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University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/36326 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. THE POLITICS OF ETHNICITY, IDENTITY AND RELIGION AMONG TURKS IN LONDON Talip Kucukcan A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Warwick Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations December 1996 1 ABSTRACT 'The Politics of Ethnicity, Identity and Religion Among Turks in London' is a study of a micro-Muslim community in Britain. Earlier research on Islam and Muslims in Britain concentrated predominantly on Islam amongst South-Asian Muslims although there is a large degree of diversity in the expression of cultural and religious identity among Muslim communities in Britain. This thesis seeks to come to an understanding of the politics of ethnicity, identity and religion among Turkish Muslims who are a part of this diversity. The main objective of this research is to analyse how Turkish identity is constructed and what are the roles of family, culture, organisations and religious groups in the reproduction and transmission of traditional values to the young generation. This research is expected to fill a gap in research on micro-Muslim communities in Britain. Research methods involved participant observation, in-depth interviews and a survey. Seventeen months of fieldwork in the north-east London and two months fieldwork in Berlin were carried out to collect ethnographic data. During the research, 77 people were interviewed in-depth, 93 young Turks participated in a survey and 29 people took part in group interviews. The thesis begins with a brief account of immigration to Western Europe in general and to Britain in particular. Then, a discussion of theoretical issues on migration, ethnicity and the development of identity is presented where the major anthropological and sociological theories are examined. Turkish immigration to Western Europe in general and to Britain in particular is outlined in Chapter Four and issues concerning family, kinship and reproduction of traditional values are examined in Chapter Five wherein it is argued that Turkish identity is reinforced by the reproduction of family values and kin relations in London. It is also demonstrated in this Chapter that new types of relations are established which are based on wider social networks. Continuity and change in the identity construction of the young Turkish generation are discussed by analysing their attitudes towards language, culture, family, sexuality and religion in Chapters Six and Seven. The process of institutionalisation and analysis of the influence of Turkish organisations on the politics of identity and its expression are presented in Chapters Eight, Nine and Ten. The institutionalisation of Islam is analysed in relation to identity and religious diversity within the Turkish community. The politics of main Islamic groups are also analysed to explain how religion and politics are related and the extent to which religious movements in the country of origin influence Islamic organisations abroad. This research shows that family relations and social networks have played an important role on every stage of immigration and settlement Traditional values are constantly reproduced within Turkish families as an expression of identity and every effort is made to ensure that the young generation are not alienated from these values. However, there is an emergent identity construction taking place among the young generation, generally inspired by the 'local' experience. This suggests that the emergent Turkish identity accommodates continuity and change in relation to Turkish culture, sometimes producing tension between generations. For the young generation traditions, culture and religion are increasingly becoming values for 'symbolic' attachment. 2 CONTENTS Page Abstract of Thesis 2 6 List of Tables List of Figures 8 List of Maps 9 Acknowledgements 10 Chapter One: Introduction 11 1.1. Labour Migration to Western Europe 12 1.2. Immigration to Britain 16 1.3. Settlement and Emergence of Ethnic Communities 18 Chapter Two: Methodology 24 2.1. Personal Encounters 24 2.2. Ethnographic Method 26 2.3. Conducting Interviews and Taking Notes 30 2.4. Survey of the Young Generation 32 Chapter Three: Migration, Etlutidty And Ethnic Identity: Theoretical Issues 37 3.1. Recurrent Human Experience: Population Movements 37 3.2. Nature of Migration 39 3.2.1. Push-Pull Model 41 3.2.2. Micro-Macro Model and New Economics Migration Theory 43 3.2.3. World-Systems Theory 44 3.2.4. Socio-psychological Approach 45 3.3. Consequences of Migration 46 3.3.1. Acculturation, Assimilation and Absorption 49 3.4. Theories of Ethnicity 55 3.4.1. Primordial Perspective: 'givens' of social existence 58 3.4.2. Situational Approach: Ethnic Boundary between 'Us' and 'Them 63 3.4.3. Foundations of 'We' versus 'Them' 67 3.5. Approaches to Identity Development The Meaning of Identity 70 3.5.1. Social Dimensions of Identity Development and Ethnic Group Membership 71 3.5.2. Religion and Identity 74 Chapter Four Turkish Labour Migration To Western Europe And Britain 79 4.1. Migration to Europe: Process and Patterns 80 4.2. Migration from Cyprus and Turkey to Britain 85 4.3. Settlement of Turks/Cypriots in London 91 3 Page Chapter Five: Family, Kinship And Reproduction Of Traditional Values 100 5.1. Here for Good: Settlement 100 5.2. Re-establishment of Family Structure 106 5.3. Kinship, Social Network and Reproduction of Values 110 5.4. Marriage as a Process of Reproduction of Family Values, Kin and Social Network 133 5.5. Marriage and Religious Networks 145 Chapter Six: Young Generation, Continuity And Change 153 6.1. Young Generation and Socialisation 153 6.2. Characteristics of the Sample 155 6.3. Young Generation and Family 159 6.4. Language and Culture 166 6.5. Sexuality 178 6.6. Friendship Patterns and Identification Figures 184 Chapter Seven: Young Generation: Religious Beliefs, Attitudes And Practices 189 7.1. Dimensions of Religious Commitment 189 7.2. Young Turks and Religiosity 191 7.2.1. Belief in God 191 7.2.2. Intellectual Dimension: Knowledge about the Basic Tenets of Islam 198 7.2.3. Ritualistic Dimension: Religious Practices 202 7.2.4. Experiential Dimension 206 Chapter Eight: Turkish Organisations In London 213 8.1. Organisations as Social Vehicles Among Turks 213 8.2. The Process of Institutionalisation 215 8.3. Turkish! Cypriot Associations: Cultural, Educational and Welfare Associations 217 8.3.1. Cyprus Turkish Association (CTA) (Kibris Turk Cemiyeti) 218 8.3.2. Turkish Youth Association (TYA) (Turk Genclik Dernegi) 224 8.3.3. Turkish Education Group (TEG) (Turk Egitim Birligi) 226 8.3.4. Waltham Forest Turkish Association (WFTA) (Waltham Forest Turk Birligi) 229 8.3.5. The Halkevi 233 8.3.6. Other Organisations 236 Chapter Nine: Religion Among Turks In London 241 9.1. Religion in Turkey 242 9.2. Religion and Politics in Modern Turkey 245 9.3. Recent Developments in Islamic Politics and their Possible Impacts on the Turkish Community 248 9.4. Institutionalisation of Islam Among the Turkish Community 251 4 Page 9.4.1. Aziziye Jaraa'a (Aziziye Ceinaati) 252 9.4.1.1. Institutionalisation of Islamic Education 261 9.4.2. Suleymanci Group and Traditional Islam in Europe 265 9.4.2.1. New Approach to Tradition 268 9.4.3. Sheikh Nazim Jama'a: Mystical Islam 269 9.4.3.1. Mosque as a Market Place 274 9.5. Diversity Reproduced 276 Chapter Ten: Religio-Political Organizations 281 10.1 Islam and Nationalism: Idealist Youth (1.11kucu Genclik) 281 10.2. Transplantation of Political Islam: National Vision (Milli Gurus) 289 10.2.1. Origins of Political Islam in Europe: National Vision as an Umbrella Organization 295 Chapter Eleven: Conclusions 305 Bibliography 320 Glossary 338 Appendix: Questionnaire used in the Survey 5 List of Tables: Page Table 1.1: Stock of foreign population in selected European countries 15 Table 1.2: Resident population by ethnic group in Great Britain, 1991 18 Table 2.1: Number of in-depth interviews 31 Table 4.1: Turks in selected European countries 84 Table 4.2: Number of Mainland Turks and Turkish-Cypriots, various estimates 88 Table 4.3: Applications received for asylum seekers, excluding dependants in the United Kingdom from Turkish nationals between 1987-1995 89 Table 4.4: Local concentrations of those born in Cyprus and Turkey 91 Table 6.1: Age distribution of respondents 156 Table 6.2: Birthplace of respondents 157 Table 6.3: Length of living in London 158 Table 6.4: Parental origins of the respondents 158 Table 6.5: Attitudes towards living with parents 159 Table 6.6: Parental control as perceived by the respondents 162 Table 6.7: Disagreements between respondents and parents 163 Table 6.8: Parental attitudes towards girl/boyfriend relationships as perceived by the respondents 164 Table 6.9: Language fluency of respondents 167 Table 6.10: Languages spoken at home 169 Table 6.11: Preference of language during daily conversations with family and Turkish friends 171 6 Page Table: 6.12: Attitudes towards the preservation of Turkish traditions and values in England 172 Table 6.13: Attitudes towards parent's country of origin and Britain. Where do respondents feel happier? 176 Table:
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