Les Vertébrés Volants : Revue Des Troupes

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Les Vertébrés Volants : Revue Des Troupes 1/19 Les vertébrés volants : revue des troupes 2019 Auteur(s) : Cyril Langlois ENS Lyon - Préparation à l'agrégation SV-STU Publié par : Olivier Dequincey Résumé Ailes, plumes, patagium… l'acquisition du vol (actif ou plané) chez les dinosaures (dont les oiseaux), les ptérosaures et les mammifères. Table des matières Introduction Les dinosaures : non-aviens, non-aviens volants, aviens... Les ptérosaures Les mammifères planants et volants Conclusion Références Un article paru dans la revue Nature le 9 mai 2019 décrivait un curieux dinosaure, assez proche mais néanmoins distinct des oiseaux, dont les pattes antérieures allongées auraient soutenues une membrane lui permettant peut- être de voler à la façon d'une chauve-souris [28]. Une autre étude indépendante repose la question des relations évolutives entre ptérosaures et dinosaures et de la date d'apparition des plumes [31]. Ces fossiles sont l'occasion d'un passage en revue des différents groupes de vertébrés qui, au cours des temps géologiques, ont acquis la capacité à voler, et de comparer leurs solutions à ce mode de propulsion. Source - © 1840 G. Cuvier Figure 1. Le ptérodactyle décrit par Georges Cuvier, figurant en planche 2 de son Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe. Source : Georges Cuvier, 1840 (8e éd.). Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe et sur les changemens qu'elles ont produits dans le règne animal, Paris, H. Cousin et E. d'Ocagne, 355p. https://planet-terre.ens-lyon.fr/ressource/vertebres-volants.xml - Version du 07/04/21 2/19 Introduction À l'heure actuelle, deux groupes de vertébrés se déplacent activement dans les airs, à côté – et souvent aux dépens – des insectes : les oiseaux et les chauves-souris, ou chiroptères (ou chéiroptères, littéralement “les mains ailées”, ou “les mains en forme d'aile”, terme forgé par Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) en 1798 sur les racines grecques χείρ (cheir), la main, et πτερόν (ptéron), l'aile). On peut y ajouter un deuxième groupe de mammifères nettement plus rares et moins diversifiés, les dermoptères (de δερμα, (derma, dermatos), la peau, et ptéron, défini en 1811 par le zoologue allemand Johan Karl Wilhem Illiger (1775-1813)). Ces derniers –qui représentent par ailleurs les plus proches parents des primates – ne sont pas capables d'un vol battu et ne décollent pas directement du sol, mais effectuent un vol plané après avoir atteint un point haut, par exemple la ramure d'un arbre. D'autres mammifères encore ont développé séparément la capacité de planer, à un degré moindre : des rongeurs comme les écureuils volants, par exemple, ou certains marsupiaux. La surface élargie et mince, qui fournit à ces animaux la portance nécessaire à leur trajet aérien, se présente sous deux formes : chez les Mammifères (mais aussi certains lézards), il s'agit d'un patagium, c'est-à-dire une surface de peau tendue entre des structures allongées, à la façon des baleines d'un parapluie. Chez les dermoptères, elle est attachée entre les pattes antérieures et postérieures, et s'étend aussi entre les pattes arrières et la queue (à la différence des écureuils volant, p. ex.) ; chez les chiroptères, elle est tendue entre des phalanges extrêmement allongées, et également entre pattes et queue ; chez certains lézards volants, ce sont à la fois les membres et les côtes aplaties et étirées qui soutiennent cette membrane ; chez les oiseaux, c'est une superposition de phanères spécialisées, allongées et accrochées sur le membre supérieur, les plumes (et plus spécifiquement les rémiges, longues plumes dissymétriques qui forment l'essentiel de la surface de l'aile et la surface caudale). La solution développée par les oiseaux est structuralement nettement différente des autres, indice (parmi d'autres) de l'éloignement phylogénétique des oiseaux par rapport aux deux types de mammifères, évidemment plus proches mais nettement séparés (figure 2). Ces trois groupes sont reconnus comme des clades monophylétiques par la phylogénie moderne (les espèces que chacun contient descendent toutes d'une population ancestrale commune)[1] . Les fossiles récoltés et analysés depuis deux siècles, et surtout au cours des dernières décennies, ont éclairci l'histoire évolutive de ces groupes, notamment celle des oiseaux, désormais affiliés aux dinosaures. Mais ils ont aussi largement étendu le registre des animaux et des groupes d'espèces qui ont un jour évolué dans les airs au cours des 200 derniers millions d'années. Un groupe majeur et entièrement éteint s'y est très tôt ajouté, celui des ptérosaures (Pterosauria). C'est encore Georges Cuvier qui décrivit correctement le premier fossile attribué à ce groupe, qu'il identifia comme un reptile (un Diapside, cf. figure 2) et non comme une forme inconnue de chauve- souris [24] et qu'il baptisa Pterodactylus (“le doigt ailé” ou “l'aile faite d'un doigt”, figure 1). Bien que leurs fossiles restent rares et souvent fragmentaires, on sait aujourd'hui qu'ils se diversifièrent intensément et occupèrent les cieux durant plus de 150 millions d'années, du Trias (vers 220 Ma) jusqu'à la fin du Crétacé (66 Ma). Par ailleurs, des découvertes récentes suggèrent qu'à côté des oiseaux, un groupe de dinosaures a développé auparavant, et indépendamment, un autre type d'aile, assez similaires à celles des ptérosaures ou des chauve-souris. Source - © 2017 D'après Lecointre et Le Guyader [16] Figure 2. Phylogénie des Amniotes. Les trois groupes cités (Oiseaux, Chiroptères, Dermoptères) sont soulignés. https://planet-terre.ens-lyon.fr/ressource/vertebres-volants.xml - Version du 07/04/21 3/19 Les dinosaures : non-aviens, non-aviens volants, aviens... Ironiquement, c'est le même savant britannique, Richard Owen (1804-1892) – véritable fondateur de la paléontologie mais opposé à la théorie de l'évolution de son compatriote Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – qui analysa les premiers fossiles de dinosaures, inventa pour eux ce nom de « terribles lézards » (toujours du grec, deinos, terrible, et sauron, lézard) en 1842 et décrivit en 1863 l'un des premiers fossiles d'Archæopteryx découvert en Allemagne, dans la paléo-lagune de Solnhofen, sans pour autant relier les premiers au second. Ce qui se conçoit puisque les restes d'Archæopteryx montraient des plumes bien identifiables et un squelette bipède (le tout premier fossile découvert en 1860 consistait d'ailleurs en une seule rémige isolée), alors que les premières reconstitutions de dinosaures en faisaient des quadrupèdes patauds ressemblant à des iguanes et recouverts d'écailles. Rappelons aussi que la phylogénie et la classification des dinosaures ont toutes deux affirmé, jusqu'à très récemment, une division fondamentale du groupe selon la forme de leur bassin, entre les Saurischiens (« à bassin de reptile ») et les ornitischiens (« à bassin d'oiseaux »), mais que les conclusions récentes enracinent les oiseaux parmi… les saurischiens. Source - © 2017 D'après Brusatte [6], modifié Figure 3. Étapes de l'histoire évolutive du vol chez les dinosaures, depuis l'apparition de la plume jusqu'au vol battu actif des oiseaux, illustrées par les fossiles représentatifs de chaque groupe. Pourtant, l'idée que les oiseaux soient phylogénétiquement proches des dinosaures n'est pas neuve. Elle aurait déjà été avancée par le « bouledogue de Darwin », son ami, défenseur et critique Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) [5]. C'est la découverte de nouveaux fossiles, dans les années 1960, d'abord aux États-Unis (avec le petit théropode carnivore bipède aux longues pattes antérieures Deinonychus, « griffe terrible »), puis plus tard en Chine avec des spécimens arborant des restes de plumes fossilisées, qu'a été confirmé que la plume était apparue avant les oiseaux, chez les dinosaures, et que les oiseaux appartenaient par conséquent aux dinosaures (pour plus de détails sur certains de ces fossiles, voir Plumes fossiles et évolution des oiseaux : quelques nouveautés). Des dinosaures déjà connus auparavant ont aussi été réinterprétés et garnis de plumes suite à de nouvelles découvertes. C'est notamment le cas du fameux Velociraptor, découvert en 1924 et qu'une étude de 2007 suggère de recouvrir de plumes [27]. Les fossiles disponibles aujourd'hui permettent de reconstituer les étapes évolutives qui ont conduit de la plume de duvet très simple, à rôle de protection thermique, portée par des dinosaures non-volant, à la plume complexe, en penne, à barbe et barbule, dissymétrique, formant la surface portante des oiseaux et de leurs plus proches parents non-aviens [19]. De même, l'acquisition, dans la lignée des oiseaux, du vol battu, actif, et de toutes les adaptations morpho-anatomiques qui l'accompagnent, peut aussi être décomposée en stades successifs grâce aux fossiles (figure 3). Néanmoins, cette histoire évolutive restent très schématique, ne serait-ce que parce que les différents spécimens disponibles vivaient dans des régions bien distinctes, à des moments différents : beaucoup de dinosaures emplumés ont été déterrés sur des sites crétacés de Chine, alors que tous les Archæopteryx connus à ce jour proviennent de la région de Solnhofen, en Allemagne. https://planet-terre.ens-lyon.fr/ressource/vertebres-volants.xml - Version du 07/04/21 4/19 Source - © 2011 Cyril Langlois Figure 4. Le spécimen d'Archaeopteryx du Museum für Naturkunde de Berlin. Quoi qu'il en soit, le groupe des dinosaures n'est monophylétique que si l'on y inclut les oiseaux, passés et actuels. Inversement, la définition des oiseaux devient plus floue. Les chercheurs distinguent donc désormais les oiseaux sensu stricto, Aves, qu'ils insèrent avec des dinosaures emplumés très proches dans les Paraves, et eux-mêmes dans les Pennaraptora, les “raptors à pennes”. Les “vrais” oiseaux sont donc les dinosaures capables de vol battu, prolongé, efficace. Les premiers remontent au Jurassique, il y a 150 Ma environ, avec l'Archæopteryx, toujours considéré comme l'un des premiers oiseaux, même si ce statut a été débattu puis récemment ré-affirmé [13] et que son vol n'était pas aussi efficace que celui des oiseaux modernes.
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