A Theory of Unified Gravitation By Gil Raviv Abstract: The theory presented here, entitled the theory of unified gravitation, holds that the nuclear strong interaction and gravitation are one and the same force. Detailed and relatively simple mathematics are shown to lead to an explicit strong/gravitational force equation that relies on only three independent parameters, identical to the parameters used in Newton’s gravitational theory. The theory is applied on various distance scales to explain a broad range of phenomena, and is shown to provide an unparalleled level of agreement with observations, without requiring an assumption of dark matter, dark energy or inflation. Most notable is its ability to reproduce the morphologies of various types of galaxies and nebulae, as well as the complex structure of Saturn’s main body of rings. Additional large-scale phenomena explained by unified gravitation include • The constant rotation curve observed in spiral galaxies • The nature of density waves in spiral galaxies • The mechanism underlying star formation and fragmentation • The parameters that determine galactic (or nebular) morphology and classification • The clustering of nearby galaxies, repulsion between distant galaxies, and the creation of galactic voids • The accelerated expansion of the universe • The cause of the observed redshift periodicity • The mechanism responsible for the creation of galactic and stellar wind • The sudden expansion of gas and matter observed in novae and supernovae • The formation of planetary ring systems and the composition of planets • The mechanism responsible for the creation of the planetary and galactic magnetic fields • A possible mechanism for the creation of the solar corona • The process of ionization that produces the vast amount of plasma in the universe. On nuclear scale, the theory is demonstrated to account for the observed weak fall-off of the deep inelastic scattering cross section, and to provide a scaling behavior similar to the observed Bjorken scaling. Copyright © 2010 by Gil Raviv All rights reserved The theory was initially developed, presented and copyrighted in 2007 (copyright registration number/date TXu001599680/2007-11-07 under the title: A Theory of Unified Gravitation (UG): The Unification of the Strong Interaction and the Gravitational Force) and later copy righted again in 2010. For information about this article write to Gil Raviv at [email protected] xecutive Editor: Ayelette Raviv Edited by Ayelette Raviv Nataly Raviv Contents Introduction 1 Not all is well with gravitation; Or: Why look for an alternative theory? 15 Chapter I: The Theory of Unified Gravitation- The Unification of the Strong Interaction 20 and the Gravitational Force I-1 The Logic Leading to the Theory of Unified Gravitation 21 Chapter II: The UG Characteristics at Non-Relativistic Velocities 31 II-1 The UG Gravitational Zones at Non-Relativistic Velocities 38 II-2 Superheavy Particles Embedded in Ordinary Matter 41 Chapter III: The UG Equations of Astronomical Objects 50 III-1 The UG Morphology Model- The Non-Relativistic Approach 50 III-2 The UG Morphology Model- The Relativistic Approach 58 III-3 The Creation and Motion of SHP groups 64 III-4 The Issue of the Tail Wagging the Dog 67 Chapter IV: Applying the UG Theory to Model Galaxy Morphology 69 IV-1 Two Dimensional Potential Energy Mapping and Derivation of Morphology 69 IV-1-1 Low Velocity SHP Group Rotation 71 IV-1-2 Star formation via Binary SHP Groups 74 IV-1-3 Butterfly Formations in Planetary Nebulae 79 IV-1-4 Hourglass Structures 80 IV-1-5 Ring Morphologies in Galaxies and Nebulae 84 IV-2 The Influence of SHP Group Rotation on Morphology and the Creation of Spiral Galaxies 84 IV-2-1 The Creation of Spiral Structures via Two Non-Relativistic Rotating SHP Groups 84 IV-2-2 Relativistic SHP groups and the Creation of the Grand Design Spiral Morphology 91 IV-2-3 Flocculent Spiral Structures 99 IV-2-4 Lenticular Galaxies 100 IV-3 The Red Square and the Red Rectangle 100 IV-4 Companion Galaxies 102 IV-5 Multiple SHP Groups 103 Chapter V: Applying the Theory of Unified Gravitation to Saturn’s Ring System 104 V-1 Summary of Current Theories 104 V-2 The D, C, B, A, and F Rings and the Cassini Division of Saturn 106 V-3 The Phenomenon of Spokes 123 V-4 The Non-Circular Shape of the B Ring 126 V-5 The Dynamics of Ring Variability Over Time and Azimuth 126 V-6 Estimating the Overall Mass and Abundance of Superheavy Particles of Mass 127 V-7 Summary 131 Chapter VI: The Potential Energy Spiral and the Constant Velocity Curve 132 VI-1 The Formation of Galactic Density Waves 133 VI-2 The Outflow of Gas and Matter From Galaxies 135 VI-3 The Constant Galaxy Rotation Curve 137 VI-4 The Influence of SHP Group Rotation on Star Formation in Galaxies 148 Chapter VII: The Effect of UG Theory on Cosmology 156 VII-1 The General Theory of Relativity and Unified Gravitation 156 VII-2 Unified Gravitation and Black Holes 159 VII-3 The Effect of Unified Gravitation on Cosmology- The Big Bang and the 159 Expansion of the Universe VII-4 Galactic Lock Out 160 VII-5 The Construction of a Barrier, the Effect of a Barrier on the Fragmentation of a Collapsing Cloud and the Creation of a Series of Distinct Galactic Entities 163 VII-6 UG Repulsion and the Generation of Stellar Novae and Supernovae 165 VII-7 The Fragmentation of a Galactic Entity and the Creation of Galactic Substructures 166 VII-8 Gravitational Repulsion Between Galaxies 168 VII-9 The Expansion of the Universe 170 VII-10 Additional Comments About Unified Gravitation and the Big Bang Model 171 VII-11 The Galactic Halo and the Transition From a Spiral to an Elliptical Galaxy 173 VII-12 Elliptical Morphology and Properties of Elliptical Galaxies 174 VII-13 Boxiness vs. Diskiness of Elliptical Galaxies 175 Chapter VIII: Gravitational Ionization 176 Chapter IX: The General Structure and Composition of Planets and the Creation 181 of their Magnetic Fields IX-1 Planetary Ring and Satellite Systems of Terrestrial and Gas Planets 181 IX-2 Unified Gravitation and the Surface Structure of Gas and Terrestrial Planets 183 IX-3 The Composition of Earth’s Core 184 IX-4 The Creation of Planetary, Stellar and Galactic Magnetic Fields via Unified Gravitation 184 IX-5 The Solar Corona 196 Chapter X: The Question of Galactic Redshift Periodicity 188 X-1 Galactic Redshift Periodicity 188 X-2 Unified Gravitation and the Redshifts of Quasars 196 Chapter XI: The UG Theory and Deep Inelastic Scattering (DIS) 198 XI-1-1 The Effect of the Velocity of Colliding Particles on Their UG Interaction 200 XI-1-2 The Effect of Quantum Mechanics on DIS 205 XI-2-1 The Effect of Special Relativity on the Range of the UG Interaction 208 XI-2-2 DIS and the Relativistic Effect of the Folding and Unfolding of the Particles’ Zonal Structure 209 XI-3 The Weak Fall-off of the DIS Cross Section 215 XI-4 Unified Gravitation and the Phenomenon of Bjorken Scaling 225 Appendix A: The UG Scaling Theorems 239 A-1 The First UG Scaling Theorem 239 A-2 The Second UG Scaling Theorem 241 References 243 Index 247 Introduction At any given time, our knowledge of the natural world can be summarized by means of physical laws. These laws are used to construct mathematical models to describe essential aspects of an existing physical system. As we broaden our domain of observation, we must constantly verify whether these models, and their embedded laws, continue to be valid. Ideally, an existing model should be repeatedly tested and critiqued via an iterative process, in which new experiments are conducted and their results compared with the predictions of the mathematical model. A model that remains consistent with all measurements and observations will gain in status. In cases where its predictions deviate from the results of new experiments, a model must be adjusted to fit both the prior and the new sets of results. As science progresses and the number of iterations grows, an existing model may become increasingly difficult to adjust. Eventually a paradigm shift might offer radical simplification, and a new model may emerge to replace the old one. This process should be governed by the principle of Occam’s Razor, which states that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. This principle can be expressed as, ‘If all other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best.’ In accordance with Occam’s Razor, most successful models are initially developed with a relatively simple structure of few variables governed by few equations. However, in most cases there is a clear trade-off between the simplicity of a model and its accuracy. As new measurements deviate from the model’s predictions by an amount that cannot be discounted simply as measurement noise or measurement error, the model must be adjusted in order to fit reality. Inevitably, this iterative process increases the model’s complexity. Therefore, it is important not only to verify (after each iteration) that the modified model is consistent with the entire database of new and old experiments, but also to substantiate that the model is still consistent with Occam’s Razor, namely that the modified model is still the simplest model that explains the behavior of the given physical system. This second criterion, however, is often overlooked or lost in the process. One of the most fundamental and powerful models used in physics combines Newton’s classical mechanics, which describes the relationship between force and the motion of bodies, and Newton’s law of universal gravitation.