Index

Abdo, Muhammad, 212 akrinlap (gradualism), 188, 189 Abdulatipov, R. G., 276 Alash Orda Party, 264 Abkhases, 159 Albulak, xi Abkhazia, 89, 103, 142, 149, 271 Aldar, 234 abstract homo sovieticus, 16 Aleksii, Patriarch II, 118 Academy of Sciences, , Alexander II, 212 239, 240 Algeria, 114, 115, 155 Adigamov, A., 235 Ali, M. Imtiaz, xiii Afghan-Tajik border, 77 Ali, Syed Abid, xiii Afghan-Turkmen border, 78 Aliev, ’s President and Afghani Dzhemeletdin, Jamal-ud-Din, former Soviet Politburo member, 212 Haidar, 46, 50 Afghani, Jamal ud-Din, 19, 211 All-Bashkirian Congress, 274 Afghanistan, 12, 14, 17, 30, 36, 43, All- Central Executive 44, 49, 54, 57, 59, 62, 67, 71–5, Committee, 282 77–8, 87, 89, 101, 114–16, 123, All-Russia Muslim Movement, 119 132, 141–2, 145, 156, 164 All-Russia referendum of April 1993, Afghan opposition leaders, 146 230 Afghanis, 211–12 All-Russian Congress of the relations between Russia, Organisations of the Peoples of and the republics the East, 172 of , withdrawal of All-Union Central Executive Soviet troops, 145 Committee (ACEC), 253 Soviet invasion of, Russian strategy All-Union Islamic Renaissance Party in, 72, 73 (IRP), 120, 278 Tajik refugees in northern, 77 Almaty, 47, 55 Tajiks, 72, 73, 77 Al-Muktadir, Jafar, an Abbasid caliph, Uzbek rule in, ascension to power 169 of Tajiks or in, Islamic Alnas, 206 resistance fighters in, Afghan Amanullah, Amir, 75 currency for Rabbani’s American dream, 20, 221 government, Russia’s relations American Institute of Pakistan with, 72, 73, 75 Studies, xii Africa, 53, 128 American Revolution, 26 Agreement for the Creation of the Amirkhan, F., 19, 213 USSR, 215 Amoco, 8, 46 agro-industrial complex, 204 Andreyev, I., 289 ahadith, 211 Anishchenko, G., 111 Ahmad, Riaz, xiii Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 1972, 10 Akaev, President of , Askar, anti-Semitism, 267–8 61 anti-Westernism, 72 Akchura, Ysuf, 214 apparatchiks, 61 Akmanov, Irek Gaisievich, 240 aqafs, 159

291 292 Index

Arab East, 13, 37, 54 Ayidel, 246 Arab-Americans, 128 Azerbaijan, 14, 28, 30, 36, 38–40, 43, Arab Gulf states, 39 45–6, 49, 50, 54, 63–5, 67–8, 71, Arab socialism, 16, 116 89, 91, 97, 99, 101, 106–7, 113, , 2, 115, 211 127, 149 Arab-Israeli peace process, 13, 29 Azerbaijan, Baku, 46 Arab-Israeli conflict, 11, 43, 116, Azerbaijan SSR, 50 124 Azerbaijani nationalism, 51 Arabian peninsula, 44, 131 Azeris, 40, 51, 64 script, x, 23, 24, 40, 238, 285–6 Azeri oil field, 68 Argayashskiy district, 22, 241, 253 Argayashskiy Bashkirian okrug Babylon, x (district), 259 Bagdasarov, S. A., 151 Argentina, 142 , 157 Aristotle, 209 Baikonur, 48 Arkiam civilisation, 241 Baker, James, Secretary of State, 13, Armenia, 4, 14, 28, 39–41, 43, 46, 49, 37–8, 56 50, 64–6, 97, 99, 106, 149 Baku, 46, 63, 127 Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, 63, balance of interests and power, 140, 71 141 Arsharni, A., 195 Balkans, 40, 98, 123, 142 Aryans, 241, 277 Balkan wars, 214 Asfandiyarov, A., 164, 165 Balkar, 287 Ashirov, Nafigulla, 162 Balkh, northern provinces of, 74 Asia, 56, 128, 141, 143, 149, 224, 226 Baltic republics, 89, 109, 150, 197, Asia-Pacific region, 143–44 237, 265 Asian republics, 16 Baltic Sea, 266 Asian Turkic republics, 39 Bandar Abbas, 54 , 5, 17, 104, 107, Barannikov, Interior Minister, 90 153, 210 Barkey, Henri J., 41, 57 Ataturk, Kemal, founder of modern Barraclough, Cohn, 58 , 39, 42 Barsoum, Nadia, xiii atheism, 16, 33, 116, 161, 171 Barudi, G., 212 Atlanticism, 3, 60 Barylski, Robert V., xiv, 12, 14, 15, 82, Atlanticist/Eurasian debate, 60 111–12 Atnisky district, 186 Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist atomic power station, 133 Republic (ASSR), 172 Aushev, Ruslan, 233 Bashkiri, Rudenko S., 165 Austria, 231 Bashkiria, autonomy of, 235, 266 Austro-Hungarian Empires, 265 Bashkirian Autonomous Soviet autocracy, 20 Republic, 253, 266 autonomous republics, 167, 179, 181, Bashkortostan, xi, 4, 5, 12, 16–18, 22, 187–8, 245, 265, 272 32, 36, 78, 101, 104–6, 109, 119, autonomous regions, 254 129, 141, 147–8, 155–6, 162–3, autonomous states, 177 168, 170, 173, 178, 186, 192, 231, autonomy, 266 237–8, 241–2, 260–1, 263, 269, Avesta, 241 272–4 Index 293

Academy of Sciences, 239, 275–6 Bashkort Supreme Soviet, 171, 240, Addendum to the Federative Treaty 283 of the Republic of, 271, 277–8, Bashkort-Tatar relations, 230 284, 286 Bashkort-Tatar-Russian, 280 autonomous state of, 235 Bashkort Urals, 226 demographic distribution in, 225 national sovereignty, 252, 254–5 Museum of Archaeology and Batu, , x, 17 Ethnography, 240 Batu (Genghis ’s grandson), x, relations with , 249 18, 169, 224 revival of nationalism in, 21, 224, Batuta, Ibn, x 240 Batyrsha, 235 Tatar Social Centre in, 248, 279–80 Batyrshin, Radik, 250 285 Bayromova, Fauziye, President of the Bashkorts, x, xi, 1, 13, 21, 24, 32–3, Tatar Millia Majlis, 191, 192 30, 148, 157–61, 170, 172–4, Belarus, 37, 47, 197 281–2 Belarussians, 105, 148, 278 union with Russia in 1557, 227, , 157 234, 235, 242, 270, 287–8 Beleveev, 172, 228 Bashkort Autonomous Soviet Belgium, 141 Republic (BASR), Council of Belokrinitsky, Vyacheslav Ya., xiii Ministers, Supreme Council, Belorezk, 246 282, 288 Belovezhskaya and Almaty accords of Bashkort Autonomous Soviet December 1991, 91 Socialist Republic, 228, 229 Bennigsen, Alexandre A., 195, Bashkort caravan-serai in Orenburg, 211–12, 219, 249 159 Bezinis, Lowell, 57 Bashkort (national Bibarsov, Saratov’s Mullah Mukaddas, assembly), 231; number of 163 delegates attending, 232–3; Bigiev, M., 212 relations with Russia, 233 Bikbavov, A., 235 Bashkort leaders, 236 Bikbulatov, N. V., 164, 288 Bashkort Muslim Council, 162 Bilateral Treaty of February 1994, 186 Bashkort National Centre (BNC), Bina, Cyrus, 136 274 Birlik (), 17, 155, 161 Bashkort nationalism, Bashkort- Birsk, 172, 228 Tatar intermarriages, in, , 46, 83, 98, 103, 105, 106, nationalism, 246 107, 115, 127, 181 Bashkort RCP (Bolshevik) Black Sea, port of Novorossiisk, 67 Conference, 282 Black Sea Economic Cooperation Bashkort script, 285 Zone Organization, 64 Bashkort State University, Bashkort Bodrogligeti, A., 195 and Sterletamaq Teachers’ Boff, D., Italian historian, 222 training Colleges; Sibai branch Bolshakov, A., 136 of the Bashkort State Teachers’ Bolsheviks, 19, 36, 75, 163, 173, 215, Training Colleges; Sibai branch 229, 264–5 of the Bashkort State Teachers’ Bolshevik decree, 161 Training College, 257–8, 259, Bolshevik Party, 172, 235 281, State Assembly of; Cabinet Bolshevik revolution, 171, 172, 216 of Ministers of, 243, 244–5 Bolshevik stage, 22 294 Index

Bolshevisation of the national caliph, 156, 157, 158 liberation movement, 265 capitalist market economy, 143 Boltenkova, head of the Russian capitalist system, 3 experts, I. F., 178, 276 Caribbean, 131 Borchgrave, Arnaud de, 80 Carley, Patricia M., 38, 56, 79 Borlich, Azade-Ayse, 195 , x, xii, 21, 45, 50, 71, 83, Borovkov, Anatoly, 112 103, 106, 127, 233 Bosnia, 17, 72, 113, 139, 154, 164; Caspian littoral states, 68 November 1995 Dayton Accords Caspian oil, 46, 99 on, 115 Caspian pipeline consortium, 4 Bosphorous, 145 Caspian Region, 6, 7, 8, 98, 99, 110 Botvinko, Colonel Mikhail, 10 Catherine, Empress, the Great, 135, Boutros-Ghali, Mr Boutros, secretary 171, 210 general of the United Nations, Caucasia, 17, 66, 86, 90, 104, 265, 242 268 Bovt, George, 24 Caucasian Muslim peoples, 5, 156 Britain, 4, 38, 127, 142, 151 Caucasian republics, 99, 160 British Petroleum-led consortium, Caucasians, 17 68 Caucasus, ix, 1, 3–5, 13, 16, 23, 30, in Northern Ireland, 106 32, 40, 43, 45–6, 49, 83, 86–7, Bronze Age, 241 101–3, 105–6, 109, 116, 120 Brown, Archie, 251 Armenian-Azerbaijanian struggle in Brunei, 142 the, 50 Buddhism, 10, 31, 104 autonomous republics of the, 118, Budyennovsk, 105 122–4, 127, 128, 130, 132, 144, Buhara, 214 145, 148, 149, 156, 166, 267 Bukeihanov, 160 Center for Contemporary Arab and Bukhara Emirate, 75, 148, 158, 211 Islamic Studies, xii, xiii Bulgar al- (the new Bulgar), ix Center for Russian Studies, xii , 100, 210, 214, 222 Central Asia, ix, xi, xii, 1, 4, 5, 8, 12, Bulgarian government, 63 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 23, 30, 33, Bulgar runes, x 36–40, 43–4, 46–7, 49, 50, 52, 53, , ix, x, 18, 157 55, 59–66, 72, 226 Bulgar state, 157, 158, 170, 224, Central Asia, rail network, 54 234 Central Asian Turkic republics, 54, Bulgar-Tatar identity, 169 144–8, 150–1, 158, 161, 170–1, port city of, 169 192, 213, 265, 269, 279 Burachas, Antanas, Lituanian Central Asia’s Russian population, scientist, 252 secularism in, 32, 56, 62, 67–71 Burakow, A., 289 post-Soviet 32, 73, 77–9, 101, Burbolis, Gennady, Yeltsin’s state 107–9, 115, 120, 122–4, 127–8, secretary, 175, 178 130–2 Burkanova, Rosa Gafarovna, 240 Russia’s relations with Kazakhstan Buryat, 284 and, 153 Buryatia, 129 Central America, 53 Bush, President, 47, 54 Central Committee of the Russian Bushehr, a nuclear power station in, Communist Party’s Politburo, 172 70 Central Muslim Council of Russia, Byzantine, 2 162 Index 295 centralised distribution system, Chernomyrdin, Viktor, Prime collapse of, 203 Minister, 94, 121, 125 Century of the Turk, 63 Chernyshev, Albert, deputy foreign Ceyhan, port of, 46 minister of the Russian CFPRF, 62, 69 Federation in charge of relations Chah Bahar, 54 with Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, Chandran, Ramesh, 57 Afghanistan and Pakistan, 67, 68 Chaudhry, Muhammad Ali, xiii Chevron Corporation, 45, 46, 130 Chaudhry, Zaheer, xiii , 3, 13, 54 Chechen republic, 3 Chinese, 2, 12 Chechen-Dagestanian cooperation, northwest, 98, 133, 140–4 103 Tibetans in, 1–2, 5, 11, 16, 27, 36–7, Chechen debacle, 78 55, 64 Chechen freedom movement, ix Christian churches, x Chechen independence movement, Christian Orthodox Church, 116, Chechen National Congress, 118, 120, 121 82, 88, 89, 97 , x, 31, 99, 119, 123, Chechen-Ingush Republic, 103, 169–70, 209, 240, 247 231 Christians, 17, 114, 161 Chechen National Congress, Christian Armenia, 151 Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Christian-Slavic Russia, 83 Soviet Socialist Republic, 14, Christopher, Warren, US Secretary of 86, 87 State, 47, 137 Chechen national independence, Chudodeyev, Aleksandr, 25 85 Church of Christ the Saviour, 100 Chechen national independence Chuvash-Bashkort-Russian, 280 movement, 15 Chuvash-Tatar-Russian, 280 Chechen nationalists, 92 Chuvashes, 21, 36, 145, 172, 226, Chechen rebellion, 83, 106, 108–10 227, 234, 273, 274, 279, 284; Chechen rebels, 93 , 36, 170, 257, 284–5 Chechen regime, 87 Chyrag oil field, 68 Chechen Republic, 269 Ciller, Prime Minister Tansu’s True Chechen War, 4, 17, 45, 65–6, Path Party, 42, 66 71–2, 89, 93–8, 104–5, 113, Circassian community, 66 115, 117–18, 123, 126–7, 129, Citizenship Law, 220 131, 141–2, 148–9, 151, 154–6, clash of civilisations, 109 161, 163, 166, 168, 186 Clinton, President, 2, 10, 42, 46–51, Chechens, Muslim, 5, 13, 18, 27, 54, 70, 128, 137 28, 32, 33, 49, 84, 102, 103, Colarusso, John, 112 233, 260 Cold War, 27, 54, 42, 56, 113, 37, 42, Chechnya, war in, 214, 218, 244, 109, 126, 132, 143, 139, 141 269 Collective Peacemaking Forces, 151 Chelnokov, Alexei, 80 COMECON countries, 197, 198 Chelyabinsk oblast, 5, 37, 70, 174, Commission on Personnel, 237 228, 240, 241, 242, 253, 278; Commission on Religious State University, 245 Associations, 121 Cherkess-Karachai, 32 common market, 15, 113, 185 Chermasan, 157 Commonwealth of Independent Chernobyl catastrophe, 241, 256 States (CIS), 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 16, 296 Index

Commonwealth of Independent , 23, 238 286 States (CIS) continued, 21, 27–30, Czech Republic, 9, 142 48–50, 55, 60–62, 65, 77–8, 92, 119, 121–2, 128, 131, 140, 145–7, dafter (register), 240 149, 152–3, 197, 271, 273, 285, Dagestan, 93, 103, 123 CIS-wide coordinative measures, D’Amato Bill, 128 150 Danopoulos, C. P., xiv communism, 3, 31, 33, 38–9, 63, 117, Dardanelles, 67 155, 172 Darvaza, 151 communist party, Politburo of the, de facto military and political control, 19, 52, 83, 85, 101, 103, 129, 95 163–4, 167, 186, 248, 283 de jure act of voluntary delegation of Communist Party, Regional powers to Russia, 191 Committee of the, 282 decentralisation, 78, 120 Communist Party of the Soviet Declaration on the State Sovereignty Union (CPSU), 116, 227 of the Republic of Tatarstan, 216, Russian radical nationalists or 217, 220 Communists, 27 demilitarisation, 199 totalitarianism, 247–8 Demirel, Suleyman, Turkish prime Concept of the Foreign Policy of the minister 40, 64, 66, 80 Russian Federation (CFPRF), 60, democracy, 2, 31, 131; 61 democratisation, 201, 281 Congress of the Peoples Deputies, 167 democratic federalism, 23, 268, Congress of Russia’s Communities, 270–71, 275 129 democrats, 164 Constitution, December 1993, 84 denationalisation, 202 Constitution of the Republic of denuclearisation, 14, 47 Tatarstan, 220 Department of State, 10 Copernicus, 222 Deshte Kypchak, 209 cosmopolitanism, 267 Diaz, Yanturin, 240–3 Cossack movement, 153; Dim, 157 Cossacks, Cossack armies, Cossack disarmament, 3 military, political leaders divide and rule, 21, 36 (atamany), 105 Djerejan, Edward P., 137 Council of Peoples’ Deputies, 248 Dobbin, Fr Edmund J. (President, Cowell, Alan, 57 Villanova University), xiii CPSU, 14, 20, 22, 230, 237, 266–7; Donester region, 4 Central Committee, 286 Donnelly, Alton S., 249, 288 CPSU Executive Committee Donskoi, Dmitry, 100 resolution of January 1934, 22; Dostam, General Abdurashid, Uzbek Cretan-Mycenaean palaces, 241 faction leader, 71, 74–5, 77, 80; , Tatar diaspora in, 32, 105, Dostam-Hekmatyar alliance, 75 181, 267, , 210 Dostum, Afghan-Uzbek General, 108 Croatia, 139, 141 dual containment policy, 42, 133 Crow, Suzanne, 79 duality of power, 166 cultural autonomy, 268 Duchy of Moscovy, xi cultural-civilisational ‘revolution’, Dudayev, Dzhokhar (Johar), former 220 Major General of the Soviet Air Index 297

Force, 15, 17, 65, 82–3, 86–90, ethno-national sovereignty, 255 93–4, 96, 108, 110–11, 155, 161 ethno-political situation, 252 Duddington, Natalie, 195 Eurasia, Duma, State, 10, 65, 84, 95, 100, 186, Eurasian Islamic Council 215, 219, 247, 253–4; Organisation, 124 Duma Committee, 248 Eurasian renaissance, 213 DUMEC, 119, 134 Eurasian Western xenophobia, 14 Euro-Mediterranean conference held East Asia, 11 in Barcelona in November 1995, East Slavonic, 269 115 Eastern Slavic, 105 , xi, 3, 5, 16, 55, 60, 67, 115, East-West relations, 130; 125, 133 East-West rivalry, 114 European Christian world, 108 economic sphere, 207 European Council, 219 ECU, 115 European Nation, 42 Education Law, 220 European powers, 38 Eggert, Konstantin, 80 European powers, Conventional Egypt, x, 89, 114–15, 124, 133, 222–3, Forces in Europe (CFE), 106 241 European renaissance, 19, 208, 209, Eighth Congress of the Soviets, 235 210–13 Eisenhower, Dwight D., President, 10 European state system, 8 Elchibey, Abulfaz, 50 European Union (EU), 11, 42, 115, elder brothers, 23 122, 219 Ellis, Fr. Kail C. (Dean of Arts and European, west states, 127 Sciences, Villanova University), military-political situation in, xiii 140–4, 162, 192, 207, 209, 214, England and Italy, medieval 222–4, 226, 241 renaissance in, 213 Evren, President Kenan, 63 Equal Rights and Legality, local extremism, 155 electoral bloc, 186 Exxon, 8, 46 Erbakan, advocate of militant Islam, Necmettin, 53; Fadlan, Ibn, 17, 157, 224, 234 Islamic Welfare Party of, 42 Fahretdinov, R., 212 Erlanger, Steven, 25 Faizullin, F. S., 258, 262 Ermolin, Captain Vladimir, 111 Fall, Brian, British ambassador to Estonia, 48, 107, 181 Russia, 68 Ethiopia, 31 famine of 1921, 229 ethnic identity, 23 far abroad, 64, 118, 124, 151 ethnic homogenisation, ethnic Far East, 145 cleansing, 32, 39 fault line, ix ethnic , 104 fear of assimilation, 236 ethno-linguistic revival, 21 Federal Assembly, 196 ethno-national communities, 256 Federal constitution, 189, 190 ethno-national discrimination, 261 Federal Council of the Russian ethno-national extremists, 107 Federation, 190, 219 ethno-national leaders, 109 Federal Treaty of 13 March 1992, 176, ethno-national minorities, 91 182; Federal Treaty with Russia, ethno-national politics, 85 231, 236 298 Index federalism, 214, 217, 254, 256, 263, GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council), 266–7 125, 126; GCC nations, 125 federation, 266 GDR, 149 Fenno-Ugric tribes, 277 General Staff Academy, 100 Feshbach, M., 262 General Conference of International feudalism, 172 Labour Organisation (ILO), 260 Filatov, Sergei, Yeltsin’s Chief of Staff, Geneva, 10, 15, 209; Geneva Accords 186 of 1988, 145 Finland, 214, 265 Genoa, 209 Finno-Ugric, 269 geopolitical environment, 127 First All-Russia Muslim Congress, Georgia, 28, 40, 45, 49, 91, 97, 99, resolution of, 264 106, 123, 127–8, 141, 149 First World War, 26, 41, 51 German-backed Islamic uprising, 103 Florence, 209 German Democratic Republic Forces, Founding Act between Russia and 89, 103 NATO, 9 German Russians, 267 France, Paris, 140, 223; French Germans, 242, 273, 274, 278 companies, 203 Germany, Federal Republic of (FRG), free economic zones, 207 8, 15, 53, 70, 89, 140, 149; free market, 2, 27, 54, 200 eastern and western frontiers, free trade zone, 115 142, 231, 274 freedom of speech, 3 Geyer, George Anne, 136 Friendly, Jr., A., 262 global civilization, 2 Fuller, Graham E., xiv, 12, 13, 26, , x, xi, 17, 18, 104–5, 80 157–8, 170, 209–10, 224, 234 Golts, Aleksandr, 56 G-7, 3 Goltz, Thomas, 68, 80 Gabidullin, Kh., 195 Gorbachev, Mikhail, President, 27, Gaidar, Yegor, deputy prime minister 37, 44–5, 50, 63, 69, 83, 90–91, of the Russian Federation, 69 101, 124, 175; coup of August Galeyev, M. G., chairman of the 1991 against, 167, 236, 248 Tatarstan legislature’s Economic Gore, Al, Vice President, 48 Committee, xiv, 17–19 Gorny Badakhshan region, 150 Galiev, Mir Said , 160, 172, Government of National 227, 235, 265, 276 Reconciliation, 61 Galiullah, Mufti, Tatarstan’s top Govorukhin, Stanislav, State Duman Sunni leader, 118 deputy, 111 Gankovsky, Yuri V., xiii Grachev, Pavel, Russian minister of Garayev, Makhmud, retired Soviet defence, 15, 89, 93, 95 Army general, xiv, 15, 16, 74, 81, Grane, Robert D., 138 139 Great Game, 38 Garifullin, Sh., 289 great game, 1 Garnaty, Al-, 222 Great Patriotic War, 100 Gaspirali, Ismail Bey, a Crimean Great Russian, 227 Tatar, (1851–1914), 19 great Satan, 126 Gasprinskiy, Ismail-bey Gaspraly, Great Turan, 144 264, 276; Great Wall of China, 63 Gatay, Mutigulla, 161 greater China, 11 Gazatullina, Saima, 240 Greco-Roman culture, 209 Index 299

Greece, 214; Greek civilisation, 208, Ibragimov, G., 19, 172, 213 209 Idel-Ural Republic, 20, 172, 174, 215, Gretsky, Sergei, xiv, 12, 14, 59, 80 227–8, 274 Grozny, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 96, 103 ijtihad (innovative thinking), 19, 211, Grummon, Stephen, 135 212 gubernias, 269 Ik, 157 Guboglo, M. N., 276 imams (scholars), 247 Gudev, V., director of the Middle East Imperial Russia, 102 and Northern Africa Department, imperialist expansion in Europe and Foreign Ministry of Russia, 135 Central Asia, 5 Gul’binskii, Nikolai, 111, 112 Inan, Gabdulkadir, 160, 165 Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC), 114 India, 40, 55, 56, 114, 133, 141–4, Gulf War, 42, 126 211, 241 Gulf region, arms sales, 133 individual privatisation deposits Gulf, US interests in, 129 (IPD), 202 Gupta, 2 Indo-Aryan, 287 Gutchkov, 248 Indo-Iranians, 36, 352 Ingushetia, 86, 93, 103, 123, 149, 231, Habibullah, a non-commissioned 257 officer of Tajik origin (generally integration of the post-Soviet space, called Bachai Sako), 75 78 Hadithes, 211 Interior and Defence Ministries, 167 hajj, 63 international cooperation, 1 Halikov, Ahmet, 163, 164 international law, 59–60, 179, 193, Harris, George S., 79 219, 261 Hassan, King of Morocco, 137 international market, 207 Hausman, Susan K., xiii international order, 98 Haydar, Afaq, xiii international relations, 185 Hekmatyar, Gulbeddin, 75, 77 international terrorism, 70, 155 Helsinki Agreement, 10, 49 Iqbal, Dr Muhammad, internationally Herzegovina, 72 known thinker and poet- Hezb al-Wahdat militia, 57 philosopher of Islam, 15, 212 Hitler, 8, 103 IRA militants, 106 Holy Roman, 2 Iran, 11, 13, 14, 17, 30, 36–8, 42, homo sovieticus, 20, 116 44–6, 51–2, 54–7, 59, 62–4, Hostler, Charles Warren, 56 68–70, 72–3, 77–8, 89, 99, 102, House of Representatives, 191 106, 110, 114–15, 123–8, 130–1, human rights, 3, 31 142–5, 155, 210, 241 Hungary, 87, 181, 231 economic ties with, Iranian threat, Hunter, Shireen, 79 133 Huntington, Samuel P., 1, 24, 133 embargo against, 128 Hussain, Mushahid, 58 Iran–Libya Sanctions Act, 42 Hussein, President Saddam, 31, 41–2, Iran Serakhs in northeast, 43 72 Iranian A-Bomb, 70 Hussein-bek, 157 Iranian factor, 43 Islamic regime, 79 IAEA, 133 Islamic revolution in, 29, 116, 155 Ibn-Fadhlan, Ahmad, a missionary, x, nuclear and missile cooperation 169, 195 with, 11 300 Index

Iran continued Islamic revolution, 126 oil and natural gas, 44 Islamic revolution in Libya and rapprochement with, 75 Iran, 155 Shah of, 41 Islamic solidarity, 246 trade, Iran’s Islamic Republic, 42 Islamic state, 161 Iraq, 41–2, 46, 66, 72, 126, 131, 133, Islamic states, Islamic factor, 16 142–3, 164; Iraqi Kurdistan, 41, Islamic studies, 247 66 Islamic terrorism, 132 Ireland (Northern), Britain in, 106, Islamic traditions, 163 214 Islamic-Turkic heritage, 18, 104, 246 Irkutsk, 168 Islamic world, 65, 141, 144, 211 IRP, 120 Islamism, 59, 79, 155 Ishaki, Gaes, 213–14 Islamist movements, 78 Ishanism (Sufism), 160 Islamist regimes, 13, 38 Iskhaki, A., 195, 276 Islamist Welfare Party, 53 Islam, xii, 5, 10, 12, 15–16, 18–20, Islamist Welfare (Refah) Party of 30–1, 33, 36–7, 39, 40, 42–4, 47, Necmettin Erbakan, 64 50, 51, 60–1, 72, 85, 89, 97, 99, Islam’s radical movement, 108, 118 103, 105–6, 108–9, 113, 117, political Islam, 34, 35 119–21, 126, 128–9, 131–3, radical Islam, 52 157–60, 164, 168–9, 171, 209–10, saf Islam (clear and pure Islam), 156 212, 216, 223, 234, 238, 244, 264 Ismay, Lord, the first secretary general , 159, 163; weakness of NATO, 8 in Russia, 162 Israel, Israeli strategy, 29, 55–6, 62, Islam, non-Russian, 211 94, 114, 116, 142, 144, 151 Islam, Russian oppression of, 13 issues of defence, 152 Islamic clergy, Islamic jihad, 101 Italian peninsula, 209, 221; Italians, Islamic colouring, 131 20; Italy and England, medieval Islamic crescent, 104 renaissance in, 213 Islamic dogma, 212 ittihad, 161 Islamic factor, 116, 153, 154, 155 , xi, 18, 19, 170, 192, Islamic factor in regional relations, 195, 225, 234 125 Ivanov, First Deputy Foreign Minister, Islamic fundamentalism, ix, 12–14, Igor, 112, 135 17, 26, 55, 62–4, 77, 114, 124, Ivanov, Major A., 111 122, 29, 30, 151 Izvestia, 9 Islamic heritage, 100 Islamic ideas, 73 jadidism (modernism), 19, 32, 211–12 Islamic infrastructure, 62 Japan, 12, 16, 53, 55, 60, 133, 140, Islamic Iran, 151 142, 144, 178, 203, 274; Export- Islamic militancy, 115, 123 Import Bank of, 188 Islamic militia of Afghan Pashtuns, jihad, 108, 156, 161 75 Johannes, Jack (Vice President of Islamic reformation, 214 Academic Affairs, Villanova Islamic regime, 52 University), xiii Islamic renaissance, radical political Jordan, 89, 102, 126, 133, 155 Islam, ix, 107 Journal of South Asian and Middle Islamic Renaissance Party, 61, 122 Eastern Studies, xii Islamic revival, 66 Judaism, 10, 273–4 Index 301

Juliev, Salavat, 171 khanate, ix, x, xi, 18, 170, 210, 234 Kabardin-Balkar autonomous regions, Kazan, 159, 169, 171–2, 179, 181, 32, 186 186, 213, 286 Kabul government, 145 Kazan gendarme administration Kadyrov, Rafis Faizovich, 250, 283, (the political police), 214 289 Kazan kremlin, 187, 190 Kalinin, M., chairman of the All- Kazan and Moscow, relations Russia Central Executive between, 217 Committee, 195 Russian conquest of the, 229 Kaliningrad, autonomous republic of, KAZAZ vehicles, 204 142, 186 Kemalist principles of laicism, 63 , 104 Kephart, Lori, xiii River, x, 18, 104, 169–70, 187, Kerensky, 248 189 Khakass, 284 Kamal, G., 19, 213 Khakimov, Raphael, Political Advisor Kamaly, Mutagar, 161 to President of Tatarstan, xii, 18, Kamaly, Zia, 161 175, 179, 181, 190–2, 249, 289 KAMAZ installation, 181, 187–8, Khaldun-Ibn, 222 189 Khalevinski, Igor V., xiii Kamel, General Hussayn, 126 Khalim, A., 286, 289 Kandahar, 118 Khamidullin, Filza, Deputy Prime Karachai, 287 Minister, 178, 181 Karacharyosk, xi Khan, , Batu’s descendant, x, Kara-kalpaq, 284, 287 169 Karasakal, 235 Khan, Agha IV, Head of the World Karasin, Grigoriy, Foreign Ministry Ismailis, 150 spokesman, 66 Khasanov, M. H., well-known scholar Karawan Saray, 241 and President of the Academy of Karimov, Islam, President of Sciences of Tatarstan, xiv, 17, 19, Uzbekistan, 50, 67, 71, 74–5 20, 208 Karpov Chemical Plant, 206 Khasbulatov, Russlan I., parliament’s Kasimov, Salawat, 250 chairman, 87, 167 , 33, 284 Khazar, a Jewish state north of the Kazakh parliament, 48 Caspian Sea, 100 Kazakhs, Russian conquest of, 1, 40, Emirate, 75, 214 159–60, 273, 287 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 43, 69 Kazakhstan, x, xi, 11, 36–8, 45–7, Khorazmian Turkic, 169 50–2, 56, 61, 63–4, 68, 86, 97, Khrushchev, Nikita, 10, 86 99, 113, 122, 127, 130, 144–5, Khudaykov, M. G., Russian historian 150, 153, 174, 181, 197, 228, 222 234, 237 Kiev, 169, 181, 222 Kazakhstan and Central Asia, Kilmyak, 235 Russia’s relations with, 153 Kinzer, Stephen, 24 Turkic Kazakhs, 107–8 Kirghyzstan, 237 Kazakov, Alexander, head of the Kirgizia, 144 department of Administration for Kirinitsianov, Kuriy, 57 the Russian president, 233 Kirpichnikov, Aleksei, 111 302 Index

Kissinger Associates, 2 Kuwait, 46, 125–6 Kiza, 235 Kuzeyev, Rail G., an eminent Klimovich, L., 165 anthropologist and director of Kliuchevsky, V. O., 195 the Bashkort National Museum of Kobishchanov, Yury, 24 Archaeology and Ethnography in Kolchak, tsarist General, 160 228 , xiv, 21–3, 164, 239, 263 kolkhos (cooperatives), 163 Kypchaq languages, 23, 287 Kolkhos movement (AKH), 163 Kyrgyzstan, 11, 33, 36, 38, 49, 61, kolkhoz-sovkhoz, 274 64–5, 97, 107, 123, 130, 279, 286 Komi, 257, 284 Komsomolskaya (Russia), 46 Ladin, Anatoly, 112 Konarovsky, M., 137 Lake, A., National Security Adviser, Konarovsky, Mikhail, xiv, 15, 16, 113 137 Korstchenko, Igor, 24 Latin, 23, 209, 285 Kothaj clan, 239 Latin America, 26, 131 Kovalenko, Yuri, 24 Latvia, 48, 107, 181, 234, 273–4 Kovalevskii, A. P., 195 Laumulin, Murat, 57 Kozyrev, Andrei, foreign minister of Law ‘On Rehabilitation of Repressed Russia, 59, 60, 79, 135 Peoples’, 259 krais (provinces), 253, 254, 256, 260, Law on the Status of the Approved 269 Investment Project with Foreign Krasnodar region, 104 Investor Participation, 206 Krasnoyarsk, 168 Lawrence Livermore Laboratories, 37 Kremlim, 64, 75, 87, 93–5, 107–8, LDP, 129 129, 189, 248 League of Islamic States, 16 Kruchkova, T., 289 League of Nations, 15 Krugusheva, O., 111 Lebanon, 29, 44 kubairs (legends in verse), 288 Lebed, Aleksandr, Security council Kuban, 149 chief, Lieutenant General (Rtd) Kudryavteev, A., 164 95, 110 kufic inscriptions, 156 Lenin, Vladimir, Chairman of the Kulbahtin, N., 165 Council of Peoples’ Deputies, 18, Kulchik, Yu. G., 276 170–4, 213, 215, 248, 265 Kumyk, 287 Leninabad region, 150 Kunashakskiy district, 22, 241, 253 Leninist, 86 Kurbangaly, 160 Letts, 278 Kurdish nationalism, 41 Levashov burial mound, 156 Kurdish population, 53 Liberal Democratic Party, 120 Kurdish rebels, 66, 141 Libya, 62 Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), 41 Libya, Islamic revolution in, 155 Kurgan, 278 Libyan debt, 72 Kurile Islands, 142 Ligachev, Egor, CPSU secretary for Kurish issue, 41 ideology, 286 Kursavi, G., 19, 211–12 Likhachev, President Vasiley, 175, Kurultai, national, 230, 241–6, 279; 188 Kurultai, Bashkorts National lingua franca, 280 (National Assembly), 21 Lippman, Thomas W., 57 Kusyum, 235 Lisbon Protocol to the Strategic Arms Kutsyllo, Veronika, 24 Reduction Treaty (START I), 47 Index 303

Lithuania, 48, 181 Mediterranean Muslim regions, 115 little nations, 23 Mekhtiyev, Aydyn, 57, 80 Los Alamos, 37 Menzilaski area, 240 Lukin, Vladmir, 79 Meshed (Mashhad), 54 Lukyanov, Anatoly (State Duma), 96 MIAs (missing in action personnel), Luzhkov, Moscow mayor, 100, 101 126 Miaak, 242 Macedonian, 2 , 223 madaras (religious schools), 158–9, Middle East, 11, 13, 38, 42, 46, 52–5, 212, 246–7 102, 115, 123, 132, 140–1 madrassah, 63 Middle East peace process, 114, 128 Magnitogorsk, 174, 227 Middle East Policy Council, 137 majalas (meetings), 214 US interests in, 129, 132 Makarov, Sergei, 25 Middle region, 109 Maksudi, Sadri, 214–15 Midyat, 46 Maktadir, Caliph al-, 234 Mihaylov, P., Archaeologist, 156 Malashenko, A., 164 Mikhalehenko, V., 289 Malaysia, 142 Mikulskiy, D., 164 Malik, Hafeez, xiii, xv, 17, 18, 21, 24, military expansionism, 69 112, 166, 224, 250, 262 military industrial complex, 198–9, Malik, Lynda P., xiii 200, 204, 207, 260 Manas epic, 65 military-political elite, 53 Manatov, Sh., 172 Milli Majlis (National Council of Mandelbaum, Michael, 80 and ), 215 Mardjani, Shahab al-Din, 19, 211 Milyukov, 248 Maris, 21, 226, 234, 257, 273–4, Minatom, 137 278–9, 284 Ministry of Defence, 100 Mari-Tatar-Russian, 280 Mirotvorchestvo, creation of peace, 49 Mariy-el, 170 Mishars, 278 Marjani, Sh., 212 Mizulina, Yelena, (Federal Council), 96 market economy, 2, 3, 39, 67, 132, Moldova, 28, 237 150, 196, 199, 200, 202, 205, 207, Mongolia, 107 238 Mongol aggression, 174 Marxism-Leninism, 41, 172, 208, 226, Mongol army, 224 249 Mongol invasion of Russia, 169 Masalim, R., 289 Mongol rule over the Russian states, Maskhadov, Aslan, Soviet military x, 18 officer, 87–8, 94–5 , 104 Masoud, Akhmed Shah, Afghan-Tajik Mongol-Tatar khans, 100 General, 71, 74–5, 77, 81, 108 monotheism, 223 Matrosov, a Second World War hero, Mordivinians, 172, 273–4 242 Mordvas, 278 Mayak radiochemical works, 256 Morocco, 133 Mazhitov, Niz Abdul Haq, 158, 164, Morozov, Alexandar, 110 240 Moscovy, 169 Mecca, pilgrimage to, 163 Moscow, Russia, 21, 23, 27, 49–51, Mediterranean, 43, 64, 67, 99, 127 64, 75, 101, 125, 129, 156, 177–8, Mediterranean basin, 209 180, 186–7, 222, 225, 231, 233, Mediterranean, ‘greater’, 124 245–8, 279, 286 304 Index

Moscow continued Muslim-, 173 Moscow bureaucracy, 269 MVD forces, 84, 89 Moscow and Kazan, relations between, 217 Nagorno-Karabakh, 39, 46, 50, 64, Moscow, Russian Academy of 142, 149, 271 Sciences in, 286 nahda (elevation) or Muslim mosques, 158–9, 163, 170, 189, 222 renaissance, 212 mosques in Ufa, Oktyabrsk, Kazan, Najibullah, President, 74, 114 nabereszhhnie Chelni, Nakrasov, 248 Moscow, Omsk, Tyumen, Namtalashvili, Gabriel, 80 Novosibirsk, 161 Napoleon, 8 Motorised Infantry Brigade, 201st, 108 NARKOMNAT (Peoples’ Commissariat Mramornov, O., 111 of Nationalities), 172 muftiats (religious organisations), 158 Nasiri, Kayum, 19, 211 muftis, 159–60, 238, 246 Nation of Islam, 129 mujahiddin, Turkish, 66, 75 National Action Party, 63 Mujahiddin, Afghan, 74 National Action Party of Alparslan mujahiddin, 114–15, 145, 151, 154 Turks, 64 Mukhamet, Shakiryan (Muhammad), national autonomy, 270 242 National Congress of Muslim Peoples, Mukhametshin, Farid, chairman of 264 the Tatarstan Supreme Soviet, national-democratic stage, 22 186, 233 national development, 274 Muktadir, Caliph Ja’far al-, x national liberation movement, 271 mullahs, 158–9, 161, 179 national security, 196 multi-bloc state system, 12 national self-consciousness, 281 multipolar world, 16 national self-determination, 15, 88, Murmansk, 3 91, 93, 103–4, 106–8, 141, 174, Murzabulatov, C., 235 264, 270 Murzabulatoff, M., 288 national-separatism, 260 Muscat, 114 national sovereignty, xii, 191, 252, Muscovite policies, Muscovite 257–9 Christians, 105 National-state formation, 219 Muscovite state, x national survival, xii Muslims, ix, 4, 5, 13, 16, 19, 30, 32, National View Organization (Refah 36, 69, 70, 101, 109, 113–16, 119, Party), 66 123, 142, 153–4, 156–7, 161, 189, nationalism, 12, 32–3, 35, 78, 116–7, 210–11, 238 122, 141, 161, 171, 266, 272, 286 Muslim Council, Ufa, 160, 163 nationalist–separatist movements, 35 Muslim Councils, 161 nationality, 20 Muslim fanatics, 155 NATO partnership for peace, 5, 8, 9, Muslim national communism, 227 11, 48, 55, 62, 68, 69, 150 Muslim republics, 107 NATO, 24, 10, 115, 142, 152, 153, Muslim world, 156, 72 106, 197 Muslims of inner Russia Movement, NATO military strength, 1966, 9 215 NATO-Russia Council, 9 Muslim-Turkic civilisational Nazarbaev, Nursultan, Kazakhstan’s strongholds, xi President, 4, 46, 47, 48, 55, 107, Muslim–Turkic nations, 1, 78, 166 112 Index 305

Nazi Germany, 103, 112 oblasts (territories), 21, 117, 166, 168, near abroad, 12, 55, 59, 60, 64, 69, 174, 187, 227–8, 232, 245, 254, 75, 78, 107, 117, 121, 124–5, 151 256, 260, 269 Near East, 102, 144 Ocalan, Abdullah, 41 neo-imperialist, 28 , 161, 285 neo-isolationists, 131 Oka, x Neroznak, V. P., 289 okrugs (areas), 254 Netherlands, 203 Oktyabrsky, 246 Nevsky, Aleksandr, 100 Olcott, Martha B., 80 new abroad, 66 Olimov, M., 164 new revolution in October 1917, 248 Oman, 125 newly independent states, 47, 50, 59, OMON police, 101 60, 64, 78, 129, 148 Onis, Ziya, 57 NGO, 66 Open Skies Treaty, 10 Nigh, , President of the open trade, 54 Harvard Centre for International Operation Desert Storm, US led, 62–3 Affairs, 140 Orenburg, 4, 5, 174, 227, 241, 278, Nigmatullin, R. Iskandr, xii 285 Nixon Administration, 41 Orenburg Cossack troops, 153 Niyazov, Saparmurad, ’s Orenburg guberniya (province), 159 President, 62 Orenburg Muslim Council, 158, Nizhnekamskshina, 206 159 province, 5 Orenburg, State Teachers Training NKVD armies, 86 Institute, 245 Nogai, 287 Organisation of Islam Conference Nogay Horde, 158 (OIC), 113, 115 Nokhchy people, 102 Organization for Economic Noor (light), 119, 120 Cooperation and Development North African Arab states, 114–15, 123 (OECD), 4 North American free trade agreement, Organization for Security and 12 Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), North Caucasian Military District 39, 55 (NCMD), 106 Oriental world, 79 Solidarity Orkhon-Yenissei inscriptions, 287 Committee, 66 Orthodox Christian , 109 North Ossetia, 129 Orthodox Christian heritage, 16, Norway, 214 20, 101, 105, 125, 149 Novoprudskii, Semyon, 57 orthodox dogma, 211 Novorossiysk, 46, 98–9, 127 OSCE members, 13, 28, 124, 131 Novotriosk, xi Osipenko, V., 289 nuclear arms race, 144 Ossetia, 149, 271 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Ostankino, 84 (NPT), 3, 47–8, 133, 144 Ottoman Empire, 2, 41, 69, 265 nuclear technology, 43, 70 outside Islam, 16, 118 Nur, 163–4 Ozal, Turgut, Prime Minister, 40, 62, 64 oblast of Chelyabinsk, xi, 22 oblast of Magnitogorsk, xi Pacific Ocean, 145, 266 oblast of Orenburg, xi Pacific Rim states, 55 306 Index pagan, 160 political federalism, 202 Pain, Emil, member of the political Islam, 114, 129, 132, 155 Presidential Council, 186 political-military situation, 38 Pakistan, 11, 13, 14, 30, 36, 43, 54–5, political sphere, 147 57, 71–3, 114–16, 133, 141–5 politico-administrative structure, relations with the , 24 269 Pakistan-American Foundation, xii post-Cold War, 11 Pakistani Ministry of Education, xiii post-Communist Russian leaders, 99 Palariya, Andrei, 80 post-Soviet Muslim nations, 131 Palestinian autonomy, 94, 114 post-Soviet Russia, 96, 99 pan-American, 12 Posuvalyuk, V., Deputy Foreign Pan-Arabism, 40 Minister, 136 Pan-Islamism, 249 precapitalilsm, 172 pan-Turkic revival, 39 Presidential Council, 237 pan-Turkic unity, 79 Presidential Group of Negotiators, 180 Pan-Turkism, 40 Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of Pares, Bernard, 249 Baskorian ASSR, 173, 229 Participants in negotiations, 1991–94, Primakov, Yevgeny, director of the 193 Russian Foreign Intelligence Party of Islamic Revival in Tajikistan, Service, 65, 72, 130 17, 155 principle of federalism, 148 Pashtun rule, 73, 75, 78 privatisation, 202–3 Pax Americana, 2 proletarianism, 128, 216 Pel’ts, Aleksandr, 111 Protestants, 106 Pelletreau, R., Assistant Secretary of Puchala, Donald J., 2, 24 State for near eastern affairs, 137 Pugachev, 171, 240 Penjikent, 151 Pulina, Natalia, 25 PennZoil, 8 Pentagon, 3, 10 Quester, George, 57 perestroika, 14, 61–3, 236, 267 Qunduz, 74 Perm, 278 Qur’an, 78, 159, 163, 211 , 2, 211 Gulf, 11, 38, 114, 125, 127 Rabbani, President Burhanuddin, 71, , 100 74–5, 78, 159, 163, 211 Petrov, A., Major, 111 government troops, 77 Petrov, I., 289 Rabbani-Dostam alliance, 74 Philippines, 142 Rabbani-Massoud-Hekmatyar- Pioneer, USA, 203 Dostam alliance, 77 Pipe, Richard, American historian, radicalism, 267 222 Radyo, Bizim, member of the Turkish Pipes, Daniel, 79 Communist Party, 63 Piriz-Ballon, Ramiro, UN secretary- Rafsanjani, Hashemi, Iranian general’s special envoy to president 54, 69, 126 Tajikistan, 71, 80 Rahimov, Murtaza, President of Plato, 209 Bashkortostan, 21, 163, 173, 224, PLO, 62 229–31, 233–40, 242, 283, 285 Poland, 9, 142, 148, 214, 265 Rahmonov, Tajik government of Polimiz, 206 Imomali, 51, 70, 71, 74, 77 Politburo, 83 raisons d’état, 13, 27 Index 307

Rakhimov, Bashkortostan’s President, Rushd, Ibn, 209 163 Rusi, Alpo M., 25 Rakhmatullin, U. Kh., 288 Russia, x, xi, xii, 1–5, 8, 9, 11–14, 16, Rasulev, Mufti, 161 17, 19, 20, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 39, Rasuly, 160 40, 43, 48, 55, 59, 62–5, 67–8, 74, Rathore, Naim, xiii 78–9, 87–8, 98–9, 105–7, 110, Reagan/Bush period, 37 113, 122, 124, 127, 132–3, 142–3, Reagan, President, 54 145, 147–8, 152–4, 169, 172–5, realpolitik, 73, 86, 103, 161 178–9, 185–6, 191, 197, 204–5, Referendum, December 1993, 84 211–13, 226, 233–5, 237, 243–4, regime sovereignty, 97 253, 257, 265–6, 270–3, 275–81, regionalism, 122 287 regional cooperation, 66 Russia’s Choice, 129 regional development, 185, 201 Russia’s foreign policy, 126 regional instability, 69 Russia’s Orthodox Church, ix, 118, regional and international 119, 120; clergy, 101; church, terrorism, 124, 128 10, 99, 100, 158, 170, 226 regional stability, 70, 97 Russia and the Islamic factor, relations with Russia, 127 struggle for power, 139; Islam’s religion and free association, 3 weakness in, 162, 163; Islam’s religious nationalism, 31 threat to, 156; Islamic Republican-dominated 104th community, 118; relations Congress, 131 with countries of the CIS, the reunification of the former Soviet Islamic factor, 146 Union nations, 234 Russia is Our Home Party, 129 Reutov, Aleksandr, 25 Russia’s Strategic Rocket Forces, 100 revival of ethnic Russian culturalism, Russia–Tatarstan treaty of February 100 1994, 17, 18 Rigveda, 241 Russia-Tatarstan relations, 196 Rimarenko, Yu, 286, 289 Bashkortostan’s relations with, 233 Risordgimento, 20, 221 Great State in, multinational, 218 River Volga, x freedom of religion in, 10 RMU, 164 market-oriented economy, 125 Robbins, G., 136 Mongol invasion of, 169 Robins, Philip, 57 Muslims in, 127–8; Russian Muslim Rodzianko, 248 Union (RMU), 163 Roman civilisation, 2, 208–9 neoimperialist ambitions, 124 Rorlich, Azade-Ayse, 250 policy towards Iran, 69; Russian- Rostov region, 104 supplied arms, 70 Rothkopt, David, 2, 24 policy towards the former Soviet RSFSR, 266 republics, 4 Rubin, Barnett, 80 relations with its former empire, 45 Rubinstein, Alvin Z., xv, 12–14, 36, relations with the Gulf nations, 126 56, 58, 79 relations with Kazakhstan and Rudenko, S. I., 164 Central Asia, 153 Rumyantsev, Oleg, former executive relations with the United States, xii secretary of the Constitutional Spiritual Body of Muslims of, 119 Committee of the Russian Tatarstan’s treaty with, 188, 192, Federation, 259–260 202 308 Index

Russia continued sphere of influence, 92 Turkic peoples in, 263, 264 Russian–Iranian trade and economic treaty with the autonomous cooperation, 70, 71, 106 republics, 248 policy in Central Asia, and the United States, 1 peacekeeping force, 71, Russian West’s policy towards Russia, 132 Foreign Ministry, nuclear White House, 167 reactor deal with Iran, Campaign in Russian Academy of Sciences, 240, Chechnya, national security, 284 71–73 Russian–American relations, Russian- , 281 American thinking, 37–8 patriotic movement, 269 Russian arms, 44 Russian LUKoil company, 68 Russian Border Service, 4 Russian–Muslim relations, 149 Russian-Chinese declaration on a Russian Supreme Soviet, 166, 167, multipolar world, 11 178 Russian Christian Orthodoxy, 10 State Duma, 193 Russian Congress of the Soviets, 175 Russian Ministry of Defense, 83, 95 Russian Constitutional Court, 96, 97, Russian offensive in central Russia, 167 1943, 242 Russian conquest of the Kazakhs, 159 treaty between Bashkortostan and: , 22, 128 Constitution of, 253, 257, 258, Russian army, 15 259 Russian federal government, 92 Russian Orthodox Christianity, 10, Russian Federation, ix, xii, 5, 12, 15, 99, 169 17, 21, 23, 28, 30, 32, 36, 78, 82, Russian Parliament, 100, 110, 129 84–6, 88–9, 90, 93–4, 97, 102, Russian policy, 130–31 104–5, 107–9, 115, 117–19, 123, Russian ‘shuttle’ trade (chelnochnaya 129, 147–9, 151–2, 155–6, 166, torgovlya), 68 168, 172, 176, 179–81, 187, 190, Russian-Tatar conflict (1236), x 192, 197, 200, 201, 206, 214, Russian-Turkic relations, 65–7, 102 217–19, 224, 227, 230–1, 236, Russian-Turkic rapprochement, 79 239, 260, 268–9, 270–6, 280, 286 Russian-Turkish wars of 1877–78, 100 conquest of the Kazan khanate in Russian-Turkish rivalry, 67, 99 1552, 229, culture, 221 Russification, 227, 237 constitution of, 182, 186, 256 Russocentric politics, 12, 13, 26, 27, empire, 214, 215, 265 28 federal assembly, 191, 243, 245 Rusta-Ibn, 222 Federal Council, 186 Rutskoi, Aleksandr, Colonel General, Joint Jurisdiction, 177 87, 90, 100, 111, 167 national development of, 185 Russian Foreign Ministry, 64, 68, 99, sadaka (irrevocable charitable gift), relationship with the Turkic and 156, 158 Islamic peoples, 82, 83 Sadykov, F. B., 258, 262 Russian foreign policy, Russia’s Saha (Yakutiya), 129 Eurasian nature, tsarist Russia, , Republic of, 269 zone of Russian vital interests, 60, Salang highway, 77 empire, 61 , 169 Russian imperial rule, 36 Sarai, Sabf, Tatar poet, 222 imperialism, 56 Saratov province, 104, 278 Index 309

Saudi Arabia, 13, 30, 36,44, 46, 115, , 16, 23, 118–9, 128, 145, 156, 116, 125–6, 133, 143, 151, 163, 168, 170, 192, 268 247 Siberian khanate, 210 Saverdlovskay oblast, 181 , 287 Schrems, Jack, xiii Sief, Martin, 136 Schweizer, Peter, 3, 24 Silk Road, 54 Sea of , 181 Simes, Dimitri, 137 Second Bashkort Congress, 282 Simferopol, 181 Second World War, 116, 142, 161, Sina, Ibn, 209 216, 267, 274 Sinjan-Uigur region, 144 secularism, 39, 62, 171 Slavic, 102, 278 security council, 15, 84, 113 Slavic Christian Cossacks, 102 Seit, 234 Slavic Christians, 264 self-determination, xii, 36, 82, 86, Slavic and Orthodox Russian bloc, 187, 214, 220, 235, 252, 254, 256, Moscow-led, 12 259, 265, 266–8, 272 Slavonia, 141 self-development, 272 Slavs, eastern of Orthodox Semipalatinsk, former nuclear Christian heritage, 109 weapons testing site, 48 Smolansky, Oles M., 56, 58, 79 Semirechensk, 153 Sobor (Convent), 121 separatism, 272 Social and Political Centre in Ufa, 233 Serakhs (Siraks), 54 social-democratic stage, 22 Serbia, 115, 214 socialism, 172 Sergeev, Yu, 165 socialist internationalism, 128 Sergheyev, Anatoli, Colonel General, Socrates, 209 Russian commander of the Volga Solntsev, V., 289 military district, 233 Solov’ev, S. M., x Shah of Iran, 132 Solzhenitsin, 148 Shahid (martyr), 94, 170 Sorbonne, 214 Shakhrai, Sergei, Russia’s Deputy South Asia, military-political situation Prime Minister, 96, 178–81, in 144 186–8, 255–6, 262 South Ural , 156–7 Shakina, Marina, 111–12 Southeast Asia, 123, 140 Shakirova, L., 262 Southeast Asian Islamic belt, 133 shamails (prayer carpets), 160 Southern Asia, 38, 55 shamanistic practices, 159, 160 Southwest Asia, 43, 114, 116, Shamayev, Mintimer, Tatarstan’s 123–4, 132 President, xii, 18, 118, 174–6, Southeastern Turkey, 46 179, 181, 186, 188–9 sovereign republics, 254–5 Shamil, Imam, 102 sovereignty, 188, 236, 263, 272–3 Shamsutdin, Gabdulla, 161 Soviet Union, ix, 3, 8, 10, 13, 15, 16, Shaposhnikov, Yevgeny, Defence 18, 20, 27–9, 30–7, 40, 42, 44, Minister, 90 47–8, 50, 52, 55, 59, 60–4, 69, 75, sharia courts, 156 97, 101–4, 106, 117, 120, 127–30, Shermatova, S., 135 132, 139, 141, 144–5, 147, 151, Shi’ites, 30, 51, 57, 64 161–2, 171, 174, 180, 196–7, Shumeiko, Vladimir, chairman of the 215–17, 230, 235, 237, 241, 244, Federation Council, 233 247, 252–4, 261, 263, 266, 268–9, Sibaiy, 246 271, 283, 286 310 Index

Soviet Union continued struggle for power, 1, 167 collapse of, 115–16, 166 Strugovets, Vitaly, 112 dissolution of, 1, 2, 21, 69, 91, 100, Sudan, 29, 44, 114, 247 120, 142–3, 151, 236 Sultangaliev, Mirsaid, 19, 214–15 founding of in 1922, 265 Sultangalieva, A., 164 political system, 90 Sultanov, Jyhat, 240 Soviet Air Force, 85, 87 Sultanova, A., 164 Soviet armed forces, 91, 242 Summit of Eight, 10 Soviet Central Asia, 75 Sunni Muslims, 30, 36, 102, 118, 237, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 246 114 Sunni Taliban, 44 Soviet-Iranian rapprochement, 126 Sunsnowskii district, 241 Soviet-Iranian treaty of 1940, 45 supply and demand, 200 Soviet-Iraqi government, 41 Supreme Soviet, 248 Soviet Ministry of Defence, 99 Suzdal, 222 Soviet Muslims, 33 Sverdlovsk, 278 Soviet period, 216 Svyatoslav, Prince, 99, 100 Soviet, post-existence (1991–6), 107 Syria, x, 41, 62, 124, 133 Western attitude toward the former Soviet Union, 131 Tadjimany, Kashaf, 161 withdrawal of troops, 74 Tadjuddin, Talgat, Supreme Mufti, Spain, 141 162–3 Spear, Percival, 250 Tagirov, Engel E. R., Dean and sphere of culture, 281 Professor at the Faculty of Law sphere of economics, 150 and History, Kazan Financial and sphere of influence, 5, 38, 119, 198 Economic Institute, xv, 17, 20, spheres of conflict, 139 30, 220 Spratly Islands, 142 Tagirov, Indus Rizzakovich, Tatar St Barbara, 100 scholar and Dean of History St George, 99 Faculty at Kazan University, 175 St Petersburg, 119, 156 Tahor, 74 Stalin, Joseph, 51, 86, 101, 112, 161, Taiwan, 142 172, 215, 228, 235 Tajikistan, 4, 11, 14, 17, 36, 38, 43, Red Army, 103 49, 51, 59, 61–2, 67, 69, 70–1, 75, Stalingrad, 103 77, 91, 97, 101, 107–8, 120, Stalinist formula, 227 122–4, 128, 130–2, 142, 145, 150, Stankevich, Sergei Borisovich, 152–3, 155–6, 279 member of the Russian Russian influence in, 67 negotiating team, 59, 79, 178 Tajik-Afghan border, 70, 74, 108; Stanley, Alessandra, 24 Russian forces along the Tajik Stasovskii, Anatoly, 111 refugee camps in Qunduz and State Department, xii Tahor, ethnic Tajiks, 74 State Language Law, 220 Tajik civil war, 30 statism, 39 Tajik civil war in Afghanistan, 73 Stavropol region, 104, 149 Tajik leadership, 151 , 246 Tajik opposition, 77 strategic arms reduction treaty, 10 Uzbeks in, 32 struggle for independence, 141 Tajuddin, Talgat, 135 Index 311

Talbott, Strobe, Deputy Secretary of Bashkortostan–Tatarstan State, 49, 57 relations, 249 Taliban, 71, 75, 77, 78, 118, 145 border, 108 Kabul fell to the Taliban, 77 Tatarstan Soete, 206; Treaty taqlid (unreserved submission to the between Russia and, 192, 202 ulama’s views), 19, 211 ethnic relations in, 193 Tarasov, Stanislav, 24 Tatarstan Supreme Soviet, 175; Tartaria, 209 Constitution of the Republic Tashkent, 130 of, 182 Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist quest for autonomy, Tatar Republic, 170, 215 Law on Investments, 19 Tatar-Bashkort Republic, 20, 230 military-industrial complex in, Tatar Bashkir Soviet Republic, 172 Tatar constitution, 180, 18 Tatar conquest, 169 national movement, 166 Tatar delegation, 181 relations with Russia, 17 Tatar Kazan khanate, Tatar yoke, Tatarstan’s economic dependence on 224, 225, 174 Russia, 188, 189 Tatar khans, 157; 158 Tatarstan Law on Foreign Investments Tatar literature, x in the Republic of, 206 Tatar National Centre in Ufa, 238 Tatarstan Muslim Councils, 162 Tatar national ideology, Tatar Tatarstan sovereignty, Tatar Motherland, 20 delegation, 176 Tatar nationalism, xi; Tatinvest-Ross (USA), 206 national revival, 20 Tatishli, 162 Tatar parliament, 190, 193 Tatnefteproduct, 206 Tatar Public Centre (TPC), 274 Taubman, Philip, 24 Tatar renaissance, 20, 208, 209, Tcalikov, Ahmed, 160 213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, Tedzhen (Tedjen or Tajan) River, 54 222 Temporary Higher Soviet of Tatarisation, 174 Chechnya, 88 Tatars, ix, x, xi, 1, 13, 21, 23, 24, Tengiz oil fields (Kazakhstan), 45–6, 30, 32, 33, 40, 101, 145, 148, 50, 130, 157, 159, 161, 171, 172, 173, Teptiars, 240, 278 178, 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, Ter-Petrossian, Levon, Armenia’s 216, 223, 227, 233, 237, 238, president, 50 240, 242, 243, 265, 267, 273, territorial and cultural autonomy, 267 278, 279, 280, 281, 284, 287, territorial-federal self-determination, 288 273 Tatarski, 238 territorial-state federalism in Russia, Tatarstan, ix, x, xi, 5, 12, 16–20, 264 32, 36, 65, 78, 84, 101, 104–6, terrorism, 155 109, 118–19, 129, 141, 147–8, Tevkelev, Mufti, 158 156, 161, 163, 167–8, 175, Third World, 49, 143 178–9, 182, 185–8, 191–2, 199, Thompson, Kenneth W., 24 200, 203, 207, 220, 224, 226, Tipeev, Sh., 250 228–9, 231, 235, 247–8, 254, Tishkov, V. A., 110, 112 257, 259–60, 269, 272, 278, Titorenko, V., 164 285–6 Togan, Dr. Isenbike, 240 312 Index

Togan, Zaki Velidi, 228, 235, 240, 242 Turkish–Armenian hostility, totalitarian federation, 271 Ankara, pro-Azerbaijani Trans-Dniester, 271 orientation, 51 , 13, 14, 36–8, 47, 53, , 40 55–6, 63, 68, 79, 145, 148–9, 269 Turkish leaders, 64 Treaty between Russia and Tatarstan, Turkish-Soviet relations, 63 188, 202 Turkish , 100 trilingualism, 280 Turkist Islamists, 144 Tropinin, P., 276 war against the Kurds, 45 Trubetskoy, M. S., linguist, 222 Turki, Prince, Saudi minister for Tsarandoi (Afghan police), 74 Islamic affairs, 135 tsardom, 170, 226 Turkistan, 228 tsarist government, 159–60 Turkmen, 40, 145, 159–61, 181 tsarist regimes, 247–8 Turkmenia, 181 tsarist Russia, 105, 148, 268, 271 Turkmenistan (Ashkhabad), 14, 36, tsars, 33, 109, 187, 234 38, 43, 45, 61, 64, 97, 99, 107, tsars of Moscovy, xi 113, 122, 127–8, 279, 286 Tukai, Gabdullah, celebrated poet, 19, Turkmenistan, Turkmen-Iranian 213 construction of railroads, 51 Tunis, 155 Turkmenistan-Iran connection, 54 Tunisia, 133 Turko-Tatar Idel-Ural autonomous Turajonzoda, Akbar, head of the state, 264 UTO’s negotiating team, 71, 80 Turkophone summit, 66 Turcophone summit, October 1996 in Turks, 36, 62, 211 Tashkent, 67 , 269 , 75 Tyumen, 278 Turkey, 13, 14, 17, 30, 36–9, 40–3, 50, 53–4, 56, 63–5, 67–9, 78–9, 89, U-2 Flight, 10, 24 99, 102, 106–7, 109–10, 114, 122, district, 242 126–7, 133, 143–4, 163–4, 228, Uchreditelnoye Sobranie (local 231, 285 councils), 160 Education Ministry, 65 Udmurt-Tatar-Russian, 280 Kurdish rebellion against, 99 , 170 pan-Turkic revival, 14 Udmurts, 21, 226, 233, 273–4, 279 republican Turkey, 69 Ufa, the capital of Bashkortostan, xi, Turkic, 12, 22, 32, 36, 43, 47, 50, 157, 159, 171–2, 228, 231, 239, 59, 71, 89, 102, 105, 128, 210, 242, 246, 273, 281, 286 227, 269, 277, 278, 280, 281, Bashkort Supreme Soviet in, 240 282, 285, 287, 288 population of the, 173 Turkic factor, 124 Social and Political Centre in, 233 Turkic-Islamic world, 3, 30, 56, Tatar National Centre in, 238 170 Ufa, Bashkortostan Academy of Turkic khanate, 222 Sciences, xii Turkic Muslims, 104 Ukraine, 5, 37, 47, 89, 104–9, 148, Turkic nations, 214 180–1, 227, 234, 273, 278, 284 Turkic peoples, 169, 157 ulamas (Muslim theologians), 211 Turkic regime, 52 ultranationalist parties, 167 Turkic-Russian Muslims, 100 umma-al Islamiya (community of Turkic-speaking regions, 123 Islamic believers), x Index 313 ummas (state rules), 156 Uraksin, Zinnur, director of the UNHCR, 74 Bashkortostan Institute of History Union of Russian Muslims (URM), 119 and Language, xv, 21, 23, 250, unitarian federalism, 270 277, 288 unitarian state system, 266 Ural Soviets, 172 unitarianism, 260 Urals, 21, 23, 145, 153, 159, 161, 168, United Arab Emirates, 125 181, 224, 229, 233–4, 241, 265, United Nations, 3, 13, 15, 28, 42, 46, 268–70, 288 55, 98, 113, 124, 142–3, 154, 174, URM leaders, 120–1, 135 180, 241, 243, 246, 254, 261 Urshak, 157 UN-mediated intra-Tajik talks, 67, 71 Usmon, Davlat, 81 UN Security Council, 11, 27, 126 USSR, 45, 220, 266 UN Special Commission, 126 Ustyuzhanim, Vasily, 251 Resolution, 286, 126 Utagulov, R., 240–1 United States, ix, xii, xiii, 2, 4–5, Utez-Imjani, G., 211 9–14, 16, 27–30, 35–40, 42–5, UTO fighters, 73–5, 77 48–52, 54–6, 60, 63–5, 68–70, 72, delegation, 71 99, 116, 124–9, 131–3, 139–40, Uyunusova, Aislu, 15 143–5, 147, 149, 152, 221 Uzbek, Khan, 157 US Congress, 10, 41–42, 191 Uzbekistan, 36, 38–9, 43, 50, 61–2, US foreign policy, 53 64–5, 67–9, 75, 97, 107, 113, 120, interest in a gas pipeline from 122–3, 130, 145, 155, 181, 237, Turkmenistan via 278, 284, 286 Afghanistan to Pakistan, 130 Kazakhs in, 32 policymakers, 3 Turkic-speaking, 36 relations between the US and Uzbeks, 33, 40, 73–4, 145, 243 Russia, ix Uzbekov, D. K., 231 US nuclear umbrella, 8 US-Puerto Rico relations, 191 Vahitov, Mullah Noor, 160, 172, 227 US-Russia Summit, 133 Vakfi, Diyanet, 123 US-Russian cooperation to prevent Valeyev, D. Zh., a noted Bashkort regional terrorism and scholar and member of the extremism, 133 Academy of Sciences of US-Russian rapprochement, US- Bashkortostan, xv, 21–2, 258, 262 Russian partnership, 62 Valiakhmetoff, R., 288 US-Russian relations, 44 Validov, Ahmed Zeki, 249 US Senate, 191 Validy, Zaki, 160, 265 US-Turkey-Azerbaijan economic Vaslievskaya, 111 bloc against the Russia-Iran- Vatican, 120 Armenia alliance, 8 vaulap alyn (Russian conquest of US-Turkish relations, 42 Bashkortostan), 242 United Tajik Opposition (UTO), 67, Velayati, Ali Akbar, Iranian foreign 70, 73 minister, 69, 73 Unity and Progress Party, 186 Venedikov, Alexei, 111 universal empire, 1 Venice, 209 UNO, 255 Vietnam, 142 Unocal, 8, 46 Villanova University, xii, 12 314 Index

Vinogradov, Boris, 24 Yakov, Valery, 110 Vladimir, 222 , 145, 284 Vladivostok, 4, 168 Yakutia, 168 Voisko (autonomous military Yakutiya-Sakha, 257 organisation), 229 Yanbuhtina, A., 165 Volga Bulgaria, x, 209 Yandarbiyev, Zelimkhan, leader of Volga region, xi, 18, 101, 104, 117, the Chechen regime, 94, 95 128, 169, 209, 222, 265, 267–8 Yanguzin, R. Z., 240–1 Volga-Don Canal, 181 Yarov, Yuri, deputy chairman of the Volga, Middle, 23 Russian Government, 233, 276 Volga river, ix (tribute), 158 Volga-Ural Basin, ix, 1, 3–5, 16, Yazov, Dmitry T., Army General, 99, 166, 170, 172, 192, 224, 227, 112 229, 234, 248, 263 Yeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich, President, Volga Ural region, 83, 156–9, 227, 3, 8, 11, 15, 18, 27, 46, 59, 73, 269–72, 282 82–5, 87–97, 100, 105, 108–11, Volgograd region, 104 122, 137, 149, 166, 168, 175–6, 178–82, 186, 188, 190, 230–1, Wallace, D. Mackenzie, 170, 195, 226 245, 248, 251 Waqf (property of religious coup in October 1993 against the endowment), 158 Russian parliament, 167–8 Warsaw Pact, 142 Yugoslavia, 31–2, 131, 139–40, 142, Washington, 12, 26 155, 254 Weinberger, Caspar,Secretary of Yulayet, Salvat, 235 Defense, 3, 24 Yuldashbayev, B. Kh., 288 Werner, Manfred, 140 Yuldashev, A., 288 White House, home of the Russian Yuliev, Salavat, poet-warrior, 240 Duma, 48, 182, 248 Yunusova, Aislu, Bashkort scholar, xv, White Russians, 228, 278 17, 155, 165 Whitney, Craig R., 24 Yussupov, Rimat, 250 Wimbush, S. Enders, 195, 249 Wolpert, Stanley, xiii Zai, River, 169 Workers’ Party of Kurdistan (PKK), 65 zakat (alms-tax), 156, 158 world arms market, 70 Zavgayev, Doku, a pro-Moscow World Bank, 55 Chechen, 86, 94 World Bashkort Congress in Ufa, Zemin, Jiang, President, 11 282 Zenkovsky, Serge A., 195, 229, 250 world order, 16, 27 Zhelnorova, N., 112 World Russian People, 121 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, leader of the Writers’ Union, Kazan, 188, 190 Russian Liberal Democrats, 72, 120, 138, 163 , 109 Zirker, D. G., xiv ziyara, 160 Yabloko, 129 zone of influence, 144 Yahin, Halit, 163 zone of interest, 145 Yainullin, A., 240, 243 zone of uncertainty, 13 Yakaterinburg, Yeltsin’s former Zyuganov, Gennady, leader of the fiefdom as a Communist Party Communist Party of the Russian secretary, 168 Federation, 188