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POP-DIPLOMACY: ANIME AND MANGA AS VEHICLES OF CULTURAL CONTEXT, IDENTITY FORMATION, AND HYBRIDITY By Morgan Elizabeth Burkett Submitted to the Faculty of the School oflntemational Service of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master ofArts in International Affairs Chair: Patrick Thaddeus Jack on ··#.ffi.~ rk: Dean ofthe School oflntemational Service Date 2009 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY liBRARY CfS3 L1 UMI Number: 1484436 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will b~ noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI ___.Dissertation Publishing---.. UMI 1484436 Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Pro uesr ---- ---- ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml48106-1346 ©COPYRIGHT by Morgan Elizabeth Burkett 2009 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED POP-DIPLOMACY: ANIME AND MANGA AS VEHICLES OF CULTURAL CONTEXT, IDENTITY FORMATION, AND HYBRIDITY BY Morgan Elizabeth Burkett ABSTRACT The purpose of this thesis is to critically examine how a community, or "fandom," of American consumers is interacting with certain aspects of Japanese popular culture and to explore these interactions as sites of cultural negotiation. Specifically, the purpose is to explore the rise in popularity of Japanese manga and anime, as well as the associated subcultures, in the US within a theoretical framework of hybridization and ask: How is the community framing discussions of cultural context and identity formation and and are its members engaging in the hybridization of culture? In the case studies, fieldwork conducted at anime conventions and through analysis of public discussion on community web forums highlight two site of cultural negotiation: conventions and cosplay and fansubs. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... ii Chapter 1. RESEARCH QUESTION ...................................................................................... I 2. THE SETTING AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................... .2 3. LITERATURE SUMMAR¥ ................................................................................. 6 Literature Critique Conceptual Framework Historical Framework 4. TECHNOLOGICALADVANCES ...................................................................... 24 5. CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................. 27 Conventions and Cosplay Fan subs 6. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 60 APPENDIX........................................................................................................................ 64 BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................. 66 lll CHAPTER I RESEARCH QUESTION The purpose of this thesis is to critically examine how a community, or "fandom," of American consumers is interacting with certain aspects of Japanese popular culture and to explore these interactions as sites of cultural negotiation. I am interested in examining the relationship between the consumption of Japanese popular culture and the formation of cultural context and identity in this community. Here I use the definition of culture given by James Lull in his book Media, Communication, Culture. Culture is a complex and dynamic ecology of people, things, world views, activities, and settings that fundamentally endures but is also changed in routine communication and social interaction. Culture is context. It's how we talk and dress, the food we eat and how we prepare and consume it, the gods we invent and the ways we worship them, how we divide up time and space, and all the other details that make up everyday life. 1 Specifically, I am exploring the rise in popularity of Japanese manga and anime, as well as the associated subcultures, in the US within a theoretical framework of hybridization and asking: How is the community framing discussions of cultural context and identity formation and and are its members engaging in the hybridization of culture? 1 James Lull, Media, Communication, Culture, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 66. CHAPTER2 THE SETTING AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The interactions indicate an avenue of understanding and cultural context transmission that is not produced or facilitated by an official governmental route and instead comes from the community. Official routes of cultural transmission already exist through programs such as education exchanges, art exchanges, and the like; these are not what I am examining. They are usually highly structured and have specific goals integrated into their design. What I am looking at differs in that there is no official program to promote the cultural flow and context transmission brought about by the exchange of anime and manga and their related community. While the commercial exchange may be aided by governmental processes in the form of quotas, tariffs, and the like, the guiding force for this form of cultural exchange lies in the consumers, or audience. How these cultural exchanges are carried out, and what form they take, is community driven. At times these exchanges happen despite official rules or channels. Before I continue, let me first explain the basics of anime and manga. Both terms are closely intertwined in Japan and the United States. Anime is short for animation and can be considered a Japanese analog to the live-action television shows that make up the majority of American television programming and movies. That is to say, rather than being analogous with American cartoons (also animated) which have tended to focus 2 3 primarily on programming for children, anime is developed and marketed to a wide range of age groups--from young children to adult-only programming. Anime covers many different genres; from school life and raging space-operas to fairy tales and the mundane. If it can be conceived, there is likely an anime about it. Manga can be considered Japanese comic books, but rather than being part of a male-dominated "geek-dom" as American comics are, manga developed over the years for all genders and age groups. Sharon Kinsella, in Adult Manga: Culture & Power in Contemporary Japanese Society, describes manga, and by extension anime, as follows: Though often thought of by foreign observers as a specialized cultural trope with strongly defined themes such as pornography and science fiction fantasy, manga is primarily a medium. Like television, literature or film, the manga medium carries an immense range of cultural material. The bread and butter of the manga industry has been a large number of long-running series which can be loosely compared to the soap operas, dramas, sitcoms, comedies, and docu-dramas aired on British television. However, manga generally has a greater thematic range than Japanese television broadcasting, a medium which has been dominated by low budget celebrity game shows, chat shows, audience and panel discussions, and food and game guides. The themes of series have been defined mainly by their location, for example, in and around a sports club, school, college campus, workplace, household, historical set, or criminal underworld. In addition to drama about everyday life, manga has also absorbed a range of material, too raw, bawdy, satirical, politically subversive, delinquent, artistic, fantastic, or simply obscure, to get distribution in any other mass media. One of the most common synonyms used to describe manga is 'air', something that has permeated every crevice of the contemporary environment. Manga can be purchased from train platform kiosks, in book shops near railway stations and on shopping malls and streets, as well as in art book shops and luxury department stores; it can be bought from any 24-hour convenience store, a snack bar in a car park at a tourist resort, at a grocery store serving the needs of a remote village, or from a vending machine chained to the comer of a street.2 2 Sharon Kinsella, Adult Manga: Culture & Power in Contemporary Japanese Society, (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2000), 3-4. 4 The manga and anime creation systems are highly intertwined; many anime stories were first developed as manga. If there was not a manga of the story before a popular anime aired, one was often developed afterwards as "manga are the source for over 90 percent of anime."3 The terms anime and manga themselves are treated at times as interchangeable, at least in the United States. In American usage, the term anime can mean the animated shows themselves or it can be used to refer to both anime and manga at the same time (though the reverse is not generally used). While anime and manga are both forms of commercial mass media, my focus is not confined to the actual commercial products but broadened to an examination of the resulting community (or fandom) that forms around the products as the major factor of the study. This paper will focus on several sites of cultural negotiation within that fandom as the case studies. To be clear, these are not case studies in the