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African Communities in Asia and the Mediterranean the Harriet Tubman Series on the African Diaspora African Communities in Asia and the Mediterranean The Harriet Tubman Series on the African Diaspora Paul E. Lovejoy and Toyin Falola, eds., Pawnship, Slavery and Colonial- ism in Africa, 2003. Donald G. Simpson, Under the North Star: Black Communities in Upper Canada before Confederation (1867), 2005. Paul E. Lovejoy, Slavery, Commerce and Production in West Africa: Slave Society in the Sokoto Caliphate, 2005. José C. Curto and Renée Soulodre-La France, eds., Africa and the Americas: Interconnections during the Slave Trade, 2005. Paul E. Lovejoy, Ecology and Ethnography of Muslim Trade in West Africa, 2005. Naana Opoku-Agyemang, Paul E. Lovejoy and David Trotman, eds., Africa and Trans-Atlantic Memories: Literary and Aesthetic Mani- festations of Diaspora and History, 2008. Boubacar Barry, Livio Sansone, and Elisée Soumonni, eds., Africa, Brazil, and the Construction of Trans-Atlantic Black Identities, 2008. Behnaz Asl Mirzai, Ismael Musah Montana, and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Slavery, Islam and Diaspora, 2009. Carolyn Brown and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Repercussions of the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Interior of the Bight of Biafra and the African Diaspora, 2010. Ute Röschenthaler, Purchasing Culture in the Cross River Region of Cameroon and Nigeria, 2011. Ana Lucia Araujo, Mariana P. Candido and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Crossing Memories: Slavery and African Diaspora, 2011. Edmund Abaka, House of Slaves and “Door of No Return”: Gold Coast Castles and Forts of the Atlantic Slave Trade, forthcoming. AFRICAN COMMUNITIES IN ASIA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN Identities between Integration and Conflict Edited by Ehud R. Toledano AFRICA WORLD PRESS Trenton | London | Cape Town | Nairobi | Addis Ababa | Asmara | Ibadan | New Delhi AFRICA WORLD PRESS 541 West Ingham Avenue | Suite B Trenton, New Jersey 08638 Copyright © 2011 Ehud R. Toledano First Printing 2011 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Book and cover design: Saverance Publishing Services Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Table of Contents Reflective Contributions Introduction Ehud R. Toledano African Diaspora and Créolité: Confronting Two Concepts and Discourses Daniella Police-Michel The Indian Ocean World Female Bondage and Agency in the Indian Ocean World Gwyn Campbell Diversity of Experience and Legacies of African Slavery in the Western Indian Ocean Edward A. Alpers African Cavalry Guards: A Place for the Construction of Memory, Identity and Ethnicity Ababu Minda Yimene Muslim-Jewish Relations in Sidi Janjira Anuradha Bhattacharjee The Ambiguous Identity of the Black Dutchmen: Africans, Indonesians or Dutch? Ineke van Kessel Unauthorised Voyagers across Two Oceans: Africans, Indians and Aborigines in Australia Devleena Ghosh and Heather Goodall AFRICAN COMMUNITIES IN ASIA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN The Mediterranean World TheStambali of Husaynid Tunis: From Possession Cult to Ethno-Religious and National Culture Ismael M. Montana Coping with Trauma in a New World: Cultural Responses of Enslaved Africans in the Ottoman Empire Ehud R. Toledano Liberated Bodies and Saved Souls: Freed African Slave Girls and Missionaries in Egypt Beth Baron The Pupil of the Eye: Abolitionism, Racial Unity, and the Iconography of Enslaved Africans in Baha’i Tradition Niambe Cacchioli African Migrant Workers in Israel: Between Extended Family, Money, and a Sense of Evil Galia Sabar Construction of Identity and Integration of African-Turks Esma Durugönül Select Bibliography List of Contributors Index vi REFLECTIVE CONTRIBUTIONS INTRODUCTION Ehud R. Toledano, Tel Aviv University, Israel he massive earthquake that devastated Haiti on 12 January 2010 Tresulted not only in a huge loss of human lives and the leveling of the capital, Port-au-Prince. It also brought a cultural disaster with far-reaching and long-term consequences, as it has damaged the vital connection of Haitians to their dead ancestry, a very personal and tan- gible component of daily life. The voodoo belief in the need to keep contact with the dead, who are believed to continue living in another form of existence, is widespread and a constant feature of life in Haitian culture. The New York Times quoted Ira Lowenthal, an anthropologist who has lived in Haiti for 38 years, as saying that “convening with the dead is what allows Haitians to link themselves, directly by bloodline, to a pre-slave past,” and that the denial of interring so many bodies in family burial plots, where many rituals take place, would severe count- less spiritual connections.1 Lowenthal added that “it is a violation of everything these people hold dear… on the other hand, people know they have no choice.” The undeniable presence of the past and its cultural vestiges in the daily lives of displaced populations has been a noticeable feature of diasporas across the globe. The world of spirits and the need to keep in constant touch with them have been part and parcel of almost all pre-modern cultural systems, African ones being a prominent case in point. The dynamic and frequently updated reservoir of spirits, as I. M. 1 Damien Cave, “As Haitians Flee, the Dead Go Uncounted,” The New York Times, January 18, 2010. AFRICAN COMMUNITIES IN ASIA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN Lewis has noted, “can be drawn upon to respond to the experience of affliction and stress in ways which make this meaningful to the victims and their families.”2 There can hardly be any doubt that coerced dis- placement and forced migration of enslaved populations from Africa into many parts of the world was such a traumatic experience. It is, therefore, no wonder that Africans in the diasporic communities of the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean Worlds had frequent and intense recourse to significant components of their origin-cultural repositories as they entered the new societies that absorbed and integrated them. ON THEORY AND METHODOLOGY The study of migration and diasporas is not new,3 but it has become increasingly fashionable in recent years, partly because it has clear political implications to contemporary concerns in many societies that had been the target of forced, semi-voluntary, or voluntary migration. Of particular relevance to the current volume is the heritage of coerced migration of enslaved persons who found themselves living in foreign, often inhospitable and exploitative societies. Not only the enslaved migrants themselves, but their children and grandchildren, well past manumission, had to cope with social, economic, and political disabili- ties sanctioned by law and practice. Generations after emancipation, descendants of enslaved Africans were – and still are – compelled to negotiating their own identities, confront discrimination by the state and from other social groups, and fight for basic rights. Colonialism and enslavement, for the most part, affected views and social practices that had a detrimental impact not only upon Africans in non-African societies, but have also profoundly transformed majority cultures and dominant value-systems. Whereas the classic cases representing the impact of enslavement on post-emancipation society are the United States and Brazil, descen- dants of enslaved Africans in Mediterranean societies and the Indian 2 I. M. Lewis, “Zar in Context: The Past, the Present and the Future of an African Healing Cult,” in Women’s Medicine: The Zar-Bori Cult in Africa and Beyond, eds., I. M. Lewis, Ahmed Al-Safi, and Sayyid Hurreiz (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), 16. 3 See, for example, a survey of the main literature in Ehud R. Toledano, As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in Islamic Middle East (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2007), 38-47. 4 INTRODUCTION Ocean world were faced with similar challenges. Although the types of enslavement practiced in those societies differed in some ways from slavery in either the US or Brazil, issues of identity formation, discrimi- nation, and color bias were all too common here too. Correctly, the founders of a scholarly project on development at McGill University have recently observed:4 Across the globe, people draw on identities that currently may involve revised configurations of ethnicity, race, class, gender, religion… to demand social justice from oppo- sitional entities, which may include nation-states, legal and political institutions or even other members of civil society. Such collective identities may exacerbate struggles between groups, but they may also create linkages, both within and across nation states, to form social movements that challenge current inequalities. One of the main differences between the Atlantic world and the regions discussed in this book – the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean worlds – is the significant presence of Islamic societies in the latter, and the relatively small impact of Islamic traditions in the former. The Ottoman and the Iranian (Kajar) empires dominated vast territories in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, North Africa, and the eastern shores of the Indian Ocean, while the Mughals rules significant parts of India, and the largest concentration of Muslim populations in the world are still located today on lands stretching from the Indian sub-continent to Indonesia. Following the demise of the three last Muslim empires – the Ottoman, Iranian, and Mughal – all successor states, with the excep- tion of those on European
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