50 (2013) 456e463

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Renewable Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Overview of potential and utilization of renewable energy sources in

E. Toklu*

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Duzce University, Düzce, Turkey article info abstract

Article history: The necessity of minimizing environmental impacts of energy use, particularly those with potentially Received 22 May 2012 worrisome global effects, is perhaps the greatest challenge resulting from the twentieth century’s energy Accepted 20 June 2012 advances. The renewable energy technologies of wind, biofuels, solar thermal and are Available online 9 August 2012 finally showing maturity and the ultimate promise of cost competitiveness. Turkey’s demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly and heavily dependent on expensive imported fossil energy resources Keywords: that place a big burden on the economy and environmental pollution is becoming an important concern Energy utilization in the country. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey’s carbon dioxide emissions have Renewable energy Sustainable development grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environ- Turkey ment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable in Turkey. This study shows that there is huge potential for renewable , especially hydropower, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the development of applications of, and the teaching about, renewable energies have increased markedly in recent years [5]. Energy is essential to economic and social development and Increasing emphasis in modern-day society is placed on the use of improved quality of life in all countries [1]. Much of the world’s renewable energy resources and improvements to the performance energy, however, is currently produced and consumed in ways that of the electricity generation system [6]. Renewable energy is could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if a sustainable and clean source of energy derived from nature. The overall quantities were to increase substantially [2]. The need to usage and development of renewable energy is flourishing because control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and of shortages in fossil energy, impacts on the environment and substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy sustainable usage [7]. energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption in Alternative energy plays an elementary function in resolving the country [1]. Electricity supply infrastructures in many devel- environmental pollution and warming problems [7]. The environ- oping countries are being rapidly expanded as policy makers and mental issue has been rising in the worldwide scale such as global investors around the world increasingly recognize electricity’s warming by exhausting carbon dioxide [2]. The production of pivotal role in improving living standards and sustaining economic dangerous greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of world growth [1]. energy resources become a serious problem [5]. The problems with The World Energy Forum has predicted that fossil-based oil, coal energy supply and use are related not only to global warming but and gas reserves will be exhausted in less than another 10 decades also to such environmental concerns as air pollution, acid precipi- [2]. Fossil fuels account for over 79% of the primary energy tation, ozone depletion, forest destruction, and radioactive consumed in the world, and 57.7% of that amount is used in the substance emissions [2]. Human activities are mainly blamed for transport sector and are diminishing rapidly [3]. The exhaustion of the substantial discharge of CO2. Global discharge of CO2 related to natural resources and the accelerated demand of conventional human activities topped 2.8 billion tons in 2009 and is expected to energy have forced planners and policy makers to look for alternate reach 4.2 billion tons per year in 2030 [2]. To prevent these effects, sources. Renewable energy is energy derived from resources that some potential solutions have evolved including energy conserva- are regenerative, and do not deplete over time [4]. Concern about tion through improved energy efficiency, a reduction in fossil fuel use and an increase in environmentally friendly energy supplies [7]. Also, this gives rise in renewed interest in renewable energy * Tel.: þ90 380 5421100/4549. sources, alternative and abundant non conventional sources of E-mail address: [email protected]. energy such as photovoltaic, wind and fuel cells [4e6].

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.06.035 E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463 457

There is a growing concern that long-run sustainable develop- consumption, but oil continued to lose market share for the 11th ment may be compromised unless measures are taken to achieve consecutive year. balance between economic, environmental and social outcomes. Global oil production increased by 2.2%, but did not match the Turkish energy policy has concentrated on market liberalization in rapid growth in consumption [2,3]. The gains in production were an effort to stimulate investment in response to increasing internal shared between OPEC and non-OPEC producers. OPEC production energy demand. Turkey’s new government has continued this cuts implemented late in 2008 were maintained throughout 2010, policy despite lower energy demand induced by the 2001 economic although relaxed production discipline and rising output not crisis. This paper provides an overview of the energy use, envi- subject to production allocations resulted in an increase of 2.5%. On ronmental pollution and renewable energy sources for both world the other hand, oil production outside OPEC grew by 1.8%, the and Turkey. largest increase since 2002. Growth was led by China the US, and Russia. Continued declines in Norway and the UK partly offset 2. Global population and energy consumption growth elsewhere [2,3]. Global crude runs increased by 2.4%. Non-OECD countries Population and income growth are the two most powerful accounted for 85% of the increase, and for the first time accounted driving forces behind the demand for energy. Since 1900 world for a majority of global throughput. Chinese throughput grew by population has more than quadrupled, real income has grown by 13.4%. Global refinery capacity utilization rose to 81.5%. Refining a factor of 25, and primary energy consumption by a factor of 22 capacity increased by 720,000 b/d last year, the slowest growth [2,3]. The next 20 years are likely to see continued global integration, since 2003. However, the aggregate growth figure hides net and rapid growth of low and medium income economies. Pop- reductions in the OECD markets of Europe, Japan, the US and ulation growth is trending down, but income growth is trending up. Canada [2]. After two consecutive declines, global oil trade grew by Over the last 20 years world population has increased by 1.6 billion 2.2%, with net Asia Pacific imports accounting for nearly 90% of the people, and it is projected to rise by 1.4 billion over the next 20 years growth. The growth in global trade was roughly split between [2]. The world’s real income has risen by 87% over the past 20 years crude and refined products, though crude still accounts for 70% of and it is likely to rise by 100% over the next 20 years. At the global global oil trade [2,3]. level, the most fundamental relationship in energy economics World natural gas consumption grew by 7.4%, the most rapid remains robust. It means that more people with more income means increase since 1984. Consumption growth was above average in all that the production and consumption of energy will rise [3]. regions except the Middle East. The US had the world’s largest Global energy consumption in 2010 rebounded strongly, driven increase in consumption, rising by 5.6% and to a new record high. by economic recovery. The growth in energy consumption was Russia and China also registered large increases. Consumption in broad-based, with mature OECD economies joining non-OECD other Asian countries also grew rapidly, led by a 21.5% increase in countries in growing at above average rates [3]. All forms of India. Global natural gas trade increased by a robust 10.1% in 2010. A energy grew strongly, with growth in fossil fuels suggesting that 22.6% increase in LNG shipments was driven by a 53.2% increase in global CO2 emissions from energy use grew at the fastest rate since Qatari shipments. Among LNG importers, the largest volumetric 1970 [2]. Energy price developments were mixed. Oil prices growth was in South Korea, the UK and Japan. LNG now accounts remained in the $70e80 range for much of the year before rising in for 30.5% of global gas trade. Pipeline shipments grew by 5.4%, led the fourth quarter. With the OPEC production cuts implemented in by growth in Russian exports [3]. 2008/09 still in place, average oil prices for the year as a whole were Coal consumption grew by 7.6% in 2010, the fastest global the second-highest on record. Natural gas prices grew strongly in growth since 2003. Coal now accounts for 29.6% of global energy the UK and in markets indexed to oil prices; but prices remained consumption, up from 25.6% 10 years ago. Chinese consumption weak in North America and in continental Europe. Coal prices grew by 10.1%; China last year consumed 48.2% of the world’s coal remained weak in Japan and North America, but rose strongly in and accounted for nearly two-thirds of global consumption growth. Europe. But consumption growth was robust elsewhere as well: OECD World primary energy consumption grew by 5.6% in 2010 and consumption grew by 5.2%, the strongest growth since 1979, with increased to 501.1 EJ (see Table 1) [2,3]. Consumption in OECD strong growth in all regions. Global coal production grew by 6.3%, countries grew by 3.5%, the strongest growth rate since 1984, with China again accounting for two-thirds of global growth. although the level of OECD consumption remains roughly in line Elsewhere, coal production grew robustly in the US and Asia but fell with that seen 10 years ago. Non-OECD consumption grew by 7.5% in the EU [2,3]. Fig. 1 shows world energy use by sources [2]. and was 63% above the 2000 level. Consumption growth acceler- Global hydroelectric and nuclear output each saw the strongest ated in 2010 for all regions, and growth was above average in all increases since 2004. Hydroelectric output grew by 5.3%, with regions. Chinese energy consumption grew by 11.2%, and China China accounting for more than 60% of global growth due to surpassed the US as the world’s largest energy consumer [3]. Oil a combination of new capacity and wet weather. Worldwide remains the world’s leading fuel, at 33.6% of global energy nuclear output grew by 2%, with three-quarters of the increase coming from OECD countries. French nuclear output rose by 4.4%, accounting for the largest volumetric increase in the world [2e4]. Table 1 Other renewable energy sources continued to grow rapidly. World primary energy consumption in the baseline (EJ). Global biofuels production in 2010 grew by 13.8%, constituting one 1980 2010 2030 2050 of the largest sources of liquids production growth in the world [4]. Coal 75.5 139.2 198.1 224.2 Growth was driven by the US and Brazil. Renewable energy used in Oil 132.4 171.4 239.0 287.8 power generation grew by 15.5%, driven by continued robust Natural gas 55.3 110.2 174.9 221.4 growth in wind energy. The increase in wind energy in turn was Modern biofuels 0.5 2.6 16.4 39.1 Traditional biofuels 33.5 54.7 52.8 50.7 driven by China and the US, which together accounted for nearly Nuclear 2.5 9.6 12.9 12.1 70% of global growth. These forms of renewable energy accounted Solar/wind 0.1 0.9 4.9 12.6 for 1.8% of global energy consumption, up from 0.6% in 2000 [2e4]. Hydropower 6.0 12.4 15.1 17.6 Fig. 2 also shows renewable energy share of global final energy Total world 305.8 501.2 714.2 865.4 consumption [4]. 458 E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463

Fig. 1. World primary energy use by energy sources.

3. Energy utilization in Turkey the Fig. 3 that the natural gas consumption became the fastest growing primary energy source in the country. In electricity With a young and growing population, low per capita electricity generation, the share of the natural gas was 49.74% (98,685 GWh) in consumption, rapid urbanization, and strong economic growth, In 2008. The solid resources accounted for 29.09% (57,716 GWh), last decades, Turkey is one of the fastest growing power markets in hydro 16.77% (33,270 GWh), liquid 3.79% (7519 GWh) and renew- the world [8e13]. Electricity demand has shown a significant able/wastes sources for 0.62% (1229 GWh) [16]. increase over the past decades and reached to 254 TWh in 2009, Turkey’s energy consumption rate is far below the world highlighting an almost three-fold increase over the past fifteen average and the rate of consumption of developed countries [9]. years. Total installed capacity reached to 46,036 MW by the end of Turkey being a developing country cannot be explained simply this 2009 [14]. Demand projections for the period until 2020 indicate situation. This uncontrolled growth depends on many variables that annual average increase in demand will be 7.7% and 6% in high that are energy resources be used inefficiently, the false to select and low demand scenarios respectively. According to the low the emerging sectors, transport, such placement policies [16]. Also scenario, 40,000 MW of new capacity will be required until 2020. energy density value is indicated that consuming energy is not The high scenario necessitates the addition of around 60,000 MW efficiently. Lots of studies carried out for using more energy effi- of new capacity over the same period. The investment requirement ciently but this is not enough. If studies are provided to increase, it for the power sector is estimated at more than a hundred billion US is aimed that Turkey will show development towards indicated dollars until 2020 [14,15]. direct. Fig. 4 shows total energy production and consumption in Turkey uses mainly fossil fuels to produce electricity [14]. Turkey. Turkey’s primary energy resources, oil, lignite, coal, natural gas, In 2009, primary energy production and consumption has geothermal and hydroelectric energy seems to be. Turkey’sown reached 30 and 106 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) respec- energy generation can provide 48% of all the energy needs [10,12]. tively (Table 2) [10,12]. The most significant developments in Long-term planning studies indicate a heavy burden of investments production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, between 2000 and 2020, amounting to some 80 billion US$. and coal production. Turkey ’s use of hydropower, geothermal and Turkey’s funding needs for the energy sector is the highest of the has increased since 1990. However, the total southern and eastern Mediterranean countries [19]. Fig. 3 shows share of renewable energy sources in total primary energy supply that the development of Turkey’s electricity generation by the (TPES) has declined, owing to the declining use of non-commercial primary energy resources between 1975 and 2008. As seen from

Fig. 3. Development of Turkey’s electricity generation by the primary energy Fig. 2. Renewable energy share of global final energy consumption. resources. E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463 459

200000 Table 2 Developments for energy production and consumption in Turkey.

150000 2000 2004 2009 Primary energy production (TTOE) 27,621 24,170 30,328 ktoe 100000 Primary energy consumption (TTOE) 81,193 87,778 106,138 Total Product. Consumption per capita (KOE) 1204 1234 1450 50000 Total Consump. Electricity installed capacity (MW) 27,264 36,824 46,035 Thermal (MW) 16,070 24,160 28,483 Hydraulic (MW) 11,194 12,664 17,552 0 Electricity production (GWh) 124,922 150,698 255,242 1970 1978 1986 1994 2002 2010 2018 Thermal (GWh) 94,011 104,556 195,760 YEARS Hydraulic (GWh) 30,912 46,142 59,482 Electricity import (GWh) 3786 464 492 Fig. 4. Total energy production and consumption in Turkey. Electricity export (GWh) 413 1144 1124 Total Consumption (GWh) 128,295 150,018 196,723 Consumption per capita (kWh) 1903 2109 2465 biomass and the growing role of natural gas in the system [17,18]. Turkey has recently announced that it will reopen its nuclear pro- gramme in order to respond to the growing electricity demand a domestic emissions trading on carbon in Turkey is to identify the e while avoiding increasing dependence on energy imports [8 15]. appropriate incidence of regulation, and emissions allowances. A The TPES in Turkey grew by 3.0% per year between 1990 and Turkish carbon emission cap-and-trade system could then be based 2009, the fastest growth rate among International Energy Agency on either an upstream approach or downstream approach [20e23]. þ (IEA) Member countries [8,9]. Coal (hard lignite) is the dominant In Turkey, air pollution is a serious problem that has only fuel, accounting for 27.1% of TPES in 2009. Oil (34.8%) and gas recently come to the centre of policy concerns [26]. The social and fi (27.2%) also contributed signi cantly (Table 2). Renewable energy, economic costs of air pollution in Turkey are likely to be large. The mostly biomass, waste and hydropower, accounted for 10.9%. latest OECD environmental performance review estimated that Hydropower represented 3.8% of TPES in 2009. Biomass, primarily excessive SO2 emissions in the early 1990s might have increased fuel wood consumed by households, represented almost 5.9% mortality by over 3000 deaths and restricted activity days by e [10,12]. The economic downturn in Turkey in 2000 2009 caused almost 7 million each year [22e24]. A start has been made in this TPES to decline by 6.0%. On the other hand, gas accounted for 43.8% area but the main issue for the authorities is to implement effective of total electricity generation in 2005, coal 26.58% and oil at about policies to address air pollution in a way that ensures a combination 5%. Hydropower is the main indigenous source for electricity of minimum costs and maximum benefits [20]. production and represented 20e30% of total generation from 1970 Emissions of CO2,SO2 and NOx have increased over the 1980s to 2009 [10,12,17,18]. (Tables 3 and 4) both in absolute terms and relative to GDP. Turkey is the only OECD country were the intensity of emissions of NO2 4. Environmental pollution in Turkey rose in this period, while it was one of only two countries that experienced an increase in SO2 emission intensity. By the late fi As a member of OECD, Turkey delayed his rati cation of the 1990s, emissions of SO2 in relation to GDP were double the OECD Kyoto protocol until recently. Negotiations between the Turkish average, reflecting the heavy share of high-sulphur lignite in power government and the international authorities are continuing. If generation and poor quality liquid fuels [8,9]. Concentrations in the Turkey decides to join with the other Annex B e OECD countries in rest of the country, as measured by a simple average of all moni- ratifying the protocol, it should develop incentives to stabilize its toring stations, are some 75% higher than in the three metropolitan emissions [20]. On the other hand, one of most leading option for areas. In addition there has been little downward movement in the achieving emission reduction cost-effectively is a cap-and-trade estimated concentrations of lead in the air, but levels in Turkey are approach. The use of emissions trading could then have a role to play in minimizing the economy-wide costs of that constraint [22]. Indeed, tradable permits represent a lower cost method to increase Table 3 the cost efficiency of stabilizing global emissions [23]. As a case in Key sources for CO2 emissions from fuel combustion for Turkey in 2006. point, the basic elements of a baseline-credit scheme are to impose IPCC source category CO2 emissions Level Cumulative a ceiling on global emission, to allocate this constrained emissions (Mt of CO2) assessment (%) total (%) profile among participants, and to allow trade [24e28]. Production electricity 42.32 12.6 12.6 The leading options for achieving cost efficiency in carbon and heat-coal/peat emission reductions address the design issue of how to implement Manufacturing 42.30 12.6 25.1 industries-coal/peat an emission cap-and-trade system in Turkey. We therefore examine Road-oil 36.60 10.9 36.0 the design of alternatives permits trading programs to address Production electricity 27.28 8.1 44.1 carbon emission related energy consumption. In this context, and heat-gas tradable emission permits would entitle holders to emit up to Residential-gas 14.45 4.3 48.4 a specified level of carbon emissions [20]. By issuing a fixed number Manufacturing 12.35 3.7 52.0 industries-oil of allowances less than business-as-usual current emissions, Residential-coal/peat 10.10 3.0 55.0 Turkey could reduce its national CO2 emissions to meet interna- Non-specified 9.69 2.9 57.9 tionally targets [22,23]. other sectors-oil In a carbon cap-and-trade program, regulated entities would Manufacturing 8.01 2.4 60.3 industries-gas have to surrender allowances to their CO2 emissions. Entities able Non-specified 6.51 1.9 62.2 to reduce their emissions below the level of the allowances could other sectors-gas sell the excess [25]. Similarly, a regulated entity unable to cover its Other transport-oil 5.36 1.6 63.8 emissions with its allowances could purchase additional allow- Total CO2 from 239.74 71.1 71.1 ances on an open market. Therefore, a key issue in the design of fuel combustion 460 E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463

Table 4 accordance with the Electricity Market Law and the Electricity Greenhouse gas emissions by gas in Turkey (million tons CO2 eq). Sector Reform Strategy [9,10,12,14].

Years CO2 CH4 N2O F gases Total 1990 139.6 29.2 1.3 0.0 170.1 5.1. Hydropower 1992 152.9 36.7 4.0 0.0 193.6 1994 159.1 39.2 2.2 0.0 200.5 Hydropower is likely to become an important energy source in 1996 190.7 45.0 6.1 0.4 242.1 Turkey [29]. Turkey’s hydroelectric potential can meet up to 46% of 1998 202.7 47.7 5.6 0.7 256.6 2000 223.8 49.3 5.8 1.1 280.0 its electric energy demand by 2020 and this potential can be 2002 216.4 46.9 5.4 1.9 270.6 developed simply and economically [30]. On the other hand, there 2004 241.9 46.3 5.5 2.9 296.6 are 678 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, 135 of 2006 256.3 49.4 3.4 3.2 312.2 which are already being developed, distributed over 26 main river zones [31]. The total gross potential of these sites is nearly 37 GW and the total energy production capacity 127 TWh/yr. At present low compared to those found in a number of European countries only 35% of the total hydroelectric power potential (around [9,12,22]. 13,000 MW) is operational. The national development plan aims to increase this to 100% by 2020. The input of small hydroelectric 5. Renewable energy sources in Turkey plants to total electricity generation is estimated at 5e10% [32e35]. Turkey’s gross theoretical hydroelectricity potential is 433 Renewable energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydro- billion kWh, which is almost 1% of the theoretical global potential power and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-of-supply and 14% of the European potential [11]. The overall hydropower concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residen- potential in Turkey is 190 billion kWh per year, but this may tial heating. Total renewable energy supply declined from 1990 to decrease to 130 billion kWh due to climate change [12]. At the end 2009, due to a decrease in biomass supply [9]. As a result, the of 2009, Turkey had 160 hydroelectric power plants in operation, composition of renewable energy supply has changed and wind ranging in size from the 2400 MWe Atatürk Power Plant all the way power is beginning to claim market share. As a contributor of air down to many small facilities of less than 2 MWe in capacity. Most pollution and deforestation, the share of biomass in the renewable are owned and operated by independent companies, including energy share is expected to decrease with the expansion of other Birecik AS, which owns a 672 MWe power plant on the Euphrates renewable energy sources. Table 5 shows renewable energy supply River, and Cukurova Elektrik AS (CEAS), which currently has more and projections for future in Turkey, respectively [9e12]. than 1000 MWe generating capacity. Turkish Government hopes to Turkey is to be the recipient of a US$ 202 million renewable see hydroelectric capacity expanded to 45,000 MWe by the year energy loan provided by the World Bank to be disbursed as loans 2020. Ultimately, the construction of more than 350 additional via financial intermediaries to interested investors in building hydroelectric power plants is projected for Turkey to make use of renewable energy sourced electricity generation [9]. These loans the remaining possible hydroelectric sites, which have a potential are expected to finance 30e40% of associated capital costs. The aim of about 80,000 GWh per year. This long-term plan would bring an of the Renewable Energy Program is to increase privately-owned additional 19,300 MWe of hydroelectric capacity online at a cost of and operated power generation from renewables sources within more than $40 billion [32e35]. a market-based framework, which is being implemented in 5.2. Bioenergy

Table 5 Biomass also represents a significant share of total energy Renewable energy supply in Turkey. consumption in Turkey, despite a drop from 20% in 1980 to 8% in Renewable energy sources 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2009 [10,12]. Bioenergy represents about two-thirds of renewable Primary energy supply energy production in Turkey [36,37]. Various agricultural residues Hydropower (ktoe) 2656 4067 4903 7060 9419 available in Turkey, such as grain dust, wheat straw and hazelnut Geothermal, solar 978 1683 2896 4242 6397 shells, are the main source of biomass energy. Among the biomass and wind (ktoe) energy sources, fuel wood seems to be one of the most interesting. Biomass and 6457 5325 4416 4001 3925 The total forest potential of Turkey is around 940 million m3, with waste (ktoe) 3 Renewable energy 10,091 11,074 12,215 15,303 19,741 an annual growth of about 25 million m [38]. The total recoverable production (ktoe) bioenergy potential was estimated at 16.8 Mtoe in 2000 and 14.2 Share of total domestic 38 48 33 29 30 Mtoe in 2008 [39]. These estimates were based on the recoverable production (%) energy potential from agricultural residues, farming wastes, Share of TPES (%) 12 12 10 9 9 Generation forestry and wood processing residues. Total biomass production is Hydropower (GWh) 30,879 47,287 57,009 82,095 109,524 expected to be 12.6 Mtoe in 2020 [38e41]. Geothermal, solar 109 490 5274 7020 8766 In Turkey, using vegetable oils as fuel alternatives has economic, and wind (GWh) environmental, and energy benefits. Vegetable oils have heat Renewable energy 30,988 47,777 62,283 89,115 118,290 contents approximately 90% of that of diesel fuel. A major obstacle generation (GWh) Share of total 25 29 26 25 25 deterring their use in the direct-injection engine is their inherent generation (%) high viscosities, which are nearly ten times that of diesel fuel. The Total final consumption overall evaluation of the results indicated that these oils and bio- Geothermal, solar 910 1385 2145 3341 5346 diesel can be proposed as possible candidates for fuel. Organic and wind (ktoe) Biomass and waste (ktoe) 6457 5325 4416 4001 3925 wastes are of vital importance for the soil, but inTurkey most of these Renewable total 7367 6710 6561 7342 9271 organic wastes are used as fuel through direct combustion. Animal consumption (ktoe) wastes are mixed with straw to increase the calorific value, and are Share of total final 12 10 7 6 6 then dried for use. This is the principal fuel of many villages in rural consumption (%) region of Turkey, especially in mountainous regions [36e39]. E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463 461

5.3. Geothermal energy According to The World Solar Energy Potential Map, Turkey has fourth region in terms of solar energy potential in the sixth region. Turkey is one of the countries with significant potential in Turkey, Spain, Italy and Greece are with the same generation among geothermal energy and there may exist about 2000 MWe of the European countries [54e56]. Germany has the fifth region. geothermal energy usable for electrical power generation in high However, Germany and Spain all over the world performed more enthalpy zones [9,12]. Turkey’s total geothermal heating capacity is than half of investments in generation technologies about 31,500 MWth. In Turkey, heating capacity runs at 983 MWth [16]. Despite an enormous potential for solar energy in Turkey, solar equivalent to 120,000 households. These numbers can be heightened energy using in electricity generation is almost negligible [50,51]. some seven-fold to 6880 MWth equal to 585,000 households through Unfortunately, solar panels only use a variety of experimental and a proven and exhaustible potential in 2010. Turkey must target 1.2 basic applications. Solar energy can technically and economically be million households equivalent 7700 MWth in 2020. There are 26 harnessed during ten months over 63% of the land area, whereas district heating systems exists now and main city geothermal district 17% of the land area can be used during the entire year [11]. In spite heating systems are in Gönen, Simav and Kırs¸ehir cities [42e47]. of this significant potential and the proper conditions for solar energy applications, the present contribution of solar energy to the 5.4. and photovoltaic total energy budged is at a negligible level [16]. Photovoltaic (PV) power applications in Turkey are sorely limited with some state As it lies in a sunny belt between 36 C and 42N latitudes, organizations use PV for meeting remote electricity demand [16]. Turkey has an abundant resource in solar energy [11,12,16].An The main application areas include telecom stations, signalling important part of Turkey is suitable for utilization of solar energy. purposes, the ministry of forest monitoring stations, fire observa- The solar energy potential of Turkey is the equivalent of 1.3 billion tion stations, lighthouses and highway emergency systems [11]. tonne of oil [10,12]. The yearly average total solar radiation varies About 2.0 MW of PV is estimated to have been installed in 2010, from a low of 1.120 kWh/m2 year in the Black Sea Region with with the annual market increasingly slightly from the stable level of 1971 h of sunshine a year to a high of 1.460 kWh/m2 year in South the previous four years [54]. Off-grid applications account for East Anatolia with 2993 h of sunshine a year [12]. On the other around 90% of cumulative installed PV capacity of about 5 MW. In hand, solar energy could provide significant amount of power for 2009, the grid electricity cost has continued to increase [16]. The Turkey, given the country’s suitability in terms of solar radiation. average electricity price per kWh has reached to 0.20 $/kWh for Currently, solar power is used mainly for domestic hot water households and 0.14e0.20 $/kWh for industry at the beginning of production. Turkey’s gross solar potential is calculated as 88 Mtoe 2010. The grid parity for PV power systems in Turkey is expected to per year, of which 40% can be used economically. Three-fourths of be carried in the next five years [9]e12 . Fig. 5 shows the amount of the economically usable potential is efficient for thermal use and energy can be produced in Turkey depending on the PV [54]. the remainder for electricity production [9,11,12]. According to data from the Energy Ministry of Turkey; about 18% 5.5. Wind energy of electric energy needs of Turkey is met from renewable energy sources. The use of renewable energy sources, hydroelectric power There are a number of cities in Turkey with relatively high wind generation plants have an important share of 95% with a rate. The speeds [9e12]. These have been classified into six wind regions, remaining 5% of generation in the wind, geothermal, solar energy with a low of about 3.5 m/s and a high of 5 m/s at 10 m altitude, sources are used [9e12]. The potential of Turkey as a PV market is corresponding to a theoretical power production between 1000 very large, since the country is very suitable in terms of insolation and 3000 kWh/(m2 yr). The most attractive sites are the Marmara and large available land for solar farms. There are more than 30,000 Sea region, Mediterranean Coast, Agean Sea Coast, and the Anatolia small residential areas where solar powered electricity would likely inland. Turkey’s first wind farm was commissioned in 1998, and has be more economical than grid supply. Another potential for the PV a capacity of 1.5 MW. Capacity is likely to grow rapidly, as plans market is holiday villages at the long coastal areas. These facilities have been submitted for just under a further 600 MW of inde- are frequently far from the main grid nodes and require additional pendent facilities. At start 2009, total installed wind energy power when solar insolation is high. Unfortunately, Energy demand capacity of Turkey is only 800 GWh as shown in Fig. 6. in Turkey is so large that utilities are concentrating on large In 2010, 528 MW of new wind energy capacity was added in conventional power plants and peak load facilities [48e53]. Turkey, bringing the total up to 1329 MW. Installed wind capacity is

Fig. 5. The amount of energy can be produced in Turkey depending on the PV type and area (KWh/Year). 462 E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463 expected to grow at between 500 and 1000 MW per year reaching 6.2. Essential reforms more than 5 GW by 2015. Turkey hopes to install up to 20 GW by 2023, helping the country to source 30% of its electricity generation Turkey cannot develop a clear strategy concerning its renewable from renewable sources by that date. In order to reach this target, energy sources because of energy costs and investment costs. The however, the transmission infrastructure will require substantial Government encouraged the private sector to invest in natural gas upgrades to allow such large scale developments to be connected to combined-use circuit plants and guaranteed to buy the electricity the power grid. This issue will need to be addressed in the near generated at a low cost and with special conditions. Turkey is future [57e61]. interested in renewable energy resources and is devoting efforts to ensure the sustainability of using these resources [16,24,44]. The Government encouraged the municipal authorities in respect of 6. Difficulties, possible solutions, essential reforms geothermal energy and gave them self-governing powers in this regard [50,51]. 6.1. Barriers to developing renewable energy In Turkey, the efficiency of energy utilisation is not yet as high as it is in Europe. The Government is asking the private sector to Lack of financial resources and appropriate lending facilities, supplement World Bank credit as regards all sources of renewable particularly for smallscale projects [48]. Lack of detailed renewable energy. The Government has agreed to act as guarantor for 30e40% energy resource assessments and databanks pertaining to Turkey of the cost of private sector investments to meet their own energy [50]. However, lack of awareness and knowledge is not a huge needs. If the private sector can find a buyer, it may sell the excess barrier in Turkey [49]. Renewable energy is recognised as a major electricity produced in these plants. It is only recently that less potential for indigenous, clean energy production. The most energy-consuming building projects have begun to be introduced important handicap for foreign investors is Turkish bureaucracy. and ground-source heating and passive heating systems are still Permit applications by foreign investors can take up to a year, with uncommon [9e12]. numerous authorities being involved. The new Government had promised to simplify this permit application process [4,9,11]. 7. Conclusions Hydroelectric generation, biomass combustion, solar energy for agricultural grain drying and hot water heating, and geothermal The relationships between energy supply and use, economic energy have been in use in the country for many years [23]. activity, human development and the environment are extremely Domestic water heating is the primary active solar technology [24]. complex. Increased energy use is both a cause and an effect of In Turkey, approximately 30,000 solar water heating systems have economic growth and development. Energy is essential to most been installed since the 1980s [11]. This is a minute fraction of the economic activities. Industrialised economies rely on commercial total potential, as about 50% of existing dwellings could be fitted energy to transport goods and people, to heat homes and offices, to effectively with a solar water heater. If this potential were extended power engines and appliances, and to run shops and factories. The to 2025, the deployment of approximately 5 million systems would prosperity generated by economic development stimulates, in turn, be required. This could save an estimated 30 PJ per year of oil, coal demand for more and better-quality energy services, especially in and gas and 2.0 TWh per year of electricity, giving a saving of 5.0 the early stages of economic development. But the production, million tons of CO per year [9,12,50]. 2 transportation and use of energy can have major adverse effects on Agricultural residues have a high potential to take the place of the environment and on the health and well-being of current and the lignite (40 million tons) and hard coal (1.3 million tons) used in future generations. electricity production. Biogas systems are considered to be strong Turkey, with its young population and growing energy demand alternatives to traditional space heating systems (stoves) in rural per person, its fast growing urbanization, and its economic devel- Turkey. Geothermal heat pumps are a relatively new application of opment, has been one of the fast growing power markets of the geothermal energy that has grown rapidly in recent years. The world for the last two decades. Turkey is heavily dependent on greatest benefit of geothermal heat pumps is that they use 25e50% expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden on less electricity than conventional heating or cooling systems. the economy and air pollution is becoming a great environmental Geothermal heat pumps can also reduce energy consumption and concern in the country. In this regard, renewable energy resources corresponding air pollution emissions, up to 44% compared with air appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for source heat pumps and up to 72% compared with electric resistance clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Renewable heating with standard air conditioning equipment [7,23,24]. energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-of-supply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residential heating. Turkey has substantial reserves of renewable energy sources, including approximately 1% of the total world hydropower potential. There is also significant potential for wind power development. Turkey’s geothermal potential ranks seventh worldwide, but only a small portion is considered to be economically feasible. Turkey has great renewable energy potential and is keen to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels by increasing its use of RER. The wind sector is a good example of the increasing interest in generation of electricity with renewable resources. A highly competitive market is emerging in Turkey and there will be further opportunities for foreign investors to enter it, both as direct investors and as partners with local companies that have already obtained generation licences. Achieving even the modest envi- ronmental goals of the Kyoto Protocol requires the sustained and Fig. 6. Electricity production from wind energy in Turkey. orderly commercial development of viable renewable energy E. Toklu / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463 463

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