Building infrastructures for peace: an action research project in Nigeria Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree Doctor of Philosophy: Public Management (Peacebuilding) in the Faculty of Management Sciences at Durban University of Technology Oseremen Irene December 2014 Supervisor: Professor Geoff Harris Co-supervisor: Dr Sylvia Kaye Declaration I, Oseremen Felix IRENE, declare that I. The research reported in this dissertation/thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original research. II. This dissertation/thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. III. This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. IV. This dissertation/thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a. their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced: b. where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks and referenced. V. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, with the source being detailed in the dissertation/thesis and in the References sections. Signature: Abstract Nigeria has witnessed a plethora of conflicts and violence especially since her post independent era. Direct and structural violence as well as cultural violence have largely dotted her history. The various nature of violence that have over the years keeps the country teetering at the verge of precipice include, resource-based conflict in the Niger Delta, indigenes-settlers conflicts, gender-based conflicts, ethno- religious conflicts, electoral cum political conflicts and the recent Boko Haram violent menace that has claimed at least 13,000 lives in Nigeria. There have been attempts by government and civil society organisations to curb violence in the country. However, their limited apparent success and the extent of violence underlines the need for alternative approaches to build peace in Nigeria. Building infrastructures for peace is one such alternative. Using an action research approach, the research focusses on establishing peace clubs in four high schools and implementing a programme for a 12 month period. Acknowledgements I am particularly grateful to God for connecting to Professor Geoffrey Harris. I am grateful and I expressed my gratitude to Professor Geoffrey Harris who was not just a supervisor to me but also a father. For your care and love, Professor Geoff Harris, I say thank you. I prayed to God to connect me to a benefactor, and you became the answer to my spoken prayers. You took me up, sponsored me, and gave me love, care and hope. You became the instrument God used to paint my dream to hold a doctorate degree to reality. I appreciate you Prof., and I prophesy that your labour of love shall never be in vain. To Margaret Irene, I say thank you dear mum. You are such a special mum, your support for my education from primary to this stage saw me through the thin and thick of the struggle. I love you mum and extend my unalloyed appreciation and gratitude to you and to my family. Finally, now to him who is able to do immeasurable more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us, to him be glory…Ephesians 3:20-21. Dedication In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, I dedicate this thesis to the one and only almighty God, the alpha and the omega, the ‘I am that I am’, the Jehovah who never allowed the weapon fashioned against me to prosper. You are the Jehovah Shalom, the source of peace, for without you, there cannot be true peace. Blessed are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace. Table of contents Part I INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 Background, research aims and overview 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Direct violence 4 1.3 Structural violence 6 1.4 Cultural violence 8 1.5 Dealing with violence 8 1.6 Peace infrastructures 9 1.7 Overall objective and specific aims 11 1.8 Overview of thesis 11 PART II CONTEXT Chapter 2 Violence in Nigeria: nature, extent, causes and consequences 12 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Nature of violence 12 2.3 Extent 20 2.4 Causes 30 2.5 Trends 42 2.6 Consequences 46 2.7 Summary and conclusion 54 Chapter 3 Efforts to prevent violence and build peace 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Government 55 3.3 Non-governmental efforts 74 3.4 Overall assessment 87 Part III NON-VIOLENT CHANGE Chapter 4 The processes of non-violent change 88 4.1 Introduction to relevant theories 88 4.2 Non-violent social movements 90 4.3 Non-violent action for social change 91 4.4 Methods available to social movements 96 4.5 Specific methods of non-violent action 101 4.6 Strategic planning for nonviolent social change 105 4.7 Case studies of international nonviolent campaigns 108 4.8 Summary and conclusion 116 Chapter 5 Infrastructures for peace 118 5.1 Introduction 118 5.2 Peace committees 126 5.3 Infrastructures for peace: experiences from various countries 136 5.4 Infrastructures for peace and prevention of electoral violence 147 5.5 Ministries of peace 150 5.6 Ministries of peace in practice 162 5.7 Summary and conclusion 168 PART IV RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH PLAN Chapter 6 Participatory action research 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 A PAR strategy: process cycles 170 6.3 PAR: a braided process and context specific 175 6.4 Characteristics of PAR 177 6.5 Challenges of PAR 180 6.6 Validity and reliability in PAR 191 6.7 Summary and conclusion 192 PART V BUILDING PEACE INFRASTRUCTURES Chapter 7 Failed attempts to build peace infrastructures 193 7.1 Introduction 193 7.2 PAR cycles 193 7.3 Second cycle: non-violent campaigns for local peace structures 194 7.4 Peace service academy and centre for peace and rehabilitation of 200 displaced persons 7.5 Summary and conclusion 203 Chapter 8 Building peace infrastructures in schools 204 8.1 Introduction 204 8.2 An overview of peace clubs 204 8.3 Implementing the main peace club project 208 8.4 Data collection methods 211 8.5 Peace club training sessions/meetings 211 8.6 Summary and conclusion 230 Chapter 9 Outcome evaluation 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Random control test, pre-and post-training tests 231 9.3 Participant’s essays about conflict 239 9.4 The participant’s second essays about dealing with the conflict 270 9.5 Personal/own observation (of clubs, participants) 279 9.6 Structured interviews with teachers and principals 282 9.7 Structured interviews and focus group discussion with participants 285 9.8 Summary and conclusion 293 PART VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Chapter 10 Summary, conclusions and reflections 294 10.1 Introduction 294 10.2 Findings 294 10.3 Validity, reliability and limitations 298 10.4 A personal assessment 300 10.5 Conclusion 301 References Appendices LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AFRC: Armed Forces Revolutionary Council ASF: Avocats Sans Frontières CDF: Civil Defense Forces DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo FDLR: Front Démocratique de libération du Rwanda (the main Hutu militia operating in the eastern DRC) ICTR : International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda LTRC: Liberia Truth and Reconciliation Commission NaCSA: National Commission for Social Action NURC: National Unit and Reconciliation Commission, Rwanda PFR : Prison Fellowship Rwanda RPF: Rwanda Patriotic Front RTF: Reparations Trust Fund(s) SNJG: Simplified Guide to Trial Procedures TRC: Truth and Reconciliation Commission, South Africa Part I: Introduction Chapter 1: Background, research aims and overview 1.1 Introduction Conflict has been described as an unavoidable part of human relationships, and if well-handled creates opportunities for self-development as well as the development of social values, improved welfare and security in communities. It is often viewed in the light of the difference of needs or wants between and among individuals or groups, and is regarded as normal, natural and unavoidable. The Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (2005: 2) defines conflict as “… the clashing of interests (positional differences) on national values of some duration and magnitude between at least two parties (organized groups, states, groups of states, organizations) that are determined to pursue their interests and win their cases”. Though conflicts often result in negative and destructive consequences, conflicts can however generate positive outcomes if handled constructively. Reimann (2005:7) posited that there are three ways of tackling conflicts, and these are “conflict settlement, conflict resolution, and conflict transformation”. In the view of conflict analysts, a world without conflict can hardly be desirable, as it would mean, a world without diversity. Bearing in mind that conflict is an inevitable outcome of human diversity, and according to Bonacker and Imbusch (2005:78) conflicts can be conducted in a constructive way and thus consequently contribute positively within a given society. Furthermore, since conflicts are understood and viewed as omnipresent aspects of human interaction, the emphasis therefore should not be on the question of their elimination, but rather on their regulation or peaceful settlement, (Pfetsch 2005:3), and that given its omnipresent nature, one cannot expect not to have conflict in a multi-ethnic society. However, while the constructive handling of conflict can engender development, violent outcomes following non-constructive handling is a problem, and this has been the bane of Nigeria’s woes. 1 With a population of over 150 million people, divided into over 300 ethnic groups, Nigeria is confronted with the challenges of governance and violence.