dam): Decision strategies; process-tracing methods in symptoms in dementia. decision making; hindsight bias. Reimer, Maike (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Universität Felbrich, Anja (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität Pots- Berlin): Quality of retrospective survey data; cognitive dam): Research in teaching and learning; development techniques in life history data assessment. of graphing competencies. Riediger, Michaela (Dipl.-Psych., 1997, Humboldt-Uni- Graßhof, Matthias (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Technische versität zu Berlin): Developmental regulation in late Universität Berlin): Political socialization; international adulthood; selection and pursuit of life goals and striv- and comparative educational research; action-control ings; lifespan developmental psychology. beliefs. Rieskamp, Jörg (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Technische Univer- Hosenfeld, Ingmar (Dipl.-Psych., 1996, Universität sität Berlin): Experimental evidence for simple decision Kiel; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2000, Freie Universität strategies; research on methodological approaches for Berlin): Students’ beliefs about the causes of success identifying judgment and decision strategies; research in school; IRT; gender differences. interest on experimental economics, especially on Jacob, Marita (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Universität Gießen): models of bounded rationality for bargaining games. Education and training in Germany in the 1990s; ra- Rusconi, Alessandra (Dipl.-Pol., 1997, Università degli tional choice theory and educational inequality; re- studi di Firenze): Demographic transformation in East search methods. Germany; German-Italian comparison in the life cours- Knoll, Steffen (Dipl. in Educational Science, 1989, PH es of young adults. Köthen): Research on teaching and learning; interna- Schmiedek, Florian (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität tional comparative studies. Mannheim): Cognitive development in old age: Models Koerber, Susanne (First State Examination for Teach- of psychometric intelligence and intraindividual varia- ers, 1993; Dipl.-Psych., 1997, Universität Würzburg): bility in cognitive functioning; multivariate methods Theory of mind; social cognition; symbolic representa- and measurement theory: Structural equation model- tions of spatial, temporal, and quantitative relations. ing and item-response theory.

Krauss, Stefan (First State Examination in Mathema- Schuster, Peter (Dipl.-Psych., 1994, Freie Universität tics and Physics, 1995, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg): Berlin): Social and moral development in childhood Probabilistic reasoning, especially Bayesian diagnostics and adolescence; educational application. and judgments (physicians and judges); Monty Hall Seibert, Holger (MA in Sociology, 2000, Universität dilemma; didactics of mathematics. Rostock): Education, training, and labor market entry; Kunter, Mareike (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Julius-Maximi- unemployment in early adulthood. lians-Universität Würzburg): Research in instruction Stange, Antje (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Universität and learning; social skills; teamwork and cooperative Berlin): Wisdom; adaptive lifespan development: Selec- learning. tive optimization with compensation; test construction Lampert, Thomas (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Freie Universität and validation: SOC questionnaire. Berlin): Social inequality in morbidity, disability, and Trautwein, Ulrich (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität Göt- mortality in later life. tingen): Effects of homework assignments on academic Lüdtke, Oliver (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Universität achievement; determinants of academic choices and Berlin): Five-factor model of personality. educational careers.

Matthes, Britta (Dipl.-Soz., 1995, Universität Leipzig): Wagner, Sandra (Dipl.-Soz., 1997, Humboldt-Univer- Labor market entry of young East Germans during sys- sität zu Berlin): Social stratification; sociology of edu- tem transformation.

250 Appendix

cation; social origin and family background of less- Wolf, Regina (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Technische Univer- educated persons in Germany. sität Berlin): Control strategies in the life span; coping with finiteness; managing the transition from school Watermann, Rainer (Dipl.-Päd., 1996, Universität to work. Münster): International and comparative educational research; quantitative methods of social research; Zühlke, Sylvia (Dipl.-Pol., 1994, Freie Universität political socialization; social gerontology. Berlin): Occupational qualifications and occupational careers in East Germany. Wirth, Joachim (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Technische Uni- versität Berlin): Research in teaching and learning; analogical problem solving; cognitive modeling.

Associate Research Scientists (in projects funded from outside the Institute and in other cooperative forms of research)

Bos, Wilfried (Dipl.-Päd., 1985, Universität Münster; cross-cultural comparison (Humboldt-Universität zu Dr. phil. in Educational Sciences, 1988, Universität Berlin). Münster; habil. in Comparative Educational Sciences, 1995, Universität Hamburg; Professsor of Education, Kurzenhäuser, Stephanie (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Univer- Universität Hamburg): Methods of empirical educa- sität Heidelberg): Communication of uncertainty and tional research; cross-cultural research on education risk in medicine, especially Bayesian inference; the im- and instruction (Universität Hamburg). pact of external representations on probabilistic reasoning; perception of risk and social norms in the do- Gruehn, Sabine (Dipl.-Päd., 1993, Freie Universität main of crime and aggression; political psychology, Berlin; Dr. phil. in Educational Sciences, 1998, Freie especially information processing in voting decisions Universität Berlin): Research in teaching and learning; (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft).

251