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TITLE Development Communication Report No. 50-55, Summer 1985-Autumn 1986. INSTITUTION Agency for International Development (IDCA), Washington, DC. Clearinghouse on Development Communication. PUB DATE 86 NOTE 94p.; For an earlier issue, see KJ 259 712. PUB TYPE Collected Works - Serials (022) -- Viewpoints (120) -- Reports - Descriptive (141) JOURNAL CIT Development Communications Report; n50-51 Sum-Aut 1985 n52-55 Win-Aut 1986

EDRS PRICE 14701/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Change Strategies; Comics (Publications); Communications Satellites; Contraception; *Developing Nations; Distance Education; *Educational Radio; Educational Television; English Instruction; *Health Education; *Information Dissemination; Information Networks; Literacy; *Mass Media; Microcomputers; Nutrition Instruction; Primary Health Care; *Rural Development; Story Telling; Visual Aids IDENTIFIERS *Development Communication; Project SHARE

ABSTRACT Six issues of the newsletter "Development Communication Report" focus primarily on the use of communication technologies in developing nations to educate their people. The issues included in this collection are: (1) Summer 1985, which highlights agricultural, health, and educational projects that have proven successful; (2) Autumn 1985, which concentrates on health communications; (3) Winter 1986, which focuses on the purpose of visuals, how to use them in training, and how people's understanding can be improved through appropriate exposure to and use of such materials; (4) Spring 1986, which discusses development communication projects in developing nations, including the People's Republic of China, South and Central America, Swaziland, Puerto Rico, India, the Gambia, Malaysia, and Bolivia; (5) Summer 1986, which focuses on broadcast technologies, including communication satellites and radio; and (6) Autumn 1986, which features articles on the innovative use of well-planned, well-integrated, and well-tested print materials in developing nations, including photonovels, rural newspapers, and posters. Reviews of recent publications, announcements of development-related conferences and courses, and a subject index of past issues are also provided. (RP)

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Lt.J No. 50-55

Summer 1985-Autumn 1986

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Summer 1985 No. 50

Communications Strategies for Agriculture: A Health Campaign Hybrids of a Different Kind in Zaire by William Smith and Howard Ray bylain McLellan

Two decades of experimentation vocabulary which the farmer will understand, In the central African country of have enriched our understanding ofand integrate the new innovation into the Zaire a government department, how to organize and use communi- farmer's own view of his problems and needs. several international aid organiza- cation to support agricultural de- They help us ask not only "How good is the new tions, and church-sponsored velopment in a wide range of settings and condi- idea?" but "How good will the fanner think the groups have coordinated their development sup- tions. Many of the old principles of good new idea is?" port communications (DSC) campaigns to better communication have proven true; others have We know for example that there are five basic disseminate health information. This interorgan- been expanded and made even more effective. reasons why any new idea might not be ac- izational cooperation will enable participating Particular projects, like the Basic Village Educa- cepted: (I) a farmer may not have the skills or groups to learn from each others' experiences in tion project in Guatemala and the Masagana 99 knowledge to use it; (2) he may not have the DSC, and to avoid costly duplication efforts. project in the Philippines, have demonstrated to tools or materials to apply it; (3) he may see no Sante pour Tous, the nucleus of this coordi- us how ideas borrowed from fields such as ad- benefit from using the new idea; (4) he may nated effort, is a primary health care and preven- vertising and marketing can be effectively addedreceive benefit from doing something quite dif- tive medicine project that is sponsored by to large scale programs of agricultural develop- ferent; or (5) he may perceive the new idea not Zaire's Department of Health, and the U.S. ment. The key change has been a shift awayonly as having no benefit, but as punishing in Agency for International Development from media-specific planning, toward a systems some waymore work, more costly, less (A .I.D. ), and administered by l'Eglise du Christ approach to communication, which uses radio, status, etc. du Zaire . print, and other channels as part of an interre- Traditionally, the job of agricultural commu- In addition to as main focusimproved pri- lated network of inputs targeted at specificnication has been to motivate the farmer tomary health careunder the umbrella of Sante changes and driven by a farmer orientation. "want" to use a new idea and then to teach himpour Tous is a vaccination campaign, a family These three elementsa farmer orientation,the skills or knowledge to apply itBehavioral planning project, and a nutrition and agricultural targeted change, and an integrated media net-studies help us explore what "want" really promotion project. Each has a different organi- work are the fundamental organizing principles means and to help determine how to best teach zational structure and separate funding sources, around a growing set of hybrid communicationthe new skills. What benefits will the farmerbut to facilitate coordination of DSC activities, strategies. experience? How can we describe the relative representatives from these organizations sit on costs and benefits to the farmer in the most each others' boards. Farmer Orientation (continued on page 2) Sante pour Tous centers are located in 50 rural The farmer is not a receptacle into which new health zones across Zaire. Each health zone has agricultural technologies are poured, but an ac- a central hospital and field office. These offices tive catalyst whose needs, constraints, attitudes, are equipped with battery-powered film and and vocabulary orient and drive the communica- In this issue... slide projectors used to train nurses, birth attention component. Communication is not a link to dants, and village health workers in primary the farmer, itis a link between the farmer, Agricultural Communication 1 health care and DSC techniques. researcher, planner, and extensionist. Zaire Health Campaign 1 Our tools for understanding the farmer's per- Educational Radio in Africa 3 Sharing Communication Materials spective are growing. Our dependence on for- Development and Commercial Films 5 These same materials are also used by the mal survey research and anecdotal information On Hie at ERIC 6 other organizations participating in the Sante is giving way to smaller, behavioral studies. Peruvian TV Health Spots 7 pour Two project for their village-based DSC Concept testing, focus group interviews, behav- A Communicator's Checklist 8 activities. Additionally, Community Develop- ioral trials, and intercept interviews are special- REDUC Reference Service in L.A. 11 ment Committees, compnsed of health profes- ized names for a new genre of sound village Briefly Noted 12 sionals and village leaders have been established research techniques. These behavioral studies PCS/URTNA Workshops in Africa 13 in many rural health zone villages to coordinate help to identify hidden constraints a farmer may Nutrition Resources 15 campaigns and projects at the local level. A encounter in trying a new innovation, and to Assessing PANA 16 village committee first decides upon a health help understand less visible incentives which issue that concerns village residents, then they inhibit or promote adoption. They help us select (continued on page 10)

4111111111111111111111111111MillialiNVIMMANWPWA A publicuuon of the Clearinghouse on Development Communication Supporlsd by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agency for International Development (Ag Camcontinued from page 1) Media Network water and apply it at the right time. Our exten- persuasive way possible? What costs will the Finally, no single media channel is powerfulsion 'network is spread too thin, they simply farmer pay for giving up what he is alreadyenough to accomplish tie job. Dozens of studiescannot reach enough farmers in time to control doing? were carried out in the 1950s and 1960s tothe pest problem. A communication strategy is While these questions seem, and in fact are,determine "What is betterradio, TV, pnnt, orput together in which a simple printed flyer with simple, they are rarely asked in a systematicthe extensionist?" The answer is now clear.the mixing instructions is designed and distrib- way. Our focus has often been on the innovation "What is better?' is the wrong question. Theuted in large numbers to local stores, extension- rather than on the farmer. We describe the bene-right question is "What is better for what pur-ists, and other field workers. First, we use short fit of a new seed variety or new pesticide frompose?" And some clear answers are emerging. radio broadcasts (spot announcements) to tell our perspective ignoring costs, often of a social Broadcast media is better at reaching a lot offarmers we have a pest problem, a pesticide nature, which the farmer considers too high. people quickly with fairly simple ideas. Printsolution, and that the flyer is available at local A second major area of improvement has beenmedia is best at providing a timely reminder ofstores. At the same time, extensionists are train- our recognition that all farmers are not alike. information we cannot expect someone to re-ing small groups of farmers dispersed through- Our mass media broadcasts have tended to lumpmember without reinforcement. And, interper-out the region, in how to mix and use the solu- farmers together, focusing more on their simi-sonal communication, including extensionists,tion. Each trained farmer receives a colorful flag larities than on their differences. We have toogroup meetings, community organization, andto fly over his house as an identifying marker often allowed our view of mass media as a big demonstrations, are clearly the best way to teachthat he is one of the "expert mixers" of the new audience medium to dictate what we say and toand develop credibility. pesticide. A second set of radio programs not whom we address our messages. But we now Perhaps a more important finding is that weonly tells farmers how to mix the pesticide prop- know hew/ to segment broadcasts and directneed all three of these components to make anerly, but informs them that the "flag farmers" in them to special farmer groups. We can developeffective program. We need to reach many peo-their community have been trained and are differentiated message strategies for differentple quickly; they have to have some reminder ofsources of advice on how to apply the pesticide groups of farmers and can use techniques suchwhat we have told them; and they have to be- properly. Each "flag farmer" is given dozens of as message tone, characterization, and schedul-lieve in us if they are going to take our advice.the flyers to distribute to neighboring farmers as ing to reach important subgroups with moreEffective communication is like a three-leggedreminders of how to mix and apply the pesticide. relevant and persuasive information. stool. If you are missing one leg you have anSpecial radio programs are produced to teach unstable foundation. farmers in isolated areas how to use the flyer, Targeted Change and to remind them of what they have learned The second basic principle which is changing from their neighbors. our view of agricultural communication is a This simple example Illustrates how each of ".... weneed a specific system- focus on selecting and assigning a priority to the the media channelsprint, radio, and Interper- content of agricultural messages; targeting areasatic way of ensuring that our pri-sonal interact cumulatively. It is drawn from a of opportunity rather than using a hit-or-missority messages... aregoing toconcrete experience in West Africa. The Min- approach to information diffusion. Concretelyinteract with each other to pro-istry of Health of The Gambia wanted to popu- we know that effective agricultural communica- mote change." larize a new medicine for diarrhea, and within a tion is responsive to seasonal variation in the five-week period managed to teach almost 60 farmer's needs. percent of the women in the country to prepare We also know that for a new behavior to and give the new medicine using the approach become routine, people need to do it many A new set of questions has resulted from thesedescribed above. times, to get support from several places, and tofindings. How do we best orchestrate various Many agricultural problems are more compli- have the support (or reward) as close to the newinputs to maximize their impact and minimizecated and long term than our pesticide example. behavior as possible. This presents a real prob- our costs? We cannot use all channels all theOther channel strategies would be necessary and lem in agriculture. A new seed variety doesn't time, because using all channels would be tooare possible. The key new insight is that we even yield its better results for weeks, or even expensive. We have to carefully select elementsneed a channel strategya specific, systematic months. The reward in improved yields is af- from each of the media groups and then integrateway of ensuring that our priority messages, dir- fected by many things outside the control of thethem so that they multiply the importance ofected at selected audiences, are going to interact seed developer or the farmer. Drought, flood- each other. with each other to promote change. ing, unexpected rises in fertilizer costs, and a We need what communication specialists call (continued on page 10) lack of credit can obliterate the most carefullya channel strategy. Channel strategies are situa- applied new practice. We have also learned thattion specific. They grow from an understanding disseminating simple media messages about theof a particular country, a particular program, wonders of a new seed variety will produce onlyand a particular audience. They are based upon frustrated and incredulous farmers. Clearly, thepreprogram research into questions like: "Who messages we decide to present must be analyzedlistens to what?" "Who reads?" "What are the from this perspective and carefully selected tocosts of each media channel?" "How compli- ensure that observable outcomes are perceivedcated is the advice we have to give?" "How as rewarding for the farmer. This means plan-accustomed to and/or tired of radio or print ning a comprehensive communication strategymessages, is our audience?" "Whom does our which helps the farmer deal with seasonal prob-audience trust for advice on a given topic?" and lems as they are encountered. Farming is not like many others. taking medicineyou do not get better after Suppose we have a country where farmers do taking two tablets. It is an integrated and cumu- not read very well; indeed, they are not used to lative process which is necessarily reactive toprinted instructions of any kind. We want to tell unpredictable events. But we cannot teach fanners that there is a pest problem, and that we everything at once, so we must carefully decide have a pesticide solution. We want to teach them what is needed now and focus on that advice as a to mix the new solutionand it is very impor- Pfinvig Owlet. tant that they mix it in exactly the right amount 3a, 3 Radio and the Educational Needs of Africa by Alex T. Quarmyne The following is an abridged version of a Radio in Africa can thus be said in practical speech presented at the "New Directions forterms to be a high-access medium from the point Do You Have a Education by Radio" Conference held in Nai-of view both of distribution and reception. No Radio Question? robi, Kenya, Sept. 23-28, 1984. This conferenceother medium, channel, or technology offers so was jointly sponsored by the Ministry of Educa- feasible a promise for the democratization of tion, Science and Technology, Republic ofeducation. Apart from individual capacity for Kenya, and the Office of Education, Bureau forlearning, nothing need constrain the tadio lis- tn.z-rdi 2.L s Science and Technology, U.S. Agency for Inter- tener from benefiting from an educational pro- The Spring issue of DCR was devoted to a national Development. It represents A.I.D.'sgramnot age, not sex, not the lack of certifi- state-of-the-art review of "interactive radio" continuing effort to disseminate the "interactivecates or transport or clean clothes, and all the an instructional design applied to radio to radio instruction" methodology applied in the other barriers that effectively select who may improve education in developing countries. Radio Language Arts Project in Kenya, Nicara-benefit from traditional modes of education. If you have any questions about this new gua, Thailand, and ti-f. Dominican Republic. As Wilbur Schramm points out acrd today we methodology or how it might be adapted to (See the Spring issue of Development Commu- are able to concede: your country's educational needs, we en- nication Report.) ... of course students ca's learn effec- courage you to send them to us. Starting with tively from the media, from ANY medium the Fall issue, our radio experts stand ready .. the democratization and ren- and what the merlia can do, they to respond to your queries. Direct your ques- ovation of education [is needed] to can do as well as a classroom teacher, tions to: enable all African children and sometimes better." adults to exercise fully their right Certainly, we cannot afford not to heed com- "Radio Question" t' education." mon sense or to listen to reason. A question Clearinghouse on Development This is the first priority need as defined by often raised is that of cost-effectiveness. It is Communication African Ministers of Education and economicrelatively simple and straightforward to apply 1255 23rd Street, N.W. planners as voiced at a conference held in Har- the criterion of cost-effectiveness to situations in Washington, D.C. 20037 are, Zimbabwe in 1982. Democratization of ed- industry. In education, however, it is not that U.S.A. ucation rests principally on the spread and main- straightforward; and in considerations leading to tenance of its delivery system. The traditional the choice of one communication medium overthere have been successful attempts to counter mechanisms of education, mainly schools, are others for educationl application, it is even more this argument. Among them, Tanzania where structurally incapable of carrying out this task of complex. educational radio was part of a focused national democratization. There is no African govern- From the results of many educational radio campaign supported by a strong political organi- ment that could build the classrooms, train the projects around the world and other studies, it is zation. Another was in Mauritius, where the teachers, and provide the support required tonow generally accepted that, particularly in situ- Mauritius College of the Air successfully used educate all its young citizens, let alone its ations such as we have in Africa where educa-radio, TV, and correspondence material in its adults, and much less to a given measure of tional radio does not imply the creation of sepa- educational programming. Again, this was a competence. Education of the scale and the type rate networks of production and transmissionproduct of the highest level of national commit- required by Africa cannot be accomplished facilities, much higher cost-effectiveness overment. Both also exemplified involvement at the through and in the classroom alone. traditional classroom teaching can be guaran- grassroots and operational levels from the teed. It is also clearly established that the cost- beginning, and were supported by formative A Tool for Democratization and Renovation effectiveness of radio in education can be as high research. Radio is one of Africa's great wasted re- as five times that of television. Today, in the light of dwindling human and sources. It was enthusiastically hailed by Afri- Here then is a wonderful scenario for radio as financial resources in most of Africa, the use of can governments at independence as a powerful the ultimate tool for the democratization and educational radio as a stand-alone system seems instrument for education both in its broadest andrenovation of education in Africa. The only to present a feasible strategy. The use of radio as more limited sense. thing missing is the action. To say that there has a stand-alone system, however, requires cre- It was the perfect medium for an impover- been no action may appear not to do justice to ative compensation for interpersonal and other ished, disadvantaged continent. It could instan-the work of the hundreds of men and women support inputs. Such compensation must neces- taneously and simultaneously reach geographi- who have over the years worked with dedication sarily be based on sound pedagogical principles. cally dispersed populations. It did not require in some form of educational broadcasting. They It therefore demands the most intimate collabo- literacy of the receivernor even of the sender. would be the first to lament with me, however, ration between broadcasters, stretching their National development plans have consistently that their efforts have not led anywhere nearcraft to the limit, and educators, testing the provided for improvement of the broadcastingdemocratizing and renovating education. validity of their teaching skills. This is what the transmission infrastructure. Most African coun- Going through a list of some 23 projects Language Arts Project in Kenya has so impres- tries are today able to distribute rad:o programs which have been labeled as educational radio sively demonstrated. to over 90% of their populations and at leastprojects in Africa over the past two decades, Our experiences with the few truly successful seven countries have 100% radio coverage. there are only five which I am able to identify as projects we have had so far tend to indicate that A total solution to the once most difficulthaving successfully fulfilled their objectives or it is not only a particular type of approach which problem of reception facilities is now within our as being in the process of doing so. Five out ofworks. One major feature which is common to reach. Although in many African countries the 23 is certainly not an impressive score. all successful projects is the use of specialists, unreliable supply of batteries still limits the po- who employed sound educational and communi- tential number of working receivers, even this A Few Success Stories cation research techniques for the design of the shortcoming is soon expected to be overcome There was a time when the popular belief was projects, for the development of the programs, with the introduction of solar- powered radio that as an instructional tool, radio as a stand- and for the assessment of their effectiveness. receivers. alone system was a poor performer. However, (continued on page 4) 3b 4 (Radio continued from page 3) tions to educational problems. These were of Low-Cost Collapsible We have also discovered that for a project to course not practicable as the Ivory Coast experi- succeed, it does not have to be of any particularence has so painfully finally driven home to us. Sound Studio type. Classification of types of educational radio But the magic of television lingers on, to the The Clearinghouse recently received an inter- programs is often done for the purpose of facili-disadvantage of radio. As one African Director esting set of plans for a low-cost collapsible tating analyses, but has never been seen to be a of Broadcasting put it, "I am not yet able to run sound studio. It was originally designed for Ma- success-determining factor. radio and they are asking me to submit proposals haweli Community Radio in Sn Lanka which All we are able to identify at this time is the for television." needed a sound-proof portable cubicle that could role that should be played by educational and later be moved to a permanent site. This 2.1 x communication research during the planning of The Task Ahead 3.6 meter studio can easily be dismantled and the project, the development of the broadcast Radio has been proposed in the discussion as transported. The total cost, using locally avail- program (through formative research), and the the optimum medium or technology to achieve able materials wherever possible, was use of summative research tools to measurethe dual goals of educational democratization US$1200, (excluding air conditioner). effectiveness. and renovation in Africa. But is educational For a free copy of the complete construction But are these findings really new? I submit radio in Africa in its present form ready to plans, request "A Low-Cost Collapsible Sound that they are not. They have been with us and accept this challenge? My answer is no. There Studio," Broadcasting and Rural Development demonstrated to us many times over. We now are obviously more fundamental reasons for our Working Paper No. 2 from: Unesco Consultant, have all the answers. failures than those we have traditionally pre- Mahaweli Community Radio, Gampola Road, sented at the many conferences and seminars. I Peradeniya, Sn Lanka. Why the Failure of Radio in Education? would like to submit two of these reasons for Strictly speaking, educational radio in Africa your consideration at this conference. cannot be said to have failed. The fact is, there The first problem is with the human factor has been very little serious educational radio the educator and the broadcaster. The educator effort in Africa. There have been and are a will not give an inch from his arena of classroom number of educational radio projects and pro- teaching to facilitate wider learning; the broad- Rural Reconstruction grams, but many have been short-lived, short- caster will not share the mystique of the craft to Training Courses Offered sighted or both. Often they have been mere put it to substantive use. Each displays a degree reproductions of the traditional classroom for- of inflexibility which suggests a lack of under- The International Institute of Rural Recon- mats. In no way could these be said to be con- standing of the purposes of his or her individual struction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines, an- tributing to the democratization and renovation discpline, however he or she may have mastered nounces its schedule of International Training of education. A number of other projects have its form. courses to be conducted during 1985 and 1986. been planned and executed purely as experi- We require a renovation of the broadcaster Courses are designed for Third World nationals ments or research ventures. Nevertheless, there and the educator themselves. From the broad- who are currently working in either middle- or are a multitude of reports of countless seminars caster we require a commitment to, and a change senior-level management positions with rural with the ever-present title "The Role of Broad- of attitude towards education. Similarly, from development organizations in the Third World. casting in Education" which assert that educa- the educator, we require a commitment to, and a Applicants must have at least three years of tional radio has failed because of budgetary con- change of attitude towards radio. experience in rural development work and a straints on program production, the lack of Secondly, we require democratization of related academic background. They must be for- listening facilities, or the shortage of trainedradio itself. Democratization of educational mally nominated by their organization, and must personnel. Year after year, this same list of radio will require the decentralization of produc- be in good health to stand the rigors of an "problems" surfaces and nothing ever seems to tion and transmission facilities. It will require intensive course which includes living and be an adequate solutionnot the use of low-cost opportunities for citizens to have closer access to working in rural communities. Courses offered portable production equipment, not the provi- the program-building machinery and to help en- are: sion by government of free receivers, not even sure that programming reflects their concernsAdvanced Course in Rural Reconstruction, Oct. the increase-in- the number of communication and their communities' educational needs. 14-Nov. 23, 1985 and Feb. 10-March 21, 1986 graduates. Unfortunately, in this regard our continent This six-week certificate course for middle- INOINOMININ still has a major problem. The truth is that most level managers places particular emphasis "The use of radio as a stand- of the time broadcasters themselves do not study upon rural reconstruction implementation educational radio, its potential and its implica- alone system...requires cre- strategies in order to enhance attitudes, skills, tions adequately enough to be able to make ative compensation for interper- and knowledge that prepare participants to convincing proposals to their governments. become more efficient, effective, and com- sonal and other support inputs." The underutilization of radio to date would mitted managers of development programs. seem finally to indicate that we have allowed Senior Manager's Seminar, Nov. 3-18, 1986 All one has to do is to listen to any program ourselves to be awed by its potential. But let us This is a four-week certificate course to pro- labeled "educational" on any African radio serv-remember that in the same manner that we have ice and to reflect on the teaching and learningso far limited this potential, we also have it vide a forum for sharing and analysis of cur- processes, and one is bound to come to the within our power to harness it to our ends. To rent rural development practices which will increase awareness of, and capability to deal conclusion that we are not only stagnating but continue to steer the now-familiar old course and probably actually retrogressing. In most cases attempt piecemeal remedies along the way will with changing realities and emerging issues in you are even lucky if you find a program you can never get us there. Africa has not yet truly the Third World today. Major emphasis is on actually listen to. discovered educational radio. Let this be the participant sharing, rural development issues Where attempts might have been made to use start of that discovery. and strategies, critical areas, and program radio seriously for education, these have been planning and evaluation. undercut by the entry of its more glamorous For further details contact: Director, Training sibling, television. Following patterns estab- Alex T.Quarmyne is the Unesco Chief Technical Division, IIRR, Silang, Cavite, Philippines lished elsewhere, both educators and broacasters Adviser at the Zimbabwe Institute of Mass Com- 2720 or Vice President, U.S. Office, IIRR, 1775 in Africa started looking to television for solu- munication, Harare, Zimbabwe. Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019, U.S.A. 5 Meanwhile, a parallel plot developes as a Commercial Cinema: villain, an evil moneylender who resents this A Medium for Development Communication marriage because of his own desire for the heroine, interprets the couple's failure to produce a by John Riber and Steven Smith child as impotency on the part of the hero. The villain's continued pursuit of the heroine leads to action-packed fighting, a house burning, and iwtsowricelolf- encouraged in this Islamic nation, by using the ultimately to his comical humiliation, all key [--- eCsotablishediaidcisitrinebutiowninthet commercial cinema medium where sexual ingredients of a traditionally successful Bangla- mem& halls in many developingthemes are commonly featured, the possibility deshi commercial film. countries offers an exciting oppor- of introducing the controversial topic of family Understanding audience expectations in a tunity to present potentially sensitive develop- planning could even add to the film's popularity. commercial cinema context is the key to suc- ment issues. In Bangladesh, the commercial The script was developed from research con- cessfully adapting this medium for social devel- cinema is very popular. The country's thriving ducted by Manoff International Inc.. an Amen- opment messages. Although some foreign tech- film industry annually produces about 40 feature can social marketing agency who worked nical assistance was provided, the success of the films which are distributed to more than 250closely with MRCB, a Bangladeshi market re- two films described above depended on how cinema halls across the country. Historically, search agency. They identified the target audi- their themes were adapted to the traditional fea- cinema in Bangladesh has been strictly an enter-ences and the constraints against using contra- ture film format. Alamgir Kabir, a leading film tainment medium, sharing a tradition with theceptive methods in Bangladesh. Then messages director in Bangladesh selected popular stars for Indian film industry. The formula film domi- were designed to address these issues. One con- the films, and in keeping with expected, though natesoverflowing with melodrama, heroes, straint was the hesitancy of husbands and wives seemingly conflicting messages, dressed the vil- heroines, villians, and extravagant love song-to discuss family planning with each other. Re- lage heroine in elegant clothing and jewelry. and-dance routines. As in other countries, cin-search suggested that contraceptive methods This reinforced her role as the stereotypical her- ema in Bangladesh transcends the boundaries ofmight be used more frequently if this constraint oine of the film. local social mores, and even the poorest vil- could be overcome, so the decision was made to Viewers in developed countries who have lagers can escape into a world where eventsuse this issue as the film's theme. been exposed to documentary films can appreci- occur that would not be tolerated in real life. A love story entitledTogether (Amra Dujon), ate them as a medium for learning. In develop- In 1982, Worldview International Foundationwas developed. The social message revolves ing countries, on the other hand, few people are (WIF), an international voluntary organizationaround a newlywed couple; both are hesitant to exposed to the documentary film format. whose activities focus on practical participation immediately start a family, but neither feels Movie-goers have paid their hard-earned money in the information process, established a mediacomfortable discussing his/her feelings on the to be entertained, not educated. For this reason, center in Dhaka, Bangladesh in order to use subject with the other because of strong cultural a documentary-type film, lacking the escarl and the film medium to disseminate developmenttaboos against such a delay. As the story de- messages. velops, the barriers are surmounted and thisexcitement viewers expect will not succeed in a WIF first worked with the Ministry of Educa-"model couple" begins to discuss the issuecommercial environment. To date, commercial cinema has been an un- tion (MOE) to promote literacy. They collabor-using singing and dancing to express their con- derutilized medium for development messages. ated in making a short film, itis Dawn; Open the cerns about family planning. Although the con- WIF's experiences demonstrate how effective, Door (Bhor Holo, DorKolo), for cinema halltraceptive method they have selected is not well-conceived social messages can be pre- viewing. To ensure that the literacy film had the revealed (this would not be accepted even in a sented in a commercial cinema context. It is same appeal as the feature attraction it wouldcommercial film), it is made clear they are re- precede, entertainment was fully integrated into solved to practice family planning. (continued on page 6) the production. Following the typical commercial film formula, a love story, with dancing, singing, and fighting, paralleled the developing social messagethat those who achieve literacy will be rewarded.

Social Marketing in Rims at Using the social marketing approach to promote a development theme, the producers were able to plug into a commercially successful network that assured them of reaching a large, attentive audience for a very low cost. An estimated eight million Bangladeshis have seen this literacy film in cinema halls, mobile film projec- tion vans, and on TV. Evaluation of the project showed that 95 percent of the surveyed audience enjoyed the film and understood the intended message. Furthermore, the film was so popular that it was submitted as the Bangladesh entry at an international film festival in Moscow. WIF's next project was considerably more challenging. Population Services International asked WIF to produce another film, for the So- cial Marketing Project (an A.I.D.-funded family planning communication project), this time with a family planning theme as the social develop- Standard commercial cinema filming techniques are used to produce movies with social messages in ment message. Although family planning is notBanqiedesh. c. 5 6

(Chumcontinued from page51 and concepts, marketing in action, the produc- hoped this will encourage others to use thisOn File at tion-marketing-consumption system approach to widely available channel of mass communica- agricultural commodities, characteristics of tion to disseminate other social messages. by Barbara Minor commodity systems, behavior of market participants, simulation of a marketing system, identi- Antra Dujonis a 30-minute Bengali-language Documents on agriculture and health educa- fication of alternatives in previously identified color film available with or without English sub- tion in developing nations that have been re-marketing situations, role of Peace Corps volun- titles in 16mm film, or video: 1/2" Beta or VHS, cently entered in the ERIC (Educational Re-teers in agricultural marketing, and sharing re- or 3/4" Umatic from DSR, Inc., Box 281, Co- sources Information Center) files focus onsources and plans for action. The module pro- lumbia, Maryland 21045, U.S.A. Information agricultural extension service and basic educa-vides objectives, teaching techniques, materials about Itis Dawn, Open the Dooris also avail- tion, agricultural marketing principles, and sev- needed, suggestions to the facilitator, handouts, able from DSR, Inc. eral facets of health education.All five of theseworksheets, and visual aids for each concept. documents are available in microfiche and fourLectures are minimal; content is presented pri- John Riber is an Independent Aimmiker work- in paper copy from the ERIC Document Repro- marily through learning experiences. An appen- ing with Environment-Conservation Media Serv- duction Service (EDRS), 3900 Wheeler Ave., dix contains additional visual aids, a bibliogra- ices, Madras, Ladle. He established and administered the Video Media Center in Dhaka, Alexandria, Virginia 22304, U.S.A. Be sure tophy, and supporting materials. Available from Bangladesh from 19112 to 1944. include the ED number and payment in U.S. EDRS in microfiche for 97 cents or in paper fiends for the price listed plus shipping. copy for SI 2.65. Steven Smith is currently working with DSR, Perraton, Hilary and others.Basic Education Health and Sanitation Lessons (Africa). Ap- Inc., and as a consultant on Third World informa- and Agricultural Extension. Costs, Effects, propriate Technologies for Development. Re- tion, education, and communication projects. and Alternatives. World Bank Staff Working print Series, Number27. 1978. 114 pp. (ED Papers, Number 564.1983. 297 pp (ED240 243 818) 253) This book presents 43 health, nutrition, and The five papers in this collection examine thesanitation lesson plans originally developed by methods, costs, and effects of traditional agri-Peace Corps volunteers in Niger and recently cultural extension services and basic educationtransiated from French by Graeme Frelick for Microcomputer Course and present three case studies illustrating differ-use in The Gambia. These lessons can be used in Offered ent approaches to using mass media for rurala variety of ways, in home visits, pm-/postnatal education. The first paper reviews the literatureconsultations, well-baby clinics, and primary A courseon Microcomputer Acquisition and on the effectiveness of agricultural extension,schools. Unlike most traditional health lesson Uses in Development, to beheld Oct.12-Nov.2, and reports that extension agents' studies ofplans which emphasize the lecture method, 1985 at the University of Minnesota, is now internal efficiency have been generally critical,these plans stimulate and encourage full client open for registration. This course will guide while evaluators of external efficiency (mainlyparticipation. Alnough designed in 1971 for individuals through the process of acquiring, economists) show much more positive results. ItSahelian countries, these lessons can be adapted implementing, and managing a microcomputer 1.suggested that extension agents often haveand modified, as appropriate, to serve as guides system. The course is designed for developing irrelevant evaluation criteria and economistsfor health programs and materials development country senior- and middle-level managers with generally overestimate the specific impact ofin other countries. Included are sections on an- administrative and planning responsibilities. extension services. The literature on the com-tenatal care, childbirth, home visits, and mater- Participants are assumed to have had no prior parative value of mass media and traditionalnal and child health clinic visits. Appendices computer experience. The course cost is $3000 approaches is reviewed in the second paper,provide sample recipes for weaning foods, a per person, including lodging. For registration which emphasizes ways in which mass medianutrition lexicon, and information about com- information contact: Fred Hoefer, 405 Coffey have been used for agricultural extension and forplementary proteins. Available from EDRS in Hall, Univ. of Minnesota, 1420 Eckles Ave., basic education, ways in which mass media havemicrofiche for 97 cents or in paper copy for St.Paul, Minnesota 55108, U.S.A. Telex/TWX: been linked with group and individual study,$9.15. 298421 UM COLAG. Phone: 612-373-0725. and the costs of using mass media as compared Community Health Education in Developing with other approaches. The remaining three Countries. Appropriate Technologies for De- papers present case studies of mass media use by velopment. Peace Corps Manual M-8. 1978. a government department, the Extension Aids 208pp. (ED 243 819) Service of the Ministry of Agriculture of Ma- This manual was developed by Peace Corps lawi; a nongovernmental organization, INADESfor those *wasted in promoting change to im- Call for Papers Formation, in West Africa; and a sernigovern-prove health conditions in their communities. mental agency, the Lesotho Distance TeachingParts I and II focus on fundamental health educa- Center. Available from World Bank Publica- The International Communication Associ- tion processes and discuss techniques and ap- ation (ICA) invites you to submit your pro- tions, P.O. Box 37525, Washington, D.C.proaabes for working with community members posal for a paper, program, special session, 20013, U.S.A. for US$ 15.00; or from EDRS into plan and develop programs that are responsive workshop, or tutorial for its 1986 Annual microfiche only for 97 cents. to the community's expressed needs and goals. Conference to be held May 22-26, 1986 in Agricultural Marketing Principles: A Train- Part III presents another aspect of educational Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. ICA comprises ing Manual. Training for Development. Man- programs, that of transmitting information about eight divisions and some special interest ual No. T-31.1984. I57pp. (ED 251 698) health topics. This section includes specific ref- groups representing a variety of focuses in This moduk contains basic materials to en-erence materials on selected health topics rele- able the workshop facilitator to teach concepts in communication. Proposals are due Nov. 1, vant to developing countries, and it also dis- agricultural marketing to Peace Corps volun- 1985. cusses methods and aids for presenting such teers. Introductory materials include general For submission guidelines and further in- information to individuals or groups. Part IV suggestions for the facilitator, a checklist, and a formation write to: deals with four common community health suggested timetable for a two-week workshop. ICA Headquarters, P.O. Box 9589, Austin, problems: nutrition, maternal and child health, Texas 78766, U.S.A. The course is organized by 11 concepts: needscontrol of communicable diseases, and accident assessment, market familiarization, basic terms Sontinued on page 12) J.

7 Mass Media in Peru Promotes "Responsible Parenthood" finally that the most credible source of Informa- by Judy Brace and Reynaldo Pareja tion about family planning services would be a mature female doctor, herself a mother. (A former radio actress, now a gynocologist, was Peru is currently embarked on a concurred. The elements that would be covered found to take this media role.) mass media campaign under the by this theme and reflect this responsibility Pretest Adjustments 0 auspices of the Ministry of Health would be family planning, oral rehydration, and (MOH), to promote a variety ofimmunization. That is, responsible parents de- The creative design team of the advertising health-related activities to raise the level of con- cide on the number of children they can raise agency, with the information from these sur- sciousness and knowledge of low-income par- properly, they vaccinate their children, and they veys, then developed TV storyboards (a series of ents about family planning, immunization and give oral rehydration solution to a child with sketches or photographs prepared during the oral rehydration. A joint effort between the Min- diarrhea. planning of a film or videotape to illustrate the istry, the U.S. Agency for International Devel- The mass media campaign activity was based sequence of the visual information to be con- opment (A .1. D. ), and a private advertisingon the results of fairly extensive audience re- veyed). Four versions were developed for the agency, has resulted in a series of TV spots, and search data that established knowledge and be- umbrella spot on responsible parenthood, and a graphics package, grouped under the umbrella liefs in the areas of family planning, immuniza- one was selected after informal pretesting, for theme of "Responsible Parenthood," to encour- tion, and oral rehydration. With these data, presentation to the MOH and CNP. In addition, age a thoughtful approach to the bearing and message designers, working with a communica- several storyboard versions were made for five raising of children. tions consultant, were able to develop media other target area spots. Because television spots are not as frequently themes, test and correct them, and finally to air After presentation to the MOH and CNP, used as radio spots for social service messages, them. suggestions were incorporated into the story- our readers might be interested in the develop- Since responsible parenthood was to be the boards, which were then translated into anima- ment of these spots. umbrella theme for all the spots, an introductory tics (the photographing of drawings or sketches Thp National Population Council (CNP) spot was designed to enunciate the components by a movie or video camera in such a way as to strongly advocated adoption of an overall themeof responsible parenthood, and to establish a simulate movement, which, accompanied by a of "Responsible Parenthood," and the MO'I song and some recognizable phrases that would narrative, becom,:s a "draft" version of the film carry through to all the other spots. The ele- or video product being planned). The animatics ments of responsibility included adequate food, were taken into the field for pretesting by a good education, health care, appropriate research group. clothes, adequate housing, and much love. The The results of the pretest were very useful in Oral Rehydration overall song phrase adopted was "...loving and selecting the final approach to be taken. Without caring for the children that the couple decides to a pretest, major mistakes would have been Therapy Conference have." made. For example, an animatic that showed The audience research identified two appro- men talking about the family planning aspect of The second International Conference on Oral priate audiences at which to aim the family responsible parenthood over a pool table was Rehydration Therapy (ICORT II) will be held planning messages: those who want no more rejected by the pretest audience as representing December 10-13, 1985, at the Hyatt Regency children and those who are using traditional too many negative factors. So the setting of this Washington in Washington, D.C. More than Itcontraceptive methods. For the first audience, spot was changed. A combination of male and countries are expected to be represented at thif`TV spots were designed to reach I) the woman, female voices giving the message was preferred meeting, which will focus on implementing 2) the man, and 3) the couple. For the second to a male-only narration. Chance encounters, in ORT programs, and report on the progress and audience, the spots were designed to reach the the animatics, between neighbors or relatives new developments in ORT since the first confer- couple with an emphasis on either the male or that gave rise to discussions about family plan- ence in June 1983. female role. In each case the free services of the ning were interpreted to have hidden or clandes- Topics for discussion at the conference in- health centers were promoted. tine meanings, and were dropped or altered to clude: communications and social marketing; The campaign was based on findings from clarify the situations. distribution and logistics; health personnel train- both quantitative audience surveys and from The TV spots used the visual image of rabbits ing; supervision and monitoring; evaluation and focus group surveys. (In a focus group, six to 12 to suggest uncontrolled reproduction, and the cost issues; and integrating ORT with other participants guided by a moderator, discuss narrative reminded the viewer to "remember the health activities. topics relevant to the investigation underway. rabbits"that responsible parents do not have Simultaneous translation will be available in The participants are selected from representa- children in an uncontrolled manner. French, English, Spanish, and Arabic. There is tives of the target audience on which the investi- It had been planned to use the TV spot's no attendance fee. gation is focused. Usually the findings from symbol of rabbits in the radio spots as well, until The conference is sponsored by the U.S. several groups are necessary for adequate re- the pretest of the radio messages revealed that Agency for International Development in coop- search coverage.) reference to rabbits, without the visual image of eration with the International Centre for Diarr- The Peruvian focus groups revealed informa- rabbits in the arms of narrators, was too harsh, hoea! Disease Research/Bangladesh, the United tion about contraceptive habits, male attitudes and was rejected by the pretest audiences. This Nations Children's FUnd, the UNDP, the World toward their wives' use of contraceptive was a surprise to the message designers, who Bank, and WHO. methods, that there is a folk vocabulary for had assumed that production of radio spots was For registration material please contact: Ms. family planning activities (to incorporate intosimply a matter of transferring the TV images to Linda Ladislaus, ICORT II Conference Staff, the spots to make them acceptable), that the a radio format. The pretest showed a clear dis- Creative Associates, Inc, 3201 New Mexico quality of service given in the health centers tinction between the two media, requiring sepa- Ave., N.W., Suite 270, Washington, D.C. conditions the continuing reliance on the center rate and unique content. 20016. for future health services by its client and (continued on page 10) 11 L. A Communicator',

World Communications: A Hand- Also, there are obviously weaker chapters thatsuffering from these shortcomings. Block's book by George Gerbner and Marsha must be put somewhere but their inclusion hurtschapter on the International Program for the Siefert (editors), (New York: Longman, the overall quality. The editors must be compli-Development of Communication (IPDC) that 11984) 527pp. mented on the technical quality of their editing, was created in Unesco as a more pragmatic way the useful appendices (especially the glossary offor Western nations to help solve information This book is the result of an international confusing United Nations acronyms and the eso- order problems now seems overly optimistic. conference on New World Information/Commu- teric terms of high technology), and the rela-IPDC has not received nearly the level of aid nication Order (NWICO) issues held in May tively successful effort to make so manypromised by beleaguered Western nations when 1980. It is important to note the date because it chapters fit some reasonable framework withoutit was created. It suggests that once NWICO marked the high point of NWICO debate in long introductions. pressure was off, things returned to normal. Unesco. At that time the release of the Mac Bride It would be impossible to summarize the vast This book would be a useful library reference Report was imminent and the Unesco Belgrade array of topics, but let me give a list of someand in this sense may be correctly labeled a conference promised some important changes in chapters that I believe are still useful in this"handbook." Although there are some useful the information order. Western nations seemed post-information order age. Many of theand even important chapters, the brevity of about to make concessions to Third World de-NWICO debate chapters and those dealing withtreatment means that readers who wish to get a mands for better balance in information flow and the MacBride Report are of historical interest,deeper knowledge of an issue will have to go faster transfer of technology. but not as relevant to 1985 as some had hopedelsewhere. It is unfortunate that the production process offive years ago. In section one, the Cruise- almost four years (the book was published only O'Brien chapter on information in North-SouthAvailable for $34.95 from Longman, Inc., 95 in 1984) makes much of the material seem out- negotiations is still important even though it hasChurch Street, White Plains, New York, New dated in the light of subsequent events: few yet to be widely implemented. Also, the Amun- York, 10601, USA. changes in either world orders of economy orugama chapter detailing the cultural issues of the information, the U.S. withdrawal from Unesco, information order debate remains in focusReviewed by Emile G. McAnany, Professor of In- a world recession especially dramatic in the today. The work on news (mostly content analy-ternational Communications at the University of Third World, and a proliferation of technology Texas, Austin, Texas. He has written extensively on sis) in section two contains some useful empiri-the effects and uses of communication technologies but without special concessions for the Thirdcal data, but it seems repetitious in the light ofin developing countries. World. other studies that have shown the imbalances in The book suffers from a second drawback. It news coverage. The proof of imbalance is clear contains S4 chapters in the 485 pages of text, orenough by now; what is needed are some policy Bibliotech: The 1984/1985 Computer an verage :f nine pages per chapter including suggestions as to how best overcome the prob- Cookbook, by William Bates. (New referem.:c. There are few chapters that can af- lem. Unfortunately no chapter in this section York: Quantum Press, 1985). ford to give the detail to make sense of the many really addresses this policy issue. Section three important and complex issues they tackle. For on telecommunications is about technology This book may finally be the pill that cures example, it is dubious that anyone who is notchanges, and the Hamelink, Dordick, Melody, severe cases of technophobia and technophilia already well versed on the subject can get any-and Rice and Parker chapters all contain usefuland that happy balance alone is worth a good thing from the six-page chapter in which Agra- insight and data very relevant today. Sectionbit. But there is more:Bibliotechis visually wal valiently attempts to summarize the vast four on mass communications and national de-appealing, extraordinarily well written, and Indian Satellite Instructional Television (SITE) velopment should be the most relevant to practi- "humanizes" the computer revolution by setting project. Or what can be gotten from the four- cal communicators in the Third World, but un-computers in a context of getting work done. and-one-half pages by Gorove who attempts tofortunately it is not. There are a number ofUnlike the usual perspective that believes his- summarir' .ire legal and political issues of the reprints in this section (Homik and Atwood andtory began with the invention of the microchip, 1979 WAKC (World Administrative Radio Con- Mattos come to mind) or simply chapters ofBates does not confuse Silicon Valley with the ference) where NWICO issues were discussedmarginal quality. The chapters by White andGarden of Eden. His description of the "inven- on the technic.. level? There are many otherMotta which begin and end the section make the tion" of programming is a good story and a good examples, but these illustrate the basic problem. most sense in their theoretical frameworks and example of the style and tone of the book: There is a positive side to the book. First, thethe policy implications they draw from them. "Ada, the programming language, is comprehensive nature of the contributions,Finally, section five on intergovernmental sys- named for Augusta Ada, Countess of Lo- which are placed in five sections, gives thetems has much on NWICO and Unesco issues as velace...the assistant of Charles Babbage, reader a guide through important NWICO issues well as the 1979 WARC, but much of the writ- inventor of an analog calculating machine of the time. These sections are: 1) Global Per-ing seems now out of focus. However, Pelton's that is sometimes considered the first com- spectives on Information; 2) Transnationalchapter is perceptive about INTELSAT in fore- puter. Ada's mother was a nonconformist, Communications: the Flow of News andseeing the problems it is now facing with in- end encouraged all of Ada's intellectual Images; 3) Telecommunications: Satellites and creasing international competition from the pri- interests, including...mechanics and math- Computers; 4) Mass Communications: Develop- vate sector, especially in the U.S. Levin's ematics. In 1834, a: 19, Ada married Wil- ment within National Contexts; and 5) Intergov-observations about contradictions in U.S. inter- liam King, later the First Earl of Lovelace, ernmental Systems: Toward International Poli-nal and external communications' policies are and eventually bore him three children. cies. The editors malty an effort to provide useful reminders that the International Telecom- "Ada's work, however, was not ham- coherent set, of chapters within these sections, munications Union (ITU) sessions of WARC are pered excessively by motherhood. Intro- but there are a number that seem out of place.still ongoing and that U.S. policies are still duced to Babbage, she translated his trea- 9 the on the analytical machine into French, Their book contains chapters on: 1) Assessinga knowledge gap. The wealthier, better educated adding her own notes that were the first Change Variables in Local Communities; 2) De- farmers are better able to try and to adopt inno- description of what in the 20th century is velopment and Delivery of Science Based Infor-vations, the result being that the rich get richer, called computer programming. mation the New Way; 3) Applications from Dif-the powerful more powerful, and the poor and "Like many mathematicians, Ada was fusion Research; 4) Problems in the Linkingpowerless more so. Another argument against fascinated by gambling, and carried on a (i.e., the Extension System); 5) Interpersonalthe extension model is that its top-down ap- passionate correspondence with Babbage in Communication; 6) Mass Media Channels as proach reinforces the subservient and dependent an effort to work out a foolproof method of Communication Assists; 7) Planning Communi-role of the subsistence farmer. These results betting on horses, evidently without suc- cation with Small and Mass Audiences; and 8)weigh against the utilization of the extension cess. In her 30s, Ada gambled heavily, Selecting Change Strategies and Going to Work. model, critics say, and for the use of communi- borrowing from her mother to hide her Each chapter features a summary of recommen-cation models more relevant and responsive to losses from her husband. She died young, dations for change agents and a list of references the realities of Third World rural development. at age 36, in 1852, a hundred years before for further reading. Lionberger and Gwin clearly believe that the her time." Communication Strategies iswell-illustrated U.S. extension model is appropriate for devel- Ada, the programming language, made itswith both diagrams and drawings from Third oping countries and that it can be adapted to the public debut as the darling of the Defense De- World rural settings. One of its best features is a specific conditions in the Third World. For ex- partment in 1980. "Highlights" section at the beginning of theample, they recommend gearing research to- This little bit of computerbilia gives credence book with summaries of the main points from ward the development of technologies that bene- to the claim that this book is "the classic infor- each chapter. There is also a welcome ten-page fit the "littles" more than the "begs," to use their mal encyclopedia of personal computing." It is Glossary at the end. terminology, with appropriate support services organized alphabetically by topics such as "bub- The book's stated objectives are "(I) to de- like small farmer credit and communication proble memory," "database managers," "the handi- velop an understanding of change processes and grams aimed specifically at subsistence farmers. capped," "Japanese computers," "software pi- conditions as they apply to agriculture; and (2) They make a point of saying that "change strate- racy," "robots," "video disks," andto formulate strategies for implementinggies must be selected in the context of what is "wordprocessing." planned change that will help agricultural advi-locally available, possible, and feasible." They For each of the 100-plus entries, there is asors with their mission to improve world fooddiscuss, for exariple, alternative strategies for discussion of the role played by the computer, production and perhaps most of all help farmersthe selection, training, and coordination of ex- amply illustrated, with appropriate referencesachieve their own objectives." All in all, Lion- tension agents and for the utilization of media, (including software), and a description of re- berger and Gwin have done a good job of mak-depending on local conditions. One strategy lated technology. The six-page section oning communication, extension, and social which Lionberger and Gwin suggest for suc- spreadsheets includes a list of Visi-Calc com-change research relevant and accessible to thecessfully meeting the needs of farmers is the mands, a glossary of spreadsheet terms, and a practitioner. participation of those farmers in helping deter- description of the Lotus 1-2-3 program that is But it is a particular kind of practitioner. The mine research and information needs, and in slowly but surely nudging Visi-Calc (and itsbook is aimed at "agricultural change agents, helping the researchers and advisors communi- relatives) out of first place. such as extension agents, farm advisors orcate the new information appropriately. The au- As an "introductory text" to the world ofcounty agents, agricultural missionaries, and thorsmakea concerted and well-reasoned effort microcomputers, this may be among the finest others who are dedicated to developing world to draw lessons from the mistakes of past at- books I have come across, especially for the food supplies and helping people in other ways." tempts at too rigid an application of the exten- person whose background or interests are nat However, the agricultural change agents the au- sion model. The communication specialist who highly technical. thors seem to have in mind are college educated. agrees that the extension model is appropriate Despite the fact that this book is relatively free for, and can be adapted to, Third World agricul- A French edition will soon be published by from social science jargon, it is still for the more ture development will find many helpful hints Hachette Informatique, 79 Boulevard St. Ger- sophisticated reader. The typical agricultural ex- for doing so. main, F75006, Paris, France. tension agent in much of the Third World, with 6 Based on the assumption that the U.S. exten- Available in English for US$14.95 from to 12 years of schooling and a limited vocabu-sion model can be adapted to the developing Quantum Press /Doubleday, 245 Park Avenue, lary, will likely find this book too demanding. country setting,Communication Strategies New York, NY 10167, USA. Indeed, a colleague who recently conducted a offers a clear explanation of how this model course on application and diffusion for Third works, ideas for adapting it to local conditions, Reviewed by Patti Lowery who has written and World extension administrators reported that the and discussion of problems inherent in the edited In the fields of health care, training, andbook was too complex for his trainees and wasevolving extension programs of Third World international development. She was the former edi- This Guide for Agricultural Change tor ofMicros in Management,a newsletter devoted used as background reading, a role in which it countries. to microcomputer applications in developing coun- served very well. He also reported that it was Agentsis a useful reference for technical assis- tries. useful t..0 the trainers in reviewing theory and tance personnel and Third World professionals practice and in preparing training activities attempting to facilitate the growth of extension which translated this theory and practice into programs in developing countries. Communication Strategies; A Guide terms relevant to the Third World trainee. for Agricultural Change Agents, by The authors mention many of the critiques of Herbert F. Lionberger and Paul H. the U.S. extension &node! and discuss the neces- Available from Interstate Printers and Pub- 3Gwin (Danville, IL: The Interstate sity of adapting the model to the realities of the lishers Inc., 1927 N. Jackson St., Danville, IL Printers and Publishers, 1982), 239pp. Third World setting where infrastructure may be 61832, USA., for US$8 95. Lionberger and Gwin have produced a well-weak, necessary inputs nonexistent, research written, clear summary cf the U.S. extension not relevant to farmer needs, mass media lim- model with a perspective adapted to the Third ited, and extension agents poorly trained and World setting. They provide a good explanation supported. However, they do not seem to ask Reviewed by Nancy Swing, an independent consultant in development communication and member of the extension system from research and devel- themselves if this model is appropriate under of the adjunct faculties of the School of interna- opment (both pure and applied) through dissem- such circumstances. Many authors have argued tional Service and the School of Education at The ination and integration of innovations. that utilization of the extension model results in American University, Washington, D.C.

. . 9 ri 10

Low-Cost have been established at the village level for Telecommunications (Healthcontinued from page t ) mobilizing local residents who then go on to on the Way share their experiences with others. select DSC materials from the local field officelain MLLellan is a freelance journalist currently Earlier this year a transmission was relayed that are most relevant to that issue. A campaignwith Radio Canada International and a research is mounted to inform residents how to best dealfellow with the Interbational Development Re- that represents a breakthrough in the use of low sear:h Centre in Canada. orbiting satellites for worldwide c,ummunica- with the problem. After their owncampaign is dom. Using amateur radio frequencies, inex- over, the committee shares their experience with neighboring villages. pensive transmitters and receivers, anda personal computer, a team of technical volunteers For example, after a DSC-supportedcam- from the U.S. and Canada sent messages from paign helped to reduce the number of water-(Ag Comcontinued from page 2) Hawaii to the University of Surrey in Guildford, borne diseases in one village (by installinga England via a tiny satellite orbiting the earth filtered water source), members of the develop- over the poles at an altitude of 429 miles (690ment committee from that village visited neigh-Summing Up km). boring villages to discuss their successfulcam- A new kind of agricultural communication The messagesdigitized "packets" of infor-paign, using the same DSC materials they hadprogram is now emerging. It represents a hybrid used in their own village. mationwere stored in the satellite's on-board system which brings together what we have computer. A few hours later, as the satellite DSC resource materials have been developedlearned about making better media products, by organizations such as INADES, passed over Guildford, the letter-perfectmes- a resourcewith new ways of organizing and integrating sages were downloaded and printed out auto-center sponsored by the Catholic Church, RA-media and new approaches to understanding and matically by the Surrey ground station's smallTELESCO (Zaire's educational radio and televi-persuading our audience. Three fieldsinstruc- personal computer. sion authority), OXFAM, UNICEF, WHO, andtional media, social marketing, and behavioral The system, called PACSAT, will offer tele- other international organizations. Many of thesepsychology are contributing to our ability touse communications networking at a fraction of thematerials are then adapted to the local culturecommunications more effectively in support of cost of conventional telexes once it becomes and distributed to the various field centers. Foragricultural development. example, a flip chart on prenatal care developed operational. Ground station equipmen-osting Many of these "new" ideas have been part of by a Peace Corps Volunteer for not more than $2,000 and capable of operating one health center excellent programs in the past. They have on batteries or solar power, can be carried in awas reproduced and distributed to all 50 ruralemerged as the product of common sense and briefcase. The first full-service PACSAT satel- health-zone field offices. Slide shows, flannel-practical experience. But now we have a solid lite is scheduled for launch in early 1987. graphs, and filmstrips are similarly duplicatedtheoretical basis for understanding when they and distributed. Volunteers from Volunteers in Technical As- work and how to improve and extend their sistance (VITA), a private voluntary develop- Special care is taken to ensure that the mate- Impact. ment agency in Washington, D.C., Radio Ama-rials are timely and relevant to the villagers' The axis of effective agricultural communica- teur Satellite Corp. (AMSA:), an international needs. Each item is pretested by communicationtion is the famer, his needs. attitudes, percep- associatior. of "ham" radio operators, and Inter- specialists to see how the message is interpreted tions, and bcnaviors. Our communication strat- pates, a private Canadian agency engaged in at the village level. Copies of a poster showinga egy must be comprehensive, combining a community-based development cooperated in man holding a baby were widely distributed only detailed understanding of our advice, its cost design and launch efforts. after pretesting found that this unconventionaland benefits as perceived by the farmer, how it image was culturally acceptable, and that it ef-will be delivered, and what consequences it will fectively conveyed the desired message that fa-produce. The approach must be balanced and ANIM....M.11110NIMMINIVIIM thers, too, are responsible for monitoring andcomplete, not emphasizing one element to the (TVcontinued from page 7) maintaining their childrens' health. exclusion of another. We need new research Among the many types of DSC materials techniques which permit us to more easily meas- Armed with the feedback from the pretesting used, flipcharts and flash cards have been theure the farmer's response to communication pro- phase, actual live videotaping withactors began most widely distributed. Approximately 60 per-grams so that mid-course corrections can be and nine spots were prepared: fouron familycent of the village-level nurses use them regu- made as needed. These techniques must be prac- planning, dune on oral rehydration andtwo onlarly. Slide shows are frequently usedas well. tical, reliable, affordable, and applicable. The immunization. These are currently being airedAlways popular in the villages, theycan beresulting messages must be simple, clear, rele- mitionwide in Pent, on three TV channels, withgeared to particular village needs, andcan bevant, and repeated often if they are to be heard, time paid for by the MOH with A.I.D.funds. paced to encourage discussion during the slide understood, and accepted. Informal evaluation of the spots has shown them show. Two decades have gone by since the first to be so successful that funding is being sought Traditional forms of communication alsolarge -scale programs of international agricul- to extend the airing of these spots for six months have been used to disseminate Sante'pour Thus tural communications. Other fields, particularly longer than the initial six-month broadcastpe- messages. For instance, plays, songs, and role-health and population, have demonstrated that riod. playing have been integrated into health practi- new communication stratregies are not only pos- tioner training programs because trainers knowsible, but cost effective. We know now to set Judy Brace is director of the Clearinghouse on from experience that modern communicationmore realistic goals and not to expect that com- Development Communication, at the Academy for Educational Development. She has written !Mea- devices, although effective, can break down munication will solve problems alone. As part of sly* on communication application Jounce In de-whereas songs and plays require only humanthe overall coherent program of agricultural im- veloping countries. participation to get the message across, andcan provement, communication has a role to play, a easily be adapted to particular village needs. role at which it is becoming better and better. Reynaldo Pareja is the current Mass Media and Health Practices Project Rdd Director in Ecuador Participants in the Sante pour Tour project for the Academy for Educational Development. He believe that with continued improvements in the William A. Smith is a senior vise president of the has bees wdemelvdy involved with Geld applica- system. their efforts to encourage grass-rootpar- Academy for Educational Development. Howard tions of public health cemmeadcadans linvughout Ray is Director of Agricultural Sciences and Tech- ticipation will outlast existing support gm-nology at the Academy for Educational Develop- tiedevdopig wed. for the post are years. hires, because the necessary framework will me' 10 suitable materials and to locate abstracted mate- A New Source of Information on Latin rials by the number and name of the center that American Education produced the abstract. by Ernesto Schefelbein National Education Research Meetings With REDUC', assistance, participating countries' Ministries )f Education have successfully sponsored nine National Educational Re- search Meetings between 1980 and 1983. As a The expansion of a cooperative ab-Network Organization result, there is greater visibility of ano respect stracting network now provides The purpose of the national centers is to make for ongoing mincational research in Latin Amer- greater access to a large number ofavailable locally the findings of educational re- ica and the Caribbean. In the future, there will biographical references on Latinsearch in Latin America, and to provide an over- be biannual National Educational Research American education for people working to im-view of the educational situation in the region. meetings in participating counties to continue prove that region's educational system. This However, the centers' existence and develop- this exchange among the research community. classification project was undertaken by ment alone is not enough to create a network. The success of the educational information net- REDUC (Red Latinoamericana de Documenta- There must be an active exchange of information work depends on the ability of decision makers, don en Educacion),an educational research and among these centers as well. documentalists, and researchers to communicate development network for Latin America and the REDUC has both active and passive centers. with each other. National meetings play a key Caribbean. It is a private nonprofit system cov-Fifteen active centers collect papers and produce role in bringing these groups together. ering 15 countries and 20 associated center4.abstracts and bibliographies. The five passive Papers presented at these meetings are pub- Mere than 6,000 reports on educational topicscenters collect educational matenals and send lished in their entirety by a few of the national have been abstracted and are now available. them to CIDE where they are processed and centers, but most centers cannot afford to do Abstracts are published at each of the national published. this. Instead, they prepare abridged versions of centers for distribution among their national uni- It is expected that national networks, similartheir countries' papers and make these available versities and libraries. Participating countriesto REDUr's regional network, will eventually at a lower cost, encouraging wider dissemina- include Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, be created. The experience of Peru could servetion of this information. the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Nicaragua, as a model. Peru is already operating an internal REDUC has not only stimulated the diffusion Panama, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. Both educational information network with five na-of educational research, it has also stimulated its the ongoing search for relevant Latin American tional centers that are integrated into CIDE, anddevelopment. A solid infrastructure for research educational materials, and support for broaderseveral other provincial centers that are sup- is now available based on a large body of histori- use of the centers are encouraged at Nationalported exclusively by internal funds. These na- cal and current materials available to participat- Research Meetings(ENI Encuentros Nacion- tional networks will contribute to a system-wide ing countries. ales Investigadores);through preparation and distribution of all REDUC materials. The REDUC project represents better dissem- diffusion of relevant state-of-the art reports; and Each national center has put onto microfiche ination of important educational information, by supporting specialized networks. Each coun-the available references from national education and contributes to the improvement of educa- try has one or more centers that perform thesereports published during the last decade. Thetional systems in Latin America. functions in association with REDUC, whichbibliographies are indexed by 37 topics as well are in turn coordinated regionally by CIDE as by authors and educational levels for ease ofErnesto Schefelbein is an edecatiosal economist (Centro de Investigaciun y Desarrollo de laretrieval, and to identify where further research who works at the World Bank. He writes on educational planning and finance. Educacion)in Santiago, Chile. in the educational system is needed. As well as being responsible for Chile's Press clippings represent the main source of center, CIDE's role is also to integrate the entire information about current educational policies in system; introducing a common index by topics, Latin America, because there are few formal education levels, and authors, and diffusing thisreports available on this issue. Most research index throughout Latin America. Additionally, centers and libraries hive press clipping files but CIDE is to act as technical support to the otherwithout a topical index, retrieval would be im- national centers and to make certain that CIDEpossible. Seven countries have classified theirWorld Congress on norms are maintained in processing and retriev- press clippings using the above-mentioned topi- Education and Technology ing infoapplion. cal classification system. Over 10,000 press Among CIDE's key supporters are the United items clipped from 23 newspapers in seven Latin States Agency for International Development American countries are now accessible through From May 22-25, 1986, the World Congress (AID) and Canada's International Development the system. on Education and Technology will meet in Van- Research Center (IDRC). A.I.D. support for the couver, Canada to consider the issues related to network began in 1981 with a grant to CIDE toAnalytical Abstracts and Indexes technology and our changing world. Participants assist in establishing six centers. With this sup- Each 400-word abstract includes a brief de- from around the world will discuss the impact of port, CIDE also established a central microfiche scription of the document, the sources used, the new technology on education systems, on world file/database and carried out a series of regional method (or contents); and the main conclusions. cultures, and on global society in general. and subregional meetings. Under a follow-on Sometimes it may be too expensive to keep As part of the "Innovations and Applications" grant, A.I.D. will support the expansion of the copies of important documents, so if a copy is theme, the Congress will feature an exhibit of network to four new countries, increasenot available at the center, the abstract indicates high technology equipment and services relating REDUC's database, provide assistance to whore one can be obtained. to education and culture from around the world. members' centers in installing miciocomputers CIDE publishes an annual Latin American Questions concerning this conference can be and in training center petsmmel to carry outIndex of all Educational Analytical Abstracts sent to: Congress Coordinator, British Columbia microcomputer searches, and provide assistanceprepared by the network for the entire region. School Trustees Association, 1155 West 8th Av- in directing educational research information toThis Index lists each abstract, classified by au- enue, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, decision makers. thor and topic, enabling a researcher to identify rl 12 Briefly Noted the expenditures. The paper looks at trainingas The price is US$10.00. Non-commercial or- a very expensive form of communication, re-ganizations and individuals from developing by Judy Brace quiring "physical facilities, teachers, and a greatcountries can request a complimentary copy. deal of time on the part of both the students andWrite to I.R.C., P.O. Box 5500, 2280 HM Readers will recall previous references to ma- teachers." Perhaps there are other, more efficientRijswijk, The Netherlands. terials produced by the Bangkok office ofalternatives. One is proposed herea human UNDP. We have received a number of new resources development modelin a simple out- publications from the Development Training line form. Future papers will address individual steps of that model. and Communication Planning (DTCP) unit that (ERIC continued from page 6) should prove valuable to many of you. These A case study documents The Evolution of the publications are intended to share the DTCP Vietnam Audiovisual Centre and how it devel-prevention and meeting emergencies. Six ap- experiences so as to strengthen national andoped from a media production unit for UNFPApendices are included: (a) a discussion of how to in 1981 to a national audiovisual center for theconstruct a sample survey for the population; (b) regional communication and training capabilities for rural development programs. entire country by 1984. The materials producedexamples of survey questions; (c) examples of Guidelines for Planning Extension Pro- and the training courses offered are listed. several kinds of educational materials and aids; grammes sets forth basic principles and planning Those readers who would like a guide to(d) a bibliography of sources of matenals and steps of extension programs in a clear fashion, preparing a training workshop will appreciateinformation; (e) a glossary of terms used in the manual; and (f) preliminary guidelines for im- concentrating on objectives and the process to the report, Workshop for Subject Matter Special- achieve them whether it is for an agricultural, ists to Strengthen Fortnightly Training, that doc-munizations and health education. Available health, or family planning program. uments the training of trainers for Nepal's Agri-from EDRS in microfiche for 97 cents or in paper copy for $16.15. Making Rural-Based Development Projects cultural Assistants. The trr 'ners were taken Stambler, Moses. Health Education for More Effective is a brief paper that draws on the through the planning, preparation, and presenta- Health Promotion in Less Developed Nations. research findings of DTCP over the past fivetion of a two-week training session which they 1984. 52pp. (ED 244 879) years. In answer to the question, "What makeswould subsequently conduct. The process was Designed for policy makers and health educa- rural development projects succeed or fail?" divided into 11 steps which can be followed to tion professionals, this paper presents a rationale DTCP's findings are that there must be adequatedesign training fcr any type of content specialist. and strategies for adapting health education to government or private services at the village In an attempt to clarify the Issues inherent in meet the needs of developing countries. Empha- level (technology, supplies, information, field- any discussion about microcomputers, DTCP sis is placed on the need for health promotion workers, etc.), and there must be participation shares its own experience with micros for im- on the part of villagers in the development ef-proving its management capabilities. Their re-rather than prescriptive health education. The fort. Without both of these contributions aport, Microcomputer Primer: 1st Edition, afirst of two main sections discusses perceptions project will fail. "More projects fail because ofLayman's Guide for Selection and Use of Mi-of health problems; biomedical components re- crocomputers in Developing Countries, ad-lated to health care in less developed countnes inadequate services... at the village level than (demographic factors, malnutrition, unsanitary for any other single reason." This paper does not dresses the various uses of micros, the hardware living conditions, and lack of medical care); indicate how to make projects more effective, itcomponents, kinds of software programs, as simply points the direction to take. well as whether to buy a micro, what to buy, and weaknesses in USAID and other agency ap- The first in what appears to be a series on"getting started." There are a number of reassur-proaches to health education; and historical changes in the training and use of health person- Training for Rural Based Development Projects ing comments and suggestions, and a shared nel and resources. Eight health manpower ob- poses a number of questions about training and spirit of adventure that should encourage all potential users. jectives are included. The second section con- its effectiveness in development. It calls for a new look at the results of large investments in For all of the above publications, and for asiders changes from health education to health promotion. The role of the Alma Ata Confer- training and asks if, in fact, these results justify copy of their publications Int, contact: Publica- tions Editor, UNDP /DTCP, P.O. Box 2-147,ence (1978) in setting the stage for a participa- Bangkok 10200, Thailand. tory approach to health education, the relation- Press Fellowships Available ship between behavior modification and health For planners and engineers wishing topromotion, and policy reformulation priorities strengthen the community participation andinvolved with health promotion are outlined. A Applications for the Alfred Friendly Press health education components of their water sup-chart illustrates differences between health edu- Fellowship Program are now being taken for ply and sanitation programs, WASH (Water andcation and health promotion. Also discussed are 1986 awards. Friendly, a Pulitzer Prize-winning Sanitation for Health Project) and IRC (Interna-nonformal and formal school-based health edu- journalist, devoted his life to good writing, hon- tional Reference Centre) have published a handycation programs, cognitive bias in traditional est reporting, and maintaining a free press. This Directory of Organizations Involved in Commu- school health programs, social variables in fellowship for practicing journalists, provides anity Education and Participation in Water Sup-health education, the role of teacher training working visit of six months in the U.S. andply and Sanitation. institutes in developing teachers as health covers all normal costs including round-trip and The directory contains an overview of 124agents, and recommendations for curriculum in- U.S. travel, and a monthly stipend. Fellows will organizations in 56 countries as well as 10 inter-novation to incorporate the new health promo- work directly with media organizations through- national organizations with experience in socio-tion approach. The Self Discovery Project de- out the U.S. as contributing reporters. Appli- educational programs and research in water andveloped in Georgia to incorporate the new cants should have six years of reporting experi-sanitation. For each organization information is involvement approach to health promotion is ence, and must currently be employed as a print given on address, contact persons, affiliation, reviewed, as well as similar programs in Tan- or broadcast journalist in an independent mediaworking scope and languages, activities, publi- zania and Brazil. Available from EDRS in mi- organization. Journalists from developing coun-cations, and services. crofiche for 97 cents or in paper copy for $5.65. ties are encouraged to apply. Apart from being a useful aid to people look- For further information and application forms ing for support to increase community participa- contact: AFPF Program Office, do Institute oftion in their projects, the directory also aims toReviewed by Barbara B. Minor, Publications Co- International Education, 1400 K Street, N.W., ordinator, ERIC Clearinghouse on Information stimulate technical cooperation within and be- Resources, School of Education, Syracuse Univer- Wallington, D.C., 20005, U.S.A. tween the developing countries. 12 sity, Syracuse, New York 13210, U.S.A. 13 countries give some kind of radio coverage to Addressing Health Communication in Africa family planning and sex education topics, this is not yet done on a regular basis in a majority of Francophone countries. The broadcasting of Seve.al workshops held in Anglophone and worked together. Few of the countries have es- even occasional programs is an indicationof Francophone Africa in recent months exempli- tablished working links between the health and major changes in attitudes about the subject. fied a unique collaboration between the media information ministries. and health sectors in these two regions. Jointly The material presented about family planning Future URTNA Family Health Activities formulated and executed country-specific plans and radio techniques focused on the particular Actions stimulated by the two Family Health emerged from these workshops that have been needs of African countries and was presented Broadcast Workshops range from recognition of designed to educate and inform the public about primarily by African experts. Many of the par- the need for regularly producedFamily Health family planning as a contribution to good family ticipants brought tapes of radio and TV material Broadcast Bulletins,to providing adequate fol- on family planning to share with other broadcas- health. low up to the many project requests emanating The workshops were organized as part of the ters and health-sector participants. Significant from the workshops. New staff will be taken on Family Health Broadcast Project of The Johns program production ideas were generated by by URTNA to initiate and monitor radio initia- Hopkins University's Population Communica- sharing these productions. tives in URTNA-member countries and to pro- tion Services (JHU/PCS), launched in July 1984 Another important outcome of the workshops vide technical assistance to help improve the with the Union of National Radio and Television was the opportunity it presented for participants quality of family health broadcasts. Organizations of Africa (URTNA). This project to become familiar with the financial and techni- For more information about the two work- comprises a number of activities designed to cal assistance available through JHU/PCS, shops contact: Population Communication Serv- increase radio and television coverage of family A.I.D., and the other major donors active in the ices, Population Information Program, The planning and population issues in Africa includ- population sector. Johns Hopkins University, 624 North Broad- ing the two workshops mentioned above; a way, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, U.S.A. or newsletter,Family Planning Broadcast Bulle- Conference Results URTNA, Boite Postal 32?7, Dakar, Senegal containing broadcast-ready information; Both workshops were highly successful in tins, MIRK.....111110MININI017,1111...111inal..*11.1010000.7111,4"111:1141.1111=111.11 funds and technical assistance for radio pro- generating enthusiasm among broadcasters grams; and distribution of innovative radio pro- about the possibility of expanding programming grams to member countries throughout Africa. on family health. The 13 Anglophone countryMicrocomputer Update The purpose of the workshops was to acquaint representatives each developed concrete plans to regional broadcasters and family planning ex- improve existing or to initiate new programs. As In our continuing response to your requests perts with the JHU/PCS/URTNA project. Ang- a result, new radio activities are underway .a for more information about microcomputer ap- lophone URTNA members met in Nairobi, number of countries including Kenya, where a plications in developing countnes,DCRis pass- Kenya, Nov. 19-23, 1984 and Francophone male-responsibility radio campaign was incor- ing along information gathered from several members met in Dakar, Senegal, Feb. 11-22, porated into the A.I.D.-funded family planning sources. 1985. Participants in both workshops included program; Nigeria v. here a mini-URTNA work- radio TV producers responsible for health shop is being planned for radio and health ex- Agriculture education programs; family health experts in perts; and in Liberia where a radio drama series According toMicros in Management,the ministries, public health institutions, family on family planning is being planned. Many of former Microcomputer Clearinghouse newslet- planning associations; and special resource per- the other proposals presented in Nairobi are ter, a highly recommended publication from sons in the fields of media and familyhealth. being followed up by JHU/PCS and URTNA. Michigan State University (MSU) is:"Micro- Among the organizations contributing either Eleven Francophone countries participated in computer Statistical Packages for Agricultural technical or financial assistance were JHU/PCS, the Dakar Family Health Broadcast WorkshopResearch," Working Paper #17by Thomas The Ford Foundation, the Academy for Educa- with equally successful results. The historically Stilwell. This 23-page paper is one of many tional Development, the Pathfinder Rind, and conservative position of most Francophone from the MSU series,International Develop- Family Planning International Assistance. Over- countries regarding family planning and popula- ment Papers.Nine statistical packages expressly all organizational responsibility was assumed by tion policies did not prevent them from sending designed for agricultural research are described URTNA/Program Exchange Center in Nairobi, very senior-level officials to represent their therein. Single copies are free for AID personnel and URTNA's main office in Dakar, Senegal. broadcast organizations and family healthand Third World requesters, US$3/copy for programs. others. It can be ordered from: MSU Interna- Objectives As was the case in Nairobi, many of the plans tional Development Papers, Dept. of Agricul- The objectives of the workshops were to: that were conceived in Dakar are now being ture Economics, 7 Agriculture Hall, Michigan examine the priority family health issues in followed up, and official proposals are being State University, East Lansing, Michigan, Africa and the technologies available to deal prepared in Burkina Faso, Mali, and the Ivory USA, 48824. with them; Coast. A low-cost microcomputer program designed .review previous experience in using radio There was considerable exchange of informa- by scientists from MSU and the Agricultural and TV to educate about health and family tion and experience among the countries which University of Norway, supported by A.I.D.'s planning; proved very beneficial in stimulating lively dis- Alternative Rural Development Strategies discuss the use of radio broadcast bulletinscussions about family planning policies and pro- Project, is now helping African scientists to design, manage, and analyze agricultural re- on health; grams. Countries that have put family planning .develop preliminary proposals for the use of information on the air provided orientation tosearch experiments. With only brief training, radio in family health and family planning help broadcasters gauge the kinds of radio and MSTAT can be Lsoed by persons with no previous microcomputer experience, and can be run programs. educational efforts that might be acceptable in software For most of the broadcasters, the workshops their own countries. Most encouraging was the on most microcomputers. Training and available in English, Spanish, and represented their first exposure to informationgeneral climate of opinion in Dakar indicating materialsare French. For a brochure on the technical and about the health benefits of family planning. Forthat the potential for expanding radio/television several of the countries this was the first timecoverage isfar greaterthan anticipated. Al- general features of this program contact: Russell thatfamily health wars and radio experts hadthough at the present time nearly all of the (epntinued on page 14) 14

(Microscontinued from page 13) dude: wordprocessing, an electronic spreadtribution to the development of Third Worldor sheet for budgeting and planning, databaseman-South-South information flow. If, in the past Freed, Institute of International Agriculture, 101 agement for the storage and retrieval of informa- Agriculture Hall, Michigan State University, Africans saw each other through the eyes of the tion, and communications software foruse withtransnational news agencies, they now possess East Lansing, Michigan 48824. (517355-0174) the telephone modem. an agency that enables them to see each other Application guidelines and additional infor- Health more directly. This, in itself, is a considerable mation may be obtained by writing to. PACT, achievement. A software package called "Clinical Micro- 777 United Nations Plaza, New York,Nv However, the fact that less than a quarter of computer Applications for Developing Coun- 10017, U.S.A. Telephone (212)697-6222. the members of the Organization for Afncan tries," has recently come to our attention. The Unity (OAU) contribute stories to PANA should package is written especially foruse in areasComputer News Connections be a matter of some concern. As PANA itself where medical services are often provided by For our readers interested in keepingup with has pointed out, some countries do not have paramedic personnel, and offers: microcomputer applications in developingcoun- adequate or appropriate transmission or recep- diagnosis and treatment information forpreva- tries, the final issue ofMicros in Management lent and difficult-to-diagnose diseases; newsletter listed several widely circulated publi-tion facilities and therefore cannot take full advantage of the services provided by PANA. A family planning, high-risk pregnancy, immu-cation to refer to for up-to-date micro informa- nization and nutrition information; incidence tion. Among those listed: npich more important factor is that of tariffs. and prevalence reports for epidemiological Maly news agencie', use telex for transmitting Microelectronics Monitor,UN Industrial De-ane receiving news, and do not enjoy special surveillance; recordkeeping of medical and velopment Organization, P.O. Box300.nails from their Pasts and Telecor ununications supply inventories for management decision A-1400, Vienna, Austria. depirtments. He wever, this issue is being making, for resupplying, and for use monitor- /B/Newsletter,Intergovernmental Bureau for ing. worked on at the present time. Informatics, Viale Civilta del Lavoro 23. Few stories were datelined Addis Ababa, the The package was developed as a collaborative 00144 Rome, Italy. headquarters of both the OAU and the UN Eco- effort between National Capitol Systems and nomic Commission for Africa (ECA), two Medical Logic International, using an interdisci- (PANAcontinued from page 16) very important organs for the political evolution and plinary team of physicians, nurses, healthsys- Research Findings economic development of Africa. One would tems analysts, and computer programmers. The Aoalysis of the data showed that there wasa modules are being translated into Arabic, have expected the OAU secretariat or informa- heavy concentration of political news from thetion office to have been one of the major contrib- French, and Spanish. national news agencies, international organiza- For further information contact Douglas utors to ?ANA, but this is not the case. This is tions, the NA-Pool and from the PANA head-cause for concern since PANA is a creation of Mackintosh at (703)671-3360 or write to: Na- quarters. Considering the number of stories thatthe OAU .n the first place. tional Capitol Systems Inc, 5203 Leesburg dealt with visits of heads of state and ministers Pike, Suite 1601, Falls Church, Virginia, as well as with meetings %lid conferences, itPANA's Impact 22041, U.S.A. appears that a conscious effort is being made to One cannot accurately measure the impact of show that there is considerable interaction and PANA on is clients after its first year of opera- Computers Donated cooperation between and among African and tion because no such evaluation has been under- The following article (somewhat longer)ap- other Third World countries. taken by PANA or by any other agency. It is peared in the May 1985The Business Edition of The NA-Pot I contributed the largest percent- recommended that PANA undertake or commis- Development Forum,by Robert Lawson. age of political news with 68.4% of its total sion a study to determine what its clients think of Under a new agreement between Apple Com- coverage. The Pool acted as a link between puters and PACT, the New York-based consor- PANA's perf')rmance. This might provide better PANA and other Third World countries withinsight into 'he factors that have resulted in tium of development agencies, 150 microcom- most of its stories datelined outside Africa. It disappointing contributions, and help to deter- puters will become available to nonprofit, also reported stories of African relations with mine how well PANA is fulfilling the expecta- nongovernmental organizations (NG0s)over other Third World countries. Only 42% of Une- tions of the publics that it is intended to serve. the next three years. sco-, FAO-, and ILO-transmitted material was As noted, a iarge percentage of PANA's out- While Apple will donate 150 of its popular lle of a political nature; whereas 48.7% of theirput was in the political category. Some stories computers, PACT will administer the project, coverage was economic and 21.4% was social. dealt with polittcal issues which were of such determine which organizations are eligibleto Given that one of PANA's objectives is tolocal interest that they were not likely to be receive the systems, and provide whatever sup- gear information toward the promotion of devel- picked up by other national news agencies to be port and training is need by those selected. opment, one would have expected to see area- As a condition of eligibility for the computer re-transmitted to heir clients. Similarly, most of sonably large proportion of news falling into thethe stories in the cultural category were about aid, PACT requires that NGOs, or consortia ofeconomic and social categories. However, NG0s, must have active projects in developing sports contests, which were not likely to be of PANA contributed only 21.2% in thesetwomuch interest to u;ers of PANA copy elsewhere. countries. They must be able to demonstrate that categories. If, in terms of promoting African It may be necessary for PANA to establish they have needs which a personal computercan political solidarity PANA does quite well, inguidelines for contributing news agencies help fulfill. Even though the [computer) systems terms of social and economic information, it concerning the type of new s that will be of interest are given free of charge, the NGO must also does poorly. to their wider audience. show that it has the resources to operate and The expectation was that there would be les., Currently, PAN 4 transmits in either French maintain an Apple computer. Farther, the grants unfavorable news in PANA copy than,say, AFP are aimed at development organizations whose or English, but not both. If PANA would trans- (Agence France Presse) or AP (Associatedmit all of its copy in both languages, greater activities involve direct grassroots participation use Press) copy. However, neutral stories consti-might be made of its wire copy. by project beneficiaries. tuted the bulk of the output of all contributing The computer system will include the Apple agencies, ranging from 42.9% to 53.4%. Further Research Needs He, two disk drives, monochrome monitor, This study set out to establish a preliminary printer, telephone modem, diskettes, and printer PANA's Contribution profile of PANA after one year of operation. ribbons. Because of its regular link with the NA-Pool, Software accompanying the system will in- PANA is making a modest but significantcon- (continued on page 15) 14 15 .Teaching Aids at Low Cost (TALC), Insti- Resources for Infant and Maternal Nutrition tute of Child Health, 30 Guildford St. , London WCIN 1EH, United Kingdom Some helpful tips and information Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute TALC is an important source of books, slide resources on infant and maternal (CFNI), P.O. Box 140, Mona, Kingston 7, sets, and flannelgraphs on nutrition and child nutrition that may be of interest to Jamaica health. The materials are designed for use in our readers in health communica- CFNI publishes Cajanus, an English quar- developing countries and are available at tionc -ecently appeared in a two-part series "Im- terly, free to developing countries, others cost. They also publish an occasional news- proving Infant and Maternal Nutrition" by Gayle US$12/year. They have a library and pro- letter that reviews other materials aimed at Gibbons in Mothers and Children, a bulletin duce and distribute materials on infant feed- field practitioners. A catalog of TALC mate- from the Clearinghouse on Infant Feeding and ing to the 17 Caribbean member-countries. A rials is available. Maternal Nutrition. catalog of their materials is available. .Voluntary Health Association of India, .Clearinghouse on Infant Feeding and Ma- C-14, Community Center, Safdarjung De- Assessing Information Needs ternal Nutrition, American Public Health velopment Area, New Delhi, 110 016, Identifying some ways to organize and dis- Association (APHA), 1015 15th Street, India tribute information, the Clearinghouse focused N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005, U.S.A. VHAI publishes a bimonthly English-lan- on techniques that have proven effective in dis- APHA publishes Mothers and Children 3 guage newsletter,Health for the Millions. seminating messages at the local, regional, and times yearly, in English, French, and Span- (No price given) This is a broad primary national levels. The following suggestions will ish. It is free to developing countries, others health care publication, intended for rural help you assess your information needs and plan USS5.00/year. The Clearinghouse is an in- health and development practitioners. Issues your nutrition communication strategy: ternational center for information and mate- are thematic, but also contain information identify your target audience; rials on all aspects of infant feeding and about program activities in the regions of determine what kinds of information the tar- maternal nutrition. It provides bibliogra- India VHAI is a large publisher of educa- get audience needs; phies, documents, and referrals. tional materials on many primary health care examine sources of information currently The Foundation for the Peoples of the subjects. A catalog of print and audiovisual available to the target audience; South Pacific (FFPSP) P.O. Box 1493, materials is available. look at different options for reaching your Suva, Fiji World Neighbors, 5115 North Portland target audience; FFFSP publishes an English quarterly, Su- Ave., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, use other information activities/channels to PaMINN. (No price given) It covers regional U.S.A. expand your audience; maternal and infant nutrition activities, in- World Neighbors has prepared a number of begin your information activities on a small formation sources, training activities, and overseas development materials including scale; new publications aimed at health profes- filmstrips, flipcharts, and booklets. scale your activities to the staff and available sionals and women's groups. Many of the filmstrips have been adapted for budget; International Children's Center, Chateau different regions of the world and are avail- identify information activities of other or- de Longchamp, Bob de Boulogne, F75016 able in other languages. A catalog of print ganizations and government ministries to use Paris, France and film materials is available. in planning your own activities. The ICC publishes Children in the Tropics, a The Clearinghouse on Infant Feeding and bi-monthly English, French, and SpanishMaternal Nutrition would like to hear more Information From the Field newsletter. A yearly subscription isabout other newsletters and information activi- According to Mothers and Children, US$17.00. Th-; Center encourages the studyties. Readers are encouraged to send samples of "A vast amount of information exists on of all problems concerning childhood and the their newsletter or other materials to: infant and maternal nutrition that people in training and education of persons involved in The Clearinghouse, c/o APHA, 1015 15th the field need but do not have access work with children, emphasizing developing Street, Washington, D.C. 20005, U.S.A. countries. They maintain a library and pro- to....[Outlets] for previously unpub- vide information. lished information should be identified ... (PANAcontinued from page 14) to help nutrition workers monitor new re- .International Centre for Diarrhoea) Dis- search and to profit from the experiences of ease Research (ICDDR) G.P.O. Box 128,Given this specific objective, the scope was related projects." Dhaka 2, Bangladesh rather limited. Further studies might include: The list that follows contains a wide variety of ICDDR publishes a bimonthly English-lan- .studying populations covered by PANA to information sources, including newsletters, that guage newsletter, Glimpse, which features determine if focus is balanced between the can serve as useful models for those undertaking articles on new research and program activi- social elite and other population groups; health and nutrition information activities. ties on diarrhea! disease primarily in Bangla- comparing capital city/urban coverage with Appropriate Health Resources & Technol- desh and Asia. (No price given) Issues con- numbers and types of rural stories carried; ogies Action Group (AHRTAG), 85 Mary- tain abstracts of recent journal articles, measuring the amount of space PANA wire lebone High Street, London WIM 3DE, summaries of ongoing research projects and copy gives to continuing crises and to other United Kingdom conferences, and descriptions of programs. "negative" news, with the space allocated by AHRTAG publishes a quarterly newsletter, The Institute of Nutrition of Central transnational news agencies to the same Dialogue on Diarrhea, in English, Fr nch, America and Panama (INCAP), Apartado crises; comparing PANA's output for designated pe- and Arabic. Free to Third World subscribers. Postal 1188, Guatemala City, Guatemala The newsletter focuses on issues of diarrhea! Suplemento Solve Nutrician Materno-Infan- riods with a Western transnational news agencies (AP or AFP) to determine if the two disease control. til, Lactancia y Destete is INCAP's thrice The Breastfeeding Information Group, yearly newsletter, published in Spanish only. follow fundamentally different philosophies, P.O. Box 59436, Nairobi, Kenya (No price given) It covers Central American ideologies, or value systems. This bteastfeeding support group publishes a regional breastfeeding and maternal nutrition Paul A.V. Angell is director of the School of Jour- bimonthly newsletter in English. (No price activities and issues. The newsletter is part ofnalism and Communications, University of Ghana. given) They also have published materials on a larger information project run by INCAP. He recently worked on a research project on com- how to start a bieutfeeding support group. Information requests accepted. 15 munication policies in Africa. 16 The Pan-African News Agency: APreliminary Assessment

by Paul Ansah ance sheet of its operations dunng the first year. that comes to them in a locally understood lan- This article examines the performance of the This publication sums up the position of PANAguage. This may be one of the reasons there has Pan-African News Agency (PANA) in the context thus: 'In the past, news coverage of Afnca hasbeen limited use of PANA copy of the role it intends to play towards establishing tended to concentrate very heavily on the sensa- PANA itself is unable to assess how much of a more authentic voice for Africa, in accord with tionaldisasters, wars, assassinations. Seenits material gets into the African mass media, the values of the New World Information and through this prism, Africa appears a threateningbecause many African publications and radio Communication Order (NWICO). This article and irrational place. PANA can help straightenstations do not cite their sources. PANA plans to (somewhat longer) originally appeared in this distorted image by providing detailed and add a photo service and to establish a data bank. *Media Development,4/1984. cont'nuous coverage of all aspects of life on the It also plans to add Arabic as a transmitting continent. Only this type of coverage can beginlanguage, and to increase its daily output to The major objective of PANA isto make sense of Africa.' 30,000 words. "to promote an effective exchange According to this feature PANA had grown of political, economic, social, and from its maiden transmission of 25 stories total-Methodology of the Study cultural information among ing 5,460 words from five national news agen- PANA wire copy from April, May, and June member states and to resolutely gear it towards cies, to over 20,000 words a day from 15 na-1984 were selected for this study. The Ghana the promotion of development." (From the Pre- tional news agencies who transmit a total of 80News Agency made wire copy available to us amble of the PANA Convention.) stories daily. Stories are also received fromthat was received from PANA, namely the news The Pan-African News Agency was estab- about 40 other countries on an irregular basis. releases for 64 out of the 91 days during that lished in May 1983 to voice African interests Not only does PANA receive and transmitthree-month period. and aspirations, and correct the "distortedstories from national news agencies, it also The material was then coded in terms of image" of Africa, its countries and peoples, transmits news from tae information depart-source, length, content, language, category, di- resulting from partial and negative information ments of the SWAPO and the ANC liberationrection, and frequency. The two transmission published by foreign news agencies. movements as well as from international organi- languages were coded to find out in which lan- It war. also felt that the flow of news that went zations such as Unesco, FAO, ILO, and theguage a greater volume of material was transmit- in a north-south direction compelled the devel- European Economic Community (EEC). In ad-ted. The material was classified into four broad oping countries of the South to see each other dition, it transmits about 1,500 words a daycategories based on those used by PANA in its through the perspectives of the powerful trans- from the Non-Aligned News Agencies Poolself assessment: political, economic, social, and national news agencies whose interests and (NA-Pool). PANA could increase the volume ofcultural. value systems did not coincide with those of the its daily transmissions, but it can transmit for The material was also coded in terms of direc- people in the Third World. only eight hours a day. tion: favorable, unfavorable, and neutral. Favor- The purpose of our study was to establish a PANA depends on journalists seconded to itsable stories reflected harmony within and be- profile of PANA one year after it began opera-headquarters from about ten national news agen-tween nationscooperation, development, tion. This should help to determine what PANA cies. These journalist produce features and pro-economic growth, easing of tension. Within the has done to provide the type of information that vide special coverage of major political, eco-unfavorable category were included all stories will balance the "partial and negative" image of nomic, and cultural events. Currently PANAwhich depicted or suggested conflict, misunder- Africa that the transnational news agencies are transmits only in the languages in which storiesstanding, crises, border disputes, human or nat- accused of depicting and to determine how well are originally sent to iteither French or Eng-ural disasters, poverty, and disease. What did PANA is fulfilling the goals it set out to achieve. lish, although many of PANA's own featuresnot fall into either of these categories was classi- and some international agency contributions arefied as neutral. PANA's Self Assessment transmitted in both languages. Because most On the occasion of its first anniversary, national news agencies do not have translation PANA released a publication which w:is a bid- facilities of their own, they can only use copy (continued on page 14) -sr Development Communication Report Clearinghouse on 44 S POS1AGE Development Communication

1255 23rd Street, N.W. is)0_01 03 Washington, D.C. 20037 USA PH ME1LR 7 8 2 a 8 0 Tel. (202) 552-1000 Cable ACADED Telex: 107501 ACADED WASH ED 31-01215 MARILYN LAUBACHER USER SERVICES LIBRARIAN Judy Brace, Director ERIC CLEAR INQBOUSE-1R Kathleen Moran, Editor SCN Or EUUC sYRACUSE UN1V Robert MI, Information Assistant SYRACUSE NY 13210 VMllierri Amt, Program Assistant INN 0192-1312

FinternsuiDonal Afr.ca Gincnia Melon Educational Re -,t_ac;h forEducationalDevelopment 1016Workshops. Nutrition Resources.PANA ; Ness dent Clearinghouse On Development Communication Autumn 1985 No 51

In this issue use return to an earlier DCR tradition. We are focusing on a single development sectorhealth In an upcoming edition we will look specifically at communication in agriculture. In both tbP new development approaches are underu ay, approaches which we feel are both worthy of pedal attention and applicabi- ors as well A shift In donor agencies (AID, %VW, UNICEF) ms for oral rehydration, immunization, breastfeeding, and infant nutrition bas caused health professionals mothers Social marketing behavioral studies, village health practices, and ethnographic research are' child care behavior Already several of these new programs bate had dramatic results In Egypt, H ong other countries, health and communication professionals in both the public and private - feel can broaden and strengthen our audience's abUity as communicators to make a positive Commun' tion f lth Services labL by Dr. Robert E. Black

In recent years, primary health rvices may bservation that most developing grams in developing countries y, or not- lations are still reluctant to im- sized the utilization of simple t au's r children against serious future assure child survival. These t io t adopted, almost as soon as they dude immunizations against i !able, the use of antibiotics and other atric infectious diseases, oral tions for common self-limited apy (ORT) for diarrhea, and b growth monitoring to p ons have been used in health Each of these techniques is any years, yet it is estimated cious, with benefits demo percent of the target age trials and pilot studies. Ho ing countries is currently ness of these techniques in nized with the six recom- programs depends not only . This is, in part, due to poor cious interventions, but also i the vaccines. A measure of this timal use by the target group. re.. -- in areas where vaccines are avail- pout rates after the first of the System Constraints ee doses of DTP vaccines are as Large investments directed at increasing o s rcent. Resistance to immuniza- availability of these techniques through pri-weight monito from a limited und2rstanding of mary health care have often failed to accom- must be recogniz ectious diseases and of the protec- 311sh the coverage necessary to have a sub- or actions are, in most societies, Effect of vaccines. tantial impact on child survival or nutritional accepted than therapeutic services. It (continued on page 2)

I am pleased that this issue of Developement Communication Report is dedicated to Health Communications. Today there are so many new health technologies that can save the lives of millions of small childrenoral rehydration therapy, immuidzation, improved infant feeding, and related child survival practices. More research needs to be done, but clearly the technologies we now have need to be rapidly adopted by health systems throughout the world. Communication is a fundamental part of this technology transfer. Experiences from Honduras, The Gambia, Egypt, Bangladesh, Colombia, Indonesia, and Swaziland demonstrate that mass media, social marketing, and strategies for behavioral change work when well integrated into health delivery systems. This issue, timed to coincide with the second International Conference on Oral Rehydration Therapy, ICORT II, presents promising new findings in this field. I hope that readers will be encouraged to apply some of the successes outlined here in their own programs.

/fri dd 04,44 nMc. yPPeter nMt rPnhaeton AAdministrator d mei a et for Development (Black continued from page 1) has demonstrated that 98 percent of house- Communicating for Acceptance holds were able to make a safe, effective oral Health education and communication ef-rehydration solution and that mothers re- forts are critical elements in improving indi- membered the key ORT messages as well after vidual acceptance of vaccines and of commu-six ntonths as after one month nity participation in immunization programs In particular, communication efforts areEffective Mass Communication Strategies In this issue. . . needed to involve informal groups, especially Mass communication has also been used women's groups, schoolteachers, and commu-successfully in ORT programs. The Honduras Communicating Health Services 1 nity leaders in promoting preventive health Mass Media and Health Practices Project, im- McPherson's Message 1 initiatives. (See Colombian Crusade in thisplemented by the Academy for Educational ORT Project in Honduras/The Gambia 3 issue.) Development, used a combination of radio, Two-Way Radio for Health/Guyana 5 printed material, and interpersonal communi- Nutrition Communication Oral rehydration therapy has a demon- 5 strated efficacy in correcting dehydration andcation through health workers to popularize Social Marketing Consumer Focus 6 is felt to be an important household interven- use of a new ORS product, Litrosol In an Swaziland ORT Project 7 tion to prevent dehydration, malnutrition and Egyptian project, developed jointly by the gov- Focus on Behavior 7 death. Recognition of the usefulness of this ernment and the John Snow Health Group, Formative Research Pretesting 9 simple, inexpensive technology has led to its ORT use rose dramatically as a result of so- Funding Organizations & Health 10 incorporation into national health care pro- phisticated communication techniques A Communicator's Checklist 11 grams in most developing countries of the Health Communications Bibliography 12 world. In spite of this recognized importanceConclusion Egyptian ORT Campaign 13 for the last decade, ORT was estimated by the These interventions illustrate severai im- A Worksheet for Mothers 15 portant steps in communication of health RL AP Evaluation Results World Health Organization to be appropri- 17 ately used for only 4 percent of diarrhea! epi- messages, namely: 1) analysis of the local vo- On File at ERIC . . 18 sodes in children of developing countries in cabulary and beliefs, in the initial stages, to MEDEX Primary Health Care Series 19 1983. It is obvious, from evaluations of some enable optimal message design and imple- Colombian Immunization Crusade 20 ORT programs, that information on proper mentation, 2) pretesting as many messages, treatment of diarrhea is not being conveyed materials, and methods as possible; 3) focus- adequately to the public. Furthermore, this ing on carefully selected sets of objectives and ( lack of knowledge is often abetted by the igno- behaviors, and 4) monitoring and improving rance of the health workers, who are often the campaign while it is in progress. themselves not treating diarrhea correctly Experience has shown that an understand- The communication of the ORT message to ing of cultural values and inclusion of health the public and to health workers at all levels is education and communications is essential to of increasing importance. The ORT message the delivery of basic health services. A WHO offers even greater challenges than the immu- Expert Committee in 1983 concluded that nization message (primarily motivation to ac- "health, science, and technology can make a cept vaccination.) The ORT message must not real impact only if the people themselves be- only motivate individuals to use the "new"come full partners in health protection and treatment but also must teach them how to use promotion," and that health education must it. The message must be reinforced by health be integrated into health programs at all workers and community leaders, who must stages. themselves be educated in the indications for and use of ORT. Furthermore, ORT must be Dr Black is Professor and Chairman, Depart- used for every diarrheal episode, as many as ment of International Health, The Johns Hop- eight per year in developing country children, kins University School of Hygiene and Public not only on a few occasions as with immuniza- Health His work and research focuses on vac- tions. It is necessary that the new behavior cine development, diartheal disease control, become routine to the user, further accentuat- epidemiology, and infectious diseases. ing the need for continuous communication of a consistent message and reinforcement of appropriate behavior. Communicating Education Some health programs can be cited for their successful use of communications techniques to achieve greater use of ORT The Oral Ther- Vaccine Development apy Extension Program of the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee was initiated reement five years ago. This program is built around oral rehydration workers who receive training in a five-day course, three days in class and two In September 1985, AID signed an agree- in the field, and further training in teaching ment with the U.S. Public Health Service to methods and communication skills to enable develop new and improved vaccines for pre- them to effectively deliver their ORT mes-ventable diseases that plague developing sages. These workers visit each household countries. The first two vaccines to be tested within their area and incorporate selected im- under this program are an aerosolized portant points about ORT into their conversa- measles vaccine, developed by Dr. Albert tions with community residents. As they ex- Sabin, which is expected to protect children as plain how to prepare the oral rehydrationyoung as six months, and a vaccine against via mixture, they actually prepare it in the homerotavirus diarrhea, the single most common and then supervise uie mothers in its prepara-cause of serious diarrhea in infants in most tion. The project's built-in evaluation system parts of the world. 18 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report Communication Works Across Cultures: Hard Dataon ORT by Anthony Meyer, Dennis Foote, and William Smith* ducting the interventions would not end abruptly but become an ongoing part of the The Gambia and Honduras are extremelyilliteracy." In both countries, the practice of different countries. Yet from 1980 throughpurging and withholding food during diar- public health education process and the health care delivery system 1984 the same communication and social mar- rhea was common. In almost everything else keting strategy was applied to teaching oralrelevant to an educational campaign, the What methods and procedures were applied? The interventions in Honduras and The rehydration therapy (ORT) and related childcountries were different. Spanish language survival practices in both countries. Withinand culture contrasted with The Gambian Gambia adapted lessons learned from past experiences, drawing on the disciplines of so- that strategy, each country developed cam-Wolof and Mandinga languages and tribal cus- cial marketing, development communications, paigns that had their own character, peculiari- toms. Nuclear family dwellings of six to ten ties, and challenges. Nevertheless, data bridg-members in Honduras contrasted with ex- anthropology, and behavioral analysis in addi- ing three years and the two cultures show tion to the history of clinical experiences re- tended family compounds of up to 100 lated to each objective. The methodological almost identical results, including sustainedmembers, including multiple wives, in The sequence was as follows. adoption of ORT and significant improvementGambia. Numerous private radio stations and Village-level investigations were conducted in nutritional practices. This article will reportpublications in Honduras contrasted with one to understand the local behavior, concepts, on the most interesting similarities, differ-national station and relatively few print mate- ences, and data from the two countries, basedrials in The Gambia. In Honduras, locally and vocabulary related to campaign objectives and to develop an audience profile. on recently published longitudinal studiespackaged oral rehydration salts (ORS) were Focus groups, direct observations of prac- conducted by Stanford University and Applied promoted under the product name of Lftrosol Communication Technology. In The Gambia, a water/sugar/salt (WSS) tices in households, and in-depth interviews home-mix solution was promoted, while of local health personnel were used Educational objectives were ranked in terms The Setting World Health Organization ORS packets were reserved for clinic use. of what the audience needed to know and West Africa and Central America have a tre- do; how feasible and costly the recom- mendous common problem: infant mortality.The Campaigns mended practices were; how the recom- In both Honduras and The Gambia, diarrhea! The educational interventions in Honduras mended practices related to already preve- dehydration is the leading cause of death. Yetand The Gambia to teach ORT and related lant practices, and what would reinforce teaching about ORT to prevent dehydrationpractices can be characterized as "campaigns" trial and adoption of the recommended due to diarrhea has major local constraints.in the sense that highly specific objectives practices. There is a 3 percent female literacy rate in The were pursued and multiple channelsradio, Messages were developed and prototype Gambia, along with severe difficulty among 48 print materials, direct contactwere coordi- materials were pretested on the basis of percent of females in interpreting two-dimen- nated to support these objectives Yet the in- audience and product analyses. sional pictures or drawings without assistance,terventions in Honduras and The Gambia Multiple channelsmedia, print, face-to- a difficulty sometimes called "pictorialparted with usual campaign practices because facewere coordinated to carry simple, of their extended vision. Although emphasis noncontradictory messages that relied on The opinions expressed here are the authors' shifted among topics for limited periods of the functional strengths of each channel and are not represented as the opinions ortime during the interventions, the key commu- Extensive monitoring of all systems permit- policies of AID. nication methods and procedures for con- ted adaptation over time The Evaluation Stratified, random panels of approximately 750 to 1,000 households with posttest con- trols, were surveyed in each countrynation- wide in The Gambia (600,000 population) and in Health Region I of Honduras (400,000 pop - ulation) in repeated waves over a three-year period. In Honduras, a mortality study in Health Region I and additional surveys to assess campaigns to support other health intervention activities were also conducted. The overall evaluation plan examinedse- quential model of changes, recognizing that changes in any individual does not necessarily follow the same pattern: ExposureWas the audience involved in the campaign and how? KnowledgeDid the audience learn the campaign information from its exposure? BehaviorWhat did the audience do differ- ently subsequent to their exposure? Health Status What were the health outcomes? The strength of an evaluation of this nature and the attributed impact of an intervention does not re3t on one indicator alone, such as increased learning about ORT. Rather the power of such an evaluation is in the conver- (continued on page 4) k 19 Autumn 1985 Development Communication Report 3 (ORT continued from page 3) an appropriate home treatment for diarrhea ment level with Litrosol rose to over 35 per- Bence of indicators across the "causal chain"was that more cases were treated at home, the cent of all cases within two years Data from and in the timing of changes of the sample percent of cases treated at home was 17 per- evaluation of follow-up efforts after the initial population with specific intervention mes- cent at the start, bur averaged more than 50 campaign indicate that at the end of three sages. The key objectives were evaluated in percent for the entire second year years, use rates were still at an impressive 30 terms of the above profile of significant, sus- WSS displaces vine ally all other home treat- percent of all cases tained change in both countries. The magni-ment; an average of over 90 percent of cases in Mortality Drops. Tracing changes in mortal- tude of observed change substantially ex-the entire second year were given WSS if they ity in developing-country settings with limited ceeded that which is commonly expected were treated at home. Coverage of all cases resources was the greatest challenge to evalu- from commercial advertising or public educa- with WSS treatment rose quickly and stayedation Although tracing mortality could not be tion campaigns. In this respect the power of high during the second year. At the beginningdone adequately in The Gambia, in Honduras the intervention methodology is confirmed. of the campaign only 4 percent of all diarrhea there were regional mortality statistics of suffi- Highlights of the evaluation will be reported cases were treated with WSS, but during thecient reliability, covering an adequate time here. Full reports and project descriptions are second year an average of over 50 percentperiod, whereby a significant impact on mor- available as noted below. were treated with this solution tality could be documented. Widespread use Other changes also resulted from campaign of Litrosol appears to have reduced diarrhea- The Gambia messages. The inappropriate practice of with-related mortality by a substantial amount The Pictorial Illiteracy. One technique used holding foods other than breast milk duringproportion of deaths involving diarrhea with strong impact in The Gambia was the diarrhea fell to a tenth of its initial level (drop- among children younger than five fell from 40 "Happy Baby Lottery." This was a contest ofping from 32 percent to 3 percent). The feed- percent in the two years prior to the campaign skill rather than chance and proved successful ing of solid foods during diarrhea! episodes to 24 percent two years later. Total mortality in overcoming the difficulty many Gambian rose from 14 percent at the beginning of thealso dropped by a slightly smaller amount. women experience in interpreting two -di- campaign to 45 percent. The campaign methodology has subse- mensional graphics. Flyers with color-coded quently been applied to tuberculosis, malaria, pictographic instructions for mixing the WSS Honduras and immunizations as well as diarrhea. These solution were distributed nationally as "lot- The campaign in Health Region I of Hon-campaigns also achieved high levels of expo- tery" tickets. The radio served as the first line duras emphasizing ORT and related diarrhea!sure and knowledge change. For example, in of interpretation. Mothers were instructed control and infant feeding practices lasted twothe malaria campaign, knowledge that the rea- how to mix the WSS by being verbally led son for having one's house sprayed was to kill from the sugar section of the flyer, coded blue, mosquitos nearly doubled, from 49 percent through the salt section in yellow, to the water before the campaign to 94 percent afterwards. section in pink. Soda bottle caps with sugar and salt, and soda bottles of water were used "The magnitude of observedProgram Expansion to illustrate the recipe. Radio also directed The project has been expanded into the mothers to second- and third-line sources of change substantially ex- new AID initiative, HEALTHCOM, which will instructions. Selected village women who had ceeded that which is com-use experience gained here and work in up to been trained by health workers in how to ten new countries, broadening the focus on instruct mothers in the mixing of the solution, monly expected from com-ORT to include immunization, infant nutri- were identified by red "happy baby" flags over mercial advertising or publiction, breastfeeding, vector control, and other their homes. For treatment of severe cases of child survival technologies. diarrhea, the radio directed mothers to theeducation campaigns." Reports on the Mass Media and Health Prac- health workers. Mothers were invited to at- tices Project intervention and evaluation are tend one of 72 mixing contests being held available by writing to HEALTHCOM, do DCR. around the country over a five-week period. Correct mixing of the WSS solution during the years, then expanded to the national level and contest earned a plastic container; correct an- to other topics during the third yearimmu- swers to questions about the administration of nizations, malaria control, and complianceDr Meyer, a development communication the solution earned a bar of soap. These win-with tuberculosis treatment. The samespecialist, is HEALTHCOM Project Manager in ners were then eligible for a grand finalemethod of village investigation, behavioralAID's Office of Education, Dr. Foote is Presi- drawing of 15 who received radios as prizes analysis, pretesting, integrated use of multipledent of Applied Communication Technology; Gambian Learning and Behavior Changes. channels, and monitoring were applied in de-and Dr Smitb is Senior Technical Director of The "Lottery" in The Gambia marked the be- veloping and implementing a sustained, the HEALTHCOM Project and Senior Vice Pres- ginning of a two-year effort to teach WSS and phased, public health communications inter-ident at the Academy for Educational Devel- related diarrhea! control and infant feeding vention. opment. practices. The evaluation shows that the Honduran mothers also learned and mothers learned about ORT and changedchanged their practices significantlyand their behavior accordingly. An overview of the fewer of their children died of dehydration two-year data set indicates sustained adoption due to diarrhea. of WSS solution to treat diarrhea. ORS Usage. Litrasol was a newly introduced Gambian mothers first had to learn of the product, so there was no awareness of it be- existence of a water/sugar/salt mixture for fore the campaign Within six months of start- PTC'86 Forum home treatment. Awareness reached a high ofing the campaign, however, half the mothers 90 percent of mothers by the end of the cam-could recall the product name. The percent of paign. They then had to learn a formula formothers who could recall the name LitrosolThe Eighth Annual Forum of the Pacific Tele mixing the solution at home. The formula leveled off at about three-quarters of all communications Council will be held January required that they know the three ingredients women during the campaign's second year. 12-15, 1986 in Honolulu, Hawaii. PTC'86 will and the correct amounts of each. Questions At the beginning of the campaign none of focus on "Evolution of the Digital Pacific." Eng- about these were combined into an index; bythe Health Region I mothers had used Litrosol, lish, Japanese, and Spanish simultaneous in- the end of the campaign, 70 percent of but within six months more than one third (37 terpretation will be provided at plenary ses- mothers and all health workers achieved a percent) of all surveyed mothers had tried it. sions. For information contact: Pacific perfect score of this mixing index. By the end of the campaign over 60 percent of Telecommunications Council, 1110 University These gains in knowledge were translatedmothers had used Lirosot Notably, not only Avenue, Suite #308, Honolulu, Hawaii 96826, into changes in behavior. One result of having had most mothers tried it, but the case treat- Telephone (808) 941-3789. Telex 7430550PTC 20 4 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report Two-Way Radio for Rural Health Care Delivery by Michelle Fryer, Stanley Burns, and Heather Hudson obtain, and that some generators had broken down. No problems were encountered with Over the past six years, the MEDEX' two- dedicated two-way radio system for the the solar panels, so generator-run units were way radio network has emerged as the most MEDEX program. The initial network of ten replaced with the more efficient solar installations effective and reliable system of its kind in sites has now been extended to twenty-eight Each site is equipped with a fully transistor- Guyana. Originally designed to ease the com- sites, with plans for at least ten more munication difficulties of medical personnel ized 25-watt Stoner S511140A transceiver, a in the field, this two-way radio system is now System Design three-element dipole antenna, a 12-volt auto- fully incorporated into the administration of Site-to-site and site-to-headquarters dis- motive battery, a five-watt solar panel for trickle-charging the battery, and a set of hand primary health care. tances range from 48 km to in excess of 400 tools km. Topographical constraints and extremes Background of distances coupled with acceptable reliabil- Rural health care delivery poses formidable ity requirements, dictated the choice of a Operation and Maintenance problems in developing countries. Not only high-frequency, single-sideband two-way The approach taken to operation and main- are there shortages of physicians and facilities, radio system. tenance of the system is as important as a but lack of adequate transportation and com- The system design, chosen in consultation sound technical design. To ensure that Guyan- munications hinders the efforts of health care with the Guyana Telecommunications Corpo- ese personnel would be able to take full re- providers in the field. Faced with vast rural and ration (GTC) which operates the national tele- sponsibility for the system, the project pro- remote areas without -.edical services and an phone network, is a low-powered system vide adequate training, local installation and acute national she ge of physicians, the operating on three frequencies with sound maintenance, effective program management; Guyana Ministry of health embarked upon a quality similar to that of a taxi radio (continued on page 16) program in 1976, designed to train parapro- During the first phase of the project, porta- fessional health workers, "medex," to serve ble generators were used at some sites and these isolated areas. (Medex is the abbreviated solar panels at others to provide the system's 'For the purpose of this article, medex refers to form of "extension of physician'' in French ) power. After a year it was found that fuel for the paraprofessional health worker and Initial funding for the project came from the the generators was expensive and difficult to MEDEX tothe program. Canadian International Development Re- search Centre (IDRC) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), with training assistance from the University of Hawaii. A Communication Strategy to After their training in the capital city of Georgetown, medex were posted throughout the country to become the "front line" of the Improve Nutrition in Indonesia health care delivery system. However, once in the field, the medex were effectively isolated by Marcia Griffiths if:ndElizabeth Nobbe from their supervisors, their sources of drugs and supplies, and from each other. The ability to meet the health needs and promoted by a trained corps of volunteer nu- The only developed transportation systems provide the essential health services to a com- trition workers,kaders,through a monthly in Guyana are along the coast. Inland is the munity is both a promise and an expectation weighing program. riverainregion where transportation is pri-of a primary health care (PHC) project. An- marly by boat. Farther inland is the hinterland, other important goal, establishing commu- NCBC Project Development where jungle gives way to savannah, andnity-supported health care services, does not Between 1977 and 1979 Dr. I.B Mantra, where four-wheel drive vehicles and motorcy-necessarily result in measurable or easily doc- NCBC Director, established administrative and cles can be used only in the dry season. In theumented benefits that national governments community infrastructures modeled after rainy season, medex may be cut off from the may demand before assisting a local health UPGK in five culturally diverse areas in people they serve for weeks. Infrequent airservice. Social marketing offers a way out of Indonesia. service links Georgetown with the larger in-this dilemma. It helps to develop programs In mid-1979, with technicai assistance from terior towns. based on the needs and resources of the fami- Manoff International, the pr,..,;ect departed Like the transportation system, the nationallies that health programs serve, and at the from the appro2..n if the national pi in and telecommunications system is developed onlysame time it identifies types of behavior embarked upon an unprecedented course along the coast. Communication by letter to change that can be documented. with the formative evaluation of educational the interior could take weeks or months. In an As an experimental project, the Nutrition messages and a communication strategy. The emergency, medex would try to send a mes- Communication and Behavior Change Com- success of 'lie NCBC Component was to be sage through one of the private radio systems,ponent (NCBC) of the Indonesiar Nutrition judged b1 whether educationas the sole in- which were often inaccessible and unreliable.Development Program (UPGK) showed how ter, ent oncould produce significant im- As a result of the limited transportation serv-social marketing could further the national provements in the nutritional status of chil- ices and lack of communications, medex were program's goal of significantly improving the dren and the improved nutrient intake of unable to summon assistance in emergencies,nutrition of Indonesia's young children and pregnant and lactating women in project to follow up on patients who had been sent topregnant and nursing women. The social mar- communities. a hospital for treatment, or to order urgentlyketing approach successfully developed nutri- The first step was to design and execute needed drugs ant' supplies. Medex adminis-tion cotnmunication materials that were re- qualitative research on the health and nutri- trators and trainers were also concerned sponsive to the needs, desires, and resources tional problems of children under three and about the lack of contact with medex in theof the communities, particularly of the pregnant and nursing women, consisting of field who could not be suaervised and couldmothers and volunteer nutrition workers. in- dept'- household interviews, concept test- not take time away from their posts for contin- The UPGK, begun in 1974, popularized ing with mothers, and focus group interviews uing education. community nutrition. Its clear, easily commu- withleadersand community opinion leaders. To address these needs, AID funded a pilot nicated and measured goalthe monthly in- project from 1979 to 1985 which established acrease in weight by each child under fiveis (continued on page 14) ...... 21 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report 5 has about 80 percent and 50 percent of their respective contraceptive markets Profamilia, A Focus on the Consumer: the contraceptive social marketing program in Colombia, has a 31-percent share of that contraceptive market In all these countries, birth Social Marketing for Change rates are declining

by L. Edward Lucaire Conclusion Social marketing has proven successful despite significant obstacles like cultural and re- Social marketing (SM) is neither magical Company, Ltd. in Nepal signed a contract toligious resistance, lack of knowledge about nor mysticalIt is merely the application of market their own oral rehydration salts under the topic, Illiteracy, and pricing constraints commercial marketing principles to advance a the brand name Jeevanfal. But SM is no shortcut for success; it requires social cause, issue, behavior, product, or serv- both experience and sensitivity to local condi- ice. SM has added a framework to social efforts Social Marketing for Contraception tions. Fortunately, many developing countries that heretofore lacked organization, and has Social marketing has been even morenow have their own marketing resources. inspired projects that otherwise might never widely applied in the sale of contraceptives in Local private-sector advertising and marketing have been undertaken. developing countries Contraceptive social agencies are helping public and private sector In the United States, SM techniques have marketing (CSM) programs are well-estab- programs. In countries where local resources been particularly successful in the health field. lished in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, India, Thai-are scarce, AID has created several programs The National Cancer Institute used marketing land, Nepal, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, to provide technical assistance in social mar- techniques to change the behaviors of U.S.Mexico, and Egypt. More recently, programs keting These include SOMARC, PRITECH, and women and health professionals regardinghave been established in Honduras, Guate- HEALTHCOM. Contact the Clearinghouse on breast cancer detection. The National High mala, Barbados, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia. SO- Development Communication, or your local Blood Pressure Education Program, usingMARC (Social Marketing for Change) is a USAID Mission for further information on any these same marketing techniques, has in-project funded by the US Agency for Interna- of these assistance programs. creased patient compliance with antihyperten- tional Development (AID) It is working with sive regimens. Likewise, the American Cancer existing CSM programs and also helping to Society developed a sound marketing pro- launch new CSM programs in The Dominican Edward Lucaire is a Senior Associate with gram to convey the benefits of giving up smok- Republic, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Tunisia, Needham Porter Novelli, a U.S marketing ing, especially for teenage girls. Costa Rica, and other countries. Other health communications firm that provides assistance Although advertising and other communica- topics such as immunization, breastfeeding and technical advice to developing countries tions are central to social marketing, the disci- programs, and disease prevention efforts may in sectors such as health and family planning. pline also depends upon other elements ofalso benefit from a marketing perspective what is called the marketing mix: product, Market research is an essential aspect of the price, place, and promotion. Social marketingmarketing process Research may be con- is a cyclical process involving six steps: analy- ducted to help make marketing decisions on sis; planning; development, testing, and refin- brand names, pricing, target audience, prod- ing elements of the plan, implementation, as- uct preferences, awareness attitudes, etc For sessment of in-market effectiveness, and the most part, local private-sector market re- feedback. search firms are hired to conduct contraceptive social marketing research. Developing Country Applications Contraceptive products are often distrib- In developing countries, health has simi- uted through AID, although they also are avail- Child Survival larly been the greatest beneficiary to date ofable through other sources such as the Inter- applied social marketing techniques Family national Planned Parenthood Federation or Management Course planning programs and oral rehydration ther- directly from manufacturers. apy (ORT) projects have used SM techniques Local distributors and wholesalers are often effectively in numerous Third World coun- used to channel products to hospitals, clinics, A six-week child survival management tries. For instance, in Honduras oral rehydra- and retail outlets Some program', like Egypt'scourse, including a two-week field practicum don salts (ORS) were first marketed in 1980 Family of the Future (FOF) developed its own in Haiti is being offered by Boston University under the brand name of Litrosol Litrasol was distribution system and a staff of medical rep-School of Medicine and School of Public heavily advertised on television and radio, and resentatives to administer the program Con- Health from March 1 - April 15, 1986. This is an widely distributed through the existing health traceptive social marketing programs in Nepal integrated course with enrollment limited to care system and by local village volunteers. By and Bangladesh have their own sales forces as 25, intended for participants from countries the end of the first year of the ORT campaign, well as local advertising agencies who pro-with limited resources. It provides training in: 49 percent of the mothers had actually used mote, publicize, and advertise contraceptiveessentials of child survival; introduction to Litrosol and 71 percent could recite the radio products. Thus, CSM programs are success-health economics, management methode for jingle composed for this campaign. More im- fully functioning as legitimate marketing or-health services; microcomputer applications; portantly, during the two-year campaign pe- ganizations in developing countries, and are integrating health facility and program design; riod, diarrhea-related mortality in childrenusing local private sector resources in thecommunity participation; and field study tech- under the age of five dropped from 48 percent process. niques. to 25 percent. Similar ORS marketing results The results of these programs are encourag- Applicants should have completed the have been achieved in Egypt and The Gambia. ing. In Egypt, 31.2 percent of contraceptive-equivalent of a bachelor's degree or other About 50 percent of Egyptian mothers had age women and men use Family of the Futurecomparable technical or professional training used ORT after one year of the program and products. More importantly, FOF's aggressiveatter high school Applications must be re- over 50 percent of cases for the second year of promotion of its products has expanded theceived by January 15, 1986 For application the campaign in The Gambia used ORT. public's consciousness about family planning information write to. Management for Child These successful ORT efforts have attracted This promotion, almost certainly, has greatlySurvival Course, Office of Special Projects, the interest of other international organiza- contributed to the increased use of all contra- Room A-310, Boston University School of Pub- tions involved in child survival, and social ceptives in Egypt. The National Family Plan- lic Health, 80 East Concord Street, Boston, marketing is being integrated into their over- ning Board in Jamaica, which produces Pan- Massachusetts 02118, USA. Telephone (617) all strategy. Last year UNICEF and the CRS ther condoms and Perle oral contraceptives, 247-6018. Telex: 200191BUHPI 22 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report to ensure that it is maintained over time A Focus on Behavior: Why Behavior Does Not Change The experimental analysis of behavior sug- The Role of Health Practices Studies gests six circumstances that may contribute to the absence of desirable behavior, either sin- gly or in combination 1) Necessary skills or by Paul Touchette knowledge may be absent For example, rural mothers often know that itis good to boll water, but they do not understand that boiling Most health education programs use knowl- Why should I give up an old remedy for a the water actually kills the parasites they fear edge and attitude change as the primary meas- new medicine? 2) The ability to identify when to alter the ure of success, but knowledge is often a poor Why should I take a healthy child to a clinic behavior may be undeveloped. Mothers know predictor of either use or proper use. Ninety to be stuck with a needle and then be fretful that some foods make their children ill, but do percent of women in the Bangladesh Rural all nigh.10 not know that the longer the food sits after Advancement Committee (BRAC) rehydration How do I remember the correct ingredients preparation the more likely it is to cause Ill- therapy program learned the Seven Points to in a home-mixed ORS solution? ness when fed to their children 3) Necessary Remember about oral rehydration salts (ORS), How do I determine whether my child is materials or implements may be unavailable. but only eight percent of women in some malnourished or just small? ORS packets, for example, are often out of locations of the program area actually used When do I introduce weaning foods and stock 4) There may be no positive conse- ORS to treat diarrhea. These results are com- how do I determine which ones are best? quences for engaging in the behavior. Most mon among development programsit is How do I discuss having fewer children preventive behavior, for example, produces often easier to teach facts, even change atti- with my husband when he wants to have no immediate results, but is beneficial in the tudes or beliefs than to alter behavior. This another male child? long run. 5) There may be positive conse- realization has led planners to focus on the quences for engaging in incompatible behav- specifics of a particular behavior, trying to Each question suggests a complex set of ior, such as fasting during diarrhea. Fasting assess not caly what a mother must learn to behavioral responses. New health practices does cause the child's stool volume to de- improve her family's health, but how she al- require new responses, many of which are not creasea goal mothers want to achieve 6) ready behaves and why she might not want to well understood, believed in, or practiced There may be punishing consequences which change. The role of behavioral analysis within this discourage the desired behavior pattern. Dur- context is to probe the reason why a given ing rehydration, for example, a child may Within the context of child survival, the practice continues, how a new health practice vomit, or the diarrhea may appear to increase. mother is faced with numerous decisions such might be best introduced, and how such a as: practice can be designed, presented, and used (continued on page 8)

Reaching Mothers in Swaziland: Preliminary Findings ofa Child Survival Program by Robert Hornik and Pamela Sankar

(This is a brief summary of the results from a 1985. The coordinator of diarrhea! disease mixing flyers and 7,500 posters were printed still ongoing evaluation of the Swaziland control activities, Gladys Matsebula, two and distributed Communication for Child Survival Project health educators from the Public Health Unit The campaign focused on a few objectives, (HEALTHCOM). A final report will be pub- of the Ministry of Health, Alfred Mndzebele specifically 1) acceptance of a home-mixed, lished shortly with details that could not be and Bongani Magongo, and a technical advisor water/sugar/salt (WSS) solution as a treatment incponated into this version. It will be avail- from the Academy for Educational Develop- for diarrhea! dehydration, 2) continued feed- able from the authors.) ment, Dale Huntington, planned a three- ing during episodes of diarrhea, and 3) feed- pronged campaign: 1) radio programs to be ing with special foods after diarrhea! episode& The Swaziland Diarrheal Disease Control developed in an intensive radio workshop and The campaign particularly emphasized the in- campaign was a collaboration of the Ministrybroadcast on current development programs troduction of a new formula for mixing the of Health of Swaziland, The Combatting Child- carried on the national radio system; 2) solutionone liter of water, eight soda bottle hood Communicable Diseases project, and printed materials including a flyer with mixing capfuls of sugar, and 1/2 capful of salt. This the AID Communication for Child Survival instructions and rosters for display at health new formula replaced a previous one that (HEALTHCOM) Project. It was based on ear- clinics and elsewhere; and 3) workshops to contained one capful of salt which project lier work in Swaziland as well as the previous train the health siaff, other extension person- medical advisors believed risked toxicity. Health Communications programs in Hon- nel, and local volunteers in treatment of diar- duras and, in particular, in The Gambia. As in rhea) diseases including use of oral rehydra- Campaign Evaluation the other programs, it relied on a combination tion therapy (ORT) for dehydration. Local The evaluation, conducted by the Annen- of mass media and face-to-face channels in an volunteers and others involved in information berg School of Communications at the Univer- attempt to change practices related to the dissemination were given yellow flags to dis- sity of Pennsylvania, reveals preliminary re- treatment of diarrhea' disease. play outside their homes to indicate they knew sults suggesting that the campaign achieved how to administer ORT. Eighteen staff training noteworthy success, particularly in rates of Campaign Prepmadon workshops covering about one third of the adoption of recommended practices. Data The preparatory phase of the campaign country were held during the first months of sources included before- and after-campaign began in April 1984, with the formal campaign the campaign; 88 radio programs and spot running from September 1984 through Mara;announcements were produced; and 260,000 (continued on page 8) ,> 23 Autumn 1985 Development Communication Report 7 (Behavior continued from page 7) judge and become eligible for a grand prizefour rural Swazi households have working drawing. The "Happy Baby Lottery" movedradios, and of those more than 80 percent What the Behaviorist Does beyond a simple promotional activity to beingreported having listened to the programs that Behavioral analysis is designed to identifyan exciting and effective vehicle for helpingcarried the messages The flyers, the only the relevance of each of the above six catego-mothers to actually practice the new behaviorwidely distributed printed materials, were rec- ries within the context of a specific culture,on a massive scale. ognized by three out of five mothers and were behavior, and/or individual. The behaviorist owned by one in five mothers As many as observes, questions, and tests behaviors, look-Some Useful Principles one-half of the mothers in areas where working for the These two examples help demonstrate howshop training had taken place, reported some cost to the individual of engaging in newbehavioral approaches such as careful obser-recent interaction with either clinic staff or practices, vation and informal incentives can be applied local 'yellow flag' volunteers about oral rehy- compatibility of new practices with existing to field programs. Some of the most salientdration therapy. About one-fourth of the patterns of behavior and cultural expecta-principles emerging from recent behavioralmothers in other areas reported having had tions, studies include: recent contact complexity of new practices, Observation of behavior within the broad Knowledge. After the first six months of the perceived and actual antecedents of a given context of the culture in which it is found campaign, more than one in five rural practice, Skillful arrangement of events so that rein-women had learned and could repeat the perceived and actual consequences of the forcement follows the desired behavior. Be-correct formula--a substantial accomplish- practice, and haviorists argue that individuals can do ament considering that a previous formula, al- observability of the target practice or its great deal to reinforce their own behavior. ready known by some women, was being re- direct by-product. Individual recordkeeping or monitoring ofplaced with a new one It appear in fact, that behavior, for example, is of extreme impor-some sources must still have been diffusing How Behavioral Analysis Helps tance. Graphs, visuals, and other concretethe old formula When knowledge of either During an immunization program in Hon- representations of progress can be impor-the old or the new formula was counted as duras, behavioral observation and in-depth in- tant reminders and reinforcers for individ-correct, the proportion knowing all three interviews ir, rural clinics revealed that many uals adopting difficult new behaviors. gredients of the formula went from 20 percent mothers were bringing in children who had Decisions of when and how to end a behav-before to 50 percent after the campaign. already completed their vaccination series. ior change program should be systematic to Other campaign messages encouraged Mothers could not read the complicated vacci- ensure continued maintenance of the newfeeding during diarrheal episodes, and advo- nation card; they did not know the number of practice. Fading of reinforcement, the grad-cated special feeding afterwards. Although ac- doses needed to complete each series, so did ual withdrawal of accompanying behaviors,ceptance of feeding during diarrhea was little not know when their child had finished the the search for opportunities to practice newaffected by the campaign (42 percent before vaccination series. Mothers did, however, rec- behaviors in the general environment, andand 53 percent afterwards), the perceived ognize the type of vaccination when it was the use of intermittent reinforcementneed for after-diarrhea feeding was substan- applied because they observed where it was should all be considered tially affected by the campaign (16 percent being applied on the child's body: polioor- The practice of behavioral analysis does notbefore versus 44 percent afterward). It has ally, measlesdeeply in the arm, tuberculosissubstitute for the insights or methodologies ofbeen suggested that there might have been more superficially in the arm, and DPIinother disciplines, many different fields con-conflicting messages from different sources the hip. Nurses were chastising mothers, who tribute to our understanding of human behav-about feeding during diarrheasuch as clinic frequently had walked miles to the clinic, be-ior. Communications, sociology, anthropo-staff and common-sense rejection of the no- cause they had brought in a child who hadlogy, and economics provide important pointstion that a child with diarrhea would be able already been immunized. Consequently, these of view. In fact, behavioral analysis can help toto eat. mothers often advised neighbors not to go forenhance the contributions of other disciplines Practice. By the third month of the cam- needed vaccinations in the series. and sources of information by highlighting thepaign, 60 percent of the children had been Analysis of this behavior led to the develop-contributions they have to offer. treated with WSS or ORSa level sustained ment of a strategy that focused on designing Behavioral analysis is not covert manipula-over the remainder of the campaign The ef- an immunization card that mothers could un- tion. It is, instead, a powerful way to keep ourfects of the campaign on actual practice were derstand, and that also served as positive rein- focus on the primary goalwidespread adop-evaluated by examining two subsamples of forcement for completing the immunizationtions of critical new child survival practices. women 1) those who reported they currently series. The card graphically depicts each im- or within the past month had a child sick with munization and the number of shots neededDr Touchette is Principal Psychologist anddiarrhea, and 2) those mothers who had to complete the series. The card functions asAssociate Professor of Pediatrics at the Uniter- sity of California, Irvine where his researchbrought their children into clinics for diar- an educational tool for the health worker, a rhea! treatment. Among the first group, 45 reminder for the mothers, and a reward de-focuses on normal and abnormal attention patterns as they influence learning percent of the women said they had treated vice health workers use to praise mothers. their child at home with WSS before the cam- Another example comes from The Gambia, paign; after the campaign 57 percent reported where the original design of a national "Happy they had done so. This gain is more striking if Baby Lottery" was to be a standard promo- one combines this report of use with the re- tional gimmickthe contest was to be an- port of measured knowledge of the correct nounced on radio; numbered tickets with pic- formula for mixing WSS. Counting either the tures of ORS mixing instructions were to be old or new formula as correct, only 16 percent distributed; and a random drawing of lottery used WSS and knew the correct formula be- numbers would select the winners. Instead, an Swaziland continued from: page 7) fore the campaign; whereas 32 percent used imaginative, behaviorally-inspired twist was WSS and knew the correct formula after the added and successfully executed. Gambian surveys, each with 450 rural mothers Liftmencampaign. A second indicator, fundamentally women had to correctly mix an ORS solution through national random sampling proce-consistent, gives a more optimistic picture: of in public. They learned to mix the solutiondures, and a diarrhea! disease registry kept bythe children coming to clinics at the start of through special radio broadcasts that ex- 20 clinics which listed more than 10,000 chil- the campaign, about 43 percent had been plained the mixing pictures on a flyer that wasdren during the course of the campaign. treated with oral rehydration therapy before distributed throughout the country. Actual coming to the clinic according to those bring- mixing contests were then held in villages Exposure. Nine of ever)) ten mothers re-ing in children. throughout the country. Local women demon-ported having had contact with at least one of strated their ORS mixing proficiency before a the selected campaign channels. Three out of(continued on page 9)

8 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report (9ifaidland,continued from page8) The consistency of these two indicators of Formative Research: Pretesting, current practice, although based on self-reports, suggests that change is occuring and that it is closely associated with campaign ac- Revising, and More Pretesting tivities. The magnitude of the change, particularly if the dinic registry data is accepted, is consistent with a solid success for the cam- by Margot Zimmerman and Lena Steckel paign where substantial prior diffusion limited the possibility of large changes in practice. Formative research is defined as evaluation tograph) showed a doctor giving a pregnant Future Questions activities that occur during a project to deter These are the preliminary evaluation re- woman some pills. Results of pretests showed mine if the objectives are being met and, if that comprehension was higher with both of sults. Analysis will continue for some months not, to modify the project's direction to ensure these photographs which were accompanied with subsequent reports on data from a study that they are. Thorough and extensive pretest- by simple texts, but a majority of women pre- of the validity of self-report data; analyses of ing is the formative research technique that ferred the second photograph because it rep- effects of exposure to campaign channels on the Program for the Introduction and Adapta- resented a positive message. individuals' learning and practice; and peo- tion of Contraceptive Technology (PIACT) and Use of common objects. Project staff in ples' susceptibility to campaign messages. The its sister organization, the Progran. for Appro- Pakistan, producing materials on prenatal care final report will also discuss the extent of insti- priate Technology in Health (PATH), rely on to for rural women, thought a drawing of a tutionalization of the HEALTHCOM methodol- develop well-understood and culturally ap- health worker using a pointer to indicate ogy within the Swaziland Ministry of Health. propriate print materials. proper foods on a wall chart would be inter- Robert Hornik is Associate Professor at the Before materials are finalized or printed, an preted as a message explaining the impor- interviewer should pretest them with repre- tance of a healthy diet during pregnancy. Annenberg School of Communications, Uni- sentatives of the target population to deter- versity of Pennsylvania. He was principal in- When the drawing was pretested, it was misin- mine if the intended message is being con- vestigator for the evaluation of health com- terpreted as a health worker shooting a gun. munication projects in Peru and elsewhere veyed and if it is clear and acceptable to them. Obviously, these women had never seen any- under the MD-sponsored Mass Media and Pretesting should be done while the materials one using a pointer while giving a demonstra- Health Practices Project. Pamela Sankar is a are still in an unfinished state so audience- tion! The illustration they chose depicts the PbD. candidate at tbe Annenberg School ofgenerated alterations can easily be made. Re- food groups above the head of the health vised materials should likewise be tested until worker (see illustration). Communications, University of Pennsylvania. they communicate the information as intended. Since PIACT/PATH work with countries where large percentages of the population are nonliterate, its motivational and instructional materials rely on pictures (drawings, photographs, or a combination) to convey the mes- A Health Audio/ sage. Often, pictures are augmented by a line or two of simple text in the local language. Video Series This text also requires careful pretesting, for vocabulary selected by health workers or program managers may be too sophisticated for The Food and Nutrition Program of the Fac- their clients. ulty of Interdisciplinary Studies of the Pontifi- The following examples from the field dem- da Universidad Javeriana in Bogota, Colom- onstrate the importance of pretesting to as- bia, under the auspices of the United Nations sure that print materials are appropriate to the University, has recently produced an audio group for whom they are being developed. and video series, 'The Road to Health." The Details that may at first appear unimportant development of these programs included re- can render a material useless and even offen- search and evaluation steps with the target sive to the target audience. audience, the results of which gave the neces- Symbols. While designing illustrations for sary guidelines for health education needs, themessage "During pregnancy, take only and appropriate communication channels. medicine prescribed by a doctor,"researchers The object of these programs is to educate pretested a photograph from existing material low-income mothers about actions they can that showed several medicine bottles with a take to help the health and nutrition of chil- red "X" superimposed over them. Pretesting dren under five years of agt. results indicated that the illustradorr did not The educational series, in Spanish, consists convey the message that patients should use of 12 programs on (betamax) videotape of only medications prescribed by a doctor. approximately 15 minutes each, and 17 pro- Many respondents did not even see the "X." grams on audiotape of approximately 10 min- Others did not know it symbolized "don't," utes each. "no," or "danger," and, in fact felt that the The series is designed for use in educa- message encouraged the use of medications. tional discussions with groups of mothers, Positive messages. The audience's nega- couples, or families, and to train extension tive reaction to the photograph described workers in issues of health and nutrition. above prompted project staff to test two alter- For information on how to obtain this series native pictures. The first photograph showed a contact: Patricia Avila de Halls, Facultad de doctor gesturing to a woman and telling her in Estudlos Interdisciplinarios, Pontificia Univer- simple words not to take a pill that had not sidad Javeriana, Carrera 10, No.65 -48, Bogota, been prescribed to her; the second photo- Colombia. graph (see illustration adapted from the pho- (continued on page id) 25 Aubimn 1985Development Communication Report 9 Funding Organizations Look at Communications

The Fireworks The World Bank UNICEF: The Potential Syndrome: WHO Addresses Health of Social Marketing

by Jack Ling, Director by Margaret Valdivia, Project Officer by James Grant, Executive Director Division of Public Information Population, Health, and Nutrition and Education for Health [The followingIStakenfrom I WICEF's The The World Bank begin allocating and dis-State of the World's Children 1985 1 flbe following piece bas been adapted from atributing funds directly for health-related Today, the resources of the mass media speech presented at the first ICORT Conference projects in 1980. Promotion of appropriateand the techniques of social marketingare held in Washington, D.C., June 1983 We health behaviors is now a component of most beginning to be used to put the techniques of would like to thank Jack Ling for permitting population, health, and nutrition projects fi-a child survival revolution at the disposal of us to reprint a portion of it in the DCRJ nanced partly by the Bank. millions of parents: In Brazil, the equivalent of Development Support Communication ac-USE1 million a year in radio and television There is traditionally a world of difference tivities supported by the Population, Health, advertising time has been put behind a nation- between information and eduation. The task and Nutrition Department encompass publicwide campaign to promote breastfeeding In of the former has consisted of collecting infor- education, personal counselling, patient edu-India, child survival messages are being pro- mation and presenting it in an interesting way, cation and the promotion of behavioral, con-claimed by advertisements on buses and bill- often through the media, to different audi- sumer, and attitudinal change in specific targetboards ences. The information officer's responsibility groups, as well as traditional health education The potential of social marketing is just be- is traditionally perceived to end there Educa- and community mobilization. The criteriaginning to be explored But already, there is a tion, on the other hand, to be successful re- used for selecting the approach and method-body of experience available to guide future quires an act of pr tidpation on the part of the ology to be applied in a particular programefforts. First, it is clear that people's lives and learner and an all-important dialogue be- are technical feasibility, cost effectiveness, and behavior cannot be transformed simply by tween the educator and the learner. But in a appropriateness to the context of the pro-waving the magic wand of social marketing. broader sense, and certainly in recent years,gram. The scope of a project can be national, Mass media messages about the need to boil the two have converged. local, or highly specific. water or to breastfeed or to feed a child more Two WHO meetings, "New Approaches in Among the activities the World Bank hasfrequently cannot solve the problems of fire- Health Education for Primal)? Health Care," supported are: making films for sensitizationwood shortage or maternity leave or give a and "New Policies in Primary Health Care," and training of health personnel; making film mother more hours in the day strongly endorsed an integrated strategy using and TV documentaries and documentary Secondly, it has proved important to recog- both interpersonal and mediated communica- dramas for young audiences on teenage preg- nize the differences as well as the similarities tion In the planning and delivery of primary nancy issues, marketing one or two highlybetween commercial and social marketing. health care. To use media without links to the specific nutrition interventions nationally and Because social marketing campaigns usually existing health care services and face-to-face in defined geographic areas; communicating seek a more important change in behavior and contact would create what might be called a by radio with volunteer workers, preparing attitudes than a change in loyalties to a particu- "fireworks syndrome," by analogy with a dis- teaching and learning materials for use bylar brand name, mass media messages in play of attractive fireworks which fizzle out community leaders, mounting large-scale themselves are usually not enough. In the pro- after a few seconds in a darkened sky. On the multimedia national campaigns maintained motion of a more complex process such as other hand, person-to-person work, while rec- over long periods, and producing print mate-oral rehydration therapy for example, mass ognized as the most effective method of teach- rials for non-literates for mass distribution. media campaigns can be an important coming, will benefit greatly from close oartnership plement to but not an adequate substitute for with the media which can stimulate and help practical face-to-face demonstrations by health to sustain interest in health problems on the workers or trained volunteers part of individuals, families, and communities. So far, the most common mistake of social The role of the media in the education of marketing campaigns seems to be a concen- the public, as seen by WHO, can be summar- tration on the superficial aspects of commer- ized as follows: must work to stimulate community involve- cial marketing techniques at the expense of its to help strengthen political will by appeal- ment. Health education is seen as the means to deeper disciplines Research into how a target ing to policymakers; encourage and enable communities to iden- audience perceives its own problems and to raise general health consciousness andtify their health problems and translate them needs, into what sources of information have clarify options concerning actions thatinto simple and realistic goals that they can credibility, into what kinds of presentation are have a strong bearing on health; monitor themselves. acceptable and what kinds of information are to inform decision-makers and the public Itis important for us to learn from past practicable, are all essential to campaigns about the latest developments in healthexperiences; the painful lessons of the 1950s which seek to bring about complex changes in sciences and publicize relevant experi- and 1960s showed us that apparenth success- human behavior In developing such cam- ences; ful technical programs were no more than paigns, considerable resources of time, to help deliver technical messages; "fireworks" in a dark sky. Only if attention money, and creativity need to he invested in to encourage dialogue and facilitate feed-were paid to building up the he .Ith system message selection, media planning, analysis of back from communities. infrastructure so that the gain made by the message resistance, and monitoring of mes- The two WHO meetings urged that healthspecific program could be sustained, consoli- sage response A lack of professionalism in any education workers should be learner-Facilita-dated, and enlarged was them a chance of one of these disciplines can easily diminish tors as well as teachers and participants whoturning the fireworks into a permanent light the effectiveness of a social marketing campaign.

10 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report A Communicator's Checklist

Social Marketing: New Imperative for reason to think thatwell-concewedsocial de- Public Health, by Richard K Manoff (Newvelopment messages delivered via radio or TV York: Praeger Publishers, 1985) 279 pp. should, in most cases, be without strong influ- The literature on social marketing has re- ence Manoff states "it is specious to argue that ceived an important addition withSocial Mar- health and nutrition objectives are far more keting New Imperative for Public Healthby complex to achieve (than those of commercial Richard Manoff. For the book not only pro-products) certainly in nutrition we are vides time-tested, experience-based lessons dealing with the promotion of foods that are on the fundamentals of designing and imple-no more complicated than those in the com- menting a social marketing program, it also mercial world...." shares with the reader many valuable insights A second Manoff theme ringing true is his which, in total, create a treatise on the suoject call for a greater level of skill and aggressive- Not without a moral foundation, Manoff s ness in social marketing campaigns. He points book convincingly lays out a caring, compel- out that "though marketing has demonstrated ling appeal to treat social marketing as a trueits usefulness for social goals, it is rarely car- imperathe to public health advancement ried out with the skill and thoroughness char- Manoff s writings expose the reader not acteristic of the commercial world." He chal- only to the "how" of social marketing but also lenges the practitioners of social marketing to to the "why." Lending further importance to advance their level of expertise and insight the message, we develop a sense of what the and reap from social marketing all of its inher- prospects for future health care will be if weent potential The world's social development don't take full advantage of the potential ofills are demanding that social marketers of social marketing. today and tomorrow be more creative. Manoff A well-crafted social marketing message de- calls for them to push their thinking and steer signed for the mass media, this book reflects clear of doing things "the expected wayIn a all the important steps required for penetrat-loud voice, he calls for new energy. ing, effective communication. It has a keen Complementing his call for action, Manoff awareness of the target audience (in this casedevotes considerable attention to detailing the health promoters and communication plan- entire process of a well-conceived social mar- ners worldwide); the problems requiring res- keting effort. problem identification, objective olution are well defined; opposing viewpoints and strategy setting; developmental research, are recognized and addressed; benefits of fol- message design, testing, media planning, co- lowing the suggested course of action are ordination of forces, and tracking of results. crystal clear, the viewpoint is made more con- Each step is framed with a view on "how its vincing through examples; and the ever -im- done" in commercial marketing, yet is focused portant "call to action" is in sharp focus on the particular circumstances of the social throughout the communication marketer in the developing world At times A major theme in Manoff s book deals with though, the reader may find his critique of the the enormous opportunity to help right some developed world's marketing techniques to of today's health care imbalances, especiallybe paternalistic and somewhat unfair Exam- those that befall the poor. While the gap can ples from around the world, including four be closed-by better health service delivery, so extensive case histories, are illuminating and too, he argues, can it be shortened by smartly help the reader to recognize the advantage in applying traditional marketing techniques to following the identified path. social development issues One particularly valuable section deals with Seeking to increase support for social mar- designing the social marketing message I lere, keting, Manoff directly, yet sensitively, con- Manoff addresses what this reviewer believes fronts the questioning of mass media's role in zo be one of the major factors in social market- social development. Rightly so, he challenges ir.g program failuremedia messages that are the thinking that failure to find conclusive, poorly planned and lacking sensitivity to the positive results in many social marketing pro- target's human condition. The reader is ex- grams calls into question the effectiveness of posed to content, design, persuasion, and mass media for social causes. "How about the memorability factors that make the difference content of the messages in these 'failed' pro- between a message that persuades and one grams?" he asks. "Have we looked carefully at that rings hollow. In light of the critical nature media delivery?" "Are we being truly persua-of this component of social marketing, it sive in our appeals?" The role of mass media would have been better to have devoted even in influencing attitudes and decisions is unde- more space to the discussion of message ben- niable. At its most basic level, there is no(continued on page 19) 27 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report 11 (Pretesting continued from page 9) learned that there can be a large discrepancy between what materials developers intend to Extraneous detail. A government agency convey and what the audience understands. Environmental in Botswana, which had developed a booklet Pretesting is an essential formative technique on the oral contraceptive, recently made that builds upon information gathered during Communication changes in a few illustrations because in-depth the materials development process, ensuring field tests conducted after they printed and the message designer that the materials will Conference distributed small numbers of the booklet re- effectively address the needs of the target vealed a detail unnoticed during earlier inter- audience. The Department of Natural Resources and views. Respondents were distracted by an Environmental Quality Board of Puerto Rico image of the back of a man sitting in the clinic Margot Zimmerman is Director of the PACT/ are co-sponsoring and hosting the "First Con- window which appeared in each of the pic- PATH Information, Education and Commu- ference on Mass Communications and Envi- tures showing the clinic. The same illustration nications office in Washington, D.C. Lena ronmental Protection in the Caribbean of the clinic was used throughout the booklet. Steckel is an Assistant Program Officer in Region." When the booklet was reprinted for wide- PIACT/PATH's Washington, D.0 office. The three-day meeting will be held in Old spread distribution, the man was removed San Juan, Puerto Rico from February 3-5, 1986. from the window to eliminate the distraction. The dual purposes are to assess the current This illustrates the importance of thorough uses of mass media in this area, and to explore field testing of a small run of a booklet or flier future applications for incorporating mass prior to mass printing. media into overall planning strategies for en- flme. Messages about time are often diffi- vironmental management and protection. cult to communicate, especially to non- and Those interested in attending the confer- semiliterate audiences. Groups with whom Please note in "A Communicator's Check- ence, displaying environmental media mate- PIACT/PATH has worked have developed a list", DCR #50, a book was reviewed under an rials or audiovisuals, or receiving published variety of symbols to show the passage of days, incorrect title. Bibliotech: The 1984/1985 proceedings should contact Victoria Dompka, weeks, months, and years. An illustration Computer Cookbook should have read The Conference Coordinator, Department of Natu- showing a woman tearing off a calendar page 1984/1985 Computer Cookbook. We regret ral Resources, P.O. Box 5887, Puerta de Tierra, was well understood by Ecuadorean audi- this error. Puerto Rico 00906 Telephone (809) 722-5501. ences to mean that one month had passed. But in many areas of Sierra Leone or in the Sudan, respondents did not recognize the Western calendar. Consequently other symbols were tested in these countries. Moons in Sierra A Selected Bibliography of Leone and moons and stars in the Sudan were identified as the symbols most widely understood to represent months. Health Communications Materials In a contraceptive instructional booklet developed in Bangladesh, it was important to Communication and Child/Family Welfare. A Regional SeminarParis: International convey the message you must "wait 5-10 Children's Centre, 1981. minutes" after using the foaming tablet. Since Diarrhoea' Diseases Control: Examples of Health Education Materials Geneva: World most Bangladeshis could not tell time, the Health Organization, 1982 artist first depicted the passing of time by Fincham, A.G., Desai, P., Halliwell, J., McKenzie, H., and Morrison, H. The Use of Radio for showing water boiling. When this was not un- the In-service Continuing Education of Rural Primary Health Care Personnel in derstood, project staff observed villagers' rou- Jamaica. Kingston, amaica: United Cooperative Printers Ltd, May 1984. tines to see if they could find an activity that Health Education Methods and Materials in Primary Health Care Appropriate Tec.lmol- took 5-10 minutes to complete. They finally ogy for Health Newsletter. Geneva: World Health Organization, December 1981. tested x drawing of a man and woman sitting The Health Message Testing Service A Standardized Approach for Assessing Audience on their bed with the man smoking a cigarette. Response to Health Messages. Bethesda, Maryland. Office of Communications, National Almost every respondent understood that the Cancer Institute, n.d. man was smoking and waiting. They did not Mass Media and Health Practices. Project Implementation, Documents 1 - 17 Washing- necessarily know why the man was waiting, ton, D.C.: Academy for Educational Development, 1982-1985 but they knew that he should wait as long as it took to finish a cigarette. New Approaches to Health Education in Primary Health Care. Technical Report Series Text. The same word can have several 690. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1983 meanings, and pretesting will reveal when a Perrett, Heli.Planning of Communication Support (Information, Motivation, and selected word interferes with message com- Education) in Sanitation Projects and Programs Washington, D C The World Bank, prehension. When preparing materials to pro- 1983. mote breastfeeding in a large New York City Pretesting in Health Communications Methods, Examples, and Resources for Improving hospital, text was tested informing women Health Messages and MaterialsBethesda, Maryland: Office of Communications, Na- that, if they know they will be away from home tional Cancer Institute, 1982. during feeding time, they can "express" their Primary Health Care Bibliography and Resource Directory Information for Action Series own milk into a clean cup. Although the visual Washington, D.C.: World Federation of Public Health Associations, 1984. illustration of this process was already under Solomon, D., McAnany, E., Goldschmidt, D., Parker, E., and Foote, D. The Role of stood, when respondents in a pretest were Commxication in Health. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University, January 1979. asked to read the texts, some became con- Sweeney, W.O. and Parlato, M.B. Using Radio for Primary Health Care Issues, Series 1, fused, thinking that the written message had Number 1. Washington, D C.: American Public Health Association/International Health something to do with breastfeeding in the Programs, September 1982. subway (express train) system. When substi- Vesin, P., Aghi, M., and Morel, G., editors Child Nutrition /Malnutrition: Information and tute words were used, "you can take breast Mass Media, A Workshop. Paris: Centre International de l'Enfance, 1983. milk out by band," the text reinforced the Vesin, P., Morel, G. and Schmidt, B., editors Educac.ao e Sat.ide da Crianya e Meias de illustration and the message was clear to Comunicacdo de Massa. Paris: Centre International de l'Enfance, 1983. respondents. Through pretesting, PIACT/PATH has 2-8 2 -- Autumn 1985Development Communication Report Saving Children's Lives: A Communication Campaign in Egypt

Dy Dr. Norbert Hirschhorn most useful and valid information upon whichception to this name noting it was not suitable to build a communication campaign. Thisfor prescribing purposes. The name finally Diarrheal disease is the remaining majorholds true whether the activity is to select anchosen, The Solution for the Peatment of De- cause of death in Egyptian infants and toddlersappropriate logo to call attention to the cam-hydration served the dual functions of ease of under the age of three, accounting for over 60paign, or to determine the most effective identification for mothers as well as providing percent of deaths in those age groups. As latechannels through which to communicate so-a precise prescription name for doctors and as 1980 it was estimated that close to 150,000cial messages. 'T following elements of the pharmacists. People now know it more simply deaths were associated with diarrhea. StudiesNCDDP project %.cre those that required con- as The Solution. Exemplified here is a case showed that the great majority of these deathssiderable audience research and testing be- where selected audience research told project were due to simple dehydration., "simple"infore being integrated into the ORT campaignplanners the wrong thing. Although mothers the sense that death could have been pre-throughout Egypt. were the primary audience, doctors and phar- vented by proper oral rehydration therapy. Logo. Four designs were selected from macists served as dispensers of the solution Intravenous fluids were available but not to all among ten submitted by independent artistsand should also have been consulted from the children, especially in rural areas. Also,and advertising agencies. Focus groups andbeginning in order to ensure broad accep- mothers were not aware of the dangers ofbrief interviews in public places on these fourtance of the product. dehydration and brought children into clinics logos were carried out to determine audience Identifying the Product with the Dis- too late. A pilot study proved conclusively thatresponse. The most popular design was againease. Since oral rehydration does not stop oral rehydration therapy (ORT), promoted bytaken out and tested with other focus groupsdiarrhea, another disease for which the ther- rural health clinics and at home, could reduce tor more specific comments. Changes result- apy is effective must be identified. That "other" diarrhea - related deaths by 50 percent. ing from this final feedback were the color ofdisease is dehydration One of the problems, It was on the basis of this pilot study that thethe mother's dress from black to whiteforparticularly in the rural areas, was finding a National Control of Diarrhea! Diseases Projectcultural reasons; a wedding band drawn ontofamiliar term to help mothers associate the (NCDDP) was developed through a programthe mother's finger; a larger spoon; and asymptoms they already recognize in their sick agreement between the Government of thesmile added to the mother's face (see logochildren with dehydration. An Egyptian Arabic Arab Republic of Egypt and the US Agency forillustration). While responses were being col- word gaffaffmeaning agricultural-related International Development. Signed in late lected on mothers' reactions to the proposeddryness or droughtwas found to best ex- 1982, the five-year project aimed to reduce logo, numerous subjective feelings were alsopress the concept that project staff wanted to child mortality from diarrhea by at least 25being shared with the staff about illness, health convey. Although use of gaffaff in this context percent. Work began in 1983 with the arrivalcare, and the mothers' devotion to childrenis not always understood by all mothers, it of the technical assistance team from the John all useful information for upcoming messagedoes provide health care workers with an- Snow Public Health Group OSI). design purposes. other means of teaching some mothers to take action more quickly when their children are Project Description sick with diarrhea and are dehydrated or in There are two features of this project that danger of becoming so. are central to its effective management: 1) the NCDDP enjoys a certain degree of autonomy Message Design to the extent that it can reach beyond the NCDDP research into the entertainment Ministry of Health to bring in specialists and mass communication habits of the Egyp- through grants and contracts, and it has the tian public, both rural and urban, showed that power to manage its own budget and person- over 90 percent of Egyptians have access to nel; 2) the NCDDP is not a group of separate radio, and over two-thirds to television (over program elements, but an integration of ele- 90 percent in urban areas) This argued for ments in time and concept: training of health assigning radio and particularly TV central workers; production, distribution and market- roles in the dissemination of educational mes- ing of oral rehydration salts (ORS); monitor- sages about diarrhea! disease, and TV adver- ing and evaluation of the project; and educa- tisements were developed tion and promotion via television, radio, and TV Production Sequence. Diarrheal dis- other public media These aspects are all con- Materials Design.Questioning theease experts were first consulted to learn the currently active and all are maintained andmothers who participated in focus groups facts about the disease. Egyptian pediatricians coordinated through the Secretariat, the tech- helped project staff determine what amount ofand medical professors were then brought in nical arm of NCDDP. fluid a mother would find believable to give to to review the medical facts within an Egyptian The goal of the communications element,a child with diarrhea. In addition, surveyscontext and to modify reLommendations for the focus of this article, is to teach, persuade, showed that a 200cc packet of salts would be the target audience. A "story board" (illustra- and change the behaviors of (a) all Egyptianthe most practical size for home use A plastic tions of visuals comprising the proposed TV mothers of children under three, and (b) cup and spoon were also developed for distri- ad) was then designed. Egyptian pediatricians other specific target groups, especially healthbution with the packet. were asked to review these for accuracy. At personnel, pharmacists, mass media re- Naming the Solution. Field researchthis stage of development, anthropologists porters, and decision-makers involved withshowed that mothers favored simple namestook the "story board" and the accompanying the management of diarrhea and dehydrationthat either convey a warm feeling or that de-script to villages and used focus groups and Programs. scribe the purpose of the solution. An Arabicone-on-one techniques to solicit comments. word meaning "for cure" (a common blessingAfter selected changes were made the TV ad Planning for Communication upon taking a medicine) was selected, re-was produced and reviewed by diarrheal dis- Data acquired through target audience re-sponding to mothers' voiced preference. ease experts and Egyptian pediatricians. This search provides program planners with theHowever, doctors and pharmacists took ex-(continued on Page 14) 29 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report 13 (Egypt continued from page 13) percent to nearly 70 percent of episodes. Sta- messages at weighing sessions and home tistically significant, mortality reductions in visits A poster was designed for each segment final film was not pretested; instead, an inten-children under two have been documented sive post-campaign evaluation of the first of the target audience The name of the target nationwide, approximating a 50-percent drop broadcast campaign, timed for release in Jan- group was printed at the top of each poster in diarrhea-associated deaths, concomitant and large, step-by-step illustrations of the rec- uary-February 1984 as a pilot during the non- diarrhea season, was used to gather targe'with project activities. Monitoring of all proc- ommended practices were featured below. A ess and outcome measures continues. Thecolumn of boxes under each illustration al- audience reactions. The NCDDP ads have sub- success of the NCDDP project in Egypt indi- sequently been found to be the most remem- lowed mothers to record their compliance cates that mass media can help change behav- bered of art, public or commercial ad accord- with the recommendations over a month's ior, but that all other elements of a mass cam- time ing to the posttests following the second andpaign must be equally well- plani.ed and third campaigns in the summer of 1984 and The project also addressed the kaders' ex- coordinated to achieve this success. 1985. pressed lack of confidence. They were trained TV Testimonial Personality. Television how to use the educational materials that Dr. Hirschhorn is a lecturer at Harvard Uni- history was made with the production of these would be taken to mothers' homes. At weigh- versity's Dcp..zonent of Preventive and Social ads. It was the first time a famous person was ing sessions kaders selected a poster accord- Medicie. He bas had worldwide experience used to deliver a social-oriented message and ing to the age of the child, then counseled the in implementing diarrhea! control programs only tne second time the testimonial format mother on what she should do, using the was used on IV. The first pilot commercialsand in training health workers in maternal poster as a visual aid for her and as a reminder child health a.ul development. featured the actor-comedian-social commen of the advice that should be given during this tator, Fouad El Mohandes, known widely to session. Thus, the posters served to reinforce children as "Uncle Fouad" Although "Uncle the advice to mothers once they returned home, and to reinforce the kaders' training. Fouad" was well received by a majority of(NCBC continued from page 5) mothers with young children and the com- Delivering the posters to the homes of mothers also gave kaders a purpose for mak- mercials effectively transmitted the intendedSurveying was based on issues identified ear- ing the visit since it provided them with some- messages, the response was powerfully nega-lier by the Ministry of Health as most severe tive in five to eight percent of mothers sur-for the population overall including: protein- thing to offer in exchange for the mothers' veyed. More importantly, doctors overwhelm-energy malnutrition in three age groupsin- time. ingly rejected the image, asking How can a fants 0-4 months, infants 5-8 months, and chil- Project Evaluation comedian to about medicine?* Even when dren 9-24 months old; infant diarrhea and "Uncle Fouad" was paired with an eminentdehydration; vitamin A deficiency; undernutri- Addressing the same nutrition problems as physician, doctors persisted in rejecting thisdon of pregnant women; and undernutrition the national program and operating with vir- Image. of women during lactation. The NCBC ex- tually the same activities and tools, the NCBC This strong negative response called for aplored these problems in a subsample of the project achieved significantly different results. very different image to regain the confidence participating villages. A survey sheet of media The 1981 evaluation showed that the social of the medical profession. To accomplish this,habits was completed during the initial inter- marketing approach had improved the nutri- a well-known "motherly-appearing" actressview with mothers and at all focus group tional status significantly in the target popula- was selectedKarima Mokhtar, who plays in interviews. tions. Significant improvements in food intake soap operas and movies in Egypt. Her role as and the nutritional status of the target popula- an advisor/counsellor in the ads proved highlyThe Communication Strategy tions, the ultimate tests of the strategy's effec- acceptable among medical professionals and The qualitative investigation identified the tiveness, were also recorded and could be mothers alike. need for change or reinforcement in particu- attributed to behavioral changes stimulated by Physicians, Pharmacists, and Nurses. the project. These changes were reflected in: lar nutrition-related behaviors. The target au- higher protein and calorie levels for project Messages were designed as much for medicaldience of mothers was segmented according professionals as for mothers. Radio and televi- to their needs during designated maternal children and breastfeeding mothers; higher consumption of the the recommended foods sion's "leveling" effect means everyone re- stages and by the age-related dietary needs of ceives the same message, giving doctors,their children under three years of age This by project children, an improved nutritional nurses, and pharmacists the opportunity tomeant only immediately useful information status for 40 percent of children in the project; at 23 months, an average weight of 1.5 kg. know what the general population knows. Itwould be directed to mothers in these catego- provides them with a base upon which to ries higher for project than nonproject children., continue educating their patients/customers. and a significantly better growth rate in each The research showed that the cost to experimental area for project children after Health workers were also provided with amothers of following the advice was at the flood of well-produced professional materialsmost a few rupiahs (cents) more than they five months of age. (posters, a newsletter, scientific brochures) In addition, project kaders offered more normally spent per day and was affordable for accurate, specific, and complete dietary advice that were equally appreciated as there is gen- over 90 percent of the sample. Due to severe erally a shortage of good resource materials to the target population than a sample of non- constraints on the mothers' time, most of the for medical professionals in Egypt. project kaders. The evaluation also pointed to recommended behaviors demanded a small higher levels of performance by the project additional investment of their time; those that kaders than by their counterparts in nonpro- Results required extra time offered a substantial and ject communities in terms of community out- What was the impact of this intense, nation-perceptible reward. reach and broader and more consistent cover- wide campaign to reduce infant mortality re- Radio was available in many homes in the age. lated to diarrhea, and could such an impact beproject areas, so broadcast messages were in- attributed to effect:ve communication plan-tegrated into the project as an additional ning? Between early 1983 and late 1984,means of reaching mothers. The radio spots, Cost Analysis knowledge of dehydration rose from 32 per-besides bringing nutritional messages into the The NCBC case illustrates how the social cent to 90 percent; knowledge of ORS rosehome, also identified kaders as a crucial marketing approach to educational programs from 1.5 percent to 96 percent Ninty-eightsource of information for mothers and chil- fits the needs, resources, and desires of pro- percent of all Egyptian pharmacies have ORSdren, thus increasing their prestige in the eyes gram participants. Social marketing made the available and h is now the leading sale item (in of mothers. fit possible by producing messages that ad- volume) of all diarrhea-related drugs accord- "Action Rasters" were designed to meet sev- dressed the most pressing nutrition and ing to a survey of 300 pharmacists nationwide.eral strategic needs; first, to reinforce the health problems with suggestions for prac- Careful documentation shows that mass medialeaders' advice in areas not reached by radio; tices that mothers could carry out and sustain alone increased the use of ORS from onesecond, to ensure accurate delivery of the(continued on page 19)

Autumn 1985Development Communication Report A Nutrition Prescription for the Dominican Republic

The Applied Nutrition Education Projectstrategy; and education materials can be tulated and encouraged to continue feeding as (ANEP) of Caritas-Dominican Republic andadapted by health promoters to meet indivi- before. Promoters spend only a few minutes Catholic Relief Services works with families in dual needs. The project has produced promo- with these mothers. More time is spent with 90 low-income Dominican communities to donal materials, materials for group educa- mothers of children who have not gained improve the nutritional status of children. This tion. materials to stimulate community actionweight. In addition to offering these mothers is done by encouraging families to better feedactivities, and materials for individual counsel- specific suggestions for actions they should and care for children, and through communitying at growth monitoring sessions. The pri- take, promoters ask the mothers how many of action protects to increase food productionmary audience is mothers with children under the recommendations they can actually carry and sanitation. five years of age. out. As a reminder to these mothers of what From the outset, ANE? has placed prime ANEP has gone further with individual they should try at home, ANEP developed importance on education and community pro-counseling than either the Nutrition Commu- take-home worksheets for mothers of non- motion, seeking to develop a comprehensive nication and Behavior Change Component gainers. Each worksheet has illustrated recom- communications strategy that reflects commu- (NCBC) of Indonesia or the Indonesian Family mendations for a target group at the top of the nity needs and abilities. In designing the ANEPNutrition Improvement Program (UPGK) by page and boxes at the bottom. For example, a strategy, the lessons of Indonesia's Nutrition providing a tailored method and the tool for promoter asks the mother of a 9- to 23-month- Communication and Behavior Change Com-adapting the method to the mothers' indivi-old who has not gained weight whether she ponent were applied, and the benefits ofdual resources. For personal counseling, a set can realistically feed her chid the recom- growth monitoring as a pivotal nutrition com- of 12 laminated pictures, portalaminas, was mended four meals a day. If the mother says munication activity were exploited. Otherproduced to guide health promoters in coun- she can only manage three, the promoter cir- ways in which ANEP reflects the Indonesian seling mothers at weighing sessions. Each 11 x cles three of the four illustrated feedings and experience: its strategy is based on commu- 14 inch lamina has graphics on one side and asks the mother to punch a hole in, or to mark nity partidpation through qualitative research,a message for one of four segments of the the boxes as she follows the advice. albeit through focus group rather than indivi- target audience on the other. The project de- dual interviews; communication and educa-signed two laminas for each age group: one Communications assistance has been pro- tion are the primary interventions; individualfor children who have gained weight, and the vided by Marcia Griffiths of Manoff Interna- counseling in conjunction with growth moni-other for children who haven't. Mothers oftional, and two consultants to the Interna- toring plays a key role in the communicationschildren who have gained weight are congra- tional Nutrition Communication Service

Distance Teaching Course Offered

A four-month course on distance teaching and its relevance for Third World countries will be held from April to July 1986 by the International Extension College and the De- partment of Education in Developing Coun- tries of the University of London Institute of Education, at the Institute in London. Course objectives are to analyze an educational problem in a participant's country and determine whether distance-teaching methods are appropriate to it; to make reasoned and informed choices between different methods of distance teaching; and to work out administrative arrangements for a dis- MMI .Mli l tance-teaching system. e=n MinEMI All participants should be graduates or MNHIMB NM Ow 1MBI MMi I IM MN MN trained teachers or have adequate relevant =i Mm IMI M IME experience, have not less than six months' EMIHI IMIMI MI =I MIIMMMII experience of working full-time in distance =1 IMBI OM teaching or extension, and have a thorough NMI=I MI IIME M MI NM NM MI= I11 IIIII IMI YIN command of English. M MINI IMMI MM Application deadline is February 17, 1986. INEN I MI MI MNMIM For further information and application forms an IHI MI contact: Departmental Secretary, Department of Education in Developing Countries, Univer Worksheet for mothers of children 9-23 months of age 1160 have not gained weight Messages. Gift, the child sity of London Institute of Education, 20 Bed- the same food as the jams 41 eau. Give the child one more meal and a snack between ma's for a total of ford Way, London WC1H OAL, U.K Telephonefour meals a day and two snacks Continue breastfeeding. 01-636-1500. -3.1 Autumn 1985 Development Communication Report 15 (TWR contfruad from Page 5) categories has, however, increased with the Conclusion expansion of the network. While need for and use of TWR seems to be In addition to the already discussed radio greatest in remote locations, its utility remains and a five-year stock of spare parts. A key traffic, MEDEX headquarters uses two-way constant throughout the network. Benefits of dement has been involvement from the be- radio (TWR) to provide consultative and edu- the system include. ginning of GTC, whose technicians have been cational support to their field workers. A bi- used to install and maintain the equipment weekly program in continuing medical educa- increased access to knowledgeable persons under a contract with the Ministry of Health tion provides inservice training at a distance. for administrative and managerial matters; (MOH). Since the GTC and MOH have colla- Every other Saturday Georgetown conducts a improved supervision of field paraprofes- borated from the start, each has an equal stake medical clinic by TWR Brief lectures are deliv- sionals; in seeing the MEDEX network develop suc- ered on field-generated topics such as malaria increased opportunities for medical consul- cessfully. Additionally, continuity was ensured control and infant diarrhea. When a clinic has tation, patient referrals, and clinical follow- by Involving the same technical assistance finished, medex are encouraged to ask ques- up; team throughout the planning and installation tions and to discuss relevant community cases improved rer orting of and response to Two weekly conference calls update medex emergency situations, All medexmedex are trained in the use, care, and on administrative actions, and a Georgetown increased communication between medex, maintenance of their radios in an intensive operator calls each station once a week to community members, and other govern- one-day training session. Each medex receives conduct an equipment check. ment agencies. an illustrated training manual and a set of The benefits of the medex two-way radio maintenance tools. They are taught how to system exemplify the important role telecom- communicate effectively over the radio and Impact of TWR munications can play in the development how to fill out the logs of all calls sent and Two-way radio has greatly improved rural process. Use of telecommunications for ad- received Georgetown headquarters analyzes primary health care delivery. It has substan- ministration, supervision, coordination, con- the logs to determine the use and reliability of tially eased the coordination and management sultation, and education can lead to improve- the network of remote medex locations. Administrative ments not only in the quality of rural health A key person in the network is the full-time matters are also handled much more effi- care, but also in supporting education and communications officer at MEDEX head- ciently than before, particularly when requisi- agricultural extension services. As the Guyana quarters in Georgetown, who is responsible tioning supplies and drugs. exprience demonstrates, rural communica- not only for communicating with the medex Previously, drugs were ordered by mail ortions can contribute to improving the quality and controlling traffic on the network, but also by messages passed through other govern- of rural life in the developing world. for following up on their requests. This officer ment agencies. Medex often had to wait weeks must locate a physician when an emergency for a reply, only to travel to Georgetown forMichelle Fryer is a specialist in uses of radio call is received, determine the status of pa- follow-up. Such activity resulted in consider-for education. Dr Burns is Associate Profes- tients transferred to Georgetown or of de- able expense to the MOH and in a temporarysor, Department of Electrical Engineering, layed drug shipments, and provide other in- los of medical services to rural communities. Iowa State University; Dr. Hudson is Associate formation upon request. The competence and With TWR, medex can now follow up on ad- Professor, College of Communication, Univer- dedication of this officer is vital to the success- ministrative matters without ever having tosity of Texas at Austin. ful operation of the network leave a site. TWR has also greatly improved the coordination of emergency evacuations. Transporta- Radio Use tion can be immediately arranged, referral Medex keep their radio in their office and centers alerted to the patient's impending ar- generally have it on "receive" mode for in-rival, facilities prepared, and a physician coming calls from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Mon- placed on call. In the past medex were forced day through Saturday. An analysis of logs dur-to leave their patient and travel to the closest ing the first quarter of 1985 showed that 62 available radio, resulting in delays of hours or percent of all calls were for administrativedayssometimes at the cost of a patient's life purposes, such as to coordinate transportation It should be noted, however, that while needs, order drugs and supplies, superviseTWR can communicate the immediacy of a field personnel, and schedule health care per- situation, poor roads and unreliable transport sonnel meetings. About 23 percent of all calls still limit the extent to which a medex can were related to medical uses such as consulta- respond to community medical needs. Emer- tions between field medex and doctors, con-gency evacuations which may now be coordi- tinuing education, patient referrals and fol- nated in a matter of hours along the coast, may(ERIC continued from page 18) low-up, emergency evacuations, or malariastill be impossible during the rainy season in control. Messages transmitted for community the hinterland. potential uses for the volume. The format of residents or other national agencies com- Morale among medex has improved, partic- the book is described, and selected lesson prised the remaining 15 percent. ularly for those in more isolated stations.plans from the sourcebook are presented: (a) The pattern of radio use varies depending Medex report that their confidence grows asEating Good Food to be Healthy; (b) Night upon regional needs. Medex in remote loca- regular consultations and continuing educa-Blindness and Sick Eyes; (c) Eating Nutritious tions rely more heavily on their radios than dotion support enables them to provide betterFoods for Healthy Eyes; and (d) Planning a their counterparts stationed where transporta- health care for their area. With TWR, medexSchool Garden. Appended are charts outlining tion and communication links are better. have immediate access to a qualified doctorthe contents of the sourcebook, including Medex in the hinterland, on the average, used for consultation on diagnosis and treatment.topics and lesson presentations in each sec- their radios 1.5 times as much for administra- Previously this was done by letter or personal tion, and related lessons in other subject areas tive purposes as did medex in coastal or ?tier- visit. Medex also express enthusiasm aboutare indicated for each key topic. Available ain areas, and twice as much for medical the value of the continuing education pro-from EDRS in microfiche for 97 cents or in purposes. grams which keep them better informed thanpaper copy for $7.40 Between 1980 and 1985, administrative uses was possible before the installation of the sys- of the network increased from 44 to 62 per- tem. In addi:,,n, medex feel that their status inBarbara B. Minor is Publications Coordina- cent of all traffic while medical calls dedined the community has improved because of TWR.tor, ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Re- in volume from 31 to 23 percent. It should be In many communities the network providessources, School of Education, Syracuse Uni- noted that the absolute number of calls in all the only channel for communicating. versity, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA 32 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report Kenya's Radio Language Arts Project: Evaluation Results by Rebecca I.. Oxford measure achievement against the curriculum found a teacher following the radio teachers' The Kenyan Radio Language Arts ProjectNearly all the differences were highly signifi- notes and using many of the radio lessons in (REAP) assessment has just been completed, cant statistically, with a probability of less than her conventional classroom not equipped documenting the effectiveness of interactive1 in 10,00 that the findings could have oc- with a radio. radio-based educational instruction. Analysescurred "by chance." A formal survey conducted in 1984 also in- in the areas of listening, reading, speaking, Table 1 shows the performance of all dicated highly positive attitudes toward inter- and writing demonstrate the sometimes sur-project students. The most striking difference active radio instruction in general Eight of prising results that children in radio class-is in average listening scores: Standard 1 radio every ten teachers and headmasters felt that rooms consistently scored better than chil-students scored nearly eight points higherradio instruction was very helpful, while dren in nonradio classrooms in emery test. than did their counterparts in the control nearly all respondents felt it was somewhat The spring issue (#49) of Developmentgroup; Standard 2 and 3 radio students out- helpful. Students' reactions to radio instruc- Communkation Report contained several ar-performed the control students by 4 points. tion were rated as positive by 91 percent of the ddes describing various features of the RLAPThese findings indicate that the interactive teachers and 100 percent of the headmasters. that ran from 1979 to 1985. The project wasradio method, which emphasizes listening, re- Radio lessons were viewed as either good or sponsored by the Office of Education, Bureausulted in greater learning gains by radio stu-excellent by 85 percent of the teachers and 97 for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agencydents. Similar findings, with somewhat higher percent of the headmasters. Educators gener- for International Development and was con- averages for both groups, were found in analy- ally felt that radio students performed better ducted by the Academy for Educational Devel- ses of students who progressed regularlythan other students in all four language areas, opment in cooperation with the Kenya Insti-through grades during the project. with greatest strength in listening and speak- tute of Education of the Ministry or Education, Somewhat more surprising is the fact that ing. Both teachers (by 91 percent) and head- Science, and ltdmology. An evaluaion of the the radio group also consistently outper- masters (by 97 percent) preferred teaching project was carried out with the assistance offormed the contr d group in reading, writing, English with the radio. Eight out of ten the Center for Applied Linguistia (CAL). Eval-and speaking. In these skill areas, the radio teachers and nine out of ten headmasters said uation results came from a variety of sources,versus control group differences, while not that radio instruction improved teaching including language tests, observations, inter-always large, were statistically significant. In skills. Nine out of ten teachers and headmas- views, demographic and administrativeaddition, although radio students did better ters wanted to continue using the radio les- records, and an attitude survey. than control students in writing, neither group sons after the end of the project. performed particularly well in that subject. The Setting This analysis also indicated that there was a Significant Observations A large proportion of the project's studentspositive relationship between the average Although the primary purpose of perform- were considerably transient. Only 22 percentnumber of years of teachers' teaching experi- ing this analysis was to produce summative of the total student population of 3,908 wereence and higher achievement scores among evaluation results, project staff members made "normal progression" students-that is, theythe students. some informal observations as they gathered advanced regularly through their education formative data. during the life of the projec.. Students whoPositive Attitudes Prevail The radio method forced systematic imple- moved from the area, failed a standard Unstructured interviews and observations mentation of the Kenya curriculum. (grade), dropped out, or were otherwise un-were conducted by the RLAP field staff. Over- Good teachers mastered the technical de- trackable, comprised the remaining 78 per-whelmingly positive attitudes about the tails of the radio method and were able to cent of the total. Seven districts were includedproject prevailed among project teachers and "individualize" radio instruction to help in the project-each district being repre-headmasters. One school offered to buy its children of different ability levels. sented by three schools. All the schools wereown batteries if the project staff would provide The highly interactive nature of the instruc- located in rural areas, but their physical acces-the taped lessons so the children could con- tion increased the frequency of student re- sibility varied widely. Project staff rated radiotinue using this method after the project reception as excellent in 79 percent of theended. In another school, the project staff(continued on page 18) schools, problematic in 18 percent, and poor in 3 percent. The average age of teachers across all dis- Table 1 tricts was 31.7 years, and the average age of Summary of RLAP Instruction Raw Score Results: headmasters was 38.3 years. While all head- All Students masters in the summative evaluation were male, eroject teachers were mostly female. Reading Listening Writing Speaking* Teachers averaged 9.4 years of experience, Standard and headmasters had served an average of Radio Control Radio Control Radio Control Radio Conrol 10.1 years in that position. Teachers had re- 1 13.1 10.7 23.4 15.5 -- ceived an average of 9.8 years of education 2 14.6 13.1 15.3 11.2 2.8 2.3 VVT76.1 67.7 and headmasters 10.7 years. M34.3 29.0 G15.9 14.0 UN Results 3 22.9 19.1 25.7 21.6 27 2.1 vtrr120.2 114.1 Tests were developed for listening and M 46 4 391 reading in Standards 1, 2, and 3, and in speak- G 20.7 16.5 ing and writing in Standards 2 and 3. The achievement tests were based on the official 'Speaking test used a 10% sample of all students. Kenya curriculum for those standards, so as to Subtests included Word Total (WI"), Meaning (M), and Grammar (G). 33 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report 17 (KAP contbruedfrom page 17) with guidelines for content and production to use in designing health communication mate- sponges and the amount of time spent work- rials. Topics of the research presentations in- ing on language tasks. On Bile at ERIC cluded the assessment of Hispanic knowledge, Fewer discipline problems occurred in attitudes, and practices related to cancer for radio classrooms than in regular class- the purpose of education programs; alterna- rooms. All of these documents are atonable in mi- tive methods for presenting bilingual health Three times as much English instruction crofiche or in paper copy from the ERIC Docu- education messages, and a videotape package was presented in any half-hour block byment Reproduction Service (EDRS), 3900 on cancer health education designed to reach radio than by conventional teaching means. Wheeler Ave., Alexandria, Virginia 22304, Hispanics. Available from EMS in microfiche The radio method, unlike the conventional U.S.A. Be sure to include the ED number and for 97 cents or in paper copy for $12.65. method, used almost every item in thepayment in U.S funds for the price listed plus Colle, Royal D Communication Plan- Kenya curriculum. shipping. Shipping costs may be cakulated on ning for Effective Nutrition Programs Radio students appeared to have more self- the basis of three microfiche per ounce and 75 1983. 36 pp. (ED 149 937) confidence and enthusiasm than nonradio microfiche or pages of paper copy per pound Primary health care and nutrition have been students. linked with communication in a variety of Health Education Tkaining Model. Tkain- well-publicized projects. This partnership be- Conclusion big for Development. Peace Corps Man- tween communication and nutrition was With the conclusion of this assessmentual No. T-11. 1983. 77pp (ED 254 659) made necessary by the conflict between an phase of the Kenyan Radio Language Arts Intended for preservice and inservice train- expanded demand for services and limited Project, solid data now exist to document whating of Peace Corps Community Health Volun- resources for meeting the demand. Senior of- participadng teachers, administrators, projectteers, this selection of health education train- ficials have a substantial role to play in seeing planners, and even students have said abouting materials presents a model designed to that their programs gain the full benefit of this experimental projectit works. In fact, ithelp community health workers become bet- what an effective communication program can works so well in all four language skill areas,ter facilitators and educators as they help mo- offer by accepting the responsibilities of: (a) particularly in listening comprehension, thattivate people toward a healthier and more examining the implications for communica- instructors wanted to see the radio lessonsself-reliant life The introduction provides tion of any program while it is in the planning continue after the experiment ended suggestions for preparing for and carrying outstages; (b) insisting that communication or the training program. The twelve sessionseducation people work within the framework focus on: defining expectations and clarifying Dr (Word is an educational psychologist at of a communication strategy; and (c) provid- objectives of health education training; begin- ing communication resources. In planning, the Center for Applied Linguistics and has a ning the program; looking at community steps should include policy formation and de- consulting firm, 0-C Associates, Inc. health and education; exchanging ideas aboutvelopment of a comprehensive strategy to health education; working with a group; howmeet program goals. With an understanding of people learn; the role of the Peace Corps vol- the policy and comprehensive strategies that unteer as a community health worker; identi- govern a project's overall efforts, communica- fying community needs and resources; teach- tions specialists should start a process that ing about important health issues; developingincludes analysis, strategy, implementation, and using appropriate teaching aids (one ses-evaluation, and next-step planning. Program sion on story telling and one on creating low- officials should insist that top communication cost materials and equipment); and the Healthmanagers deal explicitly with the elements of Fair. Information provided for each session principal objectives, best tenative solutions, includes objectives, an overview, lists of re- audiences, media channels, theme/messages, sources and materials, preparation, activities, and schedules. A summary chart of communi- and handouts. Appendices include informa- cation and education techniques includes tion on working with a group, evaluation methods, their advantages and disadvantages, ideas, a calendar for a ten-day training pro- and comments Available from EDRS in micro- gram, and a listing of selected resources and fiche for 97 cents or in paper copy for $3.90. references. Available from EDRS in microfiche Van der Vynckt, Susan, and Ellen Barclay. for 97 cents or in paper copy for $7.40. The Unesco Resource Pack for Nutrition Moore, Thomas J. and others, eds. Com- Teaching-Learning. An Introduction to Vol- municating with Mexican Americans. Por ume I. Nutrition Education Serie.. 8 1984.89 Su Buena Salud = Comunicando con Mex- pp. (ED 254 495) ico Americans: For Their Good Health Pro- This guide provides an introduction to the ceedings of the Conference (Houston, Texas, Unesco Sourcebook for Classroom Nutrition- September 13-14, 1979). 152 pp. (ED 249 036) Learning which is designed for both actual This conference focused on the role of the classroom use and teacher-training support Mexican American's language, tradition, life material, with lesson plans, teaching methods, style, health practices, and media utilization inand learning activities. Nutrition information the design of effective education and informa- is presented in such a way that important con- tion programs. Representing various local,cepts are not limited to nutrition and health state, and national health, education, andclasses, but can also be integrated into differ- media organizations, the 108 participants at-ent subject areas within the general school tended sessions on socio-cultural factors,curricula, including science, language arts, health values, and perceptions that affect mathematics, social studies, and agriculture, as health communication, as well as the use and well as school meals. Lessons, which are pro- evaluation of media in disseminating healthvided in each subject area to cover related information. This study involved the design ofnutrition and health topics, include instruc- a model health communications campaign to tions for both student- and teacher-made in- educate the Mexican American communitystructional materials. This introduction to the about services provided by a health mainte-sourcebook first presents a brief list of some nance organization for cardiovascular disease. A media critique session provided participants(continued on page 16) 34 18 autumn 1985Development Communication Report (PICK continued from page 14) as often as three or four times a day. It helped the project find the most effective channels toA Guide forPrimary Health Care: deliver this information to mothers at the time they would be most responsive to it, and make The MEDEX Series these mothers aware of where they could find help. Finally, it helped the protect develop an integrated media strategy and materials that by Richard A. Smith, John Rich, and Sunli Mehra would expand the effectiveness of each resource. Since its publication in 1983, The MEDEX Correspondence with health care profes- Marcia Griffiths is Senior Vice President ofPrimary Health '.:are Series has been distrib- sionals in 53 of the 114 countries indicate that Manoff International Inc. Elizabeth Nohbe isuted extensively, and today functions as a the Series is being used in 267 PHC programs Piled Administrator and editor at Manoffpractical and flexible management and train- and projects of varying sizes in developing InternationallWasbington. ing device for new or existing primary healthcountries. Further documentation about ap- care (PHC) programs at various levels in 53 plications of the Series is being gathered from developing countries. a questionnaire sent to recipients of the man- The 35-volume MEDEX Series was devel- uals. A network of users of the Series is being oped over an eight-year period by The MEDEX developed as well, to expand its use through (Mang continued from page 11) Group at the John A. Burns School of Medi- the sharing of adaptations, changes, and trans- cine, University of Hawaii, numerous develop- lations. Further communications and visits to efits. All too often, the ine.verienced socialing countries, and supported by the U.S. selected sites where materials are in use are marketer will create a message that is rich in Agency for International Development. The also being planned. detail but lacking in human benefit for theprimary health care techniques and educa- Recognition that nurses should play a par- target audience. As social marketers, we musttional materials found in this series were field- ticularly important role in PHC has led to never lose sight of the reality that our targettested in Micronesia, and used in PHC pro- significant interest on the part of international audience will only follow a suggested coursegrams in Thailand, Guyana, Pakistan, andand national nursing orga lizations. The of action if we convince them that it will make Lesotho. It has taken the most important con- MEDEX Group has receatly received requests their lives or that of their families easier, bet- siderations in the development and expansion for the Series from 31 r ursing schools in ter, or richer. In a family planning message, for of PHC services and put them into a consistent eleven additional countri "' interested in re- example, "having fewer babies" is not an easily and easily adapted format for developing vising nursing curricula to reflect a reorienta- identified benefit; but "having a better life for countries. The Series can be used by planners, tion toward primary health care. the current children" Is Or recommending administrators, or trainers. Iojects with sectoral interests such as oral that you boil river water before using it be- The materials are divided into curative, pre- rehydration therapy, immunization, nutrition, cause "doctors think you should," does notventive, and promotional aspects of health and community sanitation, have used the ma- personally appeal to affected persons, whereas care. The training curriculum is problem-or- terials to strengthen their awn efforts An ex- saying "the prevention of painful, life threaten- iented and therefore includes only informa- ample is a set of learning packages produced ing illnesses" does present a real, human ben- tion essential to training the worker to do his by WHO/UNICEF to be used in 17 countries efit to those who follow the practice. To loseor her job. Sections within the Series cover: One quarter of the materials contained in the sight of the actual benefit is to tail in communi- Sy..tems Development Materials, Mid-Level packages were taken directly from the MEDEX cating our message; and to fail is to waste an Health Worker Training Materials; and Com- Series. opportunity for social development. munity Health Worker Training Materials. Cur- India's National Institute of Health and Fam- Manoff nicely augments the instructional rently, the Series is available only in English, ily Welfare has used parts of the Series as the section of his book with invaluable lessonsalthough some sections have been translated basis for management training, to be con- learned from his extensive work in the field. into Spanish, French, Bengali, and Thai. ducted nationally in over 50 training institu- He includes, for example, well-honed insight Since September 1983, this series has been tions for doctors, nurses, and other PEIC on selecting a target audience and avoiding requested and sent to 114 countries De- health personnel. Another example of its ver- the common error of aiming at too broad an scribed in World Health Forum as "a total satility was its use as a guide for designing and audience. Another lesson deals with the syner- teaching system," it has been distributed tobuilding a health center in Burkina Faso that gistic value of linking a social development government ministries, nongovernmental or- would reflect the needs of that facility. program to other societal issues (e.g., familyganizations, private consultants, nursing During the past two years, information planning linked to child nutrition). schools, and other institutions and programsabout the availability of the Series has been Social Marketing: A New Imperative for that are training health personnel and man-spreading worldwide To strengthen this proc- Public Health should come to be a valued agers of primary health care services in devel- ess, the MEDEX Group continues to provide addition to the library of social marketing stu- oping countries. copies upon request in an effort to extend the dents and practitioners worldwide. Apprecia- growing network of users. tion for the work will result from its road map For further information about this series of the sodal marketing process, showing us contact: The MEDEX Group, John A Burns not only the direction to travel, but also the School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1833 hazards to avoid. I suspect it will also be val- Kalakaua Avenue, #700, Honolulu, Hawaii ued for its sense of dedication and honesty to the practice of sodal marketing. But perhaps 96815, USA. most importantly, Manolfs new book shouldTerry Peigh is a Vice President of Foote, Cone & Dr. Smith, John Rich, and Sunil Mehra are with be held in esteem for its voice of appeal, itsBelding Communications, a worldwide com- The MEDEX Group, University of Hawaii rallying cry to health practitioners around themercial advertising firm. He is an instructor at School of Medicine. Smith is the Director of world The current era of health educationthe University of Chicago's Community and MEDEX, Rich is a Curriculum and Instruc- demands new and "better methodology to en-Family Study Center, and has co-authored two tional Development Specialist, and Mehra is a large its teach and impact" Social marketing, books on mass media for social development Communications Development Specialist. with its tie to mass media and its proven success, is such.a "new and better" methodology a new opportunity that should be seizedAvailable for $32.95 from CRS Educational now to help all nations deal more effectivelyand Professional Publishing Order Dept. 383 with their health problems. Madison Avenue, New York, IVY 10017, USA 35 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report 19 The Colombian National Immunization Cnisade: Coordination and Communication

This is "Pitin," a cartoon character more easily measui ed both during and after volunteer, and recreational groups offered fi- symbolizing a healthy, happy, im- the vaccination activities Also, since records nancial support for publicity, transportation, munized child, who served aswere kept on each child, the strategy allowed and mobilization of community members at mascot in a 1984 Colombian mass for follow-up vaccination of those children the local level immunization crusade. with incomplete schedules. Mass Media Contributions In 1984 the Colombian National Health Sys- Getting Started Mass media made a fundamental contribu- tem coordinated a massive immunization cru- Communication of technical procedures tion to the accomplishments of the Crusade. sade in order to vaccinate as many children inwas carried out by the Colombian Red Cross The press, television, and radio played a major the country as possible against a number ofMore than 13,000 Red Cross members were role in dramatically increasing the outreach common childhood diseases. Collaboratingtrained as vaccinators. Sixteen thousand vol- capability and focusing the population on with the Colombian Government were the Panunteers were trained in the channeling strat- child health and development. For example, American Health Urganization/WHO, UNICEF, egy and immunization techniques or received Colombia's largest newspaper, El Tiempo, and UNDP. The communication strategies thatinstruction in technical and administrative using the Crusade's mascot, Pitin, carried were designed for this crusade helped theprocedures, such as cold chain standards, or- health messages to its largely urban readers, Health System o successfully vaccinate over ganization of health posts, and record keep- and alerted them to the upcoming vaccination 800,000 children on three separate days. ing. A booklet on technical and administative days. Many other newspapers followed suit The possibility of a mass immunization norms was developed and distributed to more and adopted Pitin in their articles, helping to campaign was first discussed during Colom- than 10,000 vaccination posts, and training in further spread the news of the Crusade. Calen- bian National Health Week in April 1984 with these standard procedures ensured uniform- dars showing Pitin next to the vaccination the idea of building on the initial child immu- ity throughout the country. dates were printed and distributed. Other nization activities that occurred during that printed materials such as growth charts with week. Just two months later, Colombia child immunization records, information on launched a nationwide crusade to immunize breastfeeding, nutrition, and treatment of nearly one million children under the age of diarrheal disease were developed and made four against diphtheria, measles, polio, teta- ...the press, TV, and radio available to parents at the vaccination sites. nus, and whooping cough on three designatedplayed a major role in dramati- News programs on the national television and days; one day each in June, July, and August ofcally increasing the outreach radio station carried stories of the Crusade 1984. capability ..." efforts that reached an estimated ten to twelve In order to accomplish this ambitious goal, million people Well-known entertainers Colombia had to organize and mobilize its broadcast hourly appeals to parents to bring resources to overcome the kinds of shortcom- their children in for vaccination. The radio ings that may be found in large scale cam- During the Crusade, both information and also carried hourly Crusade updates and en- paigns, such as a lack of coordination of per- couraged people to participate. Other televi- sonnel, communications, transportation, orevaluation reports were distributed. Informa- tion reports were released every two hours on sion and radio stations broadcast similar mes- financing. vaccination days, summarizing data on the sages and programs to urban and rural areas number of children vaccinated in each health assuring extensive coverage throughout the Channeling Strategy post. The mass media stimulated the Crusade country. The need to involve multiple communica-by broadcasting these reports which fostered tion channels was recognized from the start.a wholesome rivalry between the different lo- Results Before the Crusade began, the Ministry ofcalities. The evaluation reports provided in- The results of the Crusade are impressive. Health, with assistance from the Pan American formation on the results of the Crusade at the During the first vaccination day 804,053 chil- Health Organization and the World Health Or- local, regional, and national levels. dren, or 87 6 percent of the target group, came ganization, developed a channeling strategy. Many political and social groups were for vaccinations. The second day of vaccina- This strategy established an aggressive childcalled upon to extend the communication net- tions brought in 854,570 children, or 93 1 per- identification process through direct healthwork established for this national effort. The cent During the third and final round on Au- promotion activities. Health workers accom- President and the First Lady actively promoted gust 25, 1984, 860,000 children, or 93.7 panied by community leaders visited house-the Crusade by conducting inauguration cere- percent of the target group, were vaccinated. holds before each vaccination date to spreadmonies on each of the three vaccination days The statistics clearly attest to a well-planned news of the Crusade. and more importantly, to at the Presidential Palace. The Ministries of and executed campaign. The role that commu- identify children needing immunization. TheyHealth and of the Interior sent representatives nications played in educating and mobilizing a collected information on each child such asto municipalities to encourage their coopera- large portion of the Colombian population name, age, sex, address and vaccinationstion and support of health personnel. The was unquestionably a central factor in making needed. Children were then "channeled" toMinistry of Education solicited departmental the Crusade a success. the appropriate health facility for vaccinationdirectors and over 200,000 teachers to help on the prescribed dates. These visits provided disseminate promotional materials. Air, sea, important personal communication between and river transportation was provided by the individual households and the health centersMinistry of Defense to deliver vaccines and set This article was adapted from Assignment or health posts during the Crusade. The chan- up vaccination posts in remote areas. The Children A Journal Concerned with Chil- neling strategy also facilitated the evaluationCatholic Church provided motivational mate- dren, Women and Youth in Development, phase since children's vaccination progress rials, organized activities, and distributed mes- 65/68, 1984, UNICEF, by Robert J. Vittel, Infor- was tracked through the end of the Crusade. sages about child health and immunization mation Assistant, Clearinghouse on Develop- The impact of the Crusade was therefore more before the start of the Crusade. Other private, ment Communication. 36 20 Autumn 1985Development Communication Report Clearinghouse On Development Communication

=.8. ti In recent years, considerable research has been done on visual literacy and bow to use visual materials effectively in developing countries. We are devoting a section of this issue to the purpose of visuals, bow to use them training, and bow peoples' ,..:nderstandmg can be improvedEvaluation. Past through appropriate exposure to and use of these materials and Present The Purpose of Visuals by Pella Spidn 0 Evaluation is at once both over- praised and underestimated. Too by Relph Wile stn printed Illustrations must be learned Visual often, evaluation has been asked aids must, therefore, be designed or selected to be something it is not, and not A visual aid is a device throughbased upon the extent to which the intendedasked often enough to do what it can cio best. which the learning process mayaudience has been exposed to visual aids and Recent experience has clarified evaluation's be encouraged or carried on has learned to understand them. It is some-role, especially its specific contribution to through the sense of sight. Visual times assumed that a visual aid serves its pur-achieving project results. My purpose here is aids can take many forms: they may be real ob- pose if the intended audience can name theto sketch the main aspects of evaluation's tradi- jects, models, printed illustrations, photo- items displayed or describe the portrayed con-tional role, contrast traditional evaluation with graphic prints, filmstrips, video, or motion pic- dition or activity. This, however, is a simplifiedthe evolved and evolving role that evaluation is tures. A visual often incorporates graphic de- approach to judging the value of visual aids.playing today, and then show how 'evaluation vices (such as an arrow to direct the viewer's The audience may well be able to describe thefits into any process for getting things done. eye to a specific part of an object), as well asvisuals and yet not understand the messages words to enhance a message. they are meant to convey. Evaluation Past.... A visual should be produced in the format Effective communication through visual aidsTraditionally, evaluation has been an after-the- which best presents the idea or explanation to is as complex and difficult to achieve as is com-fact exercise for those projects that can afford the audience. Visuals are used to explain con-munication through language. This is especial-it. Evaluation was viewed as quite an enlight- crete processes (how to prepare a rehydration ly true in attempting to produce visual aids toened thing to do, really, a sign of open-mind- mixture), as well as abstract ideas (the philoso- instruct people who have limited experienceedness and a willingness to learn. But evalua- phy behind cooperative efforts). There is am- with them. To achieve good communicationtion was a luxury, possible only in projects ple research to show that using visuals is both through the use of visual aids, the total com-underwritten by donors of particular largess. an efficient and an effective way to communi-munication process must be considered. TheEvaluation was not used to improve current cate many kinds of ideas. figure below lists some of the important ques-projects but, instead, to pLin and improve fu- tions we need to ask about the visuals we useture ones. Acquiring Visual Skills to teach or to communicate. Basic educational Traditionally, evaluation has been per- The ability to understand visuals is an ac- goals parallel these questions. This figureformed by an outside consultant or team. The quired, not an automatic skill. Picture compre- clearly illustrates the complex task of commu-outsiders contributed not only their particular hension, pictorial depth perception, and the nicating through visual aids. skills in data gathering and analysis, but also meaning of the techniques often employed in (Continued on page 2)the requisite objectivity much in the manner of basic scientific research. Evaluation carried out in this manner was retrospectivesifting through evidence, questioning participants, drawing inferences, and then rendering a ver- dict about project success or failure. For the people who ran the project, the matter was out of their hands. Traditionally, the relationship between project people and evaluators has been adversarial. Project people were often threatened by the possiblediscrepancy between whatthey thought they should have done and what the evaluatorsthought should have been done on the project. Because evaluators and project people were not necessarily working from the same agenda, the possibility for the development of an adversarial relationship was high. (Continued on page 8)

,ev cs. (Wiletnan continued from page 1) ence?" If the visual is meant to instruct the viewer in the painting of a house, and house The first question to ask is, "Is it perceived?" painting is of no importance to the viewer, Attention is captured, at least momentarily, there islittle chance the visual will hold when viewers discern there is something new his/her attention. or different to look at in their field of vision Fifth, "Is the visual memorable?" An image This is especially important when the visuals that is remembered is one that will be recalled used to teach are posters or other visual media and used An abstract image of a mother nurs- In this issue. . . that must capture the viewers' attention with- ing her ch' Id may or may not be understood by Purpose of Visuals 1 out external verbal prompts from a health the intended audience, whereas clearly repre- worker or teacher. The visual must also be Evaluation: Past and Present 1 sentativefiguresarelikelyto he more Using Visual Materials "readable." "Can the audience see and read memorable 3 the pictures and/or words we have displayed?" Visual Materials for Family The obiective of this questioning is to deter- Readability is affected not only by how we ren- Planning mine if the intended audience can identify, 3 der the display, but also by the distance from "read," and understand the visual image How- Adapting Radio Math 5 the display to the furthest viewer If people in ever, the ability to identify what is seen is not A Communicator's Checklist 6 the last few rows of a classroom cannot read or enough The intended audience also must be- On File at ERIC 7 see your flipchart on crop rotation, then ac- lieve what they see, value what they see, and be Participatory Radio in Arequipa. 9 complishing your educational goals will be dif- convinced by what they see. Only then will the Farm Radio Network 11 ficult, if not impossible. real educational goalto change attitudes and Briefly Noted 12 Second, "Is the visual identified as intend- behaviorsbe accomplished. Field testing and ed?" An enlarged photograph of an insect may other research techniques are required proce- be understood to be an insect, but the audi-dures for today's visual communicator The ence may believe their crops are safe since the systematic gathering of data about how visuals pests on their crops are much smaller crea- are perceived, read, identified, valued, or re- tures than the insect in the photograph. membered can help advance both the art and Third, "Is the visual culturally appropriate the science of communicating with visuals for the intended audience?" In some cultures, depicting a woman smoking a cigarette would not be acceptable and might cause that audience to reject the message. Visuals of peoplesRalph Wileman is director of the Educational attire, their living conditions, or even theirMedia and Instructional Design training pro- standing or sitting posture must be acceptable gram at the University of North Carolina, Cha- for them to be effective pel Hill, and has worked in many countries, Fourth, "Does the visual depict somethingtraining health workers in designing and pro- that is important to and valued by the audi- ducing educational materials

(Murphy continued from page 4)

participants formed an association to promote Course on Managing the use of visual materials in family planning, Health Audiovisual training, and education. Participants from Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauri- Materials tius, and Togo have integrated sessions in vis- A course that explores the techniques ual communication into their ongoing family of managing a collection of audiovi- planning training programs. With INTRAH as- sualsselection, evaluation, cata- sistance, Rwanda has conducted two two-week loguing, classification, storage, retrieval, workshops replicating the training they re- maintenance of materials and equip- ceived in Mali for their own local needs. Al- mentthe role that the audiovisual re- though it is too soon to mer'- ire the concrete sources person can play within educa- outcomes of the Mauritius workshop, the Phil- tional or medical institutions, is being ippines' participants have already scheduled offered by The British Life Assurance an integrated visual and group communication Trust for Health Education (BIAT) at the workshop in mid-1986 for the family planning request of the World Health Organiza- field trainers in their organization. tion This course is intended for people From INTRAH's experience, it is clear that without formal library training who are family planning educators and trainers can de- responsible for running libraries or re- velop and use effective visual communication source centers, particularly in develop- in their training when encouraged to be re- ing countries, and librarians wishing to sourceful and creative in the application of extend their professional skills to help those skills using local resources in their them cope with audiovisual materials. home environment. The inclusion of visual There will be a strong emphasis on communication skills in the training of health practical work It will be held in London workers contributes toward their self-suffi- from August 5-21, 1986. The closing date ciency and ability to develop effective health for applications is April 16, 1986. training and education programs. Further details can be obtained from Ms B S. Carney, Information Officer, NED Catherine Murphy has worked as a trainer BLAT Centre for Health and Medi- International Division and instructional developer in international cal Education, BMA House, Tavistock health since 1975. She is currently INTRAH's Sq., London WC1H 9JP. (Telephone: 7hsininglMaterials Officer at the University of 01 -388- 7976). North Caroline-Chapel Hill. 38 2 Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 Learning to Use Visual Training Materials

b, Merl Clark need to focus on only the essentials during theLearning by Doing There is a long-running debate brief span of a training course, they often set Avoidance of visuals based on these or about whether trainers should be aside visuals and how to use them as luxuriesother misconceptions is unfortunate because instructed in how to develop and that are "nice but not necessary. This attitudetheir use, combined with participatory training use visual training materials. Dis- is influenced by traditional Western formal ed-techniques and effective verbal communica- cussions about the desirability and practicality ucation where all too often pictures are lookedtion, is a powerful means of conveying abstract 'of taking time for this type of training often are upon as learning materials for small children,ideas in a visual context, and adds a concrete r "' based on misconceptions that have restricted and the reading of textbooks with many wordselement to the planning process. It is impor- - " the use of this potentially powerful communi- and few pictures as the province of adults. tant to keep in mind that effective use of visuals 0:;Cation tool. Time is seldom scheduled to teach When trainers do use visuals, there is a ten-in training is as important as their design in visual thinking, designing, and communica- dency to focus only on their potential for infor- influencing learning and behavior change. Re- ke during training of trainer sessions. Train- mation transmissionas illustrations for lec-search and practical experience indicate that as rarely use visuals other than flipcharts with tures in the form of charts, picture slides, orthey are most effective when combined with lists of key words orobjectivesin these ses- filmsrather than using them to involve thenonformal education techniques that enable ttions. If they do use pictures, films, or other learners actively in the training session. Relat-questioning and problem solving as well as , visuals for training purposes, they often fail to ed to this is the frequent lack of attention paidtransmission of information. Visual aids, when select and apply them effectively toward spe- to effective use of visuals in terms of timing,combined with these techniques, not only clic training objectives. The following points cultural appropriateness, and smoothness intransfer information; they can stimulate discus- ' address the lack of appropriate visual commu- presentation. Often there is too muchsdepend-sion, provide a focus for problem identifica- nication tr. ning and offer suggestions for ence placed upon a polished visual presenm-tion and problem solving, and involve people .,,j, strengthening visual communication in the non to convey a message. Experience showsactively in the learning process within small training of trainers. that even the best designed visual is only a dis-group and individual activities. r traction whei: shown at the wrong time, to the Working with learners to develop visual aids Ilikoccepdons wrong people, or handled in the wrong way.is an effective means of learning by doing In Many trainers considervisualsfor training toThe common theme connecting these miscon-the process of developing visuals, trainees Ir a technical area requiring high-level skillsceptions is that visuals are seen as separate broaden and reinforce their learning about the In design, drawing, and audiovisual equip-products rather than an integrated part of theideasormessages representedItalso ment operation. Because trainers are busy and training process. (Continued on page 4)

Visual Communication Training for Family Planning Workers

by Catherine Murphy educational problems. Participants then pro-They work io small groups and individually on Is it possible to turn a non-artist healthceed through a ter, -step process for planning,visual communication problems with guid-

1 worker into a producer, user, and trainer ofproducing, and using visual communicationance from trainers on designing, pretesting, visual communication techniques for healthmaterials and methods. The first step in thisand producing visual materials then demon- teachiag? Based on the results of numerousprocess examines the six teaching questions strating how they will be used for teaching oth- visual communication workshops conductedwhich serve as the foundation for visual com- er family planning trainers by the Program for International Training inmunication. These questions are: Health (INTRAH), the answer is an emphatic An important element of these workshops is 1. WHOM am I teaching? the emphasis placed on making training rele- With funding from the Agency for Interna- 2. WHAT do I want them to be able to do? vant to local resources and needs. This is ac- tional Development, the INTRAH Program has3. WHERE and HOW LONG will the instruc- complished by creating models and picture se- developed various family planning training tion take place? ries and other visuals from locally available workshops for selected African, Near Eastern,4. What teaching METHOD or METHODS raw materials, facilities, and human and mate- and Asian countries. One of the identified will I use? rial resources. Emphasis is also placed on de- needs among some of the host countries was 5. What VISUAL AIDS will I use? veloping mated& on topics that the partici- kr family planning workers to acquire skills to6. How will I know how EFFECTIVE the in-pants have identified as needed by their target develop their own visual materials and then to struction was? audiences. Finally, i:NTRAH works with nation- them in family planning education or al co-trainers to design, conduct, and modify Veining of other health workers. A two-week The process then outlines visual thinkingthe training process itself. Once the national visual communication workshop was de-skills, and design considerations that form theco-trainers develop basic skills in visual com- ,' signed to address this need, and such work-basis for visual message design. These skillsmunication training, they begin contributing ',ahops have now been conducted in Kenya, So-enable participants to judge what makes atheir own ideas for techniques and materials Sierra Leone, Mali, Tunisia, and Rwanda.good visual ".nd to sketch visuals which illus-thatarelocallyandculturallyrelevant. During these family planning Visual commu-trate concepts, data, and processes. The work-Through practice and technical assistance Mcadon workshops, the first step is to exploreshops focus on developing practical skills. Par-these national trainers learn how to conduct me rationale for using visual communicationticipan s decide what topics will be discussedvisual communication training on their own. Methods for various general health training ordepending upon the.. own needs or jgsts. (Continued on page 4 )

Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 3 (OA con:in:ad firm page 3) training needs. In all these instances, how toE'eriences in Family Planning and Health, make visuals is not nearly as important as how 38 pp Individual copies free from: PIACT' strengthens the communication skills of theto select, design, and use visuals and to effec- PATH, 10030 Nickerson St., Canal Place, Seattle, learners. An understanding of how to pretesttively integrate visuals with participatory train- Washington 98109, U.SA visuals is also important to assess the materialsing techniques. and to learn about the interests of the audi- Below are some suggestions for strengthen- ence for whom the training is intended. Theing visual communication in the training ofMan ark is currently finishing her doctor- following visuals illustrate some of thesetrainers: al dissertation in anthropology. Sbe was for- applications. 1. Use good examples of visual models merly associated with CPH International, Chi- throughout the training. cago wbere she directed the development of the 2. Display examples of good visuals related .tace Corps training manual for the Control to the topics so trainees can handle them. of Childhood Communicable Diseases Project. 3. Give trainees opportunities to practice selecting and using visuals effectively with a variety of training techniques. (Murphy continued from page 3) 4. Provide opportunities for trainer and trainee feedback on selection and use of Multi-Country Training visuals with training techniques. INTRAH has further expanded the use of vis- 5. Use visuals to explore the basics of effec- ual communication in health training by con- tivevisual communication and what ducting multi-country family planning visual hinders communication. (See the bibli- communication workshops. Two of these have ography at the end of this article ) been conducted in Africa: one in Mali in July 1984 for participants from nine French-speaking countries, and one in Mauritius in August Making visual aids is very useful in helping For trainees who need to work with artists 1985 with ten English-speaking countries par- learners discover solutions to problems. Moth-or must develop their own visuals. ticipating. The participants in the international ers and children can learn about diarrhea and workshops were national-level trainers of fam- 1. Provide practice exercises in communi- dehydration by making their own "baby" from cating visually. ily planning workers or nationa!-level family clay, tin cans, plastic bottles, or gourds. They planning educators of the general population can experiment with the principle of rehydra- 2. Demonstrate and practice planning visual training materials based on training ob-in their countries. They learned the same skills don by pouring water into the "baby" and in how to design, adapt, pretest, produce, and jectives. mending the different openings with "food." use visual communication methods as the par- 3. Demonstrate and practice pretesting materials, emphasizing this as a means to ticipants at the in-country workshops. learn about the audience as well as the However, national level trainers' and educa- effectiveness of the materials. tors' job responsibilities include training of 4. Demonstrate and practice simple tech- other trainers and workers as well. Therefore, niques for adapting and making visuals by they developed action plans during the work- tracing parts of existing materials. shops which integrate visual communication skills training into existing family planning training through curriculum changes and Bibliography workshops on developing visual materials. In order to develop these action plans, a third Fetter, K, Clark, M., Murphy, C., and Walters,week was added to the workshop. During this J., Teaching and Learning with Visual Aids week, participants identified curriculum areas Chapel Hill, North Carolina: INTRAH Program, in their own family planning training pro- 1985. A limited number of copies are availablegrams which could be strengthened by the in- free to persons working in developing coun-troduction of visual communication skills. tries from: Catherine Murphy, INTRAI-i gro-They developed workshop plans and practiced You could use this picture as the basis for a gram, 208 N. Columbia St. (344A), Chary, VI,conducting sessions on visual communication discussion by asking, "What do you think this N.C. 27514, U.S.A. topics. picture is about?" Often this is the only ques- These international workshops provided tion you will need to ask To keep the discus- Wileman, Ralph, Exercises in Vtsua I Think-the participants with opportunities not possi- ing New York:Hastings House, 1980. Available sion going, you might ask, Who are these ble with in-country workshops. There was con- for US$15.95 (124 pp.) from: Kampman & people?" "What is happening in the picture?" siderable cross-cultural and informational ex- Company, 9 East 40th Street, New York, NY or "How do the people feel about it?" change among the countries represented in 10016, U.S.A. the workshops. Time was set aside daily for Selection of Visuals Werner, David and Bower, Bill. Helpingparticipants to share and discuss family plan- Specific needs of trainers vary considerably Health Workers Learn. Palo Alto, California:ning educational materials developed and in the selection, design, and use of visuals de- Hesperian Foundation,1982. Available forused in their own countries. A session on tradi- pending on the tasks and resources of the US$6.00 (632 pp) from. The Hesperian Foun-tional talking and singing techniques explored trainers. For some, the selection and use of dation, P.O. Box 1692, Palo Alto, CA 94302,the use of visuals with traditional storytelling, visuals are the primary needs. Given a primary USA parables, and songs used for educational pur- training situation, they need to decide what, if Wilkinson, Judith A Guide to Basic Print poses. any, visuals will help them accomplish their Production: 7ininingPackage.Somerset, goals and how to use those visuals most effec- England: The British Council with Intermedi-Outcomes of International Training tively with particular training techniques. For ate Technology Publications, 1985 Write: In- The most obvious workshop outcomes others who work with artists, basic skills in termediate Technology Publications, 9 King St; were the visual materials and techniques that visuals design help them communicate moreCovent Garden, London WC2E 8HW, Great the participants carried back to their work sites effectively and avoid miscommunication that Britain. (Book 1: Planning the Project, 1.4 95,to use and share with others. Other results wastes hours of planning and drawing time. Book 2: Designing and Producing Artwork,were the participants' workshop plans and in- Those who have no artist and few resources £4.95; Book 3: Printing Processes, £3.95; Bookdividual action plans that spell out strategies also need skills in visual design to develop 4: Managing Resources, £4.95 for developing and using visual materials and their own visuals or to use simple techniques Zimmerman, Margot, and Perkin, G. PIACI' teaching others these skills as well. In Mali, the to adapt existing materials for their specific Paper EightPrint Materials for Nonreaders. (Continued on page 2 ) 40 Developmentr-ommunication Report / Winter 1986 From Nicaragua to Thailand: Adaptating Interactive Radio Instruction byjamesine Friend, Klaus Galda, and Barbara Searle

Many developing nations are unable to nr.- the course designed for Nicaragua. At thatics curriculum. Adapting to the standard edu- vide adequate instruction in their pri,nary time, adaptation of such materials had nevercational radio series already in place in Thai- school classrooms because they lack econom- been done in Thailand, so it was decided toland which lasts 32 weeks, the total number of ic and human resources, especially in remote adapt only the second grade, and to pilot testlessons was reduced from 175 to 160, calling rural areas. One of the quickest and most cell- the lessons rigorously in a small number offor some lesson incorporation and deletions able ways to alleviate this problem is to pro- schools before planning nationwide usage. vide intetuctive radio instruction, a proven Because all the original scripts were writtenLessons Begin technology for use in poorly equipped schools in Spanish, the first and major adaptation was Broadcasting began in May 1980, the begin- undertrained and overworked teachers. to translate the lessons into Thaia consider-ning of the Thai school year. The pilot study The technology of interactive radio instruc- able task due to the dissimilarity of the two lan-was located in two areas of the country the 1;;. don, although quite new, has already proved guages. Adaptations also were needed in theCentral Plain region near Bangkok, and the :. kaelf to be very effective in improving the qual- songs, games, and Jokes that are an integralNortheast, a very isolated, poor region of the Lity of instruction in diverse subjects andcoun- part of the lessons, and required comprehen-country. Lessons were broadcast daily to se- , tries. It has been used to teach mathematics in sive rewriting to reflect Thai culture. Geo-cond grade children in 16 schools in each re- Nicaragua, English as a second language in graphic references, names of common fruits,gion. At the end of the school year the children Kenya, and reading in the Dominican Republic and other culturally related components of thewere given a special posttest to asses:- their (see DCR #49). Extensive evaluation of these scripts were also changed. abilities in mathematics At the same time, chil- programs shows significant improvements in Fewer content changes were required; fordren in 32 non-radio classes, similarly divided children's achievement scores. In Nicaragua, example, instruction in division was added tobetween the two regions, were given the same kir instance, an evaluation of a first grade class the lesson plans. For the most part, however,test to establish comparative data to that of the Showed that average mathematics test scores Thai mathematics curriculum for early gradeschildren in radio classrooms was quite similar to the Nicaraguan mathemat- increased from 39 percent to 65 percent. (Continued on page 11) Implementation costs, when, used with large numbers of students, is very lowless than one dollar per year per student. Unfortunately, many nations who would like to use interac- live radio instruction and who can afford the Graph No. 1 implementation cost of the lessons, do not have funds available for developing complete- Mathematics Ach,evement in Nicaragua and Thailand ly new lessons, and would also like to imple- Radio Classes vs Conventional Classes ment it at more than one grade level per year. Percentage of Development costs to produce a high-quality, Students [...f year-long series runs between $300,000 and 9 0 IN Conventional Classes $500,000, due largely to the careful planning f,. Radio Classes and the extensive field testing required to pro- 80 duce such lessons. A possible solution to this dilemma is to . 68.2 I adapt interactive radio lessons that have al- 70 ready been prepared for another country rath- 51__9 62.7 60 er than developing a completely new series. 57.8 The questions are whether existing lessons can be adapted for another country's needs, 50 and whether such an adaptation would change 44.4 the materials so much that the quality of _ 40 the original product would be significantly 1'i , reduced. 30 Adapiadon Process The opportunity to investigate these ques- 20 tions arose in 1980, when Thailand decided to adapt the Radio Mathematics lessons from Nic- 10 ,,aragua, and use them on a small scale to determine if they would be appropriate for a Thai o ', audience. In Thailand there is a major disparity 4-- ',; in the quality of education between urban anand Nicaragua Thailand Thailand rural schools, and it was hoped that the use r:f Central Northeast Plain radio instruction, which would be uniform Normalized' 1'throughout the country, could help to reduce .36 .24 .58 '',;:this difference. Difference Although radio instruction has been used iv/ith considerable success in Thailand for measum of improvemnt when comparing different Many years, there were no courses in mathe- Populations D = mean (experimental) mean (control) nodes for elementary school comparable to 4 SD (conu 01)

Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 A Communicator's Checklist

The Promise of Literacy, by H.S.recent. One Billion Illiterates together provideAdult Education at the University of Toronto, Bhola, etal, (Baden-Baden, Westa historical overview of many of the mass cam- and has taught English as a Second Language Germany: NOMOS Publishers, 1983)paigns undertaken around the world Unfortu-to high school and adult students. 1283 pp. nately, some of the campaign reports from the The Promise of Literacy reports the proceed-Udaipur Seminar in particular are overly briefAvailable from NOMOS Publishers, P O. Box ings of the 1982 International Seminar on Lit-or too shrouded in official government rheto-610, D-7570, Baden-Baden, West Germany eracy held in Udaipur, India. H.S. Bhola, of In- ric to be informative. for 38 German Marks approximately US$16 diana University, and Josef Muller ar.d Piet The "Udaipur Literacy Declaration," a signif-free for developing country readers from. Ger- Dijkstra, both of the German Foundation foricant document which summarizes the conclu-man Foundation for International Develop- International Development, were coauthors ofsions reached at this Seminar, is also included ment, Hans - Bockler -Sir 5, D-5300, Bonn 3, the report. The seminar itself was one of aOne of the noteworthy conclusions is that, al- West Germany number of international conferences whichthough most successful campaigns are charac- have been convened over the last two decades teristic of "societies in the midst of profound to discuss adult literacy training. In fact, to read and structural changes," any society, regard- The Promise of Literacy by itself is like readingless of the political system, "can activate forces a passage out of context. for change and create a supportive political en- Sciendfic Researdi and Social The Udaipur Seminar focused specificallyvironment" The introduction to the book ech- Goals:Towards a New Develop- on the "mass campaign" strategy for adult liter-oes this conclusion when it claims that the nec- ment Model, Federico Mayor, acy training. The rationale for this focus is ex-essary, and indeed, a sufficient condition for 2ed. (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1982) plained in the introduction as follows: "Inmounting a successful mass literacy campaign 236 pp. most parts of the Third World, barring a fewis "the existence of the national will to mobi- This collection of essays focuses on the rela- happy exceptions, literacy work has been inlize national imagination and national re- tionship of social priorities and scientific re- the form of experimental projects and cautioussources." Such claims stem from the compara- search as a new basis for national and interna- pilot programs. Strategies used have seldomtive evidence that, although most of the suc- tional development. The goal of this lofty en- been bold or commensurate with the size ofcessful literacy campaigns have occurred in deavor is to redefine development in human the problem." One such bolder measure is the the context of revolutionary movements, some terms, to replace the emphasis on material mass campaign which has proven to be acountries, most notably Brazil, have managed goods of the industrialized nations, with the promising strategy. As the Udaipur Declaration to conduct campaigns in non-revolutionary human needs and limited resources of the de- maintains, 'The clear lessons from efforts inenvironments, as well as from evidence from veloping world. Technology and the products many countries is that nationally motivatedcountries like Nicaragua that campaigns do not of scientific investigation, it is argued, should mass campaigns can banish illiteracy regard- depend so much on big budgets as on a nation- be redirected to the concerns of world pover- less of the adversity of conditions a countryal popular will to eradicate illiteracy. ty, technology transfer, and the effective use of faces." In general, this book contains an informa- available knowledge; and only through the re- Convinced of the efficacy of the mass lite section on the theory and practice of con- organization of international priorities and the cy campaign, the organizers of the UJaii ing mass literacy campaigns, and an im- redirection of scientific efforts will such goals Seminar attempted to provide a forum for in ant declaration which once again calls for be reached. eminent planners and literacy experts anu .eracy to be placed as a priority on the inter- The volume is the result of the "Research practitioners already experienced in conduct- national development agenda. To be under-and Human Needs" program that was con- ing mass campaigns to compare and contraststood in context, however, The Promise of ceived at a symposium/workshop in Venice in strategies with each other and to share whatLiteracy should be read as part of the infor- December 1975. The book "discusses the re- they had learned with representatives of coun- malseriesofpublicationswhich have sults so far achieved, and what they imply for tries presently in the process of planning andemerged as the working papers or reports of the future implementing campaigns. To provide a com- other international adult education and litera- The individual presentations represent a mon point of reference for the discussions, the cy conferences. number of disciplines, countries, and styles, organizers structured the seminar around a divided into three sections: concepts and phi- Unesco-commissioned study by H.S. Bhola, bsophy, methodological approaches, and Campaigning for Literacy, in which eight dif- practical programs in different parts of the ferent historically significant campaigns form Recommended Reading: world. The essays are written as speeches and the basis for a comparative study of the cam- retain a sense of purpose and polemic which paign strategy. Bhola included in his study a Bataille L, editor, A Turning Point for Liter- suggest the political and policy orientation of well-written theoretical overview of how to acy, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1975 the book, yet, this dialogue with the unseen plan campaigns in a chapter entitled "Plan- Bhola H.S., Campaigning for Literacy, Paris. governments, policy-makers, and interested ning, Implementing, and Evaluating Literacy Unesco, 1982. oublic is illustrative of the lack of coherent Campaigns: A Memorandum to Decision Mak- Carron G. and Bordia A, editors, Issues in editing or logical progression of ideas. In this ers." The seminar participants found this Planning and Implementing National Litera- sense, the book will be of interest to individu- "Memorandum" to be "a useful and systematic cy Programmes, Paris: Unesco, 1985. als looking for an introduction to the idea of elaboration of planning, implementation, and Fordham P., editor, One Billion Illiterates..socially appropriate development, but will not evaluation of literacy campaigns, programs, One Billion Reasons forAction, Toronto: ICAE provide a satisfactory exploration of the sub- and projects." Consequently, it appears again and Bonn: DSE, 1985. ject for those deeply involved in the field. The in its entirety in chapter six of The Promise of World Conference of Ministers of Education humanistic/scientific dilemma is well known Literacy. on the Eradication of Illiteracy: Final Report, in most development agencies and university One of the important contributions of con- Paris: Unesco, 1965. settings such that the real importance and im- ferences such as the one in Udaipur is that re- pact of these essays will be on the general pub- sulting publications like Campaigning for Lit- Cecil Xiamen is currently completing his Ma- lic and political domains. The editor has in- eracy, The Promise of literacy, and the more ter's degree in International and Comparative cluded a number of essays by individuals who

Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 42 . i: ate not normally considered authorities on de-nately, Technology Policy and Development: A velopment, such as the actress Bibi Anderssen,Third World Perspective is not that book. This but who add a new dimension to the discus-collection includes a mix of articles by indus- On File at ERIC sion by the inclusion of the arts and human-trialized country authors, many written in the ides in the overall human needs framework. early 1970s, and a few reprints of articles and A possible criticism of the volume is the un-publications from the U.N. Conference onDocuments recently entered in the ERIC (Edu- qualified assumption that science is good, orTechnology and Development and the U.N. In-cational Resources Information Center) files on the other haw. , that "good science" cannot dustrial Development Organization. A statisti-include an overview of communication and have a specific applied objective without strik-cal section includes some very general U.N.technology in development, a report on a ing "a mortal blow." It is unclear what the ulti-economic data for the 1970s, developing coun-theater-for-development workshop, a hand- mate "good" of science will be and what con- try research and development expendituresbook for film producers, and a study and tribution scientific endeavor will make to the and the number of engineers and scientists inmanuals on the use of audiovisual materials problems of the developing world. Nonethe-the early 1970s, and developing country ex- less, the idea that the power of scienceboth penses for technology transbr in the 1960s. An All these documents are available in mi- in the metaphorical and technological annotated list of pertinent books, articles, andcrofiche, and all but one in paper copy, should be linked to social priorities is a signifi- institutions occupies almost a third of thefrom the ERIC Document Reproduction cant statement and organizing principle for re- book. Too many of the articles are hopelesslyService (EDRS), 3900 Wheeler Ave., Alex- search institutes, programs, and international out of date. Attitudes and understanding ofandria, Virginia 22304, U.S.A. Be sure to funding. The argument that knowledge, sci-what is appropriate technology have evolvedinclude the ED number and payment in ence, and intellectual skills should be placed considerably since 1973 when Robin ClarkeU.S. funds for the price listed plus ship- in the service of people is a moral imperative;published the essay reprinted here. Williamping. Shipping costs may be calculated on this book begins a discussion of how such an Eiler's 1980 article uncritically quotes a predic- the basis of three microfiche per ounce imperative can overcome the problems of nation that photovoltaic cells will cost 50 centsand 75 microfithe or pages of paper copy tional boundaries, cultural values, and eco- per peal: watt in developing countries in 1986. per pound. nomicconstraints The article on science and technology in black One of the most successful papers is by K. Africa was first published in 1973. An article on Soedjatmoko, Rector of the UN University, who industrial and technology policy in Tanzania Beyond the Flpchart. Three Decades reviews the national policy implications of the describes policies in detail, but provides no in-of Development Communication. 1985, 45pp. basic needs model. By examining each sector sight on whether these policies are to blame(ED 259 710). of a iraveloping economy, including health, for the country's current problems. Several of For more than a decade, the Academy for housing, education, food, land reform, andthe articles are still relevant, if not timely.Educational De%elopment's Clearinghouse on cultural, legal, political, and ideological poll- Charles Weiss and his col! agues at the WorldDevelopment Communication has collected des, he evaluates the problems and questions Bank offer good generic advice in "Guid-information and chronicled trends in the ap- which will arise with the application of the ba- ing Technological Change." The forbiddingplication of communications technology to de- sic needs model. He concludes by reminding sounding 'Technological Self-Reliance of thevelopment. This paper summarizes what the us that "the massive intellectual effort and the Developing Countries: Toward OperationalAcademy has learned about communication staying power*rich a continuing dialogue re- Strategies," by the U.N. Industrial Develop-and development from various perspectives quires can only be generated and maintained ment Organization is a comprehensive state-and discusses the future use of new technol- when ... mutual trust... mutual faith in the ment of developing country attitudes towardogies Areas covered include: (a) strategies basic qualities of the other people... and a international patent policy, transnational cor-(media based, instructional design, participa- willingness to suspend fial judgement for aporations, and the industrialized countries,tion, and marketing); (b) the importance of long period of time" area part of the common and of technology policy options open to thelanguage, culture, and politics, (c) the devel- commitment that has been made. This level of developing world. Denis Gou let provides anopment sector (agriculture, family planning, commitment that has been made. This level of insightful commentary on the role of values ineducation, health, nutrition); (d) technology commitment and the importance of human re- technology policy, and the UNCTAD review of(television, radio, print media, traditional and lationships still remains the basic medium for developing country technical progress fromfolk media, other media, telecommunications, development and successful social change 1950 to 1975 includes useful historical data. computers); and (e) lessons for the future (au- Technology Policy andDevelopment is mostdience orientation, targeting areas for change, successful as a bibliographical reference. Themedia networks) Examples of successful com- Seta Low is Associate Professor of Landscape 190-page annotated bibliography of books, ar-munications projects are included to illustrate Architecture and Regional Planning, City and ticles, and other bibliogrrphies is a handythe positive impact of media intervention on Regional Planning, and Anthropology at the guide to pre-1982 literature. The statistical sec-education and training. Available from the Univusity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, tion is a useful lesson in how little is known Pennsylvania. She currendy is involved in cul- Clearinghouse on Development Communica- turally appropriate planning and design in about science and technology activities in thetion, 1255 Twenty -third Street, NW, Washing- Costa Rica and the United States. developing countries. The essays provide aton, DC 20037, or from EDRS in microfiche historical portrait of what the U.N. and Westernonly for 75 cents. development specialists were thinking about technology and development in the 1970s, but Kidd, Foss. Prom People's Theatre for Available for US$39 00 from Pergamon Press, the book does not deliver whatitstitleRevolution to Popular Theatre for Reconstruc- Inc., Maxwell House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, promises developing country thoughts andtion: Diary of a Zimbabwean Workshop. CESO New York, 10523, USA, Attn.: Book Orderactions on technology policy. Verhandeling No. 331984. 95pp. (ED 259 Department. 694). Focusing on the experience of one of seven Kevin Finneran is an independent science andworking groups at a theater-for-development technology policy consultant He has worked(TFD) workshop in Zimbabwe, this report de- Technology Policy and Develop- for the Agency for International Develop-tails the process followed by many groups, and ment: A Third World Perspec- ment, the International Institute for Environ-reveals some of the major !earnings, dilem- tive, Pradip K. Ghosh, ed. (West- ment and Development, and the Nationalmas, contradictions, strengths, and limiting Academy of Sciences. port, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, factors found in a practical village-based TFD 1984) 593 pp. process. This drama form is described as an Developing country technology policy has experimental collaborative process designed been most noted for its absence, so a collec- Available for US$49.95 from Greenwoodto take theater out of urban enclaves and make tion of recent essays from developing coun- Press 88 Post Road West, Bar 5007, Westport,it accessibie to the masses, presenting such tries on the subject sounds intriguing Unfortu- Connecticut 06881, USA (Continued on page 10)

Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 7 43 (Spain continuedompage 1) those same, precise, measurable indicators Similarly, maintaining standards of scientific The baseline evaluation will aid greatly in proj- experimentation poses a problem when ap- Traditionally, evaluation has sought to an-ect design, and the formative evaluation will plied rigorously to evaluationIf evaluation swer the questions "What is wrong?" "What isallow the project team to change things while stays above the battle, not offering its findings the problem?" andinevitably"Who is tothere is still time to affect prolea outcomes to the project team because of a desire to be blame?" At the conclusion of a project when From this perspective, evaluation is integrat- "scientific," neither science nor the project people's work was evaluated, there was littleed into the project as a way to get things done benefits. A project is not an experiment they could say to counter a negative evalua-Always using the desired results of the project intervening simply to see what happens. A tion. Since the project was already over, theyas the criteria, evaluators can look at what is project has desired results and needs to evalu- could not make the indicated adjustments, andhappening before and during the project to ate interventions regularly in terms of those since involvement in future projects could Ir. guide project design and implementation. desired results While an experiment i,-; value- jeopardized by a negative zvaluation, the eval- free, a project is not. Achieving the desired re- uation exercise represented, for these people, sults of the project is the ultimate goal, and the a substantial personal threat. Evaluation is an essential function, nc evaluation processisused to determine Traditionally, evaluation has often been con-a luxury. When evaluation is done after the whether progress is being made toward that fused with policy analysis. The evaluator hasproject, results are used not by the project peo- end. been looked upon as someone who tells peo-ple whose work is being evaluated, but often ple what they should do or what they shouldby a nebulous group of future implementors have done. There is, however, a very importantin similar settings. Theoretically, they would Evaluation is not adversarial. Evaluation distinction between these two functions. Poli-take the evaluation results, find the similarities has often been a threat to many project partici- cy analysis properly combines the wisdom, ex- between the evaluated project and the contem- pants, and justly so. When used only retrospec- perience, and judgment of a group of peopleplated project, apply useful lessons, and then tively and when not arising from a predeter- to determine what to do (policy), and to deter-move onward and upward on the basis of this mined project agenda, evaluation can easily mine later if what has been done should havecontinuallycumulating body oflessons become a negative and damaging experience been done. The evaluator's role is more nar-learned. In reality, future implementors take for a person. Even the best people can design row: the evaluator determines what has beentoo little time to study the state of their art, and and implement a projectthat does not done, so actual results can be compared withoften say that few lessons are directly applica- achieve without mid-course corrections - the desired results. ble anyway. When these future implementors what they had hoped for When used only ret- The characteristics elaborated above ha ieare the only beneficiaries of evaluation, the rospectively, evaluation offers no constructive long been assumed to be standard characteris-sponsors of the project to be evaluated may guidelines to the project; and, if the evalua- tics of the evaluation process. 1 wish to chal-hesitate to pay for something which is not of tionis negativeimplicitly or explicitly lenge these assumptions, to show how evalua-direct use to them. the blame falls on those associated with the tion can play a more useful role in project Thus, evaluation appeared to be a luxury, project A retrospective evaluation deals only implementation.Indeed, many evaluationsomething peripheral to the project itself, and with success and failure, with praise and practitioners have gradually moved towardsomething whose value for other projects was blame, and is rightly perceived as a threat. more constructive uses of evaluation, preciselyhard to determine. But when evaluation be- In contrast, when evaluation is integrated because they have gone beyond assumptions. comes part of the fabric of project implemen- into the project, both at the baseline and dur- tation, as a stimulus to the achievement of ing the formative stages, the focus shifts from Evaluation Present.... clearly stated results and as a monitor of mea- success and failure praise and blame, to im- surable indicators of those results, the project provement. More importantly, focus shifts Evaluation occurs throughout theitself becomes the chief beneficiary of evalua- from the evaluation of persons to the evalua- project. The traditional assumption that eval-tion. No longer a luxury, evaluation is seen as tion of methods. When an evaluation is carried uation occurs after-the-fact implies that evalua-essential for getting things done. out during a project, and when this information cannot contribute to the outcome of the Once the sponsors are convinced that evalu- tion is made available to those who are com- project, but only to a cumulative body of "les-ation is vital to accomplishing the desired re- mitted to achieving its desired results, it is pos- sons learned" that persons undertaking newsults, they can justify this investment on solid sible to change methods in mid-course. projects might consult and follow. The mostgroundsthe alternative being to gamble that Evaluation clearly becomes a scrutiny of critical and limiting corollary of the traditionalthe project is and will continue to achieve methods in terms of improving desired results assumption that evaluation was to be donethose desired results. and not a personal ordeal in terms of success after the project was that project people or failure. This depersonalization of evaluat ion somehow could not state the results they want- is not incidental. It sterns directly from the ed beforel.and, or measure where they stood Evaluation should be done by insiders.project's articulation of its desired results at in terms of those results until it was too late to To the degree that an evaluation is complex, the beginning, and from ongoing assessment do anything to change what had happened. Itthe project team needs to include persons withwhile the project can still be improved In the was assumed project people could not control the requisite technical skills who bring withabsence of desired results, people will work what was happening once the project had start- them a blend of social science, statistics, andoff their own, separate agendas and be vulner- ed. More recently, however, evaluation has computer analysis. They should be brought inable to criticism from people with other agen- been recognized as a valuable tool to help to work for the project's desired results and das. The work becomes personalized. With ev- project people achieve their goals. remain with the project from start to finish eryone focused on the same agenda, however, Evaluation can, in fact, be carried out at any Traditionally,evaluatorshave beenout- the project team need not question themselves stage of the projectbefore, during, and siderspeople not concerned with the proj- when improvement is needed. It is the meth- after as a way of measuring the actual situa- ect's desired results, who came on the scene at ods, not the people, that need changing. tion vis-a-vis the project's desired results. Thus, the end of the project. Also, grounds for using what is required for a good evaluation be-outside evaluators went further, that is, to fore getting out statistics book', plugging in a maintain objectivity and to maintain the stan- Evaluation differs from policy analysis. computer, or designingaspecificdata- dards of scientific experimentation. Perhaps In the absence of good policy analysis, evalua- gathering methodIs a clear statement by theobjectivity is important if you look at evaluators are often brought in to determine what project people of the desired results, In mea- tion only as a post-mortem assessment of what should be done. It is commonly believed that surable terms. Defining measurable indicators happened. Objectivity implies a definite dis-evaluators can and should tell people what to of desired results defines and clarifies the eval- tance on the part of the evaluator. To the extent do, testifying to a lack of good policy analysis. uator's task. It also requires that project people that accurate, timely information about results Policy analysis should determine the desired understand what is happening before thecan contribute to the project, however, evalua- results for an enterprise, as well as the measur- project (baseline evaluation), and during thetion should not be objective, but rather be able indicators of those desired results. project (formative evaluation) in terms of used to get those results. 44 (Continued on page 12) Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 formation and ideas on a wide range of topics and issues relevant to young people from the Participatory Radio in Arequipa pueblos jovenes. This format, with its organization into discrete sections, also accomodated the time constraints of the team, who could by Jane Duran work only at night and on weekends. It enabled the team members to work indepen- In the city of Arequipa, located in An essential underpinning to the project isdently when time permitted, although plan- the mountains of southern Peru, a its link with a local grass roots organizationning and final compilation would be a team par cipatotyradioprojectis called CIRCA (la FederaciOn de Circulos So-effort attempting to motivate young ciales CatOlicos de Arequipa). CIRCA is a reli- A second on-site training workshop oc- people to become more involved in their com- gious institution with branches in 43 puebloscurred a year later. During this workshop, the munities' self-help activities. This project is jovenes where it has established clubs andBBC specialist and the team reassessed Inqui- supported by the British Council's Educational centers that support community developmentetudes based on an interim evaluation survey Projects Fund, and its focus is the production activities. A CIRCA coordinator works closelycarried out by the team in thepueblosjovenes of a weekly magazine-format radio programwith the COAMCOS team in all phases of In-The training concentrated on those produc- called Inguktudes, or "concerns, feelings that quietudes program development. CIRCA alsotion and training skills which needed to be motivate." Inquietudes is broadcast by the lo- helped the team to carry out their audiencestrengthened in view of ways in which the pro- cal religious and cultural radio station Radio researchactivities,andisaninvaluableject had developed Changes on program strat- San Martin and is aimed at young people be- source of contacts needed to engage commu-egy and content were also made at this time. tween the ages of 16 and 23. With thisnity participation in program production and three-year project, running from 1983 to 1986, evaluation. Program Evolution the British Council provides a studio and on- Since March 1984, Inquietudes has offered site recording equipment and materials, train- Training young people a forum where they can discuss ing programs and resources, and a London- The COAMCOS team has received trainingissues that concern them. Community news based project consultant, and local support at several stages of the project to build on theirand announcements are increasingly present- from the British Council office in Lima. previous experience and skills in order toed by members of the communities them- The catalyst for the project is a small group meet the special demands of a participatory ra-selves; some presentations are produced en- of volunteers working for a production center dio project. Training emphasized audience re-tirely by groups of young people from the vil- called COAMCOS (1a Comision Arquidioce- searchtechniques;on-locationrecordinglages who were trained by the COAMCOS sana de Medios de Comunicacion Soda' de skills; program formats involving listener par-team. The program features local musicians Arequipa). Since 1975 COAMCOS has been ticipation; training skills to enable the team toand presents ideas for new activities in which producing an average of ten weekly cultural train community groups to produce their ownyoung people can participate, while providing and religious radio programs broadcast locally materials; and evaluation techniques for gath-a channel for information on community pro- on behalf of the Archdiocese, but prior to the ering listener feedback The team membersjects. While maintaining the magazine format, Inquietudes program, the production teamalso needed to learn about other develop-Inquietudes may take the form of a "special" had had no experience in community based, ments in the field of participatory and educa-devoted to an individual village, recorded on participatory radio. Funding and time con- tional radio so as to operate in a wider contextlocation, and emphasizing problems and self- straints argued in favor of selecting a priority and draw on these experiences as sources ofhelp projects to improve conditions. Content target audience and limiting output to a ideas. is lively and varied, increasingly carrying the 24-minute weekly program. After considerable Two team members attended a course forvoices of young people from the pueblos audience research, the team decided to focus educational radio trainers at the Centro dejovenes rather than those of the COAMCOS on young people in the pueblos jovenes, or Teleducacfon, Pontificia Universidad CatOlicateam members which had initially dominated "young villages" of Arequipa in the hope that del Peru, who then gave other COAMCOSthe programs this sector cnn be motivated to play a more ac- members and CIRCA representatives basic tive role in the community. training in research, production, and evalua-Evaluation tion skills. These same team members also vis- Evaluation is an integral part of this project Pueblos Jovenes ited an established community radio project inListeners' comments and suggestions are The pueblos Jovenes sun ounding Arequipa Puno, Peru, Radio Onda Azul (see DCR #48)broadcastonInquietudesandprogram number well over three hundred, and house a where they were able to observe listener par -changes also reflect survey information gath- majority of the population of the province ofticipa.ion in action. This exposure to the po-ered by the team. Another form of evaluation Arequipa. They are populated mainly by mi- tential of participatory radio subsequently in-occurs with regular contact between the field grants from other regions of Peru, and are in fluenced the final shape of the COAMCOSteam, the London-based Media Group, and Parying stages of development depending on project. BBC specialists. Copies of all transmitted tapes factors such as the length of time established, As a result of their training, the team wasare sent to London together with "letter cas- F. proximity to the city, the degree to which com- able to develop an effective audience researchsettes" in which the COAMCOS team discusses munitieshave organized themselves, and sup- strategy. Group discussions and surveys pro-new developments and problems, allowing for F' port from local organizations. For manyvil- vided the team with socioeconomic informa-regular project monitoring and rapid response lages, however, economic and social problems tion on the pueblos jovenes and identifiedtime are acute. Many lack essential services: runr ing young people as a priority group heretofore Since the first broadcasts of Inquietudes, water, electricity, sewage and rubbish dispos- marginally involved in community develop-the team has concentrated on increasing the al, and adequate health facilities and schools, ment activities. Further target group researchinvolvement of their listeners in the various while unemployment is widespread. Few for- revealed that there was a strong interestproduction stages of the program. This effort mal communication networks exist between among the respondents to participate in pro-has been successful as the young people from thepueblosjovenes to facilitate an exchange of gram production. many of the communities regularly participate information on community development ..c- The project also provided two intensive on-in production activities. Seen in a wider con- tittles, and enable communities to learn from site training workshops run by a BBC special-text, the COAMCOS project is only one of a va- each others' experiences. One of the purposes ist. The first, in January-February 1984, provid-riety of existing activities in Peru in the field g,.of the COAMCOS project is to provide a forum ed further basic production training for teamof participatory radio. Some of these rely on In which listeners can talk to each other about members and CIRCA representatives Usingthe most rudimentary facilities, such as public 'y: problems and how they might work to the audience research gathered earlier, pro-address systems in market places or villages to solve them, while drawing on the experience gram format, content, and style for Inquietudesdisseminate community programs Other ra- of communities which have organized self- were developed at this time. The magazine for-dio activities are implemented by local groups help projects. mat was selected as the best way to present in- (Continued on page 10) . 45 Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 9 (Dons contkundfron page 9) from left to right, or assume that there is any connection between pictures in a series; pic- Editing and Publications who acquire time on commercial stations fortures that try to convey ideas or instructions individual programs; while a few radio sta-often use symbols that are not understood by Training Course dons sponsored by religious organizationsvillagers; villagers are interested in and attract- The International Rice Research Institute in broadcast a wide range of listener-baseded by pictures, even though they may need the Philippines (IRRI) and the Canadian Inter- Ixoftramming help to interpret them; realistic pictures with a national Development Research Center are of- Although participatory radio in Pent is stillminimum of background detail are the easiest fering agricultural communicators an editing overshadowed by traditional commercial ra-for them to understand; and pictures showing and publications training course at IRRI. The dio programming, there is now some aware-a lot of different objects are not well under- course will be offered twice in 1986 and twice ness of its potential impact and use as somestood Available from EDRS in microfiche for in 1987. ills is an intensive four-month pro- communities are given access to a cotnmuntca-75 cents or in paper copy for $3.60. gram for eight to ten participants each session. don channel which can help them to achieve It is a "hands-on" training experience for those their self-development goals. Working with Villages Media Re-already engaged in editing and publication at sotave Both: SAW Exerdse4 Line Drawings,national or related research and extension in- Jane Duran is a Media Officer with the BritishRedpes for Making Teaching Tools and Mate-stitutions. Candidates should be 25-45 years Coundts Media &OUP, and advises on mak-rials Activities; Media Skill; and Sample Les-old; have a B.S. or M.S. degree; have at least ing and resources for radio and its applica-sons for Meting Reldworkes in Nome Roo-two years related experience; and be profi- tionsfor education and development nontics and Family Planning. 1977. 103pp.cient in English. (ED 258 567). For information contact: The Director of Re- !,I Designed for use in conducting media pro-search and Training, IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Ma- duction training with Peace Corps fieldwork-nib, Philippines. Addendum ers, this manual is divided into three sections: Dr. Norbert 1Hirschhom, who contributed the skill exercises, line drawings, and directions(AMT continued from page 11) ankle "Saving Children's Lives: A Conununica- for making art supplies from easily obtainable don Campaign in Egypt," in DOR #51 is Viceresources. Nineteen step-by-step skill exer-short radio spots, jingles, and/or interviews; President of theJohn Snow Health Group, Bos- cises cover basic cuffing, wet and dry mount- directing the same message to different audi- ton, Massachusetts. ing, simple drawing, freehand lettering, cut-ence groups (say, educating fathers and chil- ting and enlarging,tracing, and makingdrenas well as mothersabout oral rehy- (ERIC oontinuedfrom page 7 ) blackboard stencils. Guidelines are also given dration therapy); and adding sound effects and for using blackboards, flannelgraphs, and flip- music to productions. Recommendations such common concerns as crop production, watercharts with village audiences. Suggestions for as these are often provided by Network shortages, immunization, literacy, and familyeffective utilization of color and design de- participants. planning. A day-by-day diary account of this scribe creative ways to enhance visuals, and Contributions from the Network's partici- working group provides an overview of, andsimple line drawings of frequently used sub- pants are crucial in compiling subsequent describes the specific tasks involved with, thejects are provided for fieidworkers to trace,packets. In fact, the only requirement for reproduction of a "theater puma's" people'scopy, and enlarge. The concluding section ceiving the free script packets is that an en- theater. A TFD model lists educational objec-contains recipes for making such low cost ma-closed information poll be filled out and re- dyes for the drama process and defines the ob- terials as paste, ink, dyes, paints, rubber ce-turned to DCFRN headquarters. Questions jectives of the workshop: (a) to train development, and modeling clay. Available from EDRS from a recent survey asked which items were ment cadres and theater artists in TFD, and (b) in microfiche for 75 cents or in paper copy forfound to be the most useful; what crops, live- to start a TFD program in the Murewa area of $9.00. stock, pests, and diseases are found in the com- Zimbabwe as a training and popular educa- municator's area; what the terrain, soil, and cli- tion/culture ,rogram. The report concludesBarham B. Minor is Publications Coordina-mate conditions are like; and whether or not with an analysis of the workshop, including tor, ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Re-farmers can read and keep financial and other constraints, relationship with villagers, organi-source; School of Education, Spathe Univer- farm records. There is also room for comments zational strategy, and teamwork. An extensivesity, Synacuse, New York 13244-2340, U.S.A. and suggestions. This data is then collected, an- bibliography is included Available from the alyzed, and integrated into later packets. Center for the Study of Education in Develop- In addition to radio broadcasts, DCFRN in- ing Countries, Badhuisweg 251, P.O. Box formation has been used in newspaper arti- 90734, 2509 IS, The Hague, The Netherlands, cles, posters, classroom teaching, video tapes, or from EDRS in microfiche for 75 cents or pa- IV shows, loudspeaker broadcasts, and puppet per copy for $7.20. shows. Overall, DCFRN has Froven itself as an edu- Communicating with Pictures. P-8A. cationaltool.Feedback from participants 1976. 28pp. (ED 257 437). shows that farmers who listen to these broad- In early 1976, the National Development casts use the information that pertains to their Service of Nepal and UNICEF conducted a particular needs. The Developing Countries study designed to determine whether it would Farm Radio Network is steadily growing as a be possible to communicate ideas and infor- development educator of small farmers as en- mation to Nepalese villagers who could not visioned by Atkins nearly a decade ago. read by using pictures only, the kinds of pic- To contact the Network, write to: tures that would be most meaningful for villagers, and whether different colors had special Developing Country Farm Radio Network, English Language Division, do Massey-Fergu- meanings for them. Teams of data collectors son Ltd, 595 Bay St. Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C3 went to nine different parts of Nepal and con- Canada ducted interviews with more than 400 adult or villagers from various groups; none of the villagers interviewed had ever been to school. Developing Country Farm Radio Network, French & Spanish Language Division, do Uni- The researchers showed the villagers a variety versity of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2W1 of pictures and colors and noted their respons- Canada es. The main findings of the study indicate that villagers tend to "read" pictures very literally and do not expect to receive ideas from them; William Amt is Program Assistant at the villagers do not necessarily look at pictures aeasinghouse. 46 10 Development Communication Report /Winter 1986 Mend continued frompage 5) Results of this comparison showed that the radio students were superior to the non-radio DCFRN: students in both Nicaragua and Thailand, par- tkularly in rural Northeast Thailand (see -4raph). The normalized difference of .58, for A Radio Network for SmallFarmers students in Northeast Thailand, is of a magnitude rarely reached in educational interven- by William Amt dons. Reducing the disparity of educational As the populations of developingtive grass roots-level farmers in the develop- opportunity between the less and more devel- countries continue to grow, landing world to increase food production, de- oped parts of the country was the primary goal formerlyusedforcultivatingcrease post-harvest losses, and to make more of this project, and it appears this experiment small-scale,domestic-consump-efficient use of food. This information comes has very successfully achieved this end. tion crops is increasingly appro-from on-site interviews with small farmers, However, we aill have not answered one of priated for large-scale, export-farm broadcasters, extension workers, health the questions posed at the beginning of the oriented crops. This process putsworkers, scientists, and university and govern- article: "Was there a noticeable decrease in pressure on the subsistence-levelment officials; printed materials; and feedback lesson quality in the process of adapting the farmer to grow more crops on less land. Tradi-from questionnaires that are included in each lessons to a different language and culture?" tional farming methods usually cannot dealinformation packet. To answer this question, we turn to a compar- with this challenge effectively, and small-scale Information on agricultural or nutritional ison with Nicaraguan data. farmers have largely been by-passed by a ma-innovations must meet several rigorous crite- jority of development programs aimed at in-ria to be put on tape and then be disseminat- Composing Results zreasing food supplies in the Third World. Toed by DCFRN. They should have been devel- The test used for the evaluation in Thailand help solve this predicament, the mass mediaoped, tested, and proven in the deveicping was - adapted from one used for the same pur- are playing an increasingly important role inworld, as well as be adaptable in other devel- pose in Nicaragua. Over 80 percent of the changing small farmers' behavior in order tooping countries. There should be no, or very items in the Thai test and the Nicaraguan test improve national agricultural self-reliance, nu-low implementation costs, relying only on were the same, and comparisons made here trition, and the welfare of small producers local resources, and requiring neither chemi- are based on only those items. The Developing Countries Farm Radio Net-cals nor unfamiliar types of plants or breeds Graph 1 shows the results of the two pilot- work (DCFRN) is one such media group. of animals study regions in Thailand, comparing the re- Founded in 1979, DCFRN is sponsored by After the materials are gathered on a variety sults from Nicaragua. It is evident that the Nica- Massey Ferguson Ltd., Canada, a farm imple-of topics, radio scripts are prepared in a cultur- ragua study and the Thai Central Plain study ment manufacturing company, the Canadianally and religiously neutral style in order to yielded very similar results; the non-radio International Development Agency, and theappeal to as many listeners as possible. A per- classes in both countries have close to the University of Guelph, and operates under thesonable, informal style is followed, as if one same achievement levels, as do the radio class- guidance of an Advisory Committee com-farmer were advising another They are writes. However, an indication of a slight degrada- prised of sponsor representatives and special-ten simply so that local broadcasters and other don in the quality of the lessons when adapted ists in international development, agriculture,agricultural communicatorswriters, agricul- from Nicaragua is evident in somewhat greater communications, and education. It is undertural extensionists, educators, and health wor- differences in Nicaraguan scores between ra- the direction of George Atkins, former Seniorkerscan readily interpret the materials lin- dio and non-radio classes than was found in Agricultural Commentator with the Canadianguistically and culturally for their audience the Thai Central Plain. Broadcasting Corporation. The scripts (including illustrations to help the The striking fact shown on this graph is that Practical agriculture related information iscommunicator understand what he or she is the radio-instructed students in the Thai collected and taped for radio broadcast andconveying to the audience), or scripts and il- Northeast study gained more, comparatively, supplied without cost to radio stations andlustrations along with a cassette recording of than either of the other groups even more other organizations involved in disseminatingthe scripts are available in English, French, and than the radio-instructed students from Nicara- agricultural information for the purpose ofSpanish. Taped segments run between two gua. Although the quality of the lessons de- "serving agriculture, the basic industry"and ten minutes, depending on the subject creases slightly in the adaptation process, it is throughout the developing world. DCFRN ismatter. Scripts cover a wide variety of agricul- apparent that they are still enormously suc- committed to assisting small farmers to in-tural or health and nutrition issues, all within a cessful in the remote rural regions where they crease their food supplies by using estab-rural development context. Agricultural topics are most needed. lished radio stations and other local channelshave ranged from improving manure to get- The success of the Thai version of the radio of communication to spread agricultural in-ting more milk from dairy cows, from control- mathematics lessons amply demonstrates that formation. The success of this effort is per-ling worm eggs and germs that spread disease well-designed interactive radio instruction can haps best evidenced by the fact that althoughto marketing farm goods. Each packet also retainitseducationaleffectiveness when only nine packets have been produced andcontains at least one segment on rural health adapted for use in countries quite different distributed to date, over 500 broadcasters orproblems. from the one for which they were originally organizations in more than 100 countries dis- incensed. It is to the credit of the Thai staff that seminate DCFRN information to an estimatedThe Blue Sheet the edii-atIonal effectiveness of the original 100,000,000 listerers in about 100 languages. lessons was well maintained while the tone of Enclosed in every packet is The Blue Sheet, the programs became distinctly Thal. DCFRN's newsletter for participants in the Net- Information Gathering Process work As well as providing up-to-date informa- jamesine Friend uas Field Director of the DCFRN is divided into two divisions. Ad-tion about the Network, it covers other devel- Radio Mathematics Project in Nicaragua, and ministrative headquarters and the Englishopment issues not found in the radio scripts. is at:rent& prasident of Friend Dialogues, Language Division are located in Massey-Fur-Topics such as Women in Development, the Inc, an educational consulting firm. Klaus geson's Toronto office; while French andInternational Year of the Forest, and improv- Galda tvas a Field Director of the Radio Math- Spanish services are housed on the campus ofing communication techniques are included wnatics Project in Nicaragua and was Direc- the University of Guelph in Guelph, Ontarioin this newsletter. "The Professional Improve- tor of the Radio Science Project. Barbara where, when called upon, University facultyment Corner," a regular co: in The Blue Searle tau Project Director of the Nicaraguan and staff can assist with technical research onSheet, gives pointers on how to make broad- Radio Mathematics Project and is now with agriculture and nutrition information. usts more captivating for listeners. Sugges- the Bast Asia and Pacific Education Division Information is assembled on appropriatetions include using the mini-drama format, of the World Bank. and inexpensive technologies used by innova- (Continued on page 10) 47 Development Communication Report/Winter 1986 11 dal learning, collective action, and reorienting(Spain cot:timed from page 8 ) bureaucratic attitudes. It's an excellent outline Briefly Noted (but should not be thought of as a manual) for Evaluators can provide the data and the anal- developers and communicators in need ofysis of data to policy-makers, but as evaluators ideas of how to construct a well-rooted they should not make policy decisions. Evalua- by Robert Mel and Amt Prolect- tion can contribute to policy-making the em- Impkmentation for &Stainability: Lessonspirical base that policy-makers hover above. from Intgrated Rural Development is a some- Evaluators can also push them to state measur- what expanded version of Bryant and White'sable indicators for the results they want. It is a The International Rke Research Institutebook. Written by George Honadle and Jerrypolicy-maker's job to state the measurements (IRRI) has put out a useful publication for non-VanSant, its theme is that project designers,needed to assess the status of their plans. If English-apeaking countries endded, Copubli-managers, and field workers must be ever-they have good evaluators working with them, cation: IRRI Design, Procedures, and Policiesmindful of the need for local projects to con-they can concentrate on specific questions, for Muttilangstage Publication in As..dlw e. tinue effectively after outside support ends. Byconfident that the evaluators can provide the IRRI found that many of the people who could substantiating theory with case study experi-answers. Policy people ask the questions benefit from its publications do not speak Eng- ences, this book analyzes both macro (nation-evaluators answer them. Without firm policy lish. This booklet explains how the languageal) and micro (local) alternative approaches todirection, the evaluator ls lost If a project team barrier is overcome via the process of copubli-delivering and managing goods and services, asks the evaluator to provide direction, this is a cation, whereby IRRI works closely with pri-and suggests ways of avoiding project failure. good indication that the project itself is with- vate publishers in developing countries toBryant and White's book is available in softout direction. An alert evaluator can contribute translate, layout, edit, print, and distribute IRRIcover for US$7.95, and Honadle and VanSant's most effectively in this situation by helping materials. costs USS22.50 for hard cover and USS12.50project people articulate the results they want Another handy publication coming out offor soft cover. Write: Ktunarian Press, 630 Oak-and help them determine the corresponding IREa vety extensive compilation of tides onwood Avenue, Suite 119, West Hartford, CT, measurable indicators of those results. Third World igrialtural science and produc- 06110, U.S.A. This is evaluation for results: evaluation is an tion. Entitled Publicatiom on International integral part of getting any job done. No longer Agricultum Research and Development, thisRoth authors work at the Clearinghouse a post-mortem operation separate from the 560-page catalog comprehensively lists the task of achieving the project's desired results, major publications and audiovisuals of all the no longer a luxury carried out by people out- International Agricultural Research Centers side the project, no knger confused with sci- (IARCs) around the world. An in-depth subject entific experimentation or policy analysis, and indre assists the user in locating available ma- Asia-Pacific Broadcasting no longer a threat to the very people most terials in countless fields of agricultural sci- committed to the project's desired results ence. Materials are listed for each of the IARCs, Union Prizes Announced evaluation is becoming recognized as a con- preceded by a short description of the center structive tool that can help to achieve desired and an address. Annual reports and confer- The 1985 ABU Radio and Television prizeresults. ence proceedings are also listed. This catalogwinners were announced recently in Seoul,Peer Spain is cutrent6, °project offlarfor the is sure to be useful to libraries and organba- Korea. Three Radio prizes are awarded to pro-Academyfor Educational Development, work- dons working in international agriculture. It is mote the production of radio programs of a ing on the PR1TECH health projea. available in English only for USS10.20. Both high standard which are intended to raise edu- publications are available from the Interna-cational and cultural levels and to strengthen tional Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box 933, international understanding among the peo- Manila, Philippines. ples of the countries of ABU members. Cornell University For those francophones interested in a syn- The prize for radio programs for children,Communication Courses opsis of the problems of African publishing,for a production which entertains and edu- Direa, a French bi-monthly about educational cates youngsters under 12, was awarded to Ra- Between June 8 and July 4, 1986 Cornell Uni- technologies, contains an artide in its issuedio New Zealand for "Grampa's Place"an versity again offers its Communication Plan- No. 4/1984 entitled, to titre en Afrique Fran- imaginative and professional production dining and Strategy (CPS) course designed for cophone. A number of statistics (for instance: rected to an audience of three to five year-olds. officials and decision-makers in agriculture, Africa, with 10 percent of the world's popula- The 1985 Hoso Bunka Foundation, a Japa- health, nutrition, family planning, and rural de- tion, produces 1.4 percent of the world's pub- nese philanthropic organization, awards a ra-velopment, as well as for those in information lications, while Europe, with only 4.5 percent ,ilo prize to a program presenting traditional and communication positions related to tb of the world's population, produces 45.6 per- music that preserves and enriches the cultural sectors. The focus will be on designing c cent of the world's publications), as well as theheritage of the country or territory in which it municationstrategies and mobilizing arguments that existing books are too often was produced. This year's prize went to Radio sources for communication component: found in the city, too academic, too expensive, Bangladesh for 7a1 Ranger Gaan." The pro- projects. Enrollment is limited to 25. and too French (or English), suggest that Africa gram is a sensLIve blend of music, narration course fee is US$1400, and housing appr is in need of more accessible and appropriate and sound effects that simultaneously tells of mately $650. reading materials for a much wider reading the hardships of daily life faced by the fishing Also, a three-part video communical public Dired is available from ACCT-Direct, communities of Bangladesh. workshop is being offered from June 1 to 13, Quai Andre Citroen, 75015 Paris, France. ABU's 1985 Radio Prize, judged on the 12, 1986. The first part will give particip ICumarian Press has published two comple- theme "Youth in a Changing Society," was"hands-on" experience in how to use the [ mentary books that discuss ways in which inte- awarded to the Australian Broadcasting Corpo- tapac video, pre- and post-production p grated rural development projects can be ration for 'The Whole 'liorld Loves You," a ra- ning, basics of scripting, in-camera editin made to be lasting and effective. dio play that made imaginative and excellent second session offers a four-week indepe In Managing Rural Development with Small use of the radio medium to examine tensions em learning experience; and a third 1 Farmer Participation, Coralle Bryant and Lou- in child/adult relationships. one-week workshop covering concepts ise White admowledge that participatory de- For a list of the television prizes given this ed to manipulating the components of vide velopment is a crucial element of the general year, 1986 entry forms, and further informa- the electronic editing process. theme of development Their book focuses tion write to: Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union, For course applications contact: Dr. RI more on the issues of promoting equity and c/o Nippon Hoso Kyolcal 2-2-1Jinnan, Shibuya- Colle, CPS-85, Cornell University, 640 Ste% decentralization, expanding and managing ku, Tokyo 150,Japan. Cable ABUNI, Tokyo. Tel- Avenue, Ithaca, New York 14850, U.SA, Te participation, developing local institutions, so- ex: J22377 (RADIO NM) Tokyo. 937478. Telephone (607)256-6500. 48 12 Development Communication Report / Winter 1986 Clearinghouse On Development Comm unication

Whether in the blinds of illiterates in Mali and India or television programmars in Niger and the Maklives, work.Projects inLinking Knowledge agriadtwv and family planning are communication,Systems in the dissemination. equOment is popular among in community it is lightweigh4 compac4 Portable, and 7be advantagesSouth Pacific at the same time be a disadvantage douei, t must be 7be one- and two-inch equipment Western television p rwen--6opriate for local produaion Progam- 3144nob videotape equipment which repairabk, andby George M. Beal community level At the same time, the is acceptable forand K. Robert Kern its putpose is development as it is used in channels. The fadlities are trained Agriculture is the leading eco- provide a place where equipment can be and where video nomic activity in most of the small can be trained island countries of the South Pa- the role of video and television and demon- cific. That vital sector embraces a stage the 7bere is a lot happening out remarkably wide spectrum of crops ranging from coconuts, cocoa, and coffee for export, to DCR invited T on video use indigenous roots. There is also a wide varia- indeveloping asbecause Talbert, bas been tion in enterprises, production practices, types b,uobied in des oomnamication for the last seven of producers, and marketing practices. yeam she bas video as a has used it in Most of the islands were governed until re- teaching Engkel=a , . . I ; in counseling cently by European powers, which had led to women seeking is Vice President foreign influence in some segments of island of Health and Education Resoserces. agriculture, mainly focused on export crops; little attention had been given to food crops. When islanders gained political independence, and under quickening population pressure in many cases, the concern for food crops Music Carries a Message to Youths and the interests of small landholders took on a broader national perspective. And over the last two decades, many of the islands have put some elements of an agricultural knowledge system into place. by Patrick I.. Coleman Government-sponsored organizations now function in agricultural research, extension, Who would have predicted that the most widely played song in Mexico in March 1986 wouldeducation,libraries,and communications. be a special record designed to encourage young people to be sexually responsible andnot toThey tend to be unique to each country, since bring into the world "children of bread and water," children they could not care for? great distancesboth geographic and expe- "It's OK to say 'no,' " is the message of a unique new family planning and health communica- rientialstand between the real-life condition project designed to reach young people in 11 Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America tions in the islands and models from devel- and the Caribbean. The countries include Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic,oped society systems that some tried to copy Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama. and Peru. What makes this ambi-or impose. tious regional project so unique is not just the message or the remarkable success of the first Since 1983, the Institute of Culture and song but the combination of materials that were produced, the way they were produced, and Communication of the East-West Center has how they are now being used throughout the region. collaborated with the International Service for The Population Communication Services project in The Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene andNational Agricultural Research (ISNAR) in re- Public Health (JHU/PCS) has been working in Latin America and elsewhere for four years to search and continuing consultations with the support innovative family planning communication projects. It became clear to u that One key South Pacific island nations of Fiji, Western group was not being reached young people aged 13 to 18 who comprise approximately 30Samoa, and Tonga. This work has focused on percent of the total population in Latin America. The fertility and sexual behavior of young the organizations and people involved in the people have a significant impact on their own lives, their community, their country, and the knowledge systems in an effort to understand region. Early pregnancy is a major health and social problem throughout the region and the how the differeat systems are linked, how world. Adolescent mothers are ill-prepared psychologically, physically, financially, and sociallycommunicatico flows among them, and how to accept the responsibilities of motherhood. the exchange of information can be improved. 49(Continued on page 2) (Continued on page 14)

a (Coleman continued from page 1) lyrics, with more than 20 professional compos- The Best Audience: Urban Youth ers participating. The choice was narrowed to To address this problem the JHU/PCS decid- five songs, which were pretested in rough ed to develop a regional Latin American pro-form, with three different groups of young ject to make young people more sharply awarepeople The two favorite songs, Cuando Este- of the personal advantages to them of respon-mos Juntas, "When We Are Together, by the sible parenthood. Socio-demographics andArgentine composer, Juan Carlos Norona, and marketing studies have shown that young peo-Detente, "Wait," by the Mexican composer and ple living in urban areas are more homoge-singer, Prisma, were recorded. Music videos neous than any other segment of the popula-and radio and television commercials were bi this issue tion in the region and are easier to reach. Thisthen produced Musk Videos 1 makes them a particularly appropriate audi- An underlying concern built into the design Pacific Knowledge Systems 1 ence for global advertising, in which one set ofof this project was that the materials must ap- Making an Agricultural materials that crosses national barriers can bepeal to young people as popular songs, not as Video 3 produced for a large group of people. educational materials. We wanted the songs to Video for Women 4 JHU/PCS put together a financial, marketing,be played on radio stations just like any other and institutional package. The finances were Video in the Philippines 5 popular song, and the music videos to be provided through the U.S. Agency for Interna-played on television stations just like any other Video in the Village 7 tional Development. Development and mar-video. We expected that the radio and televi- Video Questionnaire 8 keting of the materials was contracted bysion commercials would be played only if the Teaching Video in the JHU/PCS to Fuentes y Fomento Intercontinen-radio and television stations were paid to do Maldives 9 tales, S.A. (FFI), a commercial marketing firmso. At the same time, we hoped for some col- Communicator's Checklist 10 located in Mexico. Institutional tie-in waslaboration by the government-owned educa- On File at ERIC 12 through JHU/PCS contacts with organizationstional stations and perhaps by a few socially The Biggest School in the in the 11 Spanish-speaking countries that haveconscious media managers and owners. World 13 active programs with young people. The marketing plan was conservative. We Briefly Noted 15 Analysis showed that the common denomi-estimated that rile songs would be played an Continuing Education nator for young people throughout the regionaverage of thrte times a day on radio stations is music. We decided to produce two songs,playing Spanish language music, and televi- Center 16 each with a music video, pressed on each sidesion stations would broadcast the music vid- of 45 rpm single records and enclosed in a fulleos, while newspapers, magazines, and jour- size, full-color, two-sided record jacket whichnals would occasionallypublisharticles folds out into a poster. related to the project. This was all considered The next step was to refine the general mes-"free" promotion for the products, based on sage of sexual responsibility to a specific mes-their commercial viability. sage, one that young people would iisien (0Marketing Plans Widened and that would not offend others. Feedback Support for a larger marketing plan came frominstitutionsthroughouttheregion from an unexpected source. EMI Capitol, the showed that responsible sexuality is a very record company for Tatiana, the female singer, sensitive subject both for young people andwanted to put the two songs on her next album for the whole community Messages had to bewhich would be launched simultaneously with acceptable to the social, cultural, and religious this project. A major multinational recording values of the cointries and to the require- company was willing to put its prestige and the ments of the mass media. skills of its marketing and promotion depart- Focus groups with young people indicatedments behind a social communication project! that youth would listen to the following mes-As a result, radio stations would feel they were sages: 1) young people should be sexually re-not taking any risks by playing a song with a sponsible for their actions; 2) it's OK to saysocial purpose, they would consider that these 'no,' that is, the concept of postponing sex;materials were commercial products with a 3) young men as well as women should besocial message incorporated into them. This sexually responsible; 4) young people can gowas the very concept that we were trying to to specific identified places for professionalpromote. The record company's support also counseling or guidance; and 5) positive rolemade the materials more available because models are helpful for young people whothey could be sold through a vast commercial want to be responsible. network, not just through the institutions we Once the messages were developed, we hadwere working with. to find persuasive messengers. The concept of The marketing of what became known as youth speaking to youth about sexuality hasthe "Tatiana & Johnny Project"included been demonstrated to be most convincing. sending: Thus, with the help of professional recording copies of the record to 3,020 radio companies, JHU/PCS and FFI looked for young stations, singers who were commercially successful, copies of the record and music videos to who believed in the concept of responsible 250 television stations, sexuality, and who wanted to participate in this press kits to 350 newspapers, magazines, type of project The final selections were and journals, Tatiana, a young Mexican woman who is rapid- brochures about the project to 3,500 ly developing into a commercial star, and media representatives throughout the Johnny, a young Puerto Rican man who was region, previously with the most popular young Latin seven bimonthly press releases to radio, International Division American singing group, Menudo. television, and press personnel through- Once the artists and the messages had been out the region. identified, a contest was held for the music and (Continued on page 3)

Development Communication Report / Spring 198650 At the same timeJHU/PCS, through FFI, con- The song is also becoming a commercial hit tracted with trey radio stations in the 11 coun- in other countries. As of March 1986, the local tries to broadcast the two radio spots (com-institutions reported that letters and requestsMaking an merdals) developed for the campaign. No for their services increased anywhere from funds were available for broadcasting the tele- 200 percent to 2,000 percent, all within two toAgricultural Video vision spots that were developed, as the cost is four weeks of initial promotion. This increase exorbitant It was hoped that local institutions occurred before direct local institutional pro-by Melissa Bedc-Yazmau could persuade stations to allot some free time motion began. In addition, the radio stations to show them. The first spot promoted eachand the record company have received calls Winrock International Institute fo Agricul- song. The second spot also included a message and letters of thanks from young people. tural Development, a nonprofit organization at the end linking each institution in the 11 committed to agricultural and rural develop- countries to the Tadana and Johnny materials, Lessons fur the Future ment, has been involved in video production and inviting young people to call, write, or visit Several lessons have been learned from this since 1976. We have focused on agricultural these institutions for addtional guidance or project that can guide future social develop- education and training, information dissemi- counseling about sexuality. ment communication projects. nation, and promotion of appropriate agricul- The local institutions were provided with tural techniques initially in the U.S., and now copies of the 45 rpm record to give away to 1. Choose the most appropriate medium to increasingly in developing countries. promote activities with young people. Since reach the intended audience, in this case, At the request of control Data Corporation we thought the selected institutions would be popular music. (CDC), Winrock International produced an ed- the only source of the single record, we hoped 2. Enlist professionals experienced in the ucational course, Dual-purpose Goat Manage- young people would be attracted to it and want chosen medium to be sure of the best ment Series, for Caribbean and potentially for the record. The local institutions were encour- available resources, both human and Latin American countries which offers a series aged to give the record only to these whom material. of nine videos on basic goat husbandry. The they felt were truly interested in this theme 3. Develop a high-quality product that will audience was to be agricultural extension and to set up contests, focus groups, call-ins attract the commercial sector. Commer- agents and farmers in these two regions who with radio stations, and other promotional ac- cial support for a social message defrays would learn how to improve milk and meat tivities. They also were urged to work with the expenses, assures wider dissemination of production from goats. record company representative in their areas the message, and may generate income to develop joint activities. for program expansion. Site Selection EMI Capitol agreed to payJHU/PCS royalties 4. Use a medium, in this case popular music, The video was filmed in Haiti and Mexico. for the right to use the two project songs as which has a big regional and national au- These locations were chosen for two reasons. part of its commercial distribution of Tatiana's dience. This enables a large-scale project First, they are representative of the environ- record. This provides more promotion and to draw on resources not readily available ment of the primary (English-speaking Carib- visibility for the messages as well as income to to a local organization working alone and bean) and secondary (Latin American) target be reinvested in further activities for young brings additional attention to the project audiences. Secondly, Winrock had contacts in people in the region. because of its international scope. both Haiti and Mexico who could serve as hosts and counterparts for the production Enthusiastic Reception JHU/PCS worked closely with FFI and local team. Initial reaction to the project has been over- institutions to ensure that the products of this Winrock's Goat Improvement Project in Hai- whelming. In Mexico, even before the first project would be responsible and socially ac- ti provided an excellent Caribbean location, song was launched, the most popular live tele- ceptable. Mixing the commercial and social with local farm workers who were available vision variety programreaching some 150 sectors worked in this case because bothfor on-camera talent, and a project manager million people every Sunday asked to pre- groups cooperated to achieve the results each who also served as the customs liaison, logis- miere the first video. Immediately, the song wanted while respecting the interests andtics coordinator, and interpreter. In Mexico, was enthusiastically accepted by young people needs of the other. professional contacts through Winrock led us and radio stations. Our initial calculation of to a veterinarian who teaches at a university in three radio broadcasts per day was far short of Patrick L. Coleman is Project Director of Popu- Mexico City and owns a goat farm. He provid- reality which sometimes reaches 15 to 20 kition Communication Services, he Johnsed the location, talent, and subject-matter broadcasts daily. Monitoring by record compa- Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. He expertise at this site. Local farmers and exten- nies and radio stations in Mexico shows that has worked in social development communi- sion workers in both countries were eager to the song was number one on the hit parade cation for more than 12 years, primarily in cooperate as on-camera talent. within six weeks after its Latin America. Preproduction Considerations We faced different preproduction problems in each country. In Haiti, we were able to bring in our own equipment and personnel. In Mex- ico, however, the customs procedures proved so complex that we risked having our equipment impounded. To avoid this, we rented video equipment in Mexico City where both equipment and trained video specialists are readily available. Scouting the selected locations prior to the actual filming gave us the chance to carefully Tatiana plan the scenes we would take at each location. We were also able to get information on trans- and Johnny portation, equipment rental, reliable battery performing supplies, housing accommodations, and other preproduction concerns. in the music video Script Development The narration for the videos was fully script- Detente. ed which allowed for the possible future dub- (Continued on page 4)

Flevelopment Communication Report / Spring 1986 3 (Beck-Yazmancontinued from page3) Video: A Development bing of a second language without editing the video again. Since the primary audience lives Tool for Women in the English-speaking Caribbean, a narrator with a West Indian accent was selected. by Deborah Mobs When we make a video in one language only, a formal script is not prepared. Instead, '7be New Decade' will see women over. We shared experiences and explored how an outline and storyboard are developed, but come their lack of cio,,rience wits the me- women could benefit more from this technol- the "narration" is obtained from interviews dia technology, realize its potential, and ogy. At these meetings it was also decided to which are then edited and merged to create use it to improve their social and economic hold a workshop at theNGO Forum '85,which the message. For example, farmers are asked condition." Heather Royes, PhD, Jamaica met concurrently with theUN Decade Confer- que dons that are designed to elicit specific ence on Womenin Nairobi. A report generated types of answers; the result is farmers teaching For nearly 40 years, OEF International (for- from the meetings preceding the Forum in- farmers. While using nonprofessional talent is merly Overseas Education Fund) has been cludes case examples, advantages, and obsta- risky business not all farmers have widen working in developing countries, training cles to using video for women in development voices we have had remarkably good luck. low-income women to turn simple skills and programs, some of which are summarized Generally, they are relaxed and readily discuss local resources into income-producing busi- below. topics familiar to them. ness enterprises. OEF also develops and field- Advantages Since Winrock has in-house production fa- tests unique training methodologies focused 1. Video can be used at convenient times cilities and uses a small crew, costs for video on the needs of these women. and places. projects have averaged $300 to $600 per fin- Based on its investigation of the use of vari- 2. Video is effective with illiterate or multi- ished minute. The production crew usually ous communication technologies to resolve a lingual groups. consists of just a videographer, either a writer wide range of development problems, OEF 3. Video can bridge cultural differences, or anaudio tecimidan, and asubject- has concluded that video offers a novel oppor- helping women to share common con- matter expert. Working with such a small crew tunity for women to become more active par- cerns and goals. requirescarefulplanning andflexibility ticipants in program design, development, 4. Video facilitates group discussion, moti- among those involved. 'Ale video specialist implementation, and evaluation. Current pro- vating women to work together and to and subject-matter specialist must have an un- grams throughout the developing world are organize for community development. derstanding of each other's expertise, trust successfully using video to increase women's 5. Video boosts women's self-confidence each other, and be aware of their responsibil- participation in soda) and economic develop- and encourages their self-development. ities from the outset. ment. OEF found that the potential of video for 6. Video facilitates communication between women is clear in areas such as instructional funders and women beneficiaries. Fine Distribution modules in small enterprise development and 7. Video simplifies technical information Control Data has responsibility for film dis- group organization; presentation of training and improves comprehension of such tribution and field testing of theGoat Manage- techniques for working with women; analysis materials. ment Series.Although the evaluation results and evaluation of training techniques in the 8. Video can be a cost-effective training tool. have not yet been released, Winrock staff has field; integration of women beneficiaries in used the series in workshops and seminars Obstades to Video Use project evaluation; use of video equipment as a and, so far, feedback has been positive. Most of 1. Electric power is often lacking or erratic communication tool by women themselves; in developing countries. our videos are handled by the donor agency marketing and fund raising; and the motivation since Winrock does not have the staff or re- 2. The communicationcomponentsof and mobilization of women to implement sources to duplicate and distribute what it women's projects are poorly funded. their own community and business enterprise produces. 3. Technical training is lacking, particularly development for women. Although there are unique problems associated with using video in developing countries, Planning the Program 4. Spare parts for video equipment are difficult to find in developing countries. this rapidly evolving technology has already In July 1985, with funding from the Women proven itself to be an extremely popular and 5. Compatability of video standards and for- in Development Office of the U.S. Agency for effectivetoolfor transferringagricultural International Development and the Kun- mats between organizations and countries is poor. technology. stacker Family Foundation, OEF convened a 6. Importation restrictions and theftof meeting in Nairobi, Kenya to discuss video as a Melissa Beck-Yarman bas been a communica- equipment in developing countries ag- development tool for women. Women with a tions specialist for Winrock International for gravate the equip.ent shortage. wide spectrum of experience in the use of five years 7. Cost of equipment is high when com- video to: development joined in. Representa- pared to slidetapes, flannelboards, and tion ranged from the sophisticated Food and radio. Agricultural Organizationsupporting agri- 8. Videoisoften .cultural training programs that use integrated controlled by urban "elites" or foreign organizations. communication systems featuring video, to Video Education Articles simple, yet effective uses of video in Nepal for The advantages far outweigh the obstacles project evaluation featuring interviews with for women using video when considering the Direct,a bimonthly bulletin published in women beneficiaries. opportunity it gives them to control a me- French by ACCT (Agence de Cooperation Cul- Participants included Subhadra Belbase of dium and to communicate with each other turelle et Technique), supplies its readers with Nepal, Ayesha Imam of Nigeria, Sima Wali, an across cultural,linguistic, and geographic current information on various applications of Afghan refugee in the U.S., Clara de Souze of boundaries. educational technologies worldwide. A recent Peru, Georgina Aviles Marin of Mexico, Elma To obtain OEF's 40-page report, issue (#6/1985), focuses on educational video, Lisk-Anani of Sierra Leone, Heather Royes of Video Tech- nology Applications for Development Projects with articles on topics such as the best uses of Jamaica, as well as Xaio Chun-Lin from the Designed to Benefit Women, audiovisuals in education; descriptions of the People's Republic of China who had learned send a US$7.50 check payable to OEF International, 2101 L different educational video hardware now video production from the late Martha Stuart, Street, N.W., #916, Washington, D.C. 20037, available; the evolution of video training; and widely recognized for having successfully put USA. Please add 20 percent to cover airmail the strained relationship between the peda- video technology in the hands of hundreds of costs where appropriate. gogical and technical aspects of educational women throughout the developing world video production. This and other issues ofDl- (See "Video in the Village" elsewhere in this Deborah Ziska is Director of Media and Video reaare available from : ACCT, 13, Quai Andre issue.) Projects, OEF International. Critoen, 75015 Paris, France.

Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 Taking Videoon the Road in the Philippines

WAN' B. Andersen and In a follow-up study in 1981 in the same developmen of training materials that AnH. MacDougall villages, improvements in nutritionalstatus provide active participation of the learner and continued, with an additional 17 percent de- frequent opportunities for positive feedback crease in moderate to severe malnutrition and to increase learning and foster self-reliance; The experiences of the Nutrition Center of a 12 percent increase in mild m.ilnutrition to emphasis on communicating through re- the Philippines (NCP) suggest that the effec-normal nutrition. Similar results were ob- alistic visuals, dveness of development communication cantained in another impact study of 48 rural vil- careful pretesting and revision of draft benefit from a systematic approach and thelages receiving the same intervention in anoth- materials until they are effective in bringing evolution of "high-tech" into appropriateer part of the Philippines with measures taken about the changes sought; technologV. in 1981, 1982, and 1983. periodic, statistical field evaluations. It was ten years ago that the Nutrition Cente.: Careful accounting was done on all ex- The development process outlined above is of the Philippines decided to test video-vans penses related to the program in 1981. man- guided by a series of worksheets and aids that (vehicles containing video playback equip-agement, field personnel, training of field per- help the Nutrition Center staff perform each -, ment that are driven to communities to pro-sonnel, development of videotapes and other step, after they have completed a ten-week mote social programs through videotapes) as materials, and daily operating expenses, as training program. To deal with the problem of key component of their nutrition program forwell as a five-year depreciation allocation for turnover among trained staff and provide qual- preschool children. After a two-year pilotpro - video playback equipment and vehicles. ity control and consistency of what is taught, ject demonstrated effectiveness in experimen- It is difficult to make comparisons between microcomputer-based tutorial programs are tal versus control villages, theprogram wasstudies regarding cost-effectiveness. Calcula- implemented in critical areas nationwide. being developed to teach the use of the 'ABC tion standards differ, meth( and measure- Model" to each new person. Continuing evaluation has shown not onlyment definitions differ, as do sample sizes, Ail audience analysis, design, development, where improvements are needed, but alsoa price data, and cost of materials depending on and production of the videotapes is done by persistent success in increasing mothers' nu-seasonal and yearly changes. Nevertheless, NCP staff Topics include growth monitoring, trition- related knowledge and improvingpre-some data has been compiled for comparative oral rehydration therapy, breastfeeding, im- schoolers' nutritional status. Cost-effectivenesspurposes from programs similar to the Nutri- Studies have indicated that these improve- munization, family planning, and nutrition. Bus project: mass media and mass media with Tapes are shot either on location or in a small ments have apparently been accomplished at a local workers. One example is from a 1981 studio at NCP and produced in six dialects The cost comparable to or less than other types ofmass media nutrition education project also studio has two complete, portable 3/4-inch fed interventions that have such data implemented in the Philippines.Per-child U-matic systems with cameras and an editing costs per year where mothers' reports indicat- Impact Evaluadon system. Half-inch playback machines are used ed positive changes in nutritional practices for the video-vans. In 1979, a comparative study was madecame to US$15-$29; whereas the Nutri-Bus among rural villages: with no interventionproject calculated 'US$5 per-year, per-child Informadon and Feedback System (comparison group); with only a village nutri-cost where mothers reported similar changes After the systematic development and pro- tion worker (BNS-only group); with a village in nutritional practices. duction of the video modules, a fleet of Jeep- nutrition worker and short exposure to the type vans (called Nutri-Buses) regularly visits video-vans (VIM group); and with a village the villages Each van is equipped with a Di nutrition worker and longer exposure to the monitor, Betamax player, and public address video-vans (vriu. group) Results comparing system. A driver-technician operates and main- these groups showed significant differences tains the vehicle and the audiovideo equip- related to amount of intervention. For exam- ment. A "communicator," who is a registered ple, mothers in the VIM group were 55 per- nurse with one month's training in communi- cent more likely than mothers in the compari- cation techniques and community organiza- son group to describe feeding their children tion, rides each van. She pauses the tape at meals containing items from all three basic designated points, using the loudspeaker sys- food groups recommended in the videos.Commtmiatdon Model tem to encourage discussion and decisions Mothers in the VTR group were nearly five Major factors in the success of the Philippine from the viewers She provides feedback and _times more likely than mothers in the BNS- program are certainly the abilities, talents, and reinforcement during these discussions and only group to name "Nutri-Pak" (a locally pro- dedication of the Nutrition Center staff and solicits comments about the videotape She duced food supplement providing 50 percent management. Another factor that may help ac- also 's Nutri-Pak, at a nominal price, after of the daily required protein and 30 percent ofcount for the continuing success of this inter- the video showing Nutri-Pak is produced by the calories) as a good snack food for their vention model is the use of the "ABC Model for the Nutrition Center and priced to cover oper- children. They were 71 percent more likely to Developing Communication to Change Behav- ating costs. correctly describe the features and benefits toior." This model utilizes a systematic process With equipment, vans, and personnel de- their children of "Nutri-Pak" as it was present-of developing communication materials built ployed from one end of the Philippines to the ed by the village workers and videos. Thereupon the: other, it was clear that innovations would be were also significant differences in child nutri- analysis of the abilities, experiences, be- necessary to keep the vans running on sched- tional status consistent with amount of inter- liefs, customs, current practices and prefer- ule, the video equipment in good working or- vention. For example, regarding percent stan-ences of the audience (mothers of preschool dard weight for der, videotapes reflective of local needs, sup- age, using the Harvard children); plies available, and the personnel motivated standards and the "Gomez Classification" and explicit specification of the behaviors or To deal with this challenge, a unique informa- comparing VIM to BNS-only, the VITCL group skills mothers need in order to improve the eshowee 25 percent less moderate-to-severe tion gathering and feedback system has been nutritional status of theft children; developed and tested. During village visits the mahtutk Rion and 29 percent more mild maln.4- definition of how much behavior change communicator records on a preprinted check- ,Iridon-to-normal nutrition. The average num- of each type will constitute a worthwhile level vber of children weighed per group was 506. list, information about the village, arrival and of effect; departure time, audience size, audience inter- This demonstrated success of the video-van analysis of each behavior or skill sought ,concept gained support of donor agencies action responses, video playback quality, Nu- and how the mothers can best be helped to tri-Pak sales' date, and materials distributed to Vtfti supplied 30 more vans. learn to make the necessary changes; (Continued on page 6) 5 3_ Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 5 LLIndtrem eawaseed from page 5) the village nutrition/health waiter. A new ac- can now carry out the managerial cycle of plan- IPDC Update dvity, added since the last impact evaluation ning, implementing, and evaluating the pro- study, is a counseling interview by the commu- ject's overall viability and its individual compo- nicator with two mothers of malnourished nents internally, and also report to external A Daily Newspaper for The Gambia children in each village. This allows the com- funders and agencies. A daily newspaper in The Gambia is now a municator to gather monthly information A carefully controlled, one-year pilot stud; reality thanks to support from Unesco's Special which includes child's weight data, mother's using a similar video-van approach was done Fund, the International Programme for the De- interview answers, household observations, in rural Thailand. Significant differences were velopment of Communiar ion (IPDC). Replac- and advised nutrition and health care ac-found in nutritional status between experi- ing a weekly, Gambia News Bulletin, the inau- dons. The data gathered by the communicator mental and control groups as well as differ- guration of a daily paper in November 1985 on her two households per village per month ences regarding knowledge and reported was preceded by a one-month training course isalso entered on a special preprinted practices, especially for breastfeeding. The for 12 local journalists and the installation of cheddist. Thai project will be reported in a future issue offset printing equipment. The paper will re- At the end of each month the communicator of DCR. ceive stories from the Gambia News Agency working in the provinces sends her completed For further information about this project which was recently installed as part of the forms to Manila. Throughout the archipelago write to: Development Communications Con- West/Central African New Agencies Develop- of the Philippines there are currently 60 com- sultants, P.O. Box 515, Oyster Bay, New York ment (WANAD) network. This US$2,500,000 municators who each cover 40-45 villages per 11771, USA. project, a joint effort by the Federal Republic of month They reach 5,400 targeted children in Germany and Unesco, enables news collection 2,700 villages, resulting in 8,100 cheddists con-Jean E. Andersen is president of Development and dissemination, particularly between urban taining a wealth of information about the pop- Communications Consultants (DCC) and pe- and rural areas, in eight countries (Benin, Con- ulation in the provinces that would not previ- dalizes in communication for behavior go, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, ously have been easily accessible. Upon arrival change. and Nigeria) with a combined population of in the capital, the pencil-coded information on 115 million people. WANAD, in turn, will pro- the cheddists is read by an inexpensive op- Anita H. MacDougall is vice president of DCC and pecklizes in management information vide a solid foundation for the Dakar -based tical mark-reading machine connected to a Pan African News Agency (PANA) for news ex- microcomputer. systems. change throughout the continent and with The information produced by this system agencies outside the region. has gently improved the project and its day- (Reprinted from Unesco: Facts and Figures No to-day administration. Village communicators 7, Oct/Dec 1985) send the mothers' interview responses to the project managers who generate computerized Broadcast Training in the Pacific summaries of this information. This is then Development Seminar Another collaborative effort between IPDC shared with the communicator. This cycling of and a Federal Republic of Germany founda- information enables a level of communication tion, Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES), will soon and support that can address the needs of the Offered provide training for broadcasters from the mothers and the workers in the provinces. South Pacific island nations of Papua New Software used in the program is a mixture of Guinea, Western Samoa, and Fiji. custom and off-the-shelf packaged programs. The University of Minnesota is offering its This US$1,200,000 project, with training Hardware used is a team of Apple II and Macin- annual Development Project Evaluation Semi- provided by the Pacific Broadcasting and De- tosh computers. nar from September15-26,1986.This velopment Project (PACBOARD), calls for the Several levels of monthly feedback letters two-week course focuses on a practical ap- establishment of subregional training bases and reports are generated by the computers, proach to project evaluation. Through presen- using already-existing national facilities to including information on previous months for tations, training exercises, case analyses, and train skilled personnel to plan, manage, and comparison, and then provided to: group interaction, participants will consider operate broadcasting networks oriented to de- evaluation approaches and strategies for estab- velopment goals in the Pacific Island States. the communicatora summary of per- lishing evaluations useful to decision-makers formance data plus computer-generated mes- The cost is US$2200 for courses and lodging sages congratulating good performance and Meals and transportation are extra. For more Call for Papers suggesting performance improvements; em- information contact Fred Hoefer, 405 Coffey phasis is on providing support and informa- Hall, University of Minnesota, 1420 Eckles Ave , The Fifth World Telecommunication Fo- tion to improve the nutritional status of the St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA. children; rum, Part 2, Technical Symposium is sched- the communicator's supervisora graph- uled for October 22-27, 1987, in Geneva, Swit- ic summary of the communicator team's per- zerland.Thisinternationalgatheringof formance, allowing rapid comparison of com- professional engineering societies has been municator performance; overall area summary organized by the International Telecommuni- data are also preser. ad; cation Union and will be held in the frame- middle managementcopies of an indi- work of TELECOM 87. The forum theme is vidual communicator's letters and area prog- Telecommunication Services for a World of ress reports which can be used to guide sup- Nations. A limited number of papers will be port to the area coordinator, communicator, accepted for presentation. They must be un- mothers and children through training, re- published and based on original research, de- cruiting, materials development or program velopments, and approaches carried out in the revisions; period between TELECOM 83 and TELECOM senior management;raphs of perform- 87, and should be about new equipment, sys- ance across areas, plus a database which can be tems, networks, or services. The submission queried regarding the trend of the children's deadline for the initial summary paper is Sep- nutritional status, diseases prevalent, mothers' tember 1, 1986. nutrition and health care knowledge, frequen For a description of technical subject areas cy of videotapes shown, effectiveness of tne and guidelines in preparing the summary videotapes, reasons why visits were not con- write to: FORUM 87 Secretariat, International ducted, food supplement sold and other activi- Telecommunication Union, CH-1211 Geneva ties of the communicator. Senior management 20, Switzerland.

6 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 vegetable vendor, a photographer, and a car- penter, as well as several top SEWA leaders. Video in the Village The training workshop was an unqualified success and resulted in the formation of a cooperative called Video SEWA. Benefits have already by Sera Swot realized that the video was in their language been realized from the cooperative. For exam- and that it reflected their reality, they were ple, one of its video programs about a dispute t fbst we were very afraid of these videoeager to participate. In response to the chal- between small scale vegetable vendors and the machines. Now we almost love tbem,"lenge regarding the appropriateness of this city, was shown to a municipal leader and con- lallabon Datania, vegetabk vendor andsophisticated and expensive technology to tributed to an equitable resolution. This mu- member of the Ser-Employed Women's AsMali, Mme. Dembele once said, "True, with the nicipal leader had never really listened to (SEWA Abstetkba4 India. money it costs to buy this equipment we could these women behre and probably never For more than ten years, Martha Stuart Com-dig ten wells, but with this equipment we can would have if not v.a videotape. The vegetable munications, Inc. has trained literacy teachers,organize 100 villagers to dig their own wells vendors themselves would not have spoken women's organizers, scientists, and family freely and forcefully to a city official but could planning workers in developing counties toIndia's Success do so to the impersonal video camera use video. Their videos on topics such as a SEWA, the Self-Employed Women's Associa- village that is energy self-suffident, a commu-tion, is a trade union for poor self-employed The Video challenge nity health center, the child labor issue, and awomen in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India More women's cooperative are shown in communi-than 24,000 street vendors, small-scale produc- Interaction between television and video ties to exchange experiences and to promoteers, and laborers are members of SEWA. The has been a positive and productive experience local development. organization provides its members with skills especially for the Malian and Indian video training and cooperative mechanisms to aid in teams. In Mali, video was introduced in ad- Ma Tries Video the production and marketing of goods, as vance of television's arrival in the country rath- Two projects, one in Mali and the other inwell as child care, life insurance, and maternity er than in reaction toit.Fortunately, the India, illustrate the possibilities in this kind ofbenefits. It advocates women's rights before DNAFLA video team was well established and local-level approach under quite different cir-the authorities and operates SEWA Bank, a co- respected prior to television's advent. As a re- cumstances. In Mali, as part of a rural women'soperative bank that extends credit to self- sult, Malian Television requests DNAFLA's de- literacy project funded by the United Nationsemployed women. SEWA has become a model velopment-related programs for broadcast. Fund for Population Activities with technicalself-help organization and is extending its ac- DNAFLA continues to reach an audience not assistance from Unesco, a video team wastivities into rural areas and to other states. served now and not likely to be served by TV equipped and trained a; the National Depart- In 1984, with funding from the U.S. Agency for quite some time. In the case of India, televi- ment for Functional Literacy and Applied Lin-for International Development, twenty mem- sion represents an important potential market guistics ( DNAFLA). The literacy project beganbers of SEWA were trained to use video equip- for Video SEWA's programs. in 30 villages and has since grown to morement; a second workshop on editing is sched- Self-directed community-to-community de- than 60 villages in three regions. While teach-uled for later this year. Video training assisted velopment communication can succeed dra- ing literacy, they also give information andSEWA at a time when the organization was matically and can contribute to real improve- training on infant nutrition and health care,growing rapidly in numbers and scope. It has ment and change through human exchange. income generating activities, and marketingenabled SEWA's leaders to save time by using However, this is sometimes perceived as a loss skills. videos to explain their work, to communicate of controla loss of power or authority by Of the fifteen video workshop participants,effectively across distances, and to organize government leaders. This is when it is crucial there were Ave women who organize villagemore effectively. to have support and a clear understanding of literacy classes and train adult literacy teach- One-third of the video workshop partici- programming aims by leaders on several lev- ers, and ten male "technicians." None of them pants were illiterate and another third had less els. Both DNAFLA and SEWA were able to gar- had had any experience with video, although athan a high school education. They included ner this kind of very necessary support. few had film experience. They have grown intowomen of all ages, Hindus and Moslems, a (Continued on page 8) an effective and committed video team that travels for weeks from village to village, making tapes and then playing them back in other villages. They take along one video camera, a portable recorder, batteries, the necessary ca- bles and microphones, a generator, and a large monitor. The video team tapes exemplary literacy classes that are then shown in other villages,

either to supplement classes where there are 4 no teachers or to help train teachers. Tapes for as discussion topics in classes can be made in local languages or with French voice-overs. One video recorded a day care center, another a malaria clinic describes symptoms and tl treatment, followed by mothers giving their children preventive medication. At the UN Decade Conference on Women in Nairobi, the head of the rural women's literacy program in Mali, Mme. Dembele, described some of the successes she attributed to video. Many women did not or were not allowed to attend the one-week literacy training program 14. in a neighboring town. But after their villagers saw the video tapes of the women who were just like themselves aiit had participated in the training, the following years all the women A literacy days In Mall s videotaped for use in other villages Vended. Once the women it the 60 villages 55 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 7 ,=ummmumum..==1111MMINIIM, (Stuartcontinued from page 7)

Equipment

Maintenance and repair are no longer the issues they once were. In pre-television Mali, there was a lack of local repair expertise, test equipment, and spare parts. Once when an editing deck broke down, it had to be returned to the factory in Tokyo. Despite this setback, DNAFLA's video team operated successfully for three years with only one camera and one portable deck. Since then, they have received additional equipment With the advent of Malian television in 1984, service and repair have become more accessible. Video SEWA has required only one minor adjustment on their equipment In Ahmedabad, there are adequate repair and maintenance facilities and they are well supplied with spare parts. When operated by teams who have been carefully and thoroughly trained, 3/4-inch, low-band video equipment has proven to be reliable, sturdy, and able to function in a wide range of climates. It also produces broadcasts with quality similar to that of cable television in the USA. The teams trained by Martha Stuart Communications, Inc. over the past eight years have been equipped with basic 3/4-inch production and editing equipment, a generator and multi-standard playback equipment, to facilitate exchange of programs, and to make them locally on 1/2-inch, either VHS or Beta While video technology is changing rapidly, this configuration continues to meet the goals ofreliable,durable, andeasy-to-operate equipment which affords high quality and flexibility over several generations of a standard conversion.

Spreading the Word

The Village Video Network, co-sponsored by the United Nations University and Martha Stuart Communications, :etc., was founded at a meeting in Bamako, Mali i i 1982. The found- ing members come from many backgrounds and 14 countries. They established the network to promote video as a tool in support of development and to facilitate the exchange of tapes between people who are involved infindingsolutionstocommunity-level problems. Small-format video has many useful qualities. It is easy to use, functioning equally well in the heat and dust of India and in the wind and snow of northern Quebec. The equipment is durable and tape stock is reusable. There are no processing charges. Immediate playback Appro to Te logy Mini-Library Continuing capability gives the users flexibility to revise on the spot to fit their needs, and to show the TRANET, the Transnational Network for Ap- country. The collection contains appropriate same material again and again. With video, propriate/ Alternative Technology in Rangeley, technology materials in food production, ani- there are no literacy hurdles Most important- Maine, hasreceived renewed funding of mal nusbandry, housing, home and farm tech- ly, video teams can travel directly from place to US$8,000 from Unesco to ship its mini-library niques, village crafts and industries, energy, place, unburdened by the need to return to a on appropriate technology to ten more devel- transportation, health, and nonformal educa- central clearinghouse, laboratory, or manufac- oping countries. tion Most are do-it-yourself manuals, some are turing center. This freedom reinforces a com- These one hundred-volume conventional li- general resource guides, and others deal with munication process that helps individuals and braries will go to institutions in Botswana, Pa- concepts of appropriate technology, participa- communities to extend the reach of their pua New Guinea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, tory development, and localself-reliance. voices. Sudan, the Yemen People's Democratic Re- TRANET has also developed a 25-volume ener- public, and Zimbabwe, bringing the total to 79 gy supplement to the basic library Sara Stuart is the president of Martha Stuart libraries shipped since 1980. For more information contact Janet Wilcox, Communications, Inc., New York and coordi- Each library consists of 100 core books suit- TRANET, P 0 Box 567, Rangeley, Maine 04970, nator of the Village Video Network. able for a technical library in a developing USA

8 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 56 I was fortunate to be in a position where I could speak to the President of the Maldives Experience Teaafing about some of the observations I had made and of how to best upgrade their broadcasting capability. He took a personal interest in the Video in the Maldives TV stationand encouragedconstructive changes. He welcomed suggestions that there by Doe Marx be more development-oriented material on 1V, and that the station carry more educational programming. He also felt that while it is the role of TV to deliver government messages to When I learned that I had received a four fore the camera. There also was a poorly pro- the citizens, it could also serve as a channel for month position as a United Nations Develop-duced half-hour educational program that pre- citizens to send messages to the government. ment Program television consultant in the Mal-pared students for their Junior Certificate While I was there, a number of changes I divesa tiny Islamic island nation with a pop-exams. A ten-minute summary of international recommended were enacted, including the ulation of only 180,000, west of Sri Lanka in thenews was taken from the satellite and broad- hiring of three new producers. One of those Indian Ocean I searched for literature aboutcast a day later along with five minutes of local was the first woman employed in any capacity it and the conditions under which I would benews. Most original material was prepared in at the station. Program changes were also cus- working. The terms of reference used a lot of Dhivehi, the local language, although some of cussed. These included efforts to get the sta- words that added up to one mighty cry ofthe news and educational programs were in tion to carry more local cultural, educational, "Help!" English. My assignment was to teach video ptoduc- and entertainment programming. The Presi- don skills at a IV station, something I had doneTraining Preparadons dent's Office also prepared a position paper during a two and one-half year consultancy in My job was complicated by the fact that the on the role that the 1v station should play in Zimbabwe. I arrived in country with some pro-staff had v try diverse backgrounds, educa- encouraging a more effective use of the medium. duction textbooks, my trusty copy of Herberttions, and levels of interest. As Maldivian tend Zetd's Se unt4 Motion, and my fingersto be very direct and independent, some The Rewards crossed. My arrival was cause for some inter-promptly announced they already Knew what I It was particularly rewarding watching eager . est; the TV station thought they had selected ahad to say, and therefore did not need to at- man my name having caused the confusion. Itend my sessions. After discussions with the students improve significantly during the was concerned how they would relate to aDirector of Information and Broadcasting and training period. Trainers and trainees alike woman, but did not find it as difficult as I hadthe TV station managers, it was decided I feel rewarded when results of their efforts are feared. The Maldivian came to accept me as anshould concentrate on preproduction training immediately apparent. All too often, video American who could teach them things aboutand give basic technical and camera tech- courses consist of only technical skills training. There is great value in teaching substantive television that they wanted to learn. nique training to cameramen and technicians. production skills so that not only is the camera Gasses for producers included program plan- 1V Maldives ning, selecting appropriate production loca- in focus, but the content is mean.ngful as well. TV Maldives (1VM) broadcasts almost exclu-tions, choosing performers, writing program For this reason, identifying the audience and learning how to tell a story in a visually enter- sively for the capital city of Male, with a popula-and story outlines, and solving production taining way must also be part of training. These tion of 40,000. There are four and one-halfproblems. hours of programming daily from 4:30 p.m. Other staff members were to receive in-skills will translate into better use of video, whether it is for delivery of national news, a to 9 p.m. Approximately one hour of thesestructions on appropriate technical topics such development message, a formal educational programs is generated locally. The remainingas camera lenses, angles, and movement, and program, or for entertainment shows. materials are free documentariesbasic rules of composition. I also tried to en- froin Western count.'. The station alsocourage better shooting habits, such as using a Doe Mayer is a video consultant who appreci- broadcasts English- ano Hindi-language fea-tripod and specialized microphones. ates achallenge whetherit is in the United ture films that come in VHS format from local States in adevelopingcountry. video clubs. These are usually fifth or sixthProduction Constraints generation (duplicate copies) of tapes that are Producing good programming in the Mal- often low quality and in poor condition. (Thedives is a challenging task. It is difficult to find Microcomputers in Maldives, like many other developing coun-rooms large enough for production purposes. tries, does not recognize copyright laws im-Filming out-of-doors in the capital city (where Development Workshop posed by other countries.) Also, there nevermost local productions are made) is always a had been a general broadcast policy estab-challenge because of the high noise level. Out- Stanford University's Food Research Insti- lished, either by the station managment or bydoor filming quality also suffers from the glare tute is conducting a workshop on Microcom- the government. Broadcasting ended eachcreated by the sun and white sand. Anotherputers in Development for people without evening at 9 p.m., at which time local movieproblem is finding Maldivian, trained or un- previous microcomputer experience who theaters opened their doors. Apparently, theretrained, who are comfortable in front of thewish to gain a broad overview of the technol- was a tacit agreemtn to limit competition be-camera, as most islanders are very camera shy.ogy, and to develop skills in the use of selected tween television and commercial theaters. My major frustration was not being able to commercial software packages. A combination The production staff at the station consisteddiscuss program content; this was not part of of "hands-on" sessions and presentations of of two full-time producers, two assistant pro-my mandate. It is very difficult to upgrade case studies on microcomputer applications ducers, six cameramen and assistants, and aoverall production skills without considering will give participants working knowledge of number of technicians. The technicians han-program content. I eventually was able to dis- the latest computer software and hardware, dled sound as well as broadcast transmissioncuss the subject informally once I had estab-and insight into problems of project appraisal equipment. The all-male production staff hadlished a good rapport with my Maldivian and project management. received some technical training, mostly out-superiors. The four-week session costs US$2750; hous- side of the Maldives, but had little or no pro- Besides the formal classes, I ran informal ing and meals are pot included but can be dudon training. The Japanese had given themone-on-one sessions with some of the staffprovided upon request. The workshop is I imit- broadcast equipment and a studio, but littlemembers. Together, we analyzed their worked to 3C participants. Native French and Span- attention was paid to program content or toand discussed how to solve their particularish speakers will be on the instruction team. developi..g a cohesive broadcast plan. problems. I believe this is a critical part of Registration ends June 30, 1986. For informa- The only locally produced programs weretraining, but it works only with those who are tion contact Carl H. Gotsch, Food Research, children's shows in which students came intopersonally motivated and willing to bring in Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, Califor- the studio to sing, dance, and tell stories be-their material for examination. 5 nia 94305, USA.

Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 9 A Communicator's Checklist

Television for Development: McLellan believes that television could justi- The New Media: Communica- The African Experience by lain fy its costs if used for development, but that tion, Research, and Technol- McLellan (L ttawa: Internation-would require integration and coordinatior ogy, by Ronald E. Rice and Asso- 1al Development Research Centre, with other development efforts. Decentral- ciates(Beverly Hilts:Sage Pub- 1986) 156pp. ized,localtelevisionas a development lications, 1984) 408pp. Television has been called the "jewel of a mediumis designed to activate the commu- Ronald Rice and an impressive team of tired and spent bourgeoisie," a statementnity it serves. Its horizontal structure facilitates twelve associates have come up with an ency- that could apply to Africa as well as the Westernexchange within and between communities. It clopedic state-of-the-art reference book From world, and reflects some of the findings in ais geared to local needs, customs, and lan- the title, which contains all the "right" words, recent report from the International Develop- guages. Combined with personal field contact, to the comprehensive coverage in its twelve ment Research Centre (Canada), entitled Tele- television and video provide enormous poten- chapters, the book contains a collection of vision for Develop:wit: The African ENVeri-tial for allowing people to articulate their data, insights, case study descriptions, and pre- ewe. Its author, journalist lain McLellan, notes needs to leaders and policy-makers, and work dictions. The well-chosen chapter order first that nearly every country in Africa has televi- together to solve their problems, perhaps with provides a brief history, some theory, and al- sion broadcasting facilities and trained techni- outside technical and financial assistance. ternative research methods, which are then clans, producers, and directors. But, in many It might seem amateurish for ordinary peo- followed by sections on individual and group African countries much of the television budg- ple to make a video, resulting in an awkward communication, organizational communica- et is spent on the facilities, and not much is left and slow moving production at times, but this tion, and communic- ting within institutions. for program planning. is acceptable if the goal is not the "seduction of The generous collection may offer more In this 157-page report, the author discusses the eye and ear, but the enlightenment of the than th° reader wants to know, but whatever the education and development role of televi-eye, ear, and voice." current 'nformation is being sought will prob- sion in Africa 25 years after its introduction. The future for development support televi- ably be found, whether it is videotex, micro- McLellan provides constructive criticism andsion and video is seen by many to lie in broad- computers, television, teleconferencing,li- suggests ways television can be improved and cast signals that reach rural as well as urban braries, office automation, electronic mail, and better serve the African societies. The researchareas via satellites, government purchased a host of other media developments all in a Is based on interviews in 14 countries withand maintained group-viewing televisions communication context. All topics are treated media professionals, government officials, de-powered by solar energy, coordinated multi- responsibly by competent and articulate au- velopment workers in the field, internationalmedia campaigns and local discussions, in- thors Rice provides the introductions and development organizations, and nongovem-creased feedback and interaction between summaries which help to create a modicum of ment organizations involved in developmentbroadcaster and viewer, and decentralized or unity. His greater contributions come in the support communications. Issues addressed in- community broadcasting and videos in local three chapters he wrote and the five chapters clude the potential of television to support languages. in which he appears as co-author development, why this potential has not been McLellan found signs of encouragement The book has many audiences, but probably realized, what might be required to fulfill this during the three-month survey in Africa. The leans more toward individuals who are con- potential, and what the liklihood is that those decentralization of the Nigerian Television Au- cerned about communication in the academic changes might occur. thority gives local stations the resources to sense rather than practitioners who might be produce for the national network as well as to seeking guidance for selecting and using con- Producers, government officials, viewers,generate their own local programming. In thc. temporary information technologies. This vol- educators, field workers, and aid donors agree Ivory Coast, renformal educational television ume would be a good textbook for an intro- on their dissatisfaction with television's evolu-broadcasts are being coordinated with a net- ductory course which considers contem- ti(, Most African countries have adopted thework of field animateurs. Television sets are porary communication/information technol- same approach to TV as North Americans andbeing relocated from schools, where they ogies The fact that The New Media is in its Europeans but do not have the resources, in-were used for formal education, to villages second printing may indicate its popularity for frastructure, or training to follow it through,throughout the country. Niger operates so- such courses. according to McLellan. IV producers in Africa lar-powered television sets for group viewing Readers of DCR might be disappointed not rarely venture out of capital cities to mix with, in a number of rural villages as well as in urban to find many references to the use of media understand, or assist rural people in commu-youth centers. Its Tele-Sahel's programming is and technology in the developing nations of nicating with each other or with those who aregeared to nonfonnal education with ,..lore vid- the world. They will be pleased, however, to trying to help them. African television import,eo recording taking place on location in rural find descriptions of diffusion and implementa- or mimics Western programs; it diverts or en-areas than in the Niamey studios. tion of innovative technology-based practices tertains rather than educates. The report is divided into three sections which are discussed in several chapters The In McLellan's terms, the assessment of theThe first concentrates on experiments and settings in which such innovations are pre- potential of television in Africa was faulty from innovations with group viewingcenters, sented are usually business or commercial en- the start and the social, cultural, economic, andsolar-powered television sets, local discus- vironments rather than education and human political restraints combined to limit its poten-sions, and television used with other develop- services. One exception is Milton Chen's chap- tial. Few governments encourage freedom ofment communication media. The second sec- ter, "Computers in the Lives of Our Children expression in media which would enable ur-tion focuses on social dramas, video, and Looking Back on a Generation of Television ban poor and rural populations to better un-formative evaluation and research as a means Research,"in which the lessons learned derstand themselves and articulatetheir to improve television's capacity as an educator. from television research are held up and com- needs. It is not easy to give citizenry the meansThe last section points out beneficiaries pared with the research questions about to raise consciousness, explore various devel-women, agriculture, and health when Afri- microcomputers. opment options, and express their points ofcan television supports development. There is a wealth of information in this vol- view. El Hadj Diouf, University of Dakar com- This report is available free from Interna- ume. Most of the data and electronic develop- munications professor, points out the impor-tional Development Research Centre, r' 0 Box ments will be outdated within five years, but tance of considering the human dimension in 8500, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIG 3119 many of the research agenda will probably rural development. There may be a great risk remain Let us hope some progress is made in in keeping the population mute, ignoring their Reviewed by Diana Talbert, Vice President, that sector so that the use of these "new" me- input, and making only cosmetic changes. Health and Education Resources. dia and technologies will bring about answers Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 58 ei some of the communicadon problems we erty "must be made on other grounds." Frank- I find the total absence of any reference to continue to face. ly, I am not certain what that statement means. linking education with credit a most surprising taalible Rasa SAGE Publicadons, inc., 275 S.Chris Duke is forced to the less than ringing mistake in a book focused on combating pov- Ben* Dam Bendy Ms, Calms& 98212, conclusion that, given the right timing and erty. Or perhapsitisa mistake to be USA lisr US$211.001ordleck, US$14.00 piper. well-chosen methods, adult education has a surprised. these wormy studies, and Chris Reviewed by Donald P. Ely, Professor of In- "significant contribution to make as part of a Duke's summary of their findings, perhaps tell structional Design, Development, and Evalua- larger strategy." us something we in adult education are loath tion and Director of the ERIC Ckaringbouse My view for some time has been that adult to admit: putting money in people's pockets is In Information Resources at Syracuse Univer- education in fact can contribute directly to al- a fairly low priority of most large scale adult sity. He bas recently served as a consultant at leviation of poverty under a wide variety of education programs. Persons enrolling in the Center for Communication Technology in overarching social and political systems. Two those programs should do so to become more Jakarta, Indonesia. conditions seem necessary and sufficient to informed citizens, to improve their literacy ca- make this contributic.i bozh possible and mea- pabilities, to obtain formal school equivalence surable. first, the prugram must be dessgned to certificatesbut if they need to improve their Combatting Poverty Throughaddress pecyicpsublems or constraints identi- economic circumstances in the short run, they Adult Education:Nationalfied by members of the learning community. A would do better to spend their time and effort Development Strategies, edit- number of techniques used in the cases stud- elsewhere. ed by Chris Duke. (Beckenham,ied in this book have proven effective in help- Kent, England: Croom Helm Ltd., 1895) 253pp. ing community people identify problems and Available in the US. for US$31.00 from Croom For better or worse, educators now believe decide on how to attack them. The majority of that economists exercise great influence over Han Ltd., 51 Washington Street, Dover, New these problems are related to questions of Hampshire 03820, USA, and in the U.K. for budget allocation in the developing countries. how to make money through self-employ- £17.95, from Croom Helm Ltd., Provident That great influence has motivated educators mentparticipants recognize that employ- House, Burrell Row, Beckenham, Kent 11113 to expend considerable energy in demonstrat-ment in an established firm is an unlikely lAT, U.K. ing the economic viability of the educational product of adult education and training. (That Reviewed by James Hoxeng an international enterprise. Primary school has recently been perception was borne out by the MOBRAL educational specialist with the Agency for In- shown in a number of studies to have a highstudy, which found that fewer than one person ternational Development. He has managed a return, both to children who complete the ele- in fifty gained access to full-time employment number of adult education pro, for AID. mentary years and to the society into which after taking part in MOBRAL's programs.) they are delivered as productive participants. The second important factor for getting Secondary and tertiary education have fared more money into people's bands following Rural Educational Broadcast- less well: they are dearly valuable to the rela- training is access to seed capital. For poor ing - A PhilippineExperi- tively small numbers of students who succeed rural community-based groups, access to credence, by Felix Librero. (Laguna, in completing their studies, but are very costly it is difficult at best. Individuals have some Philippines: University of the Philip- to the society which heavily subsidizes second- access to informal credit through local money- 4 pines at Los Banos, 1985) 155pp. ary schools and especially universities. lenders, albeit usually at high interest rates. According to many philosophers, nobody In this volume editor Chris Duke cites the For groups who need to share the risk of a new can be given experience, but there is no doubt "hope, maybe a naive expectation" that the venture growing out of a learning experience, that the case study approach to learning can seven chosen case studies would produce however, there is often no source and if the provide vicarious experience of real value. some proof that the money spent on adult group is largely or wholly made up of women, With this in mind, this little book by Felix Li- education reduces poverty more than if the credit is virtually impossible to obtain. brero can be seen as a valuable asset to anyone funds were spent in other sectors. The studies Gweneth Eng and Louis Woo have recently who already is or who is planning to be a were chosen from a range of countries across undertaken four case studies looking at pro- practitioner in the field of rural radio. the political spectrum and around the world. The book, as the author says in the forward, Six public and one privately sponsored pro- is "an effort to synthesize experiences in run- grams are included. Cases examined are the ning a rural educational station at the Univer- Nicaragua Literacy Campaign, Chile's Educa- sity of the Philippines at Los Banos, as well as tional Operative Units, MOBRAL in Brazil, Ke- the experiences of other rural educational nya's Adult Education Program, Seamaul Edu- broadcasters in various provinces of the coun- cation in Korea, the Adult Education Program try during the last 25 years." It is, in fact, a case in Tamil Nadu, India and the well-known Sar- study of Radio DZLB, with explanations of its vodaya Program in Sri Lanka. framework, its operational guidelines, and Duke characterizes the aims and objectives a detailed account of the DZIB School of the program on two scales: political, from On-The-Air. "cautiously reformist" to overtly revolution- The Operational Guidelines and the infor- ary; and educational, from literacy plus "safe" mation on "how to get started" could be of real functional skills to societal transformation. value to anyone new in the profession, or for All the programs studied had as one stated anyone seeking ways of improving an existing aim to reach the poorest of the poor in their grams which closely linked training and credit. rural radio network. The author is honest country. Certainly, combating poverty is not They looked at benefit-cost ratios in each of enough to set down the failures as well as the likely to happen unless the program is accessi- the programs, and found the following results. successes of the station, and there is no doubt ble to those in need. Four of the seven pro- All returns to participants were positive. The we learn as much, if not more, from the study grams were found to succeed in this aim; for a lowest benefit-cost ratio, 1.14, was realized of mistakes as we do from the study of the variety of reasons the programs in India, Korea by a women's rural development project in successes. Radio DZLB was indeed ambitious and Chile did not. Why they failed Is too com- Kenyanot because the women are not pro- in its enterprises, running programs such as plicated to tell in the space available. ductive, but because they, alone among the the 4-H Club, The Mother's Club, the Dairy What then was the impact of the remaining four programs studied, could not spend full Farmer's and Milkman's Hour, very successful- four programs on alleviating poverty? This time putting their new skills to use. They con- ly. The information on the workings of the book does not tell us. While the authors have tinued to spend about twelve hours a day on farmer's forum, with it t,oportunities for farm- made valiant efforts to specify costs of the pro- their daily chores and used their spare time for ers to share news, concerns, and tips is very grams, they all agree that conventional eco- money-making. Other returns to participants encouraging, and could provide a good nomic measures cannot cope with the com- ranged from 2.37 in a rice growing program, springboard for starting similar fora in other plexities of causality and quantification, so the 3.97 in a microenterprise development pro- countries. The explanations of the failure of case for supporting adult education as a means ject, to a highly remunerative 12.47 in a Central the Fisherman's Hour are equally enlightening for reducing inequality and addressing pov- American farmer education project. and deserve careful study. One of the most

Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 11 Stevenson, Robert L. ThirdWorld Com- munication Development in the 1970s.1985, (Llbeerocontinued from page 11) 26pp. (ED261 438). valuable observations in this case study is: "inOn File at ERIC Quantitative data on various indexes of na- planning the project, we underestimated our tional development mass media, "horizontal target audience. A lot of the pond operators communication" (mail, telephones, and tele- were professionals and were not interested in grams), democracy, social growth, literacy, Mass production." Moreover, it was found that by Barbara Minor and urbanization were collected and esti- "the flshpen and fishpond operators did not mated for more than 100 developing countries believe that a radio program could help in- Documents recently entered in the ERIC (Ed- for roughly the decade between 1970 and crease their production." Both these realiza- ucational Resources Information Center) files 1980. These data were then used to test various tions point to what is possibly the most logical include a bibliography on mass media systemstheories and definitions cf communication de- stalling point for all radio programmingun- in educational development, a report on thevelopment. The analyses revealed that in all derstanding the audience both their profes- methodology developed for the Radio Lan- geographicregions,broadcasting showed sional knowledge of the subject and their guage Arts Project in Kenya, an analysis ofspectacular growth, while print media grew ,appreciation of program formats and ap-development communication duringthe only modestly. Horizontal communication, so- proaches. The DZLB Fisherman's Hour was by 1970s a handbook for making films; and a cial growth, literacy, and urbanization showed no means the only radio program to have gonepacket of audiovisual instruction materials. some growth, while democracydefined in under because of a failure to spend time in All of these documents are available in micro- Western terms as civil and political liberties adequately assessing its audience. fiche, and all but one in paper copy, fromdid not fare well in developing countries Anal- The chapter on the School On-The-Air is the ERIC Document Reproduction Serviceysis of the data showed little support either for very detailed and helpful. It explains just what (EDRS), 3900 Wheeler Ave., Alexandria, Virgin-the original dominant paradigm of communi- a School On- The -Air is: "A specially designed ia 22304, U.S.A. Be sure to include the EDcation development that mass media could radio program where the subject matter is pre- number and payment in U.S. funds for thespur economic and political development, or sented systematically and in a progressive price listed plus shipping. Shipping costs mayfor alternative theories that emphasize hori- manner with the ultimate goal of achieving be calculated on the basis of three microfiche zontal communication and social develop- desired results under a teaching-learning situ- per ounce and 75 microfiche or pages of paperment. Available from EDRS in microfiche for ation." And then it details the characteristics ofcopy per pound. 75 cents or in paper for $3.60. such a school; explains how to establish a Beuthner, Reginald and others, compil- school (including details of personnel needs, Sanchez, James and Romero, Patricia,ers. FilmHandbook Communication Man- management schemes, and feedback mecha- compilers. Mass Media Systems (Television, ual. Second Edition.1983, 390pp (ED256 295). nisms); gives program suggestions and infor- Radio, and Satellite) for WC Regional Educa- Each chapter in this book is a self-contained mation on enrollment, examinations, and tional Development: The Case of Africa and unit about specific aspects of film-making de- graduation. It also provides audience survey the Middle East. Bibliography 221985, 14pp. signed to accompany film courses being of- instruments and a School On-The-Air program (ED260 864). fered by the University of the West Indies, the schedule. In short, everything needed to pro- Intended as an introduction to the use ofJamaica Broadcasting Corporation, and the in- vide a sound basis on which to explore theeducational media in developing countries, stitute of Mass Communication in conjunction possibilities of such a school in another place. this bibliography provides an overview of ma-with a German sponsor, Friedrich-Ebert. The The last part of the book is devoted to a terials available in government documents col- following topics are addressed: the Jamaican chapter on "Looking Ahead." The author lections. Although the 33 documents listed arefilm, perception; organization and setting up, prophesies that the future of educational radio derived principally from the Agency for Inter- scripts; light, filmstock, cameras, lenses; filters; lies hi more interactive programming; more national Development (AID), two documents uses of lights, the exposure meter; camera education-oriented entertainment program- from the Educational Resources Information work; continuity of time, place, and action; the ming; and more personalized and localizedCenter (ERIC) are also included. Each entry laboratory; functions of sound; sound record- presentations all propheciesthat would indicates a source for obtaining the document ing; sound editing problems; and editing probe readily endorsed by those of us working inand includes an annotation. Dates of publica- cedure Available from EDRS in microfiche for educational radio in other parts of the world. tions for the references range from 1972 to75 cents or in paper for $28 80 The book is complete with a good bibliog- 1985, with most falling in the mid-1970s. Ab- Audio-Visual/Communications Teaching raphy and some helpful appendices, contain- breviations used in document titles and anno- Aids Packet Supplementary Materials Packet ing outlines for training programs and evalua- tations are defined, and an index provides an P-8 1982,94pp.(ED257435) tion papers. The major weakness of the book alphabetized listing of topics and areas of con- This packet contains three handouts on has nothing to do with its contents or its au- cern. Available from EDRS in microfiche only training theory and the use of audiovisual aids, thorship; it has to do with its publication. The for 75 cents. as well as a section on materials and presenta- book has been bound so poorly that the min- tion techniques for use by community devel- ute one attempts to open it, all the pages fall Edgerton, David and Sedlak, Philip A.A Look at Methodology Radio Language Arts opment workers The first handout briefly dis- out. it would seem like a good idea to punch cusses the four steps in the communication holes in the spine of the book and insert strong Project Implementation. Field Notes5 1984, 8pp. (ED 258 478). process and presents a seven-step procedure ring binders before attempting touse it atall, for improving communications; the second otherwise the aggravation of coping with fall- The methociology described was developed describes and pictorially represents the major ing pages might just dissuade you from con- for use in a U.S.-spol:cored radio-based Eng- lish language arts program for grades one categories of media; and the third addresses tinuing your reading of this very helpful four questions that should be considered in book. through three in Kenya. Adapted to the special circumstances of the medium, the context, and designing and planning effective communica- the program's administrative limitations, the tions. The final section provides instructions Available tree from Felix Librero, Chidrunn, highly interactive radio lessons adhere to dis- for making and using bamboo or reed writing Dept. oiDevelopment pens, brushes, crayons, pocket charts, puppets, sky a du. Philippines at Los limbos, College, tributed-learning principles in instructional Loom, Philippines. For orders winkle the design and use in a practical and relevant cur- flannel boards and flipcharts, exhibits and bul- Philippines, please include US$5.00 nor haw riculum to organize the elements of instruc- letin boards, a flashlight slide projector and dike and paw. tion. The Radio Language Arts Program series filmstrip adaptor, and radio. Available from of lessons uses direct-method language teach- EDRS in microfiche for 75 cents or in paper for Reviewed by Esta de Ponard a Senior Commu- ing principles and postlesson audio exercises $7.20. nications Officer at the Academy for Educa- whey appropriate and where the limitations of Barbara Minor is Publications Coordinator at tional Development. She is currently Project insi-uctional broadcasting justify their use. the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Re- Administrator for the Academy's Development Available from EDRS in microfiche for 75 cents sources, School of Education, Syracuse Un!ver- Communications Project in Swaziland of in paper copy for $1.80. sity, Syracuse, New York 13244-2340, USA.

12 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 Colo is Could Have the Bi:gg School in the World by Humberto Jbnenez

Colombia hopes to reach more than 20 mil- the rad.3 programs look forward to con- promotion is required to catch the atten- lion potential students with nonconventional tinuing the project. They value the experi- tion and enthusiasm of a larger number of education services. This figure represents the ence gained as radio communicators, the potential users. portion of the population that is not served by high visibility their institutions receive the formal education system a system unable from the radio, and the letters and tele- Finally, it is not enough to simply prepare to keep pace with the rapid growth of the phone calls that indicate acceptance by and broadcast good programs. Education, population it must serve. their audiences. especially distance education, creates oth- What would it cost the formal education sys- er complementary needs in users such as tem in personnel, infrastructure, and supplies Coordination among the institutions has consultation by telephone, responses to to serve not just the seven million people cur- been difficult but stimulating. The medium letters, additional topical information pro- rently reached, but the 28 million who should of radio provides them with an opportuni- vided to users, and support to local organi- be served? The calculations are astronomical; ty for exchange, self-criticism, mutual zations that have been stimulated by this and, what is worse, these costs are impossible awareness, and team-building. service. to cover. Another consideration is that these Much has been said about the power of the additional services could not be implemented The initative taken by the National Ministrymedia and its role in education. A multitude of quiddy, even in a country where impossible of Education coupled with ACPO's experi-academic questions arise from these discus- things happen. ence, has resulted in the extension of thesions, all of them important. But there is also a In response to these issues the Colombian network to more than 100 small radio sta-practical question that needs to be answered: tions which retransmit programs using au- government has formulated a policy that en- is there a way to quiddy reach the millions of diocassette tapes prepared and distributed courages implementation of strategies to com- people in our cities and rural areas who have plement the traditional system and permit by CAMINA. no access to educational opportunities? Ca lombia says "yes," and the answer is radio. marginal groups to receive the benefits of edu- Adequate and timely distribution of sup- cation. This program is known as CAMINA (a Soon, twenty million people who are now de- port print materials has been a problem. prived of education will have an opportunity Spanish acronym meaning "walk" ), and is be- Although not required by all the programsto learn. ing promoted under the theme of "Education that are broadcast, support material needs for All Colombians." Its base and point of de- have been a financial and logistical burdenJorge Humberto Jimenez is Director of Nation- parture is to use existing educational rein the early stages of the program. al Programming Sutatenza Radio Network, sources and programs, in both private and Bogotd, Colombia. public institutions, formal and nonformal Project directors feel that more and better sectors.

A School That Reaches Everyone Based on the experience over several decades which the Fundadon Action Cultural CIESPAL Radio Contest Winners Popular (ACPO) has acquired, as well as the educational work it has done through its Suta- In DCR 43, we announced a radio contest in the radio magazine category was awarded tenza Radio Network, the national government sponsored by the International Center of High- to: decided to link the available transmission and er Communication Studies for Latin America "Opening the Way," by El Centro Nacional production facilities of this radio networi for (CIESPAL) in collaboration with Radio Neder- de Action Pastoral (CENAP), Costa Rica maximum population coverage, offering a land, to select commendable Latin American multiplicity of educational opportunities. Suta educational radio programs. The contest win- In radio drama also, there was no first prize tenza's 700 kilowatts, with transmitters in Bo- ners were announced during CIESPAL's 25th winner. Second prize went to. gota, Cali, Medellin, Barranquilla, and Magan- anniversary festival held in Quito, Ecuador, 'The Legend of Sunday the Seventh," by gue, can provide a school within reach of ev- October 15-20, 1984. Radio la Voz de la Selva, Peru. eryone with access to a radio It was not until recently that we learned the The first (and only) prize in the education Secondary and higher institutions, private results of this contest, and although consider- category was awarded to the adult education and public alike, have joined this effort. Having able time has elapsed since the awards were courses of Ecuador's Institute Radiof6nico Fe traditionally provided educational services to announced, we would like to congratulate the yam. Colombians through their nonformal pro- winners, and commend the organizers of this Over 450 participants joined in the anniver- grams in cooperativism, ecology, family life, contest for their continued support of educa- sary activities, with representatives from Latin and through formal programs at the primary, tional radio in Latin America. American and international broadcasting orga- secondary, or higher levels, they will now of- The contest drew a large pool of entrants, nizations including Radio Canada, Radio Swit- fer, via this network, their unique educational with almost 200 submissions from 15 coun- zerland, the Voice of Germany, Radio Sweden, programming to meet the varied needs of this tries competing in four categoriesdocumen- ant. Radio Nederland. There were seminars on unserved population. tary, radio magazine, radio drama, and radio educational radio topics, tapes of radio pro- After one year of activitiesrelatively little education. grams from participating countries, and pro- time for a definitive evaluation of a new and fessional development exchanges. In part, complex experience some observations and First prize for a documentary went to: the Festival represented the culmination of trends have been identified: 'The Poor Taught Me to Read the Bible," by CIESPAL's efforts in the area of radio since Radio Santa Marfa, Dominican Republic. 1982, but the week's activities also signified The staffs of the 18 participating entities their commitment to continued improvement that are responsible for the production of No first prize was awarded, but second prize of radio programming in Latin America. Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 61 13 don staffs are small and they have limited pro- the flow of agricultural information It is the fessional training (only one person in these ALO's responsibility to keep in touch with cur- (A bibliography on these and related studies three countries has degree qualifications in rent local research, to seek out earlier, per- can be obtained from either the East-West Cen- communications). haps neglected reports, and to review interna- ter or from ISNAR see addresses at the end of tional data sources. They report their in- this article.) External Communication Connections formation to national officers and contribute rf, Island people have limited contacts with theto a quarterly newsletter that circulates among .;, Systan Challenges fast-changing socioeconomic milieu of thethe 11 member countries Although favorable climate and soils allow westernized and northern nations. Many is- islanders to grow many crops, there has been land producers have had some exposure toCommunication within Systems little research available that can be applied to modem agricultural ideas from islanders re- Over the past four years Fiji, Tonga, and the islands' principal food crops. Mounting re- turning from advanced studies and trainingWestern Samoa have begun to build better search to deal with all the important crops abroad; however, these contacts have not been bridges between their in-country knowledge would require a huge investment. extensively exploited. We found few cases system units. In some cases, contact with do- Other factors challenge the systems. Many where communication networks were created nor organizations has stimulated better com- farmers have had little experience in applying between these trained people; not much was munication; other bridges are indigenous ad- other than traditional cropping practices or apparently done to try to maintain continuing aptations of ideas from elsewhere. producing in a complex market economy. access to such knowledge. In the few technical Both Fiji and Western Samoa have recently Land ownership Is extremely complicated, and libraries that exist, literature collections tend developed national research plans, working cultural factors affect motivation and commu- to be fragmentary, incomplete, often years with ISNAR in the planning process. These nication. Education has only recently become behind current agriculturalthinking, and plans have helped form communication links widespread. While most people are literate, language-bound to the original publication. with extension leaders, with policy makers, few can communicate well in languages used There are stirrings of change in the region. and with other elements of the agricultural in agricultural and higher education institu- In more and more of the now-independent knowledge systems. tions. Communication of all kinds is con- nations, international donors have helped es- In-service training efforts in the three coun- strained by mountainous and tropical jungle tablish elements within knowledge institu- tries had been limited and fragmentary. All terrain, and the great distance between islands. tions. There are now two island-based univer- have shown impressive changes in recent Of the mass media, only radio reaches beyond sities that offer Bachelor of Science and Master years, helping to improve links between re- the main cities to more than a tiny fraction ofof Science degree training in agriculture: The search centers, extension services, and pro- the population involved in agriculture. University of Technology at Lae, Papua New ducers. In Fiji, for example, responsibility for Despite these constraints, agriculture is still Guinea and the School of Agriculture of the in-service training and information services the leading economic activity; it is the main University of the South Pacific (USP). The USP has been vested in one officer. This has led to focus of development in most of these coun- library, whose main campus is in Suva, Fiji, greater awareness by information staff of the tries and for at least three-fourths of the peo-directs a major effort to collect literature (cul- programs and technical content dealt with in ple. National development plans stress agricultural, economic, social, and technical) of the the action agencies, which has helped these tural development needs: to improve both Pacific Islands. Under grant funding from Ca- writers and broadcasters to identify and to get quantity and quality of food; to reduce nadian and United States sources, this program to know informati'sources At the same amounts of Imported foods; and to increaseis also training librarians for each of the partic- time, elements of communication philosophy thecountry'sinternationaltradecredits ipating nationsexpertise that has been inand methods appear in more and more techni- through export of agricultural commodities. short supply. cal training programs. All of these countries have similarly struc- The agricultural library at USP, which is lo- For several years, Tongan in-service trainers tured agriculture ministries, although each hascated on the Alafua Campus of the School of have been required to provide advance copies its unique characteristics. The basic unit is a Agriculture in Western Samoa, serves the stu- of their training materials. In addition to their national ministry or department of agriculture, dent population and borrowers throughout use in training, the materials fill needs as refer- which typically has a politically appointed min- the legion through loan circulation. ences for field officers. In Tonga, research and ister and a civil service-type administrative The Institute for Research, Extension and extension officers often train together, taking structure. In addition, most ministries also Teaching in Agriculture (IRETA), created by turns serving as trainer and trainee provide research, extension, and agricultural the 11-member nations of USP also located at As Western Samoa has adapted the Training education services. A communication or infor- Alafua, serves the region in several ways, and is and Visit (T&V) system (see DCR #22) to its mation unit is located in this ministry as well supported in part by grant funding from the situation, increased attention to in-service U.S. Agency for International Development, training builds bridges between extension and Knowledge Systems Communications and technical assistance from the University ofother agricultural groups. We have studied and worked with these is- Hawaii and Cornell University. IRETA has built One notable factor encouraging change is land systems in a broad context of communica- special facilities on the Alafua campus, where it the growing awareness among extension, re- tion, including (1) linking the island system to sponsors regional workshops and confer- search, and other institutional administrators external knowledge sources and to the politi- ences, sharing regional expertise and bringing of the need for communication support. De- cal and production systems of the nation it in specialists to teach and interact with nation- spite budget constraints, some have supported selves; (2) linking units within the system; and al representatives. It also supports networking efforts to improve information staff compe- (3) linking users of agricultural knowledge throughelectronicmailmessaging and tence, methods, and equipment. In Fiji, at least producers, input suppliers, marketers, plan- two-way voice contact via satellite and ground one information staff member has been ap- ners,etc.toeachother.Our studies stations in member countries (The latter effort proved for degree-training abroad. Western have gone well beyond media use, dealing was interrupted when the existing satellite Samoa is developing increased technical assis- with other means of communication, such as ceased functioning, but will be resumed when tance and upgrading equipment with Asian formal and informaltraining,person-to- another becomes available.) Development Bank and Food and Agricultural person, group, organizational and interorga- One of IRETA's most innovative contribu- Organization backing nizadonal communication, and extension tions has been its Agricultural Liaison Officer methods. (ALO) network which is designed to increaseCommunicating to Producers From our work in the region, we have seen the flow of knowledge among the participating Efforts to get information out to producers programs and activities that are building national systems, and to make known to the is paying off as well. Field days, farm trials, and bridges and stimulating agricultural communi- leaders at the Alafua campus the needs of na- demonstrations (three typical activities that in- cation. Many of the developments have been tional agricultural systems. troduce new and improved agricultural tech- fostered by creative and informed individuals By 1985, seven of the member nations had niques) have attracted more producers than or units without major increases in resources: appointed an ALO representative to serve as ever in some of these countries. For example. resources that are limited, to be sure. !donna- his or her country's eyes and ears to enhanceWestern Samoa recently held an Agricultural

14 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 62 .ShOw on one 01 its islands; more than 10,000 through the publication of a newsletter andan people attended the activitiesnearly one ongoing series of booklets INTERPAKS Inter- quarter of that island's total population. A co- Briefly Noted change, a quarterly newsletter examines meth- ordinated multimedia campaign helped boost ods of agricultural information dissemination attendance and offered follow-up printed main developing countries with feature articles, terials to reinforce the messages delivered at synopses of reports, speeches, book reviews, the educational sessions. Both Fiji and Tonga by Robert Viftel and William Amt and INTERPAKS project activity news make extensive use of field days to reach farm- The INTERPAKS ongoing series of booklets ers. Their staffs are trained in how to plan and Guidelines for Planning Communicationinclude: 1) The Cooperative Extension Serv- execute these three activities to improve their Suppor t for Rural Development Campaigns is ice An Adaptable Model forDeveloping Coun- outreach effecdvettess. a manual published by the UNDP Asia & Pacific tries, which examines how the U.S. university The modified T&V 4stem developing in Programmes for Development Training andkind-grant extension system has effectively Western Samoa strengthens their outreach ef- Communication Planning (UNDP/DTCP) andcombined both the research and extension bit. Greater number, frequency, and continu- compiled by Najib M Assifif and James H.functicns of agricultural development, and ity of visits by extension officers are building French. The manual covers the main compo-how components of this system can be applied more and stronger links with farm producers. nents of planning communication support forto developing countries; 2) The Role of the Similar emphasis on farmer contacts by exten- rural development campaigns, how to carryInformation Specialist in the Dissemination of sion in Fiji and Tonga strengthens the dissemi- out precampaign studies, how to design aAgricultural Information looks at the unique- nation of agricultural information. Fiji is rapid- communication strategy, and how to develop a ness of this field, the different levels of infor- ly upgrading dissemination efforts, especially management plan. Each section is supple-mation which are dealt with, i.e. the scientific, with publications. One new series provides mented by overhead transparencies (in thethe extension, and the trade levels, and skills reference materials for field extension staff, trainer's version), reference sheets, and work- and education required of agricultural infor- and another is devoted mainly to reporting sheets. Available in English only, the trainee'smation specialists; and 3) Problems Facing new findings and recommendations from re- version (which may be used for self-instruc-Natic.sal Agricultural Extension in Develop- search to extension. Within the last year, an tion) is available for US$8.00, and the trainer'sing Countries discusses the results of 59 de- information officer has been assigned full-time version costs US$50.00; however, UNDP/DTCP veloping country agriculture extension direc- to work with the Research Division to speed will include five single copies of other publica-tors who respondedtoanINTERPAKS the flow of new information to users. Coordi- tions free of charge with this order. Write:questionnaire. The survey attempts to reveal nation between staffs of Fiji's broadcast and UNDP/DTCP, P.O. Box 2- 147,19 Phra Atit Road,problem areas in developing country agricul- print news media assures dissemination in Bangkok 10200, Thailand. ture extension systems and concludes with both media of information produced by the The Industrial Information Secuen of therecommendations for improvements. work of one information specialist. United Nations Industrial Development Orga- Other useful INTERPAKS publications in- Need for CommunIcadons Training nization Technology Programme has preparedclude: Development Communications in the Training in communication practices and a trilingual (English, French, and Spanish) Di- Third World, a collection of the papers that principles continues to be a scarce item on the rectory of Industrial Information Services andwere presented at the "Midwest Regional Sym- Systems in Developing Countries. This directo- educational agenda in the South Pacific. A rela- posium on Development Communications in tive vacuum for development communication ry of 345 industrial and technological informa- the Third World" at the University of Illinois at tionfacilities specialists has existed because nearby training is designed to serve as aUrbana-Champaign on April 15, 1983. Emile has not been available. The nearest degree- catalyst for increased networking activityMcAnany delivered the keynote address which based training or intern programs are in Aus- among those institutions at the national, re-was followed with presentations by several tralia, New Zealand, or the Philippines. Fortu- gional, and international levels concernedother development communication special- nately on this point, IRETA appears to be ma- with accelerating the process of industrializa-ists. Annotated Bibliography on Development turing as a source of support by offering some tion. Each entry includes the name of the orga-and Tiansfer of Technology, Vol. 1, contains agricultural communication courses. Mean- nization, the address, languages used, a de- 271 relevant citations and annotations of litera- scription of activities, topics about which while, Agricultural Liaison Officers are demon- ture in five areas: general agricultural develop- strating that important contributions can be information is provided, and a publicationsment, policy and planning, technology devel- made by professionals who have both agricul- list. Free copies are available from the Unitedopment, technology transfer, and technology ture and communication training. Nations Industrial Development Organization,utilization, followed by an author and title These and similar steps have helped to im- Industrial Information Section, P.O. Box 300,index. A-1400 Vienna, Austria. prove communication within the agricultural Single copies of the above-mentioned publi- knowledge systems of this region over the past The sociology and political economy ofcations are available from INTERPAKS, Office three years. They have been a motivating stim- mass media and interpersonal communicationof International Agriculture, University of Illi- ulus for still larger and more creative steps are central issues in Communication and So- nois, 113 Mumford Hall, 1301 West Gregory toward overcoming multiple constraints that cial Change, a new book by Michael Kunczik. Drive, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA persist. Kunczik looks at development and communication from various viewpoints, concluding The authors are on the Clearinghouse staff. For a bibliography of related studies, write ei- that there is a need for a "free media system ther to: George Bad, Institute of Culture and within a nation state and a free flow of news on Communialtion,East-WestCenter, 1777 the international level." He raises many ques- Call for Abstracts Bast-West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96848, USA; tions by outlining the major economic devel- or so inter nal Service kw National Agricul- The World Federation of Public Health Asso- tund Research, P.O. Box 93375-2509 AJ, The opment and social change paradigms; showing ciation will hold its Fifth International Con- Hogue, Nedsedinds. how mass media have affected such change for gress in Mexico City March 22-17, 1987. The good; and the position of developing countries George M. Beal reticently retired as Research conference theme is International Health in in the international flow of news. Available it an Era of Economic Constraint: The Chal- Associate, Institute of Culture and Communi- English fromtheFriedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, cation, East-West Center, in Honolulu. He was lenge." Abstracts of proposed papers should Godesberger Allee 149, D-5300 Bonn 2, Feder- be submitted by October 15, 1986 in English for many years a researcher, teacher, and head al RepuL Ile of Germany. of Sociology at Iowa State University, Ames, or Spanish. Request abstract forms and guide- Iowa. 1NTERPAICS, the inten:ational Program for lines from: WFPHA Secretariat, do American Agricultural Knowledge Systems, is a program Public Health Association, 1015 15th Street, IC Robert Kern Is a private consultant in agri- which provides educational and technical as- N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005, USA, or Dr. Jose cultural communications. He was formerly sistance in support of agricultural develop- Luis Luna, General Sect etary, Local Coordinat- communicationsq 1cer,InternationalServicement through improved transfer and use of ing Committee, Mexican Society for Public for National Agricultural Research in Theknowledge in developing countries. One of Health, Insurgentes Sur 1397, 6° piso, Col. In- Hague, and many years bead of extension INTERPAKS' main functions is to provide infor- surgentes, Mixcoac, Delegation B. Juarez, mrnmuniaitions at Iowa State University. mation about agricultural knowledge systems 03920 Mexico D.F., Mexico.

.161.1.1111111111 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 3 15 by David Giltrow expected major users and any donor agencies tors, films, or possibly video in their must be promoted early in the planning proc- presentations Continuingeducationcenters ess. If the university chooses not to involve key 3. CEC training materials might be pro- (CECs) are neither new nor par- decision makers and identified users, the ef- duced at the center for other training cen- ticularly glamorous stars on the fort probably will not reflect the actual needs ters,schools, or for correspondence development scene. They serve of such a center. courses. as catalysts to Improve long term development Provideflcdbility andfreedom from depart- Funding Base: efforts and provide the framework for linking mensal politics by placing the CEC Ma suitable A flexible, fair funding strategy, should be ideas and peoplea basic objective of devel- location within tbe institution's organiza- developed so as not to strain existing aniver- opment support communication (DSC). tional structure.If possible, the CEC should sity finances.The university can support the The most familiar type of CEC found in de- have independent standing similar to a library CEC by absorbing staff salaries, utilities, and veloping nations are the farmer training cen- or an institute. other basic budget items. Otherwise, the CEC ters. More recently, universities are establish- Further planning recommendations: should be a self-supporting unit and charge for ing CECs to serve the wider community, Study existing continuing education cen- all other CEC activities and services. especially at middle and higher manpower lev- ters in the country to determine the needs that There should not be a blanket subsidization els. This article offers suggestions on how uni- are to be met by this CEC to avoid legitimate of program activities by donor agencies.Be. versities can plan a continuing education cen- objections to duplication of effort. cause of budgetary constraints, no provision ter with an emphasis on DSC principles. Solicit donor support. This is particularlywas made by AID to support Sokoine continu- A typical university-based CEC develops a important initially to purchase audiovisual anding education programs. Nevertheless, the staff wide range of activities, including distance ed- other imported equipment, and provide spe- discovered many groupsprivate industry, ucation services and training workshops, semi- cial staff training. ministries, development projects, and other nars, short courses, meetings of professional donor agencies with funds available for associations, and national and international Staffing: short term staff training at the Centre. This conferences that will require housing and din- Select the right director.He or she shouldavoided the usual financial jolt that often oc- ing facilities. have strong academic credentials as well as acurs when a foreign aid project comes to an Many developing country universities al- solid background in extension, continuing ed-end ucation, and administration. ready conduct these activities, but usually on a Programs and Philosophy: between-term or ad hoc basis. More impact CEC staff should be highly professional, can be gained by creating a CEC that can prop- with knowledge ofDSC principlesand with a The CEC should have a primal), program erly organize and conduct outreach activities strong service commitment. They should befocusAlthough it may seem economically throughout the year. With this arrangement, encouraged to participate in CEC management smart to use a CEC as a general convention the staff, meeting rooms, and residential facili- operations. center where other groups can schedule their ties are dedicated to continuing education pro- A title, such as "educational specialist,"meetings and programs when there are open grams and are not at the mercy of ongoing should be established for these professionals.dates on the CEC calendar, this practice may academictimetables.Similarly,awell- Training and development plans should alienate primary users who find they cannot equipped audiovisual unit becomes a neces- include all professional and support staff in-schedule their activities at appropriate times. sity for the comprehensive CEC to meet the cluding audiovisual technicians, hostel and A liaisonfromthe client group should be varied demands of its programs. dining room staff, and others. assigned to work with the center's program The observations below are based on the specialists during the planning stage of an evolution of the Centre for Continuing Educa- Physical Facades: event.This type of cooperation exposes all cli- tion at Sokoine University of Agriculture in If new buildings are necessary, visit otherents to good communication and training tech- Morogoro, Tanzania, which received US Agen- facilities prior to making the architectural niques, and serves as an example of how com- cy for International Development (AID) assis- specifications.Second to staff quality, the phys- munication support can bring greater depth to tance from 1980 to 1984 as part of a larger ical facilities are the most critical element intheir activities. agricultural education and extension project. the long term success of a CEC. Remind fiscal An Advisory Committee of primary user" After five years of successful operation, some officialc that the CEC will charge daily rates pershould be establishedThis will help keep tl of thelessons learnedmight be useful. person to cover meeting, living, and diningCEC responsive to users' needs The comm The Sokoine Centre is physically divided amenities appropriate for professionals andtee al -o gives the director a forum in which into three units: a main meeting building, an senior civil servants. devdiop CEC policy and to solicit help in so office block, and a hostel complex, integrated Tak' nothing for granted in developing theing various problems that arise at the facilit into the university campus and with the usual specification for facilities and servicesCFCsA Summary student activities and services. But Sokoine has require special physical surroundings that few A successful continuing education center developed a pattern characteristic of many architects or bureaucrats appreciate The qual-a blend of good facilities, service-orient( continuing education centers: it has become a ity of the facilities needed by CEC clientel isstaff, active program planning, sound finance campus within a campus. One link between something that may be overlooked by archi-policies, and professional marketing of sei the two is the Centre's Audiovisual Unit whose tects who are more experienced at designingices If the setting is a university campus, inu media equipment and production facilities boarding high schools on small budgets, lectual resources usually available only to also serves ongoing university media technol- Design for media use.A high quality mediastudents can benefit the wider commun: ogy, needs. center with a trained staff is a necessity for athrpugh CEC programs. Entwined with the not a national continuing education center elements is a strong communication suppc Lessons Learned luxury. There are several reasons for suggestdimension that can serve as a model for use Lessons we learned in creating and operating this apparent extravagance when they return to their home institutions ing the Sokoine Centre were in the areas of 1. The seminars, short courses, and work- planning decisions, staffing, physical facilities, shops should demonstrate media use David Gilirow was Team Leader for the Tang funding base, and programs and philosophy. with hands-on activities to enwurage un-nia Agricultural Education and Extensi derstanding of development communica- Project, and coordinated upgrading of the .! Planning Dedsions: tion support. koine Centre Audiovisual Unit. He is now Develop a moperotive alliance between do- 2. Speakers and participants at internationalprivate consultant ii development commui nor and expected users.Participation by the seminars will use slides, overhead projec- cation and education. 16 Development Communication Report / Spring 1986 4 'port

ect fits the image and spirit of Project SHARE, its potential long-term benefits, and the overall Transcending Barriers: feasibility of the proposal

Exemplary Projects SHARING Satdlite Technology Thirty-seven different countries are currently participating in Project SHARE In education, the People's Republic of China uses satellites to transmit daily lectures to university students by Gail Bond( To date, most projects have been affiliatedthroughout the country. Called 'A TV Universi- with universities, professional societies, orty," it serves as an example of how standard- 71, In many areas of the world, panic-hospitals, working with the various telecom-ized education levels can be brought to scat- ularly in developing countries,munication entities in the countries involved tered populations in countries where great natural geographic barriers, lackEach sponsor designs and dictates the contentdistances and geographical barriers make con- of teachers, diffused populations,of the project and is responsible for securingtact difficult The use of satellites has also been and inadequate infrastructures make conven-financial support, whether private or govern-successfully demonstrated for years by both tional communication methods either physi-mental, and for the terrestrial links. Oncethe University of the South Pacific and the cally or financially impossible. The expandingthe project application has been submitted toUniversity of the West Indies where a high use of telecommunications, especially new sat-INTELSAT, it is reviewed by the Me-nationalpercentage of course completions, along with ellite technology, can help overcome suchAdvisory Councila special panel of expertshigh test scores, have been achieved. (SeeDCR difficulties. Although theuseof such tech-in international communications from around24 and 26.) nology is likely to be affected by a country sthe world. The review determines if the prol- (Continued on page 3) political and economic situation, projects using telecommunications are, nonetheless, being carried out in education, medicine, and agriculture. Under the auspices of INTELSAT, theWhere in the Worldare Radios? 110-member organization which owns the world's international telecommunication satellite system, and in conjunction with the In- ternationalInstitute of Communications, aby Graham Mytton London-based member organizationcon- cerned with the uses and developments of in- Accurate and reliable data on ra-organizations? In Latin America, commercial ternational communication, Project SHARE dio ownership in rural areas ofradio stations commission audience surveys, (Satellites for Health And Rural Education) was developing countries are notori-but these too concentrate on urban audiences initiated in order to make more people aware ously difficult to obtain On theIn Asia, audience research is carried out with of the practical uses of satellite communica-other hand, we know quite a lot about accessgrowing frequency only in Sri Lanka, India, tions for educational and health purposes to and ownership of radios and televisions inand Pakistan In sub-Saharan Africa, the picture Since its inception in 1985, it has provided freeurban areas of these same countries, primarilyis even less clear. Other than in South Africa, satellite access for rural health and long-dis-because this is where the bulk of manufac-no radio or TV stations do regular audience tance educational programs which use newtured consumer goods are sold. Those whoresearch. In North Africa, only Morocco, Tuni- satellite technologies. purchase advertisement space or time want tosia, and Egypt have done systematic research Each SHARE project involves a series of testsknow what consumers are buying. how manyand these have been mainly urban-based stud- and/or demonstrations aimed at showing howpeople in Lagos, Nigeria can be reached byaies of their audiences modem telecommunications can help allevi-series of 30-second radio commercials for toi- (Continued on page 2) ate the problems inherent in providing rurallet soap or how many people in Jakarta, Indo- health care and education. Originally con-nesia have television sets, and how many DCR INDEX ceived as a 16 .month project, scheduled to endwatch it at home? Advertisers need this infor- in April 1986, it has now been extendedmation. In contrast, there is little demand for INSIDE through December 1986. To facilitate the de-information ?Scut rural consumers in devel- velopment of permanent long-term program;oping countries, so not much is known about The four center pages of this issue extensive evaluations and studies will be con-them. contain the first comprehensive subject ducted on each project, as well as on the pro- Although commercial research agencies do index of DCR issues 40 through 54, en- ject as a whole. These will be published andexist in many developing countries, consumer compassing the dates of December 1982 made available upon request to individualsresearch is not their only, or even theft major to August 1986. We hope it is a useful and institutions in the field. (See address atactivity; they do many other types of research guide to our work. end of arti:le.) as well. What about research by broadcasting

Supported by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agency for International Development 65 (Mytton continued from page 1) times as many radios than in the years before the cultural revolution. At that time, the domi- =Cs Survey Findings nant equipment was the ubiquitous wired ra- This lengthy introduction serves to suggestdios, delivering only local broadcast services. some caution when interpreting the followingSince then, much of the growth has been in facts and figures. Since 1944, the BBC has ap-individual ownership of portable radios in ru- plied the sample survey methodology to gath-ral China. Moreover, there remains enormous er audience data, interviewing randomly se-potential for even greater growth in radio lected people indesignated areas of aownership in a country of more than one bil- particular country. Their External Services Di-lion people. tArsismiggmtzwaTE, vision performs regular audience research in In India, where so much emphasis has been countries around the world in order to collectput on the developmental role of radio, in In this issue accurate information about radio ownershipsome rural areas a majority of people still do Protect SHARE and to determine who listens to the BBC andnot have their own radios. Therefore, despite Worldwide Radio Survey 1 other intemaional broadcasters. the fact that there is widespread community Communicating Health In recent years, increased attention has beenand group listening, there are still many who in Swaziland 4 `Jic: given, whenever possible, to rural areas. Theseare not reached at all The pattern is very simi- studies verify the already-assumed high levelslar to that in Africaa high level of radio own- Briefly Noted 4 of exposure to the media in urban areas andership in towns and a smaller but growing Training Broadcasters 5 the generally lower listening levels in ruralpresence in the countryside. In a 1975 survey Malaysia Media Use Survey 6 areas. Nonetheless, Increased radio ownershipof eight Indian states, 75 percent of those inter- DCR Index 7 among rural people in developing countriesviewed in urban areas had a radio at hcAne, Women Communicating Health 11 has been confirmed by these surveys. while in rural areas, ownership came to only Communicator's Checklist 12 Given the expense and difficulty of research38 percent. Influencia de la Comunicacion in developing countries, it is understandable Elsewhere in South Asia, one finds a similar en El Campo 14 that the information we have is both meagerpicture. In 1975, a very limited survey done in On File at ERIC 15 and incomplete. In 1964, for example, a surveyaccessible regions of rural Pakistan, showed Satellites for Health Care 16 in the West African country of Togo, showed 44that no more than 11 percent of households percent radio ownership in urban areas, buthad radios. By 1982, the situation had been rural surveys indicated only four to five per-significantly transformed. Although a different cent ownership. No more recent data are avail-sample of rural people was interviewed, it was Deerlopmeni C:ommunkation Report, pub- able. Elsewhere in West Africa, figures areclear that there had been substantial growth in hshed quarterly by the Clearinghouse on De- somewhat more current In neighboring Gha-ownershipmore than half of those contacted velopment Communicadone has a drat ion na, an extensive survey in 1977 showed that 72had a radio darer 6,000. The newsletter is available free percent of urban households had radios, with At the present time, there are still many ar- of charge to readers in the developing world, 46 percent ownership in the rural areas. Ineas of the world where broadcast research is and at a charge of US$10.00 per year to readers in the indastrialiaed countries. Nigeria, Africa's most popu lot as country, a 1983not possible. Afghanistan is a good example. national survey showed 85 percent ownershipThe strategy used by BBC to assess Afghan A aster for materials and information on or access to radios in urban households and anradio-listening habits was to conduct a study of important applications of communication Afghan refugee camps in Pakistan, since the technology to development problems, the impressive 62 percent were found in rural Clearinghouse is operated by the Academy households. approximately three million refugees living for Educational Development, a nonprofit In eastern African countries, surveys havethere had come mainly from rural Afghanistan. planning organization, and supported by occured more regularly, making it possible toIn the survey, 75 percent had had radios. the U.S Agency for International Develop- show change over time within a country. In We have less data for Latin America, but what ment, Bureau for Science and Technology, Tanzania, for example, a nationwide audienceexists shows a somewhat earlier expansion of Office of Education, as part of its program in survey in 1960 indicated that 10 percent ofradio into the homes of rural residents Radio educational technology and development urban households had radios, but fewer thanownership seems now to have reached nearly oonununication. two percent of rural homes had radios at thatsaturation levels. The views expressed in Development Com- time. By 1967, the situation had been trans- munication Report are those of the authors formed In the capital city, Dar es Salaam, own-A Downturn Ahead? and not necessarily those of its sponsors. ership had grown to 58 percent. Another sur- Although the statistics seem to indicate that Original material in the Report may be repro- ducud without prior permission provided vey in 1974 showed that among the 14 millionthe trend is toward having a radio in every that full credit is given and that two copies of people in the country, there were 1.7 mi!lionhousehold throughout the world, this is not the reprint are sent to the Editor. radios with nearly 1.6 million of these locatedactually the case. There are signs that the in rural areas. At that time, it was one of thegrowth documented in the above figures ap- Claringbouse as highest levels oat recorded radio ownership inpears to have peaked. In fact, there is evidence Development Communication the developing world. of a decline in radio ownership in some devel- 1255 234 Sneed. N.W. Less spectacular, but equally significantoping countries. With the onset of worldwide Wade QA, DC. 20037 USA growth has occurred elsewhere. In Kenya, ra-recession in the late 1970s, which is still greatly 111e1.(200162-1900 dio ownership grew from a very low base inaffecting the poorest regions of developing Cable ACOBID countries, the put chase of radios or batteries is Men 19763, AMID WASH 1960 to 72 percent of urban households and 36 percent of rural households with radios bynot foremost in the minds of people struggling Judrenice, Direcibi 1978. Five years later, this figure had risen towith daily survival. Kathleen Moran, Editor 78 percent and 42 percent respectively. A lack of batteries and the need for foreign Robert VO eI. Information Assistant exchange for more essential commodities are Slillitan taint, togram Ass edam major problems in many developing countries ISB1401924312 Potential in China In Asia, the picture has been broadly similarwith severe balance of payments difficulties. In In China, individual radio ownership was notTanzania, where there are two factories that encouraged during the cultural revolution, butcould produce enough batteries to meet the International Division since then it has rocketed. While there has notlocal demand, most are now being exported Academy for Educational Development been a nationwide survey, recent estimates putfor foreign exchange purposes. As a result, ownership at over 100 million, perhaps five (Continued on page3)

2 Development Communication Report /Summer 1986 (*non continued front page 2) batteries currently cost as much as US$2 each-more than 10 percent of an urban Tan- zanian worker's weekly wage, and an even higher proport. a of a rural dweller's income. The dual problems of battery supplies and the shortage of radio repair services have become major obstacles to further expansion of radio ownership in developing countries. The cost of batteries has stimulated the inert- -d use of plug-in radios, but most develop countries have only limited electricity supplies outside urban areas. And after all, the main attraction of the battery-powered transistor radio has been its portability. As a result, attention has turned to developing an inexpensive, maintenance-free, solar-powered r.rdio that will require no other electrical supply source. Until these supply and distribution problems are solved, the quion remains: Will a Zambian farmer ploughing his field while a transistor radio swings from the harness of his bullock become an image of the past? n. &a am Mytton is Head of International vV `-' Broadcasting and Audience Research for the A demonstration of bow a brain scanof a patent istelecommunicatedvia INTEISAT's satellite to a British Broadcasting Corporation. He was pre- remotediagnosis center. viously a producer in the African Service of the BBC, and a Zambian Broadcasting Services Research Fellow at the University of Zambia. (Bouck continued from page 1)

In order to further professional and voca-ent challenge and has attracted an impressive tional education, lectures on water manage-diversity of individuals and organizations By ment and engineering sponsored by the High-taking the initiative, these participants have er Education for Development Organizationgained insight into the problems and the (HEDCO) are being transmitted on a bimonth-promises of telecommunicationfortheir World Resources 1986 ly basis from University College, Dublin, Ire-countries. SHARE's ultimate goal, of course, is land to the University of Amman in Jordanto stimulate developing countries into future The World Resources Institute has Approximately three hundred participants,activities on their own, building on the skills lust published an excellent reference both students and professionals in the field,acquired while bringing expanded services to book on.worldwide environmental attend these lectures. rural populations and resource trendsthe first of Because providing medicalinformation ilk Idrid,In Worid ROOM'S 1986 over great distances is difficult, developed and, ForfurtherinformationaboutProject youwillfind a wealth of global, to a lesser extent, developing countries areSHARE contact: Gail Bouck, INTELSAT, 3400 regional, and national resource wends, turning to satellite technology. The MiamiInternationalDrive, NW, Washington, DC with dcaens of charts, maps, figures, and Children's Hospital is sponsoring a large and20008-3089 Telex 89-2707, Telephone (202) --data tables for 146 countries. Six emerg- very successful project to bring the latest tech-944-7825 ing blues' that seriously affect the hu- niques and information on pediatrics to doc- ms condition and demand urgent re- tors in South and Central America. (See articleGail Bouck is Assistant Development Affairs medial action are highlighted,including: in this issue.) Officer in the Office of Policy Analysis and muldple pollutants and widespread for- In another health project, brain scans areDetvlopment Affairs at INTELSAT where she , ea decline in Europe and North Amen- sent via telephone lines from Nairobi, Kenya tomanages Project SILARE \,oarthe environment and human health; St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada, where diag- troPical deforestadom the atmosphere noses are performed. This same facility main- as a shared resource; soil degradation; tains a link with the Makarere Medical Center , and,pnpuladon growth and resource in Kampala, Uganda to support their small staff ism elPfidallY in Africa of doctors and trained personnel, helping Call for Papers In die-United State copies can be them to serve a much larger population than '' ordered directly from,the International otherwise would be possible. The International Communication Associa- -tjoellane for Itavirocunental Develop- tion is calling for papers and program propos- LAMA 1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. More Ideas for SHARE als for its 37th Annual Conference to be held Alta 302, Wishinoton, D.C. 20036, for Other projects also are in various stages ofMay 21-25, 1987, in Montreal, Canada Propos- US$5945 ddb Ind US$16.95 PIper- preparation or operation. Some innovativeals should address one of the nine established 4;'"Odc,WhbillscOninstirinnIldPlenniers. proposals that have been submitted include:divisions, four special interest groups, or the : LltePaiNgt AX 001410.0 Mitre; Pius using small, transportable microterminals toConference theme of "Ecology of Communica- 1450 Air OS pot.. and handling Is assist in coordinating famine relief; creatingtion." Proposal submission deadline is Novem- i r e l l a k e d on A c e d e d , I t a l s o i s interactive access to international databanksber 1, 1986. p iissidkations'( t 3 Ends- for nutrition education in South Pacific island For a description of the categories and sub- :4 Jet* mop Load" WCIfi ODD, Great nations or for children's television program-mission guidelines, write to Robert L Cox, Ex- ,,,,arkain Alie,! Cloth /42.93, ,lacetback ming; and relaying training programs to bringecutive Director, International Communica- '**4611.95.PdettlidatX1 hendlingiddidonal. computer literacy to developing nations. tion Association, P.O Box 9589, Austin, Texas L Each SHARE project carries with it a differ-78776, USA. Telephone (512) 454-8299

Development Communication Report / Summer 1786 3 Systematic development communication influences other major audiences chile Supporting Health in Swaziland directing the message to its target audi- enceFor example, although directed to mothers, a nutrition message will be seen and heard by farmers who learn of the by Alfred B. Mndzebele revealed that Swaziland mothers want their special emphasis on selected foods, or by children, particularly those under one year of government officials whose support for In order to successfully dissemi-age, to be protected against traditional dis- new policies is always necessarY nate health messages to generaleases through the application of traditional audiences in a developing medicines Building on this, messages were Without a thoroughly designed commumca- try, careful planning and imple-designed that were based on the traditionallylions strategy, otherwise well-planned devel- mentation is required. It is important to con-practiced behavior of protecting childrenopment projects will be doomed to failure It is sider all the components that contribute toagainst diseases The focus of the messagesnot an exaggeration to say that a development bringing about successful change in a system-was not that the diseases were "modern" asproject is only as successful as the communica- atic manner, lecludIng research and evalua-opposed to "traditional," but that immuniza-tion system that supports it tion, media, resources, and training. tion should be practiced on their young chil- During 1984-1985, the Ministry of Health indren as is other protective behavior Alfred Mndzebele is a Health Education Offi- Swaziland applied mass media communica- In addition to designing messages basedcer with the Suazdand Ministry of health tion techniques to promote the use of oralupon our research, we were able to imple- rehydration therapy (ORT) to overcome Infantment three other components of our planned dehydration from diarrhea. Building on thisdevelopment communication project successfuldisseminationactivity,another Briefly Noted 1 Media Use By determining current media communication campaign was designed for use behavior, attitudes, and knowledge of Swaziland's Expanded Program on Immuniza- the target audience, we could devise tion acceleration campaign. "adio, print, and health messages that addressed the de-by Robert Vittel and William Amt interpersonal channels weused to dissemi- sired changes IBM has recently releasedThe Guide to nate the ORT messages. 2 Resources By ensuring that an ample In developing countries, use of these media supply of vaccines andrefrigeratorsSoftuare in Developing Countries,a compila- are often accompanied by inherent drawbacks would be available to implement the im-tion describing personal computer software Radio messages associated with a project may munication campaign, we were able toprograms covering the areas of agriculture, not be very effective unless they are preceded reach the campaign goal ecomomic and social resources, physical Infra- structure and administration Programs de- by adequate preprogra research or built-in3 Training: By designing and holding a feedback measures to assure that the messages training program we could be assuredscribed cover a wide range of developing- are relevant. Print messages are susceptible to that all health personnel coming in con-country applications, among them farm plan- misinterpretation because audiences may not tact with the target audience knew theirning, aquaculture management, timber yield have regular exposure either to the written fort, :asting, census processing, population teaching responsibilities growth monitoring, water supply require- word or to graphic materials. Training pro-The Power of Communication grams within an extension system may begin ments, foreign debt, loan, and payment moni- With the experience gained in the usetoring, and many others. The guide also dynamically, but then lose theft effectivenessof systematic development communication, over time without constant updating of train-we have learned some Important lessonsincludes descriptions of related software liter- ing materials:, Id techniques. In light of these ature, supporting software, national language including. supplements, (IBM) hardware, a glossary of constraints, a cc imunicanon system that en- Systematic development communication terms, and a list of software sources Most ma- deavors to orchestrate these trouble-prone commands a special authorityResearch media into a coordinated program must confirms that greater Impact is possibleterials included in this guide are free of charge. TheGuideis available at no charge be based upon a strategy that is developed when interpersonal communicationis from a comprehensive, preprogram planning combined with radio or PI messages,from Communications and External Programs process newspaper Items, or poster illustrations Manager, IBM Area South, 190 Avenue Charles de Gaulle, 92523 Neuilly sur Seine, France. Systematic development communication Development Research Phase assures better control of the message The Pacific Telecommunications Council (PTC) has published the proceedings of their Planning the communication component of Since message conception and design are eighth annual conference onEvolution of the the Expanded Program on Immunization ac- of primary importance, the most desirable celeration campaign in Swaziland began with a means of communication is the one thatDigital Pacific, held inHonolulu, I lawan on development research phase the first essen- guarantees the message will be deliveredJanuary 12-15, 1986 Over 60 of the conference papers appear in this volume They address tial step in any development communication consistently' and correctly issues such as Pacific facilities' developments project We conducted field investigations and Systematic deielopment communication and requirements, policy, planning, and facili- reviewed data to determine current patterns of lends a cumulative impact to a message ties, business strategies, network applications, rural mothers' behavior, attitudes, and prac- Messages that are consistently reinforced tices regarding immunization A knowledge, through different media produce a great-socio-economic impacts,educationalpro- attitude, and practices study was also done in er overall Impact and have a stronger psy-grams, and others The 384-page volume is order to systematically plan an in-service train- chological advantage over a campaign thatavailable for US$45 from the University of I la- ing strategy for clinic nurses as well as to gath- does not consistently repeat Its messagewail Press, 2840 Kolowalu Street, Honolulu, er information for the design of a general Systematic development communicationHawaii 96822, USA. health education campaign on immunizable reaches audiences more quickly Multiple We have recently received three periodi- diseases. media applications can disseminate thecals that will be of particular interest to our In our development research, we were message further than a single medium in areaders looking for literature on educational looking for evioence of existing appropriate comparable amount of time A single me-technology and communications, and infor- behaviors to build upon that would lead to dium may take months to saturate an audi-matics.AGORA Informatics iii a Changing increased knowledge and use of immuniza- ence, whereas repeated use of mass me-World,a quarterly journal published by the tion, and to uncover areas of audience unfa- dia exposes alarger audienceo aIntergovernmental BureauforInformatics miliarity that our campaign would need to fo- stronger dose of the same information in a( IBI ), examines developments in informatics cus upon. For example, our field research shorter period of time (Continued on page 13) 68 4 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 Training Broadcasters: The Amoz Gibson Training Centre by Randle S. Gottlieb

In a lush tropical setting fifteen minutes'service, in addition to providing instruction inguide for a radio interview or presentation In drive from Arecibo, Puerto Rico, a vital newspecific knowledge and skills the evenings, the Guaymis alternated between educational facility has come into being An Expanding Curriculum studying and sharing beautiful examples of Situated on a five-acre hillside farm, the Amoz their folktales, traditional music, and dance. Gibson Training Centre was established in In response to rapidly expanding media opportunities and the corresponding need forDuring the final course evaluation, they com- 1982 and is operated by CIRBAL, an interna- mented that the two-week session had taught tional Baha'i field agency for developmentskilled volunteers, the curriculum has evolved to become an integrated program in Develop-them "what radio really is and what it can media. The center provides practical, "hands- be for education, for our culture, for teach- on" training in appropriate media and technol-ment Communication with six to eight training ing humanity . ogy forthespiritual,social,andeco-sessions held each year. The program is intensive and practical, designed to prepare stu- Occasionally, the center sponsors off-cam- nomic development of people the world pus activities such as a 14-country media train- over. dents for all communication-related aspects of projectmanagement,includingtechnicaling trip through the Caribbean in 1984, and an Within easy reach of all the Americas, the international"Scriptwriting,Programming, training center shares space with CIRBAL'smaintenance and the training of others The curriculum is divided into five broad areas.and Production Workshop" conducted for staff Broadcast Division, which oversees the plan- members and managers from three Baha'i ra- ning and construction of Baha'i radio stationshardware, software, human development, international service, and participatory mediadio stations in South America, that was held in throughout the world. These highly successful Puno, Peru, during that same year. radio operations have been featured in profes-theory and practiceall presented from a Ba- ha'i perspective Academic offerings range As one of the very few institutions that offers sional journals because of their unique em- training for media trainers as well as for local phasis on local participation and management,from weekend workshops to month-long coursesincommunicationmanagement,participants in a media project, the Amoz Gib- and their innovative educational and cultural son Centre has brought in students from over programming. Radio stations currently exist inbroadcast engineering, graphic arts, radio programming andproduction,photography,25 developing nations, including members of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Panama, and the United national Baha'i administrative bodies, nonlit- States, with others under construction in addi-scriptwriting and announcing, silkscreening, journalism, and exhibit design erate villagers, university professors, young tional Latin American countries and in Africa. people investigating career possibilities, and They are staffed by members of the local com-Special Training North Americans who train to serve abroad as munity, many of whom received their training Courses have also been designed to meetvolunteer workers and as consultants to the at the Amoz Gibson Centre. Several articlesthe needs of special groups, like that pen forlocal project staff. Classes are conducted in about Baha'i radio stations have appeared inthe future staff' of the Baha'i radio station re-both English and Spanish many times on a earlierDevelopment Communication Reportscently constructed in rural Panama. Instructorsfully bilingual basis. The center is currently (See Nos 40, 42 and 44.) for this course were challenged to developconsulting with several universities about the Baha'i radio stations are bases for educationnew teaching methods appropriate for thepossibility of offering joint degree programs, a and community service. In the Andes, theseGuaymi Indian participants, who had little for-step that will allow eligible students to receive stations have become the most popular in themal schooling and no experience with evencollege credit for courses taken at the Arecibo region. When the station at Lake Titicaca, Perudm most basic audio production equipmentcampus stopped broadcasting for a week while awaitIn one session, students learned to produce The center has attracted a highly qualified ing parts for its transmitter,campesinoswent"oral scripts," in which pictographs are orga-faculty with extensive media and international to the city to demonstrate, thinking the Gov-nized into an outline that then serves as a (Continued on page 6) ernment had taken the station off the air In Bolivia, thousands of villagers walked for days to attend festivities associated with the anniversary of Radio Baha'i.

Course Offerings Originally established to prepare volunteer workers for these stations, the center began with a three-week, 140-hour radio broadcasting course. The course, now offered annually, is organized around an intensive, six-day per week schedule covering the fundamentals of educational and cultural broadcasting, programming and production, legal and technical topics, and managment. In the classroom, a wide range of instructional methods are employed, from traditional lectures to role playing, mock interviews, audiovisual presentations, panel discussions, independent projects, workshops, andself-administeredexams. Throughout the course, students are im- mersed in a multicultural environment de- Amoz Gibson Centre students preparing to shoot their first rolls of:film at a photography workshop signed to foster a spirit of cooperation and 69 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 5 (Gotdkb continued front page 5) experience including: the executive producer of a national radio education project in Kenya;A Media Use Survey in Malaysia a doctor of education specializing in cross- cultur.1 communication and media; the manager of a rural black community-service radio The following article is a good example ofUS$4,100 for 1984. Eight agencies indicated station; and a well-known South American 1Vbow information from a small-scale surreythey had no funds specifically allocated for this and film producer who now heads Nationalcan be used at the local level to improve train-purpose Generally, AVA money was used for Radio and Television in Peru. ing courses for audiovisual aids users Withnew equipment, software purchases, and pro- Staff and faculty are, for the most part, volun-relatively little effort, data can be gathered andduction of publications. However, funds for teers, contributing their expertise to a "boot-assessed for the purpose of pinpointingtraining staff in the use of AVA equipment strap" operation whose facilities have beenstimgths and weaknesses in local applicationswere noticibly lacking. built gradually, financed by proceeds fromof media for effecting change The data indicate that the avaliabllity of au- course tuitions. Much of the equipment and diovisual aids and software is not a problem. educational materials were acquired through All agencies have slide and overhead projec- donations. tors; a majority noted they have public address With its emphasis on appropriate media and systems, cassette recorders, pamphlets, black technology, the Amoz Gibson Centre alsoby Zaharah S. Keeney and and white, and color photography capability, hosts an ongoing program of research and-de-Musa Abu Hassan 35mm cameras, television sets, 16mm film velopment. In conjunction with CIRBAL's projectors, slides, models, posters, video cas- Broadcast Division, faculty members have pio- The link between effective com-settes, mobile units, and video cameras How- neeredinventionsrangingfromsolar- munication practices, appropri-ever, other questions pwealed limited usage powered community radio to low-cost 12-volt ate media use, and successful de-of some of these aids. power for lighting and small appliances in ru- velopment effortsiswelles- While a full 75 percent of the agencies ie- ral homes. The center makes extensive use oftablished worldwide In Malaysia, however,ported using AVAs for extension and training this alternate energy system to power every-current development efforts are still highly de-courses, indicating that audiovisual aids are thing from the ceiling fan in classrooms to thependent on oral communication Researchbeing used' to support oral communication, a computer in the office. shows that the level of material retention re-static use pattern is still apparent according to For the Bahai's, development is largely de-layed orally is characteristically low, and mereTable 1 below: pendent upon needs at the grassroots, fromawareness of new ideas and technology is not which it should receive its driving force, ratherenough where changes in attitudes and prac- than by imposition of plans from above. Thetices are the ultimate goals. At the same time, it purpose of the Development Communicationhas been shown that when interpersonal com- Table Ont. program at the Amoz Gibson Centre is to assistmunication is supported by the use of audiovi- Media Most Often Used by Agencies these grassroots effortspromoting educa-sual aids (AVAs), it is a most effective means of Media/AVA Number of agencies tion in science and technology, training in thepersuading people to change. techniques and tools of communication, and In Malaysia, especiall% over the last twenty Slide projector 12 promoting respect for the spiritual foundationyears, the availability of AVAs has increased Overhead projector 11 of human progress. greatly, but better understanding of their ap- Movies/films 6 plications is still needed. In order to improve Video For more information about the center, con- courses given in AVA use and in general com- Pamphlet 2 tact Dr. Randie Gottlieb, Administrator, Amoz munications at the Agricultural University of PA system 2 Gibson Training Centre, tIC 02, Box 14765, Malaysia, and to meet future needs of Malay- Poster 1 Arecibo, Puerto Rico 00612. sian organizations involved in agricultural de- Slide series 1 velopment, the authors conducted a survey of Randie Gottlieb is the administrator of therelevant agricultural institutions. Among the Amoz Gibson Miming Centre. She received 23 agencies surveyed were the Malaysian Agri- her doctorate in Media and Instructional De- cultural Research and Development Institute, Although there is potential for greater AVA velopment from Boston University. the Rubber Research Institute, the Departmentuse with the wide range of audiovisual aids of Agriculture, the Veterinary Services Depart-and software owned by agricultural development, the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malay-ment agencies in Malaysia, users indicate a sia, and the Agriculture Bank. need for !rater understanding of when and 1986 Agricultural where AVAshavethemcst impact on development. Catalog Who Uses Which Aids? This study, although limitee, in scope, dem- The survey was limited to asking those re- Winrock International has recently onstrates how educators care use this type of sponsible for an organization's communica- distributed an expanded version of their data to develop future training sessions. It also tion division: 1) what communication mediabrings to light other questions for future inves- Agribookstore 1986 Catalog It contains and software they owned and used; 2) how over 200 abstracts of agriculture-related tigation; for instance, which media and audio- they used these aids; 3) who within theirvisuals are most effective and for what pur- publications available through the Agri- organization used them; and 4) where they bookstore. For acatalog, writeto poses? In what situations do AVAs contribute were used. Twenty of twenty-three agenciesthe most to learning and attitude change? How Agribookstore, Winrock International, responded. 1611 North Kent Street, Arlington, Vir- can Third World countries develop software Fewer than ten respondents indicated theymore suitable to their particular needs? ginia 22209, USA. provided the follwing AVA support services: 1) publication and production assistance, 2)Musa Abu Hassan and Zaharab S. Keeney are equipment and software servicing, and 3)lecturers with the Deptaiment of Development The Brazilian Society of Interdisciplinary Stud- lending audiovisual equipment. Communication at the Agricultural University ies of Communication (INTERCOM) is holding Allocation of funds for AVAs varied widely.of Malaysia, Serdang, Sekmgor. Musa special- its 1986 meeting from September 1-7, 1986 in Nine agencies reported yearly AVA budgets inizes in communication media, and Keeney in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The focus of the meeting willexcess of US$4,100. Three agencies reportedtechnical writing. Both conduct in-service be "Communication for Development." having AVA budgets between US$3,400 totraining courses in these subject areas.

6 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 70 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION REPORT

SUBJECT INDEX icd Issues 40 through 54

AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATION A Media Use Survey in Malaysia, No.54, p.6 COMMUNICATION BARRIERS Limiting Knowledge *tam in the South Pacific, No.53, pi Thanscending Barriers: SHARING Satellite Technology, No 54, p.1 DCFRN A Radio AWuntit for Small Byrnes, No.52, p.9 A Focus on Behavior: The Role of Health Practices Studies., No.5; , p 7 Communication Strateginfor Agrkulture: Hybrids ofa Different Kind, No.50, Perspectives on Communication Problems in the Englisb-Speaking Caribbean, No.45, p.16 Ombra! and Middkton: Some Tbougbts on Development Communication, Africa's Search for Communication Technologies for Education: A R#lection PettA Presta4 and Mane, No.43, p.1 of Problems and Prospects, No.43, p.3 The Comniunication Process: Wby Communication Must be a Two -Way Ex- AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT cbange, No.40, p.5 Maldng an Agricularral Wale°, No.53, p.3 Conmarnication Sirategiesfor Agriaskure: Hybrids of a Different Kind, No.50, COMMUNICATION POLICIES p.1 Women, Communication, and Primary Health Care, No.54, p.11 Tbe Thriningand Demonstration System of Agricultural Extension. A Nigeri- IPDC Update: Fpb Council Session Meets, No.48, p.9 an Experience, No.47, p.7 AID. Development Communications, No.47, p 5 Agricultural Extension and Man Media, No.44, p.16 Dr. Henry Canker Talks to DCR About Development Communications and UNESCO, No.41, p.1 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION Linking ICnowledge *stems in the South Pa*, No.53, p.1 , COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES Continuing Educatidn Centers: A Tanzanian Example, No.53, p.16 Suppoiting Health in Swaziland, No.54, p.3 7be7Yaining and Demonstration System of Agricultunal Euension: A Nigeri- A Communication Strategy to Improve Nutrition in Indonesia, No.51, p.5 an Experience, No.47, p.7 Reaching Mothers he Swaziland: Preliminary Findings of a Cbild Survival Growinghlore Rice Warm Leonc Baseline Survey Guides Media Campaign, Program, No.51, p.7 No.46, p3 The Colombian Immunization Crusade: Coordination and Communication, Agriadttaal Extension and Mass Media, No.44, p.16 No.51, p.20 Extension and Communications in Nepal: &forestation Program Uses Media Communication Strategies for Agriadture: Hybrids of a Different Kind, No.50, Support, No.40, p.1 p.1 The Measure, the Problem: Communication at Wale in Ecuador, No 48, p.7 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY Social Marketing: Two Views, Two Opportunities, No.47, p.1 The AT. Miatificbe Reference Library: Information When You Need It, No.46, Wonsuom -A Rural Communication Project in Ghana, No.47, p.3 p.12 Community Radio in Ecuador Playing Local Music, Strengthening Cultural Microcomputers and Health Improvement in Developing Countries, No.46, Ms, No.44, p.4 p.16 Africa's Seerivb for Communication Tecimologies for Education. A Reflection Numeracy Project Makes New Use of Pocket Calculators, No.44, p.11 of Problems and Prialioec.-, No.43, p.3 Using Audiocassettes in Distance Education, No.41, p.14 Mexico's National Literacy Program, No.43, p.15 Time for a New Approach to Population Communication, No.40, p.10 AUDIENCE RISEARCH Whoa in the World am Radios? No.54. p.1 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT A Media lls r &sway hn Malaysia, No.54, p.6 Injltienda de la Consunicadon en El Campo, No.54, p.15 Taking Video on the Road in the Philippines, No.53, p.5 Participatory Radio In &equip°, No.52, p.9 MC Planning Bight State-of-theArt Principles, No.44, p.6 Teaciaing Where There Are No Schools, No.49, p.5 Message from Puno: Radio Onda And, No.48, p.8 11111101011 CHANGE Community Radio in Ecuador Playing Local Music, Strengthening Cultural hifitatinda de In Comunicacidn en Ill Campo, No.54, p.15 Ties, No.44, p.4 A lbw on Behavior: The Role of Health Practices Studies, No.51, p.7 RADECO: Radio -Based Primary Education in the Dominican Republic, No.42, A Nutrition Prescription for the Dominican Republic, No.51, p.15 p.1 Community Radio in Ecuador Meeting People's Needs, No.42, p.16 COMMUNIGUION Extension and Communications in Nepal: Reforestation Program Uses Media WU,s in the ilbrld are Radios? No.54, p.1 Suwon, No.40, p.1 The Pansiticen Nam Agency: A Preliminary Assessment, No.50, p.16 Using Puppets to Teach Ideas, No 40, p.3 IPDC 4,41aat Poftb awned Session Mae, No.48, p.9 Community Radio Thriving Mt Ecuador. Otavalo Indians Running Tbeir Own The COnditgAgi qjbetelopment Communication, No.47, p.16 Show, No.40, p.11 Quehottl and Middleton: Some note* on Dovekprnent Communication, Villages: The Forgotten Resources, An Interview with Revellans Tulubungwa, Pent Pres" and ROMA No43, p.1 No.40, p.16 Or. ikterGenintrialktAbou t Development Communicadons and UNESCO, No.41, 0.1 CONTINUING EDUCATION lbaComManicatiOn Prows: Wby Communication Must be a Two -Way Ex- Satellite Technology: A Vehicle for Health Care, No.54, p.16 am" No.40, P.5 Continuing Education Centers: A Tanzanian Example, No.53, p.16

71 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 The Ccmmunication Process: Why Communkation a Iwo-Way Exchange, No 40, p5 Kenja F.plores New Wac of Producing Literacy MateriaLs for Basic Education, No 42, p4 nai,Na49, p.12 VIllaes: The Rotten Recouives, An Intervieu' u't ns Tulubungwa, No 40, p 16 Radio Improving the Status of Women in Nepal, No 41, p5 Rduradon,No.41, p.14 FI'.M PRODUCTION LOCAL PARTICIPATION Documenta,y on DSC Sbous 1V I)oesnt Have to to be Good, No 47,p4 lab Imtructive Cuniculwn, No.49, p7 Thaining Broadcasters The Amoz Gibson 7'raining Centre, No 54, p5 VO7IwioEinn.U.y 7OdeADecaqXIOn MaalLanguageProjea In Niger, No 44, FOLK MEDIA Participatory Radio in Arequipo, No 52, p9 pi Rural Development Through Puppetry, No 42, p5 Radio Santa Maria. A Case Stud;' of Participator)' Ez'alaahon, No i8, p 1 Using Puppets to Teach Ideas, No 40, p 3 Message Prom Puno Radio Onda Azul, No 48, p8 iEUCTON Printed Cloth Posters icus-d Ccnmunications African Countries, No 40, p7 Villagers Teaching Usto Teach Them, No43,p6 the %tir14 No.53, p.13 Rural Development Through Puppetry, No 42, p5 IMaI by Radio, No.49,p.16 HEALTH COM1IU'1CAUON Community Radio Thriisng in Ecuador Otat'alo Indians Running Them- Own Shoti', No 40, p 11 bM by/e An 1Js H*mle,No.48, p.1 Funding .sganizatIon (took at Communications Jii'alth, No 51, p10 Conimunkon, No.47, p.16 A Selected Bibllograpby on Health Comnunicaiior aaL5, No 51, p12 in bai7W.cvevnu,,Ications, No.46, p.1 A Health Campaign In Zaire, No 50, p.1 MASS COMMUNICATIONS Communication for Improved Health Services, No 51, p 1 No.41, p.14 Mthslng Health Communication in Africa, No 51p13 The Colombian National Immunization Crusade Coordina'ion and Communication, No 51, p20 Thtw byS .b1.onLague&ulaind USA, No.41, p.16 Comic Boolc Cany Health Mages to Rural Cbilan in Honduras, No 41. p3 Social Marketing Strategies for Diarrhea! Diseasebnirøl hvgrams PAHO 'Communications for Health' Mass Media in Peru Promotes "Responsible Parenthood' , No 50, p7 ONAL Workshop, No.4 1, p.7 The Pan-African News Agenq' A Preliminary Assessment, No 50, p16 RvsllNJtu7atd..Adrc*glninkre Radio Incbuchon, No.52, p.5 The School Classroom and the Radio Classroom, No 45, p3 N)gr4sdiOol(jJow,saRansf*a*eam 7)ubzfr4g of Deuek4lment CotnmunIcato., No.45, p.2 HEALTH EDUCATION Perspectives In Communication Probl?n, in the English-Speaking Caribbean, No 45, p16 hwiugic.0 in 4 Iio.N*IdHddEkc*V.* AidsIn Ltho, No.45, p.4 Su/orting Health In Swaziland, No 54, p3 Agricultural Extension and Mass Media, No 44, p 16 Nvnt&aIl)adltionsiolinnauy T ooADesr41Ion oftheMaiernalLanguagesPivject inllIge, No.44, Reaching Mothers In Swaziland. Preliminary bi."4 of a Child Sun seal Program, No 51, p7 Extension and Communications in Nepal Reforestation Program Uses Media Support, No 40, p 1 p.1 A Ricus on Behavior The Role 0/Health Practices N'51, p7 Tinw for a Neu' Approach to Population Communication, No 40 p10 Mais.'acylrl.ctMNew (heq'ft*, CaIada, No.44, p.11 Funding Organizations Look at Communications jfeat'b, No 51, p10 K.nya New ofPsvdurngLkaacyMmma1sftr Baic Education, No 42, p.4 A Health Can,)aign In Zahe, No 50, p.1 MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT Mass /1 dla In Peru Pvmo1es "Responsible Parent o",No50,p7 Learning to Use Visual Training Materials, No 52, p3 NANNNG A&bssing Health Communication In Africa, No.5 pl3 SpreadIng Good Ideas Adapting Illustrated Materials, No 48, p3 Coeu*uthgRthk-.lcinCentuA Tammian E.anle, No.53, p.16 Comic Books Cony Health Messages to Rural Cbili tin honduras, No 41, p3 Kenja F.plores Neu' Was of Producing literacy Materials for Basic Education, No 42, p4 Ra svidthe Eth lIicq'Aft*a, No.50, p.3 Breaking the Cycle, No41, p10 Comic Books Cany Health Messages to Rural Children in Honduras, No 41, p3 Printed Cloth Posters Practical Communications Toolfor African Countries, No 40, p7 IDUCUON HEALTH SERVICES CoiomMCat*IHmtheBaVSthOOI inthe Wedd,No.53, p.13 Two-Way Radio for Rural Health Care Dellvøy, No1, p5 MESSAGE DESIGN ATNI Thailast Adqs*,.g lflt.e Radio fr'uaIon, No.52, p.5 A Ricus on the Consumer: Social Marketing for Ch4nge, No 51, p6 Supporting Health in Swaziland, No 54, p 3 Ra Lagswg.A.'tc FctBaknknulLs,No.5', p.17 A Nutrition &esa*,tlon for the Dominican RepubI4, No 51, p15 Formative Research Pretesting, Revising, and More Pretesting, No 51, p9 RaID idEduanl ijAfi*a,No.50, p.3 Sharing Information for RehabilItation in the Third Worl4 No 46, p1 Saving Children's Lives A Communication Campaign in Egjpt, No 51, p 13 AModelforlnia&keRadioLiss7 RaID Mathematics Project, No 49, p.1 Mlavcomputers and Health Imp'ovemenl m )evekiping Countries, No 46, p16 Spreading Good Ideas Adapting Illustrated Materials, No 48, p3 hs*uc.gkvR, aid &hcggionra1 Desekyimait:An Gievlew, No.49, p.1 The Measure, the Fvblemn Communication at Work in Ecuador, No 48, p7 The R L uVAm PecL Adcthig the Radio Mathematics Model No.49, p.3 INFORMAflON CAMPAIGNS Sd. 1*1 BthIkq*y onb'unalRg, No.49, p.4 Music Carries the Message to Youths, No.53, p.1 MICROCOMPUTERS Thathing b.e ThehTNo School, No.49, p.5 Communication for Improved Health Services, No 51, p1 Microcomputer Update, No 50, p 13 RaID Sdnca: (ndsg the InInractIgre Radio Inrucft.re Cw?tulum, No 49, p7 Communication Works Across Cultures: Hard Data on O!T, No 51, p3 Microcomputers for Education in the Developing Countries, No 47, p1 Theftwth R(hsteacthe) RatIo,No.49, p.13 Reaching Mothers In Swaziland: Preliminary Findings ofCbild Surnial Program, No 51, p7 Microcomputers and Health Improvement in Developing Countries, No 46, p16 Leaning MaI by Radio, No.49, p.16 Saving 1thens Lives. A Communication Campaign in 4gypt, No 51, p13 Two Thoughts on the Use of Microcomputers in Developing Countries, No 44, p11 RadioStateMat*aA C Study cf Pa'?lcipaiorg Etaluatlon, No 48, p.1 The Future of Computers in Education in the Developing World, No 43, p2 Maccage Roni Puno. RatioOndaAzid, No.48, p8 INFOEMAflON DISSEMINATION Computers Come to the Aid of Planners New Software Package Aiailable, No 41, p4 An Otaiw tad Guide: Planing ImInctlonaJ Radio, No.45, p.1 A New Source of Information on Latin American F4ucall4rn, No 50, p11 Microcomputer-Based Information Big Rewards for Small Agencies, No 40, p6 The AT. Microfiche Reference Libra'y Information IThen 'ou Need It, No 46, p12 7RadioMath.matks F*a.New Raanqiln 0/Te*nOlO2J7)a,ofer, No.45, p.1 The School CLew'oo.n aid the Radio Ckzspzoom, No.45, p.3 INFORMATION NEIWORKS NONFORMAL EDUCATION Pc.a'mat*EtralumioninEducational Radio and Teletth*in: A Fundamentel Need In £Ltvelopmg Countries, The Radio Mathematics Project New Examples of Technology Transfer, No 45, p1 Linking Knowledge Systems In the South PaqQc, No.53, No.44,p.3 p. DCFRN. A Radio Netwoi* for Small Farmers, No.52, p9 RADECO: Radio-Based Primary Education in the Dominican Republic, No 42, p1 Radiohnpoving the Status 0/WomenIn Nepal, No.41, p.S Formative Evaluation In Educational Radio and 71etssi n A 1-undamental Need in Deve'cp:ng Countries, No44, p.3 NUTRITION EDUCATION EDUCAflONAL ThCHNOLOGY Tv'ung Video on the Road in the Philippines, No 53, p5 Leaninq Math by Radio, No.49, p.16 INFORMAflON SERVICES A Communication Strategy to Improve Nutrition in Indonesia, No 51. p5 MkXOCCm(*aerSfctR'1'catkm In Deuek4iing Countries, No.47, p.1 DCRAT A Radio Net Work for Small Fanne,, No 52, p9 A Nutrition Prescnpi ion for the Dominican Republic, No 51, p15 AID. Develqmient Con mwsJ'f Ions, No.47, p.S 4 New SourceofInformation on Latin American E4ucas's, No 50, p11 Resources for Infan and Maternal Nutrition, No 50, p15 Llte'ucy b* hi Peru, No.46, p.14 Sharing In! onnatlon for Rehabilitation in the Third V/or No.46, p.1 South Pacific Islanders Use Satellites in Nutrition Communication, No 41, p 10 lnnozvAonsin &htcatiotv Haid-HeldElectronic AllIn Lesotho, No.45, p4 Microcomputer-Based Information: Big Rewards fo4 Smal Agencies, No 40, p6 C.OmpWem In Education In the Developing World, No.43, p.2 OPEN BROADCASTING INTERACfl'/E RADIO Colombia Could Have the Big' st School in the World, No 53, p13 EDUCATIONAL ThLEVISLON FYOinNlcaraguca to Thailand Adapting Interactive ads No 52,oS Ay E4ae,*nc. Thathkig Video TUWay Radio for Rural Health Care Delivery, No 1, In the Maldivas, No.53, p.9 p oRAL REHYDRAI'ION THERAPY ThMthkm by Satellite Enhances LanguageStudiesinUSA,No.41, p.16 Kenyss Radio Language Arts Project. Evaluation R ults 51, p17 Communication Works ACrOSS Cultures Hard Data onORT,No51,p3 A Model for Interactive Radio Leaois: The Radio Mthem Project,No49,p 1 AFocuson the Consumer Social Marketing for Change, No51,p6 . Interactive Radio and Educational Development.i w,No 49,p1 aEcrioNIc MAlI, A Guide for Primcoy Health Care The MFJ)EX Series, No51,p19 The Radio Language Arts Project: Adapting the Rat iatics Model, No 49, p3 M*avcompuser-&adhybnatlon Big Rewards for Small Agencies, No 40, p.6 Mt The Measure, the Problem. Commun,ratlon at Work in Ecuador, No 48.p7 SelectedBibliographyon Instructional Radio, No4p4 , Social Marketing.Two Views, h.'-Opportunities, No 47, Teaching 11me There Are No SchooLs, No.49, p.S p 1 AnOvemvleu'and Guide Planning Instr'.ctionalRadio, No45,p 1 Ral*PJioM: Pat aid Present,No.52, p.1 Evaluations i'if Three Interactive Radio Projects, No 9,p Interactive RadioCostEstbnates No.49, Rava's RatIoL'mguage Arts PflVect:Etaluaticn Ressd&c, No.51, p.17 p 12 POUCYMAKING TheFourthR(Intrraciive) Radio, No.49, p13 tzaktmklns ij7be hi*ac eRadio frt4, No.49, p.11 AID. Development Communications, No 47, p5 Radio Santa InteractIve Radio In the Classroom TenYears0/Proven ess,No.48, p4 Mta*sA CaceStu#ycjPa*xaoryEtaIuatkm, No.48,p.1 PolicyConsiderations in Global Telecon'munications, No 46, The Radio Mathematics Project: New Examples 0/ Thchn Transfer, No 45, p 1 L huerative Radio hi the vom: Thi Wa'scfIfl*menSuccess,No.48,.4 p 1 -Th'a.wtn.a- J.. DL.. ,..t 'LJ .,....., . ,'..,,....,.._ -_ - ,, . I#W iVWff 41 £WMI1WCTUU4 1Y.4 Ill LJWiUJflTi L.UUnifles, LITERACY I POPUlATION COMMUNICATION No. 44, p. 3 VIdeo In the Village, No.53, p.7 Music Caries the Message to Youtls, No 53, p1 Literacy Work In Peru, No.46, p 14 Visual Communication Training for Family Planning Workers, No 52, p3 PI.D WORK ijpflcaSearch for Communication TechnologiesforEducation A ReflectionofProblems and Priispects, No 43, Addressing Health Communication In Africa, No 50, p 13 !Rima*** hi the Canbia, Sawning and flrthW*g 1eltht*ers, No 47, p11 p.3 IEC Planning Eigbt State-of-the-Art PrInciples, No.44, p6 Raid Jinaa'ch hi Boisuana Leads to Mo,w Re/mans Media hvductlon, No.42, p.3 72 Macleo's National Literacy Program, No 43, p.15 Time for a New Approach to Population Communication, No 40, plO

8, . Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 9 S- * 73 .t ,a_s_-__-_S.. . - lurninuo SOCIAL MARKETING itinteatIve Attsearcbe Pretesting Revising. and More Pretesting, No.51, p.9 Communication Worts Across Cultures: Hard Data on ORT, No 51, p.3 A Health Campiggn in Zaire, No.50, p.I A Communication Strategy to Improve Nutrition in Indonesia, No 51, p 5 Alai Media in Pelt Promotes "Rerponsibk Parenthood" , No 50, p.7 A Focus on tbe Consumer Social Marketing forChange, No.51, p.6 SproadIng Good Meat: Adapting Illustrated Materiak, No.48, p.3 Sating Gbildren's Lkes: A Communication Campaign in Egypt, No.51, p 13 IBC Planning: Eight Stage-l-thedirt Principles, No.44, p.6 Commercial Cinema: A Medium for Detelopment Communication, No.50, p 5 Social Marketing. Two Views, Two Opportunities, No.47, p 1 PRIMARY EDUCATION Soda! Marketing Strategies for Diarrhea! Disease Control Programs. PAHO A Modeller In e Radio Lessons: 7be Radio Mathematics Project, No.49, "Contmunkaticms for Health" Workshop, No 41, p 7 p.1 batetalve Radio and Ethwatiorsal Det4opment: An Oveniew, No.49, p.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS The Radio language AtProject. Adapting the Radio Mathematics Model, Training African Communicators. A Message to Media Thames, No 48, p.11 No.49, p.3 7be Math R -(Inteructkv)Radio, No.49, p.13 Policy Considerations in Global Telecommunications, No.46, p I front OW 7Paditions to Elementary Tectboole: A Desaiption of the Maternal Languages Projea in Niger, No.44, p.1 TELECONFERENCING RADIX& Radio-Based Primary Education in the Dominican Republic, No.42, Satellite Technology:AVehiclefor Health Care, No 54, p 16 p.1 Instruction by Audio Conference An Alaskan Example, No 48, p I

PRIMARY GUM Mown, Communiattion, and Primary Health Care, No.54, p 11 TELESUIDIaNE Condnunicationfor &sprayed Health Services, No 51, p.I Thanscendirig Barriers. SHARING Satellite Technology, No.54, p 1 A Communiattion Swategy to Impove Nutrition in Indonesia, No 51, p.5 Tito -Way Radio for Rural Health Care Delray, No.51, p 5 A Guidefor Primary Health Care:7be MEDIDC Serie, No.51, p.19 Ibe Colombian National Immunization Crusade: Coordination and Com- TRAINING munkation, No.51, p.20 Muffling Broadcasters. lbe Amoz Gibson lhening Centre, No 54, p.5 South Pacific blondes Use Satellites in Nutrition Education, No.41, p 10 A Media Use Survey in Malaysia, No.54, p 6 PRODUcnori nacaQUES Video: A Development Tool forWomvn, No.53, p.4 Thaindrg Broadcasters: 7'he Amoz Gibson Thaining Centre, No.54, p.5 My Dioerience Teaching Video m the Maldives, No.53, p.9 Doaanentsvy on DX Sbows 7V Doesn't Have to be Expensive to be Good, Learning to Use Visual Thaining Materials, No.52, p.3 No.47, p.4 Visual Communication blessing for Family Planning Workers, No.52, p3 Field Reward in Botsivana Leads to More Relevant Media Production, No.42, Mlining African Communicators. A Message to Media Moines, No.48, p.11 The Thaining and Demonstration System of Agriculttaad Exterackm A Nigeri- P.3 an EnDerience, No.47, p.7 PRUSECT MANAGEMENT Field Experience in the Gambia: Screening and Thaining Fiettiworkers, No.47, Evaluadon: Pas t and Present, No.52, p.1 p.11 Computers Come to the Aid of Planners: New Software Package Available, An Overview and Guide. Planning Instructional Radio, No.45, p.1 No.41, p.4 Nyegezi School of journalism Spearheads Thaining of Development Commu- nicators, No.45, p.2 RADIO FORUMS Radio Melting: Wbo for What' No.45, p 6 ParticIpatory Radio in Arequipo, No.52, p.9 Numeracy Project Makes New Use of Pocket Calculators, No.44, p.11 Wonsuont: A Rural Communication Project in Ghana, No.47, p.3 7be Renee of Conputers in Education in the Developing World, No 43, p.2 Community Radicrin Ecuatkr Meedng People's Needs, No 42, p.16

IMPIRENCE MATMUALS VIDEOTAPE RECORDINGS A Sekaed Bibliography on Health Communication Materials, No 51, p 12 Making an Agriadtural Video, No.53, p.3 A Guidefor Primes,* Health Care:The MEDIX Serie, No.51, p 19 Video: A Development Tool for Women, No.53, p.4 Microcomputer Update, No.50, p.13 Taking Video on the Road in the Philippines. No.53, p 5 Resources for heant and Maternal Nutrition, No.50, p.15 Video in the Village,No.5J, p.7 Seeded Nbliograpby on Instruaional Radio, No.49, p.4 My Experience Teaching Video in the Maldives, No 53, p 9 Results of DCR Reader Survey, No.47, p.15 7be AT. Microfiche Reference library. Information When You Need It, No.46, VISUAL COMMUNICATION p.12 The Purpose of Visuals, No.52, p.1 RURAL DEVELOPMENT Visual Communication Divining for Family Planning Worixra, No 52, p 3 Whew in the World avRadios? No.54, p.1 Villagers Teaching Us to Teach Them,No.43,p 6 1,Vluenda de la Comunkaclan en El Campo, No.54, p.15 Using Puppets to Teach Ideas, No.40, p.3 Wonsuorn: A Rural Communication Projea to Ghana, No.47, p 3 GrowingMorw Rice in Sierra Leone: Baseline Survey Guides Media Campaign, VISUAL LITERACY No.46, p.3 7be Purpose of Visuals, No.52, p 1 Community Radio in Ecuador Playing Local Music, Strengthening Local i'Ies, Formative Research Pretesting Revising and More Pretesting, No 51, p 9 No.44, p.4 Villagers Teaching Us to Teach Them, No.43, p.6 Field Research in Botswana Leads to More Relevant Media Production, No.42, Mexico's National Literacy Program, No.43, p.15 P.3 Rune Development Through Puppetry, No.42, p.5 Community Radio in Ecuador Meeting "eopk's Needs, No.42, p.16 VISUAL MEDIA Community Radio Thriving in Ecuador. Otavalo Indians Running Their Own The Purpose of Visuals, No.52, p.1 *ow, No.40, p.11 Learning to Use Visual Thaining Materials, No 52, p 3 Villages: The Ibgotan Resources, An Interview with Revelians Tulabungwa, Commercial Cinema: A Mediumfor Development Communication, No 50, p.5 No.40, p.16 Printed Cloth Posters: Practical Communications Tool for African Countries, No.40, p.7 SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS Thanscendin g Banien: SHARING Satellite Technology, No.54, p.1 WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT Satellite litchnology: A%kbicle forHealab Care, No.54, p.16 Women, Communication, and Primary Health Care, No.54, p.11 Inanetion by Audio Conference An Alaskan Exampk, No.48, p.1 Video. A Development 7bol for Women,No .53, p.4 South Palk Islanders Use Satellites in Nutrition Communication, No.41,p 10 Radio improving the Status of Women in Nepal, No.41, p 5 AreIgnTekediort by Satellite Enhances Language Studies in the USA, No.41, p.16 WORKSHOPS Video to rte Village, No.53, p 7 SCIIPTIMINTING Making an Ariadtural Video, No.53, p.3 Social Marketing Strategies for Diarrbeal Disease Control Programs. PAHO Radi0 Deering: W710 for trbatTNo.45, p.6 "Communkations for Health" Workshop, No.41, p.7 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 74 Women, Communication, and Primary HealthCare

by Mayne CM planning, maternal and child health, nutrition,campaigns In many countries, illiterate wom- and sanitation They carried this new knowl- Women provide more health care than en are successfully producing radio programs edge back to the other women in their ownand instructional videotapes to be shared with all tbe world's health services put togeth- villages. Through these interpersonal chan- er, according to United Nation's data other women. Still other women serve a criti- nels, a new health innovationa cadre of lo-cal function in the evaluation of messages de- Women are often the innovators and cally trained village workers delivering pri-signed for health;itis often their insight opinion leaders responsible for success- mary health care has been built up to athrough focus groups, surveys, and question- ful diffusion of new health practices in current ratio of 1.1000 people The programnaires that helps planners to understand why a developing countries. now extends to over 200 villages, accountingproject is not working. Women's health and status are intricate- for a population of more than 350,000. This 61 related to the health of all persons, woman-to-woman, door-to-door transfer of in-Women's Health Status eVecially children. formation has led to 98 percent of the state's Women are receiving increased recognition children being immunized, pregnant womenfor their contributions in the technical fields of The above points often can be lost or mutedreceiving regular pre- and post-natal care, dra- health and for their role as caregivers What is in development communication planning, im-matic drops in infant mortality and morbidity, less well recognized is the relationship of plementation, and evaluation.Conversely,and elective sterilization, in most cases, afterwomen's personal health status and societies' when they are integrated into the complextwo children. role in the World Health Organization's goal of process of communications designed for pri- "Health For All by the Year 2000." The commit- mary health care in developing countries, out-Carrying the Message ment to saving children's lives is encouraging, comes can be vastly improved. Closer exami- While health has traditionally been a some-and the techniques used to meet the goal are nation of each point sheds light on thiswhat reluctant partner of communication, it isimpressive But has enough thought been giv- perspective. increasingly recognized that much health care en to womer's role and status in improving According to United Nation's findings, hos-activity is a form of communication betweenchildren's health? pitals, clinics, and health programs are lesshealth providers and health receivers, and not Viewing women as extension workers with- vital to the world's health than are the actionsjust the provision of drugs and acute care ad-in the health delivery system can be risky un- of women, whose key role in the homeen-ministered in clinical settings less special efforts are made to understand the ables the rest of the world's inhabitants to eat A growing appreciation for the role of com-reality of women's lives within a developing and drink, to live in a warm, clean environ-munication in health delivery in developingcountry context Women cannot effectively ment, and to work outside the home for wages.countries has led to expanding health educa-work toward child survival if they are too over- When illness strikes a family, a mother's inter-tion activities referred to as the public healthworked, malnourished, and sick to deliver and vention is essential: it is the mother who mustcommunication approach This approach at-raise healthy childrei`. woman's own health, recognize and treat common diseases, ortempts, in a pre-defined period of time, toespecially her nutritional status, is a key deter- make the decision to seek outside help. Wom-change a particular set of behaviors in a largeminant in her child's survival. Even with the en have thus become the principal targets andaudience which has a specific health problem.strongest will in t'-ie world, women may lack beneficiaries of global programs to prevent time, energy, or understanding to do their part disease and to promote health. This emphasis"...credibilily with rural in providing primary health care for their chil- is especially evident in recent programs to dren. It is not always easy to prepare special promote child survival, using techniques suchwomen... was a key elementfoods in addition to regular meals, or to leave as oral rehydration therapy (ORT), immuniza- the field to take a child to a health center for tion, growth monitoring, breastfeeding, andin the success of this effort." immunization or weighing. child spacing. Women's skills, creativity, and leadership Here again, women have played a key roleability are unquestionably needed in develop- Discovering the Key in delivering public health messages In thement communications aimed at health inter- Women, therefore, play a key role in execut-Gambia, for instance, Executive Producer Amiventions Therefore, it is in the interest of all ing the primary health care approach and inJoof worked with the country's leading femalethat women's personal health status be im- diffusing new health innovations. In the socialradio announcer, Maimuna Bah, to produce aproved and maintained along with that of their marketing model of diffusion, the user's per-series of programs for Radio Gambia. In a pro-children's. The continued success of commu- ception, preference, and satisfaction are cru-gram called "Hospital Request," Bah visitednication programming to ensure health for all cial factors in terms of health behavior. Cultur-rural hospitals and conducted spot interviewscan best be accomplished when women are al sensitivity and a sound knowledge of thewith patients. Often, this was the only way forrecognized as active participants and change audience are extremely important. For thispatients to communicate with their familiesagents, as well as beneficiaries reason, itis essential that opinion leaderswho were many miles away. Bah also conduct- come from the target group. ed another radio program, "For Women Dr. Maybelle Arole understood this whenOnly," during which she provided practical she created what is now recognized as a model advice about subjects such as child care andThe author wishes to acknowledge thecon- primary health care program in the Indianpersonal hygiene, as well as the proper mixingtribution state of Maharashtra. When the program beof Bernadette On of the National of sugar, salt, and water for oral rehydrationCouncil for International I lealth,i o this article. gan, trained Indian nurses were sent into vil-therapy. Maimuna Blh's credibility with rural lages to work, but these nurses were rejectedwomen, and her under standing of their vocab- by the hi ..1 villagers because they werenotulary and experience was a key element in theElayne Cliff is Associate Director of HEALTH- Indigenous to the community. Dr. Arole decid-success of this effort. COM, an international health communica- ed that villagers should choose a woman from Other women, working primarily withintion project, at the Academy for Educational among themselves an opinion leaderto benon-profit educational organizations, haveDevelopment, Washington, D C This article is trained as a primary health care worker for herbeen instrumental in assisting host govern-adapted from her paper. "Dyfusion and Devel- own village. During weekly instructions, thement counterparts to design and implementopment. Women, Media and Primary Health selected women eagerly learned about familyappropriate public health communicationCare in the Third World" (in press)

Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 11 75 Methods of Communicationessentially social, political, and economic in character to a substantial influence that Planning,John Middleton andquality. is not always in keeping with the aims Dan Wedemeyer,editors(Paris: Therefore, it is with relief that I turned to the pursued by education. Unesco, 1985) 487pp. chapters on the more inclusive data collection The first two sections of this book discuss Methods of Communication Planningismethods and planning tools such as brain-some of the relationships between formal edu- Unesco's third monograph on communicationstorming, planner's workshops, suggestionscation and media from several points of view planning. This edition was prepared by thefor interorganizational coordination, and theIt is pointed out that the tradition.il concept of East-West Communication Institute, Honolulu,case study and sample surveys presented bymass media is no longer adequate, since the Hawaii. those who had used them in developing-process of education must be considered as The need for efficient use of resources andcountry settings. related to to use of videotape recorders and the important iof systematically planning Written in technical terms, for the most part,satellitesIt is suggested that the roles of the ahead are irrefutable. The question is, whatMethodsillustrates the transfer of systems anal-two parallel schools should reflect three crite- planning methods are appropriate for the de-ysis techniques to the civilian communicationria. the need for communication, the individu- sign and management of communication pro-sector in developing countries Systems analy-al's mental development, and the individual's jects in developing courr, ies? This book sug-si= originated in the unique political environ-preparation for work gests using the method of systems analysis andment of developed-country defense and aero- The third section considers some teaching its derivatives such as: resource assessment,space establishments with methods drawnand learning strategies that might be consid- trend extrapolation, the Delphi technique, sce-from engineering, math, statistics, and eco-ered in integrating the parallel schools. Some narios, simulation and gaming, cross-impactnomics. The approach has been applied toof these are that: analysis,input-outputanalysis,zero-basedpublic policy and planning in the U.S and has It is important to know more about mass budgeting, and goal achievement matrices. been found wanting.Methods of Communica- The book begins well with two chapters bytion Planningpresents a prescription for de- media and the roles they can play in the Middleton presenting definitions and a sensi-veloping country communications without education process Audiovisual materials can help learners tive conceptual framework These introduc-significant in-country trials Middleton's intro- tory chapters rightly stress that the nature andductory framework deserved to be followed absorb and integrate new information methods of communication planning in devel-up by readable documentation of planning at- Computers offer new possibilities in in- oping countries should reflect the nature oftempts made by communication practitioners formationstorageandretrievalfor their social, economic, and political condi-operating within developing country con- education Information from mass media must be in- tions. Would that the methods prescribed instraints as illustrated by some of the contribu- the subsequent 21 chapters provide support-tors, particularly Beal, Domingo, Herms, and tegrated with school curricula. ing evidence on the appropriateness of thisDissanayake. Sections four and five address communica- methodological technology. Actual experi- tion activities and programs that have been ences with its use, given the constraints on theAvailable in the US. for $37.25 plus 5 percent forsuccessful in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. availability of technologically skilled humanpostage, from Bernan/Unipub, 10033 F, MartinExamples are taken from Norway, Switzerland, Luther King Highway, Lanham, Maryland resources and information data bases, are20706, USA, or from Unesco booksellersFinland, Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Japan, France, lacking. worldwide. and the United States The question is asked. What basic require- In section six, focusing on developing coun- ments must be met by users of systems analysisReviewed by Bella Mody, currently teachingtries, India is used as an example where the techniques in communication agencies? First,Telecommunications at Michigan State Uni-media have tended to channel information and systems analysis requires large amounts of re-versity. She participated in the Indian Satelliteentertainment to urban and wealthy rural resi- liable, quantitative data, and hence good dataInstructional Television Experiment (SITE),dents. India's high hopes that mass media collection and data analysis mechanisms Manyand has worked in Nepal, Thailand, Malaysia,would play an important role in aiding devel- developing countries do not have accurateand other developing countries, specializingopment have not yet been fulfilled. birth and mortality statistics. Wedemeyer's suc-in the design and evaluation of media systems Two questions are raised in a discussion of cessful use of trend extrapolation to estimate mass media and the transmission of values. probability of occurrence of electronic shop- What is the power of media in transmitting ping in the U.S., Satia's use ofestimaterather Media Education, by Zaghloulforeign values to school-age children, and do then real data, and the large number of illustra- Morsy, editor (Paris Unesco, 1984)these values conflict with those that are fos- tiveimaginary hypotheticalcases used in this 406 pp. tered in the formal educational system? The book speaks loudly of the lack of experience Bringing together the work of 25author notes the importance of introducing with these methods in developing countrywriters representing 16 countries, the editor ofmedia education Into the schools in order to communication planning. Media Educationhas assembled a group ofreduce the disparity between the two value The book recognizes the limitations of sys-articles that focuson a major problem insystems tems analysis approaches that are preoccupiededucation today, as succinctly stated in the In the final section, the differences between with efficiency criteria, but it does not deal preface: education and mass media are discussed. The with it other than to say, "In the Third World, .all over the world, there coexist two writer concludes with the point that new tech- the absolute need for efficient use of resources sources of information and knowledge nologies, the availability of additional broad- can lead to unequal access to communication for school-age children There is the tra- cast channels, interactive systems, reduced resources in society, and the use of communi- ditional school, that of writing and costs, and other factors will enter into the pic- cation for domination and exploitation." Sys- books ... facing it, around about and all ture in the next decade, but that changes will tems analysis methods demand quantification; pervading, is the "parallel school" of the come through the educational system, not if a dimension of the problem is not quantifi- media, whose techniques, operation, through technological developments. able, it is not counted. Thus, reliance on sys- modes of presentation, and even con- It is not possible to fully summarize the vari- tems analysis alone can lead to quantitative tent are completely different from those ety of facts and opinions presented inMedia conceptualizations of communication, c of the school and which subject the In- EducationMany important ideas are ex- though communication and its financing e telligence, the emotions, and the moral pressed that are worth careful study by those

12 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 76 who are concerned about education. the people and literature of India and is "evi-(Noted continued from page 4) One point this reviewer would make indence there of media analyses, action for summary, is that a major barrier to the effectivechange, and alternativesHowever, the re-related to national strategies and policies, pro- use of instructional technology has been themaining articles from Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Aus-jects and applications, education, technology, traditional classroom system. Education, to betralia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Thailand, indi-law, and impact on society This is a colorful, truly effective, must develop new structurescate thereis much happening inotherwell illustrated publication printed in English, that make optimal use of facilities, personnel,Asian-Pacific countries as well Spanish,and French. For subscription informa- and all appropriate forms of media. Unfortunately, none of the articles focus ontion write to IBI, 23, viale 0i/ilia del Lavoro, the status of, or employment opportunities for,00144, Rome, Italy Tecnologia Educational, a Avalhble in the U.S. for $22.50 plus S percent forwomen in mass media and development com-bimonthly journa: of the Associacao Erasileara Polar, from frommiUMPufr. 10033 F, Martin Luther King Highway, Wiliam, Maryland 20706,munication This omission leaves the readerde Tecnologia Educational (ABT), (Brazilian USA, or from Unmet) booksellers worldwide. wondering what progress, if any, has beenAssociation of Educational Technology), cov- made by women in these potentially influen-ers recent developments and applications in Dennis W. Pert is Cbairpetson of the Instruc-tial areas educational technologies mainly in Brazil It is tional Systems Technology Program at Indi- As a whole, this book begins to fill the gap in available in Portuguese only from ART, Rua ana University He was the Chief-of-Party for amet& literature of the region, on the relation-Jornalista Orlando Dantes, 56 Botafogo, 22231 USAID/University of Indiana Communica-ships between women, media, and develop-Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 22231, Brazil. Tecnolog- tions Media Project in Nigeria. ment. There is a weakness, however, in severalia y ComunicaciOn Educatitas, a new quarter- of the articles, particularly in the "Action/ly publication of the Instuuto latinoameri- Alternatives" section, in linking examples fromcano de la CornunicaciOn Educatua (ILCE), Women and Media: Analysis,these three areas. (Latin American Institute of Educational Com- Alternatives and Action, K These are minor drawbacks, however, oncemunication), reports on educational advance- Bhasin and B. Agarwal, editors, (NewWomen and Media is successful in revealing ments in technology and communication in 3Delhi: Kali for Women, 1984) 132 pp.how women are taking creative steps tothe 13 Latin American member countries of Women and Media is a collection of articleschange how they are viewed and presented bythe ILCE Progress in education, educational which alerts development and mass mediadevelopment and mass media communicators technologies, professional training, ILCE re- communicators that women of the Pacific andThis book gives them a good opportunity tosearch, proceedings of ILCE meetings, and Asia regions are going to start to "fight back"share their strategies with women inothernew publications are covered in each issue and create their own media. The articles havecountriesAlso included is a useful list of keyThis publication is available in Spanish only been compiled by Isis International, an inter-women- oriented media resources and net-from. ILCE, Juan Luis Vives, 200-1 Col. Chapul- national women's information and communi-works and a selected bibliographyon women tepec Morales, C P11570, Mexico,D.F., cation service, and the Pacific and Asian Wom-and media issues and programs.d media is-Mexico en's Forum, anetwork concerned withsues and programs In the past, agricultural advancements women's issues. At i time when technological advances aremay have raised overall farm production levels In Part One, several highly critical yet in-expanding the outreach and impact of devel-in developing countries, but the improved liv- sightful articles assess the societal effects ofopment communication and mass mediaing standards that were promised :3 small development communication's and mass me-worldwide, Women and Media. is importantfarmers seldom materializedFite Essays on dia's portrayal of women. In "Women, Devel-reading for those who are concerned withScience and Farmers in the Developing World, opment and Media," Kamla Bhasin, one of thewomen'sroleinsocialand economicedited by Steven Breth, is a collection of schol- editors, sets the tone for the journal She saysdevelopment arly papers that examines how science and that development communication and mass technology can be tailored to address farmers' media "reinforce the conservative view of needs in a way they can understand and afford Available in English and Spanish from Isis Inter- The essays raise such points as the need for women and ignore their economic participa-national, via Santa Maria dell 'Anima, 30, 00186 tion and contribution..." She believes thatRome, Italy for US$6.00. new technologies to be integrated into exist- women have been neglected because "their ing socio-economic systems rather than into concerns and interests remain unarticulated "Reviewed by Deborah Ziska, Director of Pressthe pedogogy of natural science, that develop- Her conclusion calls on women to create me-cnd Media Commutzica;',5,ijor 0E1; Interna-ment planners need to prepare logical and dia alternatives "to inform and empower wom-tional, a nonprofit den elopment organiz-itionsystematic plans. that the diminishing returns en, to get women o it of their isolation." focusing on u'omer. in developing cop, triesof some agricultural research may not warrant In the second section, "Action/Alternatives," continued funding, and that scientists and the reader learns that women are no longer decision-makers should recognize that farm- "passive consumers of sexist media," but "ac- ers know their own environment well, and can tive agents in media creation." The 13 articles contribute valuable information that will im- in this section represent a wide array of actions prove the effectiveness of new technologies and alternatives, including launching a cam- Available in English from Winrock Internation- paign of protest against sexist, negative, andNew Ph.D. Program at alInstitute AgriculturalDevelopment, distorted portrayals of women; involving ruralUniversity of Hawaii Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, USA women in video production to make a development program more relevant to their situa- September 1986 marks the commencement tion; publishing a women's journal totally sup-of a new Ph D. program in Communication ported by individual donations and non-sexistand Information Sciences at the University of Communication Tech advertising; and organizing "jalsas" - a specialHawaii at Manoa This new interdisciplinary Conference kind of public gathering at which women fromprogram will focus on the training of telecom- all walks of life communicate their concernsmunication researchers and policy analysts to Between August 25th and 30th, 19.6, the and raise the consciousness of others throughserve the rapidly emerging government, busi-International Association for Mass Communi- entertainment, speeches, and resolutions. Theness, and academic needs in these areas cation Research will be holding its Fifteenth editors selected articles that show how women For further information contact Dr. MllesConference and General Assembly in New are involving other women through participa-Jackson, Chairman pro tern, Doctoral ProgramDelhi, India The session's theme is "Commu- tory and non-hierarchical interaction. in Communication and Inform non Sciences,nication Technology, Development, and the Over half of the articles are from India orGraduate School of Library Studies UniversityThird World " In a coming issue of DCR, we written by Indians. As the editors explain, thisof Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawa i 96822,will report on the proceedings of the Confer- reflects easier access to, and familiarity with, USA. ence as information becomes available

Dev-lopment Communication Report / Summer 1986 77 13 Influencia de la Comunicacionen el Campo

_ - - DCRhas frequently received requests for foreign-language translations of its articles. Althoughde locutores, librenstas, guionistas y otras tar- we cannot translate the entire newsletter, we will, as we have below, carry Spanish or Frencheas propias de la utilizaci6n de la radio. Exis- language ankles from dine to time, to more widely disseminate information onthe impact andten interesaraes conjuntos de radioteatro que ruses of communication technologies in developing countries. utilizan este genero para difundir contenidos educativos. Lo interesante de la programaci6n by Mario %Harrod Terin fabetismo y las distancias, cumpliendo su fina-radial campesina e incluso suburbana, es que lkiad de informar, entretener y promover lase utiliza exclusivamente el idioma nativo de En apariencia, no obstante las me-acci6n de la gran masa de oyentes campesinos. aquellos para quienes va dedicado el esfuerzo i didas de orden social y econ6-La Radio, Instrumento de EducadOn educativo. z irt (Aimico resuldinte de una reforma Entre los campesinos, el que menos o el que Al igual que la radio, otros canales de co- agraria, el altiplano boliviano nomas dinero dispone, poseen radios y aim losmunicaciOn estin actuando masivamente en la ha cambiado. Y asi parece, porque los cambiosmenos favorecidos por la fonuna, recurrenadopciOn de cambios Y los comunicadores, que alli se producen no resaltan a la visionhasta aquellos hogares donde el punt° deconsiderense profesionales o meros amantes simple de aquellas personas que tan solo atra-atracci6n e intcres es el receptor de radio tran-del arte de la comunicaci6n, vienen contri- viezan los caminos que sercan la inmensasistorizado. Alrededor de ese aparato sebuyendo de manera importance a los prop6si- altiplanicie. reunen grupos, unas veces de amable conver-tos de desarrollo socio-eccnemico. Y en ese Sin embargo, para el observador acuciososaci6n y otras, de interesante cambio de opin-dramatic°, como apasionante proceso le toca que, desviandose de los caminos principales.i6n respecto a los mensajes que les entreganal campesino el doble papel de gestor y actor, se adentra por los senderos que conducen alos "comunicadores de la radio" . roles que los cumple con un sent/do altamente las aldeas, villorrios y pueblos donde habita el Instituciones educatwas, servicios de pro-posinvo campesino aymara, vera que el panorama estermoci6n social y econ6mica, organismos reli- Sin embargo, para que la acci6n educativa realmente cambiando, que se ester operandogiosos y otras entidades, estatales y prlvadas,sea mas eficiente, se requiere preparer a los una transformaciOn positiva, especialmente enhan volcado su interes al uso de la radio, paracomunicadores que hacen uso de la radio, ca- los modos o formal de vida de ese campesino.nacer de ella uno de los instrumentos maspacitarlos para un mejor desempeno de su Observara, por ejemplo, que las llamas yimportantes y eficientes en la educaci6n detrabajoyeluso delatecnologia de asnos tradicionalmente utilizados como ani-los grandes conglomerados campesinos que,comunicaci6n. males de carga, fueron sustituidos por bicicle-en Bolivia, constituyenlamayoria de la En suma, que el maravilloso y eficaz instru- tas y camiones, vehiculos en los que hombrespoblaciOn. mento de la comunicaci6n, como es la radio, y productos de la sierra son transportados conEsc uelas que Slut= el Espaclo sea utilizado como verdadero medio de edu- mayor rapidez. En Bolivia funcionan varios sistemas de es-caci6n, mediante el cual se pueda promo- A su vista se le ofrecera una nueva faceta decuelas radiof6nicas que poseen modernos ycionar y luego conseguir cambios favorables la forma de vivir del campesino que, por fin,poderosos transmi'ores que cubren grandesen los modos de vida de los campesinos ayma- ester dejando la triste, antihigienica y rnsticaAreas del territorio nacional. Numerosos cen-ras que habitan la gelida altipampa boliviana. vivienda, para reemplazarla por otra de lineastros de alfabetizaci6n funcionan a lo largo y modemas, un canto mas confortable y dotadaancho de la extensa meseta andina, atencliclosMario Villarroel Tert1n, Director General de de ventanas que, antes de ahora, eran consi-por un guia o "monitor" a quien bien podria-Comunicacion Social y Tecnica del Ministerio deradas como los puntos de entrada de lasmos llamarlo "lider" de la comunicaciOn edu-de Agricultura de Bolivia, tiene 20 atlas de enfermedades y de ewes o espiritus malignos. cativa por radio. experiencia en programs de extension agrfc- Se sorprenderi de ver que el campesino Los programas de allabetizaciOn por radio,oki para beneficio de campesinas bolivianas. aymara, ya no es el elemento hurano y estatico, estin demostrando el alcance y eficacia de este . _ carente de ambiciones y ansias de progreso,instrumento de comunicaci6n que no sola- (The following is an abstract of the preced- sino que se ha convenido en una de las fuerzasmente ester siendo utilizado en esos fines, sinoing article.) mas vigorosas con que cuenta Bolivia para suque sus contenidos programiticos incluyen di- desarrollo ferentes tunas, entre ellos preponderance-The Influence of Communication on Una Escena que Cambia Paulatinamente mente la agricultura y ganaderia. the Countryside Y en ese incesante cambiar de las cosas queCanales para Divulgadon Agropecuarla The lives of Aymaran peasants of the altipla- ester ocurriendo en el ambito rural del altipla- Si bien no dependientes directamente deno region of Bolivia have been changed by the no, no es raro observar que colgado del yugoorganismos creados para atender los proble-adoption of new health and farming practices. al cual van uncidos los animales que tiran elmas del subdesarrollo agricola, funcionan enRadio has played a major role in bringing ancestral arado de palo, va un radio-receptor, aBolivia,programas que se encargan de dwul-about this change. Radio broadcasts now reach craves del cual llega hasta el campesino unagar e informar conocimientos tecnolOgicosinto the most isolated areas of the altiplano, serie de mensajes que, la mayoria, son emiti- sobre agropecuaria, cuyo objectivo fundamen-overcoming harriers of illiteracy and distance, dos en su idioma nativo. talmente es orientar y motivar al campesinoinforming, entertaining, and promoting social La temitica de esos mensajes se rehere a lahacia la adopciOn de tecnicas para un mejoriction among the peasant audience. Most Ay- agricultura, ganaderia, salubridad, mejora-uso de la sierra y de los recursos naturales quemarans have access to a radio which often miento del hogar, alfabetizaci6n y extensionprOdigamente nos ofrece. serves as a gathering point where they ex- agricola, aunque ello en menor proporci6n en Trabajando para y en esos programs, hanchange ideas and opinions about the social relaci6n al ccntenido publicitario en pro deempezado su actuaciOn campesinos genuinosmessages they hear Therefore, radio has dra- articulos de diferente indole en calidad de "periodistas." No es raro encon-matically increased interchange among these Este nuevo aspecto en la vida del campesinotrar algun de ellos realizando entrevistas me-people, and is seen as a solidifying force in aymara, se debe en cieno sentido, al adveni-diante la utilizaciOn de una grabadora magne-their communities. miento del "transistor," ese maravilloso in-tof6nica, para utilizar despues ese material en Educational institutions, social and econom- vento japones que hizo posible que el radio,programas radiales que tienen un diseho muyic service groups, religious organizations, and antes de dificil acceso al campo por las limita-suigeneris y propio de ellos. other public and private entities have begun clones emergentes de la falta de electrificaciOn Los campesinos no solo han incursionadousing radio to educate and inform the Aymar- rural, llegue hasta los mas rec6nditos lugaresen el campo del periodismo propiamente di-ans who make up the largest s.-lent of the del altiplano, vendendo las barreras del anal-cho, sino que otros se han situado en el papel (Continued on page 16) 78 14 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 volume of the Unesco resource pack for nutri- individual publications reviewed. Available tion teaching-learning. The selection of easy-from EDRS in microfiche only for 75 cents; to-make teaching aids is designed for personspaper copy available from the Unesco Region- interested in trying out innovative ways to pro-al Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, mote effective nutrition teaching and learning. P 0.Box 1425, General Post Office, Bangkok, Instructions for animating teaching and stimu- Thailand 10500 lating learners to explore the important problems and issues of nutrition and health are Barbara Minor is Publications Coordinator at provided. Although learner levels, teaching ex-the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Re- Documents recently entered in the ERICpertise, educational and cultural environ-sources, School of Education, Syracuse Univer- (Educational Resources Information Center)ments, and resource availability will differ sity, Syracuse, New York 13244-2340, USA files include a collection of papers delivered atfrom area to area, the materials included can a conference on nutrition education, instruc-be adapted easily to meet local needs. The tions for easy-to-make aids for nutrition teach-teaching aids described include flannel boards ing and learning and a bibliography of materi-and flannel graphs, flipcharts, flashcards, post- als on curriculum development in populationers, bulletin boards, chalkboards, cardboard education.All of these documents are avail-boxes, educational games, puzzles, drama, able in microfiche, and two are also availabledemonstrations, tools, and common recipes in paper copy, from the ERIC Document Repro-for paint, clay, and other materials. An initialShort Training Courses duction Service (EDRS), 3900 Wheeler Avenue,explanation of the role of teaching aids and Alevandria, Virginia 22304, USA Be sure tosuggestions for their preparation are also pro- Offered in Bangkok indude the ED number and payment in U.Svided. Available from EDRS in microfiche for fiords for the price listed plus shipping. Ship-75 cents or in paper copy for US$10.80. ping costs may be cakulated on the basis of The UNDP Asia and Pacific Programme for tbree microfiche per ounce and75microfiche'Curriculum Development in PopulationDevelopment Training and Communication Education. Abstract-Bibliography, orPages((Papercopy per pound Series 6 Planning (DTCP), a Bangkok-based service 1985, 112 pp (ED 260 960). unit of the UNDP, provides short training I Turner, Sheila, and Ingle, Richard, Eds. One of a series of annotated bibliographiescourses in media-related subjects. Some of the New Developments in Nutrition Education.(compiled by the United Nations Fund for Pop-courses available are 'Audiovisual Production Nutrition Education Series, Issue 11.1985, 235ulation Activities), dealing with issues andTechniques for Rural Development," "Com- pp. (ED 261 981). problems raised by educators involved withmunication Campaign Planning," and "Train- This monograph is an edited collection ofpopulation education programs, this bibliog-ing, Planning, Management, and Methods." some of the papers presented at the confer-raphy focuses on curriculum development inCourses run from two to four weeks, with fees ence on "New Developments in Nutrition"this area. Entries are presented in six major from US$1,867 to US$2,910 They are open to held in London in 1983. One of the strengths ofcategories: (a) Strategies for Curriculum De-government staff who perform training and/or the conference was the diverse background ofvelopment in Population Education in the For-communication support functions in their the participants, who represented more thanmal Education System; (b) Strategiesforagencies. Ability to work in English is essential 30 different countries. This diversity of interestCurriculum Development in Population Edu- and expertise is reflected in the papers, whichcation in the Non-Formal Education System, For registration information contact either examine a wide range of important issues in(c) Development of Curriculum Materials inyour local UNDP Resident Representative's ofnutrition education. Discussions are includedSpecific Subject Areas; (d) State-of-the-Art onfice or write to UNDP/DTCP, P O. Box 2-147, 19 on the effectiveness of traditional nutrition ed-Curriculum Development in Population Edu-Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200 Thailand. Ca- ucation activities which have taken place out-cation; and (e) Evaluation and Research in Cur-ble: UNDEVCOM (Bangkok) side the education sectors, and experiencesriculum Development in Population Educa- are reviewed which included extensive ex-tion. While Parts One and Two deal with the perimentation with new and different ap-general processes of developing curriculum Call for Abstracts proaches, attitudes, and behaviors. The follow-materials in the in-school and out-of-school ingissues and problems are addressed:sectors, Part Three details procedures for inte- The National Council for Internation- (a) the importance of nutrition education;grating population edication concepts into al Health (NCIH) is calling for abstracts (b) teaching approaches;(c) teachingre-more specific subject areas Thirteen of the 16 for its 1987 annual conference to be sources; (d) the training and education ofpublications reviewed in this section focus on held June 14-17, 1987 in Washington, teachers and individuals; (e) use of mass me-the subject areas of social studies, home eco- D.C. This year's conference theme is In- dia; (f) coordination of education agencies;nomics, health education, environmental edu- fluencingHealth Beavior: Communi- (g) national and local level food and nutritioncation, science, medical education, hygiene cation, Education, and Marketing.Sub- policies; and (h) evaluation of nutrition edu-and physiology, biology, teacher education, ject categories include descriptions and cation. Descriptions of programs making useand geography. The three abstracts for nontra- evaluations of communication, educa- of videotapes and radio in Thailand, and massditional education programs deal with various tion, and marketing (CEM) programs; media in Chile are included. Available fromaspects of farm management and agricultural designing CEM strategies; ethics of be- EDRS in microfiche only for 75 cents; papertraining courses. The publications listed docu- havior change through CEM; communi- copy available from the Division of Science,ment curriculum development experiences in cation vs. education vs. marketing vs. Technical,andEnvironmentalEducation,Asia, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Nepal, the other strategies; health behaviors most Unesco, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,Pacific Islands, Pakistan, the Philippines, the susr-ptible to CEM strategies; institu- France. Republic of Korea, and Thailand. Highlights of tional issues and management; market these reports include the conceptual frame- research and evaluation; training and ifr Barclay, Ellen and Van der Vynckt, Susan,work and structure of population education, CEM; private vs. public sector role in Easy-to-Make Teaching Aids for Nutrition Tea-goals and objectives, population education CEM; and schools and CEM. ching-Learning. Unesco Nutrition Educationcontent used in enriching selected subjects at The submission deadline for abstracts Series, Issue 10.1984, 132 pp. (ED 261 772) specific grade levels, types of curriculum mate- is November 15, 1986. For an applica- This issue of theUnesco Nutrition Educa-rials developed, teaching methodologies used, tion write to: Director of Programs, tion Seriespresents a sampling of ideas forand evaluation tools used to determine the NCIH, 1101 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., teaching aids created from experiences in de-effectiveness of the curriculum materials and Suite 605, Washington, D.C. 20036-4390, veloping countries and is representative of ma-teacher training. Subject and geographic in- USA. Telephone (202) 833-5900. terials currently being compiled for the fourthdexes are provided, as well as sources for the

Development Communication Report /Summer 1986 15 Satellite Technology A Vehicle for Health Training

by Norman Fenton antennas, comprising the portable up-link fa-have had if attending a similiar conference in cility, were taken to the Miami hotel confer-the United States. "v:' Man haslong been fascinatedence site where local health practitioners had with speed and distance, andassembled for the annual course. A selected22nd Annual Postg aduate Course their relation to communication.team of doctors stood by throughout the four- Dr. Altman's annual postgraduate course 1, - The need to relay important mes-day course to take questions that were tele-will again be carried by satellite in January sages has been a concern ever since man hasphoned in from the remote sites as the course1987, and will incorporate some of the latest felt the desire to explore beyond his immedi-proceded. Similarly, at each remote site, anten-technological advances in audiovisual trans- ate environment. nas and portable down-link facilities were tak-mission It will feature two-way video, and two Today, thanks to the impressive advances inen to the designated course facility Teams ofseparate audio channels for simultaneous Eng- satellite technology, we are able to communi-doctors were in place at each site where theylish and Spanish transmission. The bi-direc- cate faster and in ways that, not long ago, onlyfielded and translated questions from their re-tional video will add an important dimension science fiction novels predicted were possiblespective audiences and then telephoned themto the conference, as it will allow leading pedi- In the field of health, particularly in the trans-to the awaiting doctors in Miami Responsesatric figures in these countries to contribute as fer of medical information, patient diagnoses,were again relayed by telephone once an ap-well Participating countries where languages and continuing educational programs, itispropriate specialist had been consulted in Mi-other than Spanish and English are spoken will now possible to connect facilities located inami. More than 3,500 pediatricians, physicians,be able to translate the audio portion of the opposite corners of the world. and health professionals attended the live tele-program simultaneously attheir country's In January 1986, after nine months of devel-conference, with an additional 2,500 pediatri-down-link site, and broadcast the transmission opment, Miami Children's Hospital, Miami,cians attending the delayed program locally.Arrangements are now underway Florida, initiated a pilot continuing education for translationsintoFrench,Italian,and demonstration program under the sponsor-Evaluation Portuguese ship of International Telecommunications Sat- A questionnaire was prepared and sent to all It is predicted that by the 1990s, satellite elliteOrganizations'(INTELSAT)"Projectparticipants to evaluate the effectiveness of thissupported education! programs will be com- SHt RE ," which has marked a new era in inter-teleconferenced course. Responses were re-monplace. With the increasing cost of attend- national medical education exchange. (Seeceived from six of the nine participating coun-ing conferences that are great distances from SHARE article elsewhere in this issue.) Thetries -675 questionnaires were returned inwhere health practitioners live and work, con- prorra.n is composed of a series of continuingall. The responses, as indicated below, weretinuing education via satellite may, in the fu- merilcal and health education teleconferences,overwhelmingly positive to all of the ques-ture, help to fill the gap that might otherwise each transmitting for 24 hours, over a four-daytions, each of which could be rated from poorbe creat-d by economic and time constraints. period, and is carried free of charge as part ofto excellent. There are still complex issues that must be INTELSAT's 20th Anniversary project. addressed before satellite conferencing can Miami Children's Hospital is the first and Was the subject matter adequate? 87%become an economical alternative for continu- only hospital in the United States designated as Was the presentation clear and 85%ing education courses and other health deliv- a sponsor for this worldwide project. Develop- adquate? ery purposes, but this experiment has clearly ment of a worthwhile program called for sen- Did the program enhance you 82%demonstrated many of the advantages that ac- sitive and complex political and economic ne- professionally? company the use of this technology in the gotiating in each of the participating countries Was the transmission clear and 85%health sector. Because of its sophisticated domestic commu- acceptable? nication network, Colombia was selected as Were the visual aids clear ? 93%Dr Norman P Fenton is the Director of Busi- the pilot country to receive the first transmis- Did the program have practical 87%ness Development and Telecommunications sion. Following three months of program de- applicability? for Miami Children's Hospital He has partici- sign, the Colombian government, via their sig- Was the quality of translation 87%pated in over sixty projects related to health natory, Empresa Nacional de Telecommuni- acceptable? care in the Americas during the past fifteen caciones (TELCOM) in Bogota, filed their Was there correlation between 86%years request to receive our programming. sound and image? After INTELSAT's approval of the pilot pro- Did the presentation time seem 80% gram, separate negotiations began with other adequate? countries as well, including: Venezuela, Costa Would you attend another tele- 88% Rica, Chile, Peru, and the Dominican Republic. conference? (Villarroel Terancontinued from page 14) Bolivia, Ecuador, and Honduras later joined to receive delayed programming. This enthusiastic evaluation response wasBolivian population Radio schools and litera- Course Transmission Begins very gratifying. The successful transmission ofcy centers are operating across the altiplano, At 8 am. on January 27th, 1986, Miami Chil-the course has se the groundwork for an on-regularly broadcasting educational programs. dren's Hospital began its live satellite broad-going series of programs designed to dissemi-Other programs contain information that en- cast of the 21st Annual Pediatric Postgraduatenate life-saving medical information at a dis-courages listeners to adopt new agricultural Course, directed by Donald H. Altman, M D.tance throughout the world. techniques. Twenty-eight specialists lectured on 40 medi- In addition, this valuable exchange of infor- The Aymaran peasants who have worked for cal topics over the 24-hour, four-day educa-mation was accomplished at a minimal cast toand in these programs have developed radio tional course. The program's one-way video,its participants. as it allowed physicians andproduction skills and are now producing their two-way audio format made it possible forhealth professionals throughout the hemi-own material, sometimes even using tape re- physicians at the remote sites to participate insphere to attend the conference without leav-corders in the fielcl to collect material to use in question-and-answer sessions throughout theing their respective countries. Most remainedbroadcasts that they gear to their particular four-day period. All sessions were translatedin their home cities, which means that theneedsOthers have become involvedin into Spanish at the remote sites. course expense amounted to less than fivescriptwriting, program producing, and broad- A video equipment truck and two satellitepercent of the overall expense they wouldcasting as well. 16 Development Communication Report / Summer 1986 80 innhouse on Dek,i4topirient Communication

In recent years, communicators Ixav looked anew at the potential qfprint media tocarry educational ?newt/4es m dramatic arid ca/ twating man Neu' research and new applications have shown us how effectitv cell planned, well-integrated, land u 'ell-tested I Inn; it materials Lem informing both litera:e and non /iterate audiences These include photonoielc,comic books. illustrated lx)oklets. rural neulxtpers. and posters Developed on the lxm for the local audience, using local talent, curd addressmg local conehtunns, tl)ese materials hare immediacy and an impact that bold great promise for detvlopment activities In ibis issue of OCR rand ii accompanying calendar) we hare Awed with you some q- to Jr:toasting llOrk and pro /eats thatare using innetatitv print materials which bare come to our attention We hope ,bat you, in turn, share with its twin- own interesting print matericds, and tell us bow tbey are used in iour programs or projects I uould Nee to thank Boluue Ca her si tggestumarid aum nous e& Iry col Hinted this special (ssue Saying it Comic B

by Bonnie Cain

Pbotonme A drama. fedbtu car to aloe sequence Print medium that u, r t illus-produce, can be expensive, and have h to and comic m nd some graphic book- trations or drawings, o ju.st p phs,a brief history as couriers of education lets ire distinct f ther educational mated- holds a unique place in lopmei nu-sages, in some cases, photonovels and c als n that they stor line and a set of nication, These maters often lvwill be the most effective format in whic characters goin rough a sequence of inhand memory aid a le to the present persuasive messages that can ind ctivities developing countries. is a mediu people to change their behavior or to take can also present deta nformation desired action Alvan some complexity to an nce with lim A photonovel or comic format contains a I Illustrated materials can he used to literacy skills, When p in the very po uenced story told in both pictures and e agenda ublic action, provide a War format of photo or comic Ixrok rds, building emotional links to the story or lic remin f how to do things, and they can be fun and ion-provoking as tion through attractive characters and dra- .format) mediately available at well. Although they special skills to action Photono% els, comic hooks, pho- ti eed, mics and photonovels ha al ad s that permit story writers t

Ex I subjects, El Agric Im ret n of messages, Ex d effect relationships, In al subjects in the midst A Rural ran re t nal story

ucatio .otonovel or comic is a s rong argument st the charge that an en- by Carleton Corrsalima . _ tes a message On the t is capitalized upon to "Look for it, ask for ramatize Iormation to improve lives, to Loudspeakers mounted on delivery vehiclestional services and in adult literacy be worth- highlight the need for behavior change, and to announce the arrival of El Agricultor with thewhile investments. Interesting, relevant read- cleat and porierfully transmit Information official theme song of this new newspaper thating material is essential if literacy skills are toabout a product or service that is part of a is directed toward the rural population ofbe retained, improved, and used. larger social improvement program This is so Honduras. For over a year now, weekly edi- because tions have been distributed to every major cityA Special Purpose In the cottony In 1984, a group of 26 leading Honduran Audiences love a good story and will fol- El Agricultor is thriving in an environmentbusinessmen and women organized a non- low a plot through the driest of materials where pritst materials are virtually nonexist-profit organization called AVANCE to provide If the audience is interested in the lives of ent. The p..r..T is a unique exercise in private-media-based educational services, its first proj- appealing people they will learn along sector sponsorship of public-sector educa-ect was to publish and distribute a rural news- with them about any public health subject tional efforts, and at this time itis close topaper that would: 1) supply the rural literate or educational theme breaking even based on direct sales figures population with helpful information; and 2) Audiences love to identif with dramatic Honduran educators know that only by mak-provide newly literal. readers with an oppor- characterspeople who are somewhat ing more print Materials available to the rural (Continuedon page 2) (Continued on page 2) 5' (Cain continued from page 1) In a specific culture, adults will he attracted to glamorous but not too dissimilar. Con- that format in hopes of a similar entertaining vince the audience that the people and experience This is where skilled Illustrators their actions are similar to theirs and and photographers serve as a vital link be- they will become increasingly drawn to tween author and reader the characters and more thoughtfully An "attractive" design does not ,.nsure that a consider the messages viewer will understand or remember the mes- In this issue . sage, even if he or she is attracted to it Attrac- Challenge: Set information Saying it with Feeling . . tion, perception of s drawing, the meaning of a El Agricultor Newspaper Commercial photonovels and comic booksdrawing, the educatic nal value of a picture or Tips on Graphics 3 are a proven success People buy them andsequence of pictures are at thence-specific re- Briefly Noted 4 read them avidly Why are they so popular andactions Any graphic intenced for educational why should an educational communicator use Picture Use in Nepal ... 4 efforts should be pretested to determine its this format? Often it is necessary to package On File at ERIC . .. . 6 impact on the audience and to identify where Once Upon a Time. Telling a Story 7 information so that people take the time toimprovements should be made Commercial understand its importance. People must relate Communicator's Checklist.. . 8 producers know when their comics and pho- Visual Comprehension in Nonliterates10 to it and believe that the prescribed actionstonovels please an audience, they sell Educa- could make their lives better Women I earn with Visual Aids . 11 tional communicators have a far more ambigu- Creative Choices for Latin Sometimes the telling of a story with illustra-ous taskto measure comprehension, re- American Photonovels and Comics 12 tions or pictures can take a great number oftention, and adoption pages as opposed to the same message that Literature Review on Comics ... .13 Cost of Graphic Literature...... 14 could have been presented in a small educa-Condusion Radio Education in the tional pamphlet or set of posters that directly Producing an attractive, motivating, well- Dominican Republic 15 address the issue. So why use the story linepaced photonovel or comic with strong, rele- Why Mother Handbook? 16 format? Research shows that a majority of Peo-vant characters who display realistic and iden- ple think in "story" tormat, and that they re-tifiable behavior in stories that transmit techni- member these messages better than those de-cal information or educational messages is not livered didactically. Three features of the storyan easy task Still to be answered are the ques- line format make it a particularly good candi-tions of determining whether or not to charge date for educational campaigns 1) Stories con-for an educational publication and how to best tain analogies to real life, 2) they can carrydistribute them (See articles elsewhere in this themes within themes; and 3) they can be usedissue ) to create identity.Analogies help the reader All difficulties aside, photonovels and com- analyze the results of certain actions, to identi-ics are rising stars in development communi- fy the cause and remember the effect Thecation They are two of the few formats that can "two families" theme, widely used for deliver-dramatize the dramatic and put emotion into ing family planning message:, demonstratesdiscussion of emotional issues the consequences of one family following the recommended activity and of the other familyBonnie Cain is president of B l Cam and &so- ignoring it. aates, a media-based training company She Other peoples' lives, sexual intrigues, en-has worked in development communication for ten years counters withthesupernaturalallare themes that appeal to a wide audience The educational message may seem irrelevant to(Corrales continued fiorn page 1) these "interesting" stories, but subthemes can be ?ffectively wcven into the drama Thetunity to strengthen their recently acquired theme-within-a-theme has been used effective- shillAVANCE has become a strong and effec- ly to present ideas that are both technical andtive institutional base for El Agricultor, protect- emotional. For instance, use of contraceptivesing it from political pressures and providing may be a difficult topic to discuss within aprestige and stature that have made it a highly family in some cultures and a photenovel orrespected and creel ble medium throughout comic book about contraception, read by bothHonduras Funding wiis provided by the U S husband and wife, may help to spark a discus-Agency for Internation,i! Development with sion between .hem technical assistance from three affilia.ed or- A well-developed story evokes a responseganizationsthe Simon Bolivar Foundation from the audience because they see it as rele-of New York, Media and Contents,Inc vant to their lives. If readers believe the story(MEDCON) of Miami, Florida, and AcciOn Cul- line, they are more likely to take remedial ac-tural Popular of Bogota, Colombia tion that ends, changes, or continues a behav- El Agricultor began publication in March ior. And, audiences -elating well to a message1985, and has built a weekly circulation of over tend to remember it better 20,000 To date it has been printed as a full- sized, rather than a tabloid-sized newspaper, as Pretesting Your Design are most Latin American papers. It is designed 'Attractive"is a very subjective concept foi ..way and enjoyable readingits typeface is Your m Aerial must prove to be attractive, un-large and writing style straightforward, and it derstandable, and educational to your intend-abounds with photographs and illustrations, ed audience through preteaiiig. What consti-many of which are in color. As a weekly, it is tutes an attractive design is defined thedistributed on Sunday to avoid competing di- culture and the specific environment in whichrectly with the national daily newspapers the graphic material is used. It must be attrac- The 16-page paper is divided into two parts. tive to the user, not necessarily to the commu- The first section contains articles on rural de- nicator. If photonovels are popular with adultsvelopment programs and issues. And the se-

2 Development Communication Reportgia.J / Autumn 1986 (Conde* continued fivm page 2)

cond section is devoted to practical, instructive Tips on Getting Started with Graphics articles for rural families on topics such as health, sanitation, first aid, early cnildhood by John Comings stimulation, breastfeedIng animal care, and cultivation of vegetables. The centerfold of Nonprofessionals can produce graphic literature such as a comic bock or photonovel each issue contains a large two-page color with simple equipment and limited outside help. I produced my first photonovel with poster that can be removed and displayed on Bonnie Cain (see her article elsewhere in this issue) with no previous m_ierials develop- the wall. Posters usually contain maps or sche- ment experience or special equipment. If you are in a similar situation, here are some guidelines that will help you develop your own graphics. matic drawings of scientific phonomena such as the structure of the eye or the elements of a seed Your audience doesn't have to be visually literate A nonprofessional might believe that without special knowledge about visually illiterate people, communication will Interesting Innovations be difficult if not impa. -Ible through print media. This is not thecase Some people AVANCE intends that El Agricultor be self- may not understand a drawing when they first see it, but once it is explained to them, sufficient within three years. It is sold through- they will. Often, if people cannot read the material, they have family,a neighbor, or a out Honduras at the same price as the national community worker who can urban daily newspapers. In addition to being sold to the general public, thousands of copies You can write a story. Writing a story is easy, borrowing one is even easier There are are purchased by PIANALFA, the national liter- no new stories in the world, just vartltions of common human themes of conflict and acy program, which distributesitfree-of- resolution. Take a story from classic literature, from a folktale, or from TV and adapt it charge to literacy classes. to your needs. Or, better yet, collect stories from members of the target audience El Agriadtor continues to explore new distribution channels to reach a larger rural audi- Your target audience can help you The more you involve members of the audience in ence. Distribution to rural communities is the design and production of your material, the more popular it is likely to be. They costly and large parts of Honduras have yet to can help you to integrate local stories, issues, and folktales You may find if they are be reached. One innovation being tried is pro- directly involved in the production process, they will help to promote it as well. moting the newspaper through the radio. El Arkultor has developed a jing:zan adver- Your production process can be kept very simple. There are many different ways of tising theme song that is played on the radio drawing comics or graphics, some are quite simple Even commercial photonovels announcing the Sunday distribution. In addi- often have simple formats and less-than-perfect pictures The content, the characters, tion, sound trucks drive through a marketplace and the dramatic story are what attract and hold attentionI have seen effective playing the theme song, drawing people to the photonovels that used poloroid photos and pictures cut from magazines and sales booth. Some radio announcers have be- postcards. gun to read sections of the paper to their rural listening audience. Pretesting simply means listening to your audience at a draft stage of production The Continuing Challenges jargon of market researchfocus grout,.,, mall intercepts, etcmay lead you to A recently completed evaluation shows that believe that pretesting is difficult and complicated. All you need is a small group of in just one year, El Agricultor has achieved people from your target audience and some well-designed questions This represent- wide acceptance and is regarded as an appeal- ative audience is asked to read the material, and to explain what it means to them, if ing and trustworthy publication wherever it is they believe what is presented, and if they would show this to a friend Use the sold. Each copy is read by approximately three answers to these questions to Improve your draft. When the changes have been made people, and copies are saved by readers for in your materials, ask the same questions of a larger group use as reference material. Particularly valued is the heavy concentration of information about Set reasonable goals to avoid becoming discouraged. The social, political, and eco- rural life and the attractive colored graphics. nomic problems these materials address are complicated and not easily solved Print However, it is not as widely used by new liter- materials can inform, educate, and change attitudes, but they will only be effective ates and poor farmers as had been intended. when integrated into a larger, well-coordinated effort Evaluation of your materials Instead, the people who buy the paper are should focus primarily on their popularity, their credibility, and how effectively they mid-level rural professionals such as public provide information. health workers, extension agents, and schoolteachers, who average ten years of schooling. John P. Comings is Senior Program Officer at World Educa. 'on in Boston, Massachusetts The newspaper staff is still familiarizing it- He has been involved in materials development, training, and education in the U S self with the needs of its audience. In the fu- and Asia for more than 15 years. ture, different types of articles will be featured to provide a break from the current serious tone of most articles. Entertainment features,revenues. co Morazdn" and staff of the Institute for In- in particular, should attract a larger and more AVANCE has had an impressive first year ternational Research, Communications Sup- diverse readershipa major glal of thewith the establishment of El Agricultor Be- port Project. newspaper. cause of the enthusiastic response by school- A professional advertising sales force is be-teachers to the colored posters, the paper will Richard Martin is an Education Development ing developed to address the need for moresoon direct poster topics to the national pri- Officer with the U.S. Agency for Internationa. advertising revenue. Its large physical size hasmary school curriculum. NON/ that AVANCE has Development currently working with the El been an obstacle to selling advertising spacelaunched its first project, it will go (In to pub- Agricultor staff in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. because businessmen resist paying more forlish other popular print formats such as pho- one quarter of a large page than they do fortonovels and magazines, develop a broadcast- Eduardo Apodaca ii3 director of Vocational one quarter of a tabloid-size page. Conversioning service, and design socialmarketing Education Productions at California Polvtec- to the tabloid format is scheduled for Januarycampaigns. nk State University in San Luis Obispo, Califor- 1987, which will standartlize advertising space nia, and is a consultant specializing in the rates with the four major natio. al newspapersDr. Jose Carlet6n Corrales Calix is director ofdevelopment and marketing of educational and should result in increased advertisingthe Escuela Superior del Profesorado 'Puna!:products.

Development Communlation Repo/ Atitumn 1986 3 p jointly by the Zimbabwe Institute of Mass Com- munication and the Freidrich Naumann Foun- Briefly Noted dationIt coo.ains practical, step-by-step in- Pictures Open structions on how to use a 35mm single-lens reflex camera, develop and print photos, and use lenses, paper, and flash equipment The by Robert Vittel and William Amt manual contains a section with examples ofby David A. Walker How to Prepare Materials for New Liter-photographs from some of the leading photog- It is sometimes said that illiterate ate, originally published in Spanish, and nowraphers in Zimbabwe, who exiiidin how they came to take the pictures and how to take gooci villagershave troublegetting available in English and French, is a 35-page meaning out of pictures In our book that surveys the needs of newly literatephotos. Copies are available from the Frie- Nepal people and demonstrates simple techniquesdrich Naumann Foundation, P O. Box 1636, adultliteracy work in for producing and evaluating post-literacyHarare, Zimbabwe for £10 (US$14.30) we tackled this problem head on In fact, picture literacy is one cf the important accom- print materials for maintaining reading skills. plishments of Nepal's Nonformal Education Divided into four dearly and simply written Program sections, the book will assist literacy workers 2i G 4ide to International Education, Earlier research had shown us that Nepalese in developing print materials and services fore David Hoopes, is a comprehensive adults did indeed have trouble understanding new literates, who often lack printed materials yob.. .at lists addresses and descriptions of written at a slightly higher level than basic U S orograms, organizations and publi-three dimensional spatial relationships depicted on flat, two dimensional surfaces, but that teaching texts. Available in English, Spanish,cation, contxn. -I with international studies they were astute at identifying pictured ob- and French for US$7 (members) and US$5and global education. Designed for students (nonmembers) from: International Readingand educators, this guide provides informa-jects Even distorted illustrations, such as cartoons, were easily understood But identifying Association, 800 Barksdale Road, P 0 Boxnon on such topics as educational exchange what is shown is not the same thing as under- 8139, Newark, De!eware 19714-8139, USA. organizations; grants, awards, and fellowships for international studies and programs, for-standing the meaning or the intended message eign language learning; regional studies cen-of an illustration. Villagers simply see a picture ters, and academic programs and selected re-for what it is and feel no compulsion to "read" Primary health care (PHC) is consideredsources for country studies The cloth-coveredany additional meaning into it by a majority of health professionals to be theGuide costs US$75 00 and is published by most cost-effective and practical method of Facts on File, 460 Park Ave. South, New York,Beyond Picture Description achieving the goal of "Health for All by theNY 10016, USA As in many literacy programs, we use pic- Year 2000." Primary Heath Care Technologies tures in Nepal to introduce key words. Consid- at the Family and Community Levels reports er, for example, a picture showing a family on an international workshop held in Sri Lanka A Farmer's Primer on Growing Rice, bymigrating The intended meaning is to call at- in the fall of 1985 whist. was sponsored by the Benito Vergara, is one of the most widely trans- tention to the way increased population pres- Aga Khan Foundation, Unicef, and the Worldlated and distributed agricultural handbookssure has depleted the traditional agricultural Health Organization The report emphasizesin print. Published in English by the Interna-resource base Deforestation and land erosion the need for communications that facilitate the tionalRice Research Institute(IRRI),thishave been two of the mc3t serious conse- dissemination of appropriate PHC informa- 221-page book uses illustrations with simplequences Marginal farmers can no longer sur- tion; particularly needed are innovative partic-captions to teach farmers and rice techniciansvive in the hills of Nepal and are being forced ipatory communication strategies that take ad-about how and why improved rice varietiesto move to the lowlands in the south A typical vantage of existing traditional communicationand agricultural technologies increase cropvillager describing such a picture might say: structures, such as the oral tradition. The key yields. Topics covered include the life cycle of The girl is carrying a baby The man has some- targets of such information flow are communi-the rice plant, selecting good seedlings, in-thing under his arm This looks like a cow. ty organizations and training programs for vil-creasing the efficiency of fertilizer, and con-These are goats, or maybe sheep. Look, this lagers that: 1) involve the community in the trolling weeds. This book and addresses forwoman has an umbrellaIf encouraged to planning, formative evaluation, and mainte- other language editions are available from thedescribe what these people appear to be do- nance of health programs; 2) improve the sta- Communication and Publications Department, ing, the villager might add that the picture tus of women, who are the primary health care IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines shows a family migrating. A response such as deliverers in the villages; and 3) are integrated this shows the observer has no trouble identi- with a well-coordinated national health pro- fying what is depicted, yet the intended mes- gram. Available free from Unicef, 866 United Another publication brought to our atten-sage of the picture is hardly touched upon, let Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA. tion that will interest those who follow Africanalone consciously articulated. telecommunication issues is a new newsletter, Participants in the literacy program are Two volumes have recently arrived at thethe African Telecommunication Report A pri-asked to study and describe illustrations such Clearinghouse that will interest our Africanvate venture, this newsletter has been estab-as this one throughout the six month course. readers. The first is published by the Thor isonlished to keep readers informed about impor-As a first step, the class is broken into small and Freidrich Naumann Foundations in 1.ssoci-tant issues and developments of telecommun-groups to discuss the picture among them- anon with the Commonwealth Media Develop-icationapplicationsinAfrica.Publishedselves. Then one member is selected from ment Fund. Reporting Afric.a, edited by D.monthly,introductorysubscriptionsareeach group to come to the front of the class Rowlands and Hugh Lewin is a 181-page man-US$78 per year (US$98 regularly) plus $12and, using a large poster reproduction, tell ual written by and for Anglophone African re-overseas postage and handling. To subscribewhat his or her group understood from the porters. It is intended as a training manual forcontact: African TelecommunicationReport,picture. We found that these group reports beginning reporters. Topics covered include1718 Connecticut Avenue, N W., Suite rarely went beyond a superficial description of source development, interviewing, political 410, Washington,D.C. 20009 Phone (202)what objects were being depicted or what ac- and legal news coverage, radio and 'IV report- tions were taking place. This did not mean that ing, and photography for journalists. Each 939-8327. the participants could not say more when en- chapter concludes with a handy bibliography. couraged to do so, it simply meant that they Copies are available from the African Council defined their task very narrowly. on Communication Education,P.O.Box In order to help the participants respond to 47495, Nairobi, Kenya for £5 (US$7.15). illustrations at other levels, the facilitator final- The second volume, ThainingManual. Pbo-Robert Vittel and Bill Amt work inthely questions the entire class He might ask. tograpby, by Margaret Waller, is publishedClearinghouse 82 "Where do you think this family is going and 4 Development Communication Report /Autumn 1986 money by selling vegetables at the weekly market. Six frames of the text of the comic depict a Unexpected Horizons in Nepal confrontation between Suntali and her husband in which he demands the vegetable money that she has hidden away This episode ends when Sui.a!i finds that Biray has taken the money In the next installment, Biray loses the why? Have any people from our village migrat-Introducing Comics money at cards and returns to take some of ed? How do you think this family feels about Because question words co.: 'd often be Suntales jewelry There is a fight. He ends up what is happening? Is this a good thing or a badwritten with a single syllable, may of our ear- unconscious on the floor and Suntali takes her thing?" Questions such as these help the groupliest reacting passages were in the form of dia- child and leaves for her father's village In the to analyze the picture, to relate it to their ownloguesquestions and answers. The dialogue final episode Biray repents and swears to give life experience, to empathize with the situa-idea was i:onfusing for the new learners. how- up drinking and gambling. The story ends w*th tion and to make value judgments. In this way,ever, as it involved two speakers and they easi- Suntali debating whether or not to return to after repeated experiences, the participantsly lost tract; of who was saying what We him. This comic was very popular among the learn to read more meaning into illustrationsthought of illustrating the dialogues in the participants and the problems it depicted were As the course progresses, their spontaneousmanner of a comic strip, the purpose being to considered realistic and relevant to their own reports begin to show the kind of perceptive-clarify who was speaking in each instance concerns (They invariably felt Suntali should ness that we would call getting the meaning or As we began to work with comics, however, go back to Biray.) (See illustration.) the intended message of the picture. we found them taking on a life of their own Although some of our problems preparing From the beginning of Nepal's NonformalUsing the lists of possible words, we wrote reading materials in Devanagari had to do with Ed: wation Program, which was developed andstories and comics for each of the early les- the particular nature of that script and the or- tested over a period of seven years withsons. We discovered that the comics for anyder in which we introduced the syllables, I technical assistance from World Education, agiven lesson were vastly more interesting and think more general conclusions can be dr? conscious effort was made to develop wayscomplex than the stories we were able to de- A comparison of the two formats shows that to communicate through pictures. Adult learn-velop. Looking over our work we found that the written story must be coherent while the ers meet six days a week for a period ofthe stories were limited in vocabulary and sim- comic can be fragmentary. This difference al- six months. During that time they learn tople, if not to elementary, in theme, whereas the lows for a great deal more freedom when writ- read and write and to solve simple arithmeticcomics were dramatic, provocative, and were ing comics. It is even possible to carry on the problems. They are also exposed to a wideable to address serious social issues. This was action for one or two frames without words at range of functional content in areas relevantbecause the dialogue and pictures of the com- ail. This means that much more ground can be to Nepal's development priorities, such asics were able to convey an array of actions and covered with a given number of words in a health, child care, family planning, agricul-ideas in a variety of ways while our stories comic format than in a story format That is an importantconsideration when preparing reading material for new literates. Too many words on a page can be overwhelming. The rei chtu 417diV km@ pictures make the page less formidable and at the same time reinforce the written word. The Ur ocbviii ?fig, story line can be carried along much more swiftly in comics as well -a big advantage for slow readers. As they struggle to read the words of a story or essay, they can lose the 11, thread, much like not being able to see the forest because of the trees. Once we had pictures and comics in our primer we were able to experiment with other ways to use them. For example, we had the participants role-play the comics (a confidence-building activity). We were surprised to see how quickly they were able tc' mimic not only the actions but even the &cal expressions. Later we asked them to create their ov., n stories around the discussion pictures and role-play those. Asa form of creative writing we drew situations with blank "bubbles" and asked the participants to fill in the dialogue. The many different kinds of illustrations in Nepal's literacy program not only add-d to the attractiveness of the package, it opened up the ture, and resource conservation. had to be grammatically correct. We had topossibility for many valid learning activities. Unanddpsted Discovery lane out many good ideas simply because weConstant testing and revision showed many of An unanticipated discovery we made whilecould not write one important word. these activities to be educationally sound and developing and testing the curriculum was that As an example, the script in one early lessonanpropriate to the cultural setting in which we the use of pictures tremendously increased therear's: "Gopal lives in Gorkha. Gopal has a son. worked. The further forward we went the number of meaningful ideas we could commu-Gopal has a cowshed. Behind the cowshedmore our horizons kept expanding. The end is nicate in the early lessons. This was important,there is a forest. Gopal's son takes the animalsnot yet in sight. because we wanted to introduce the localinto the forest," etc. It is hardly one you could script (Devanagari) in manageable increments,get excited about. The frequent repetition ofDavid Walker served as World Education's while giving the participants the experience ofthe name Gopal is used because the syllableResident Adviser in Nepal from 1979 to 1986 using the written language for learning and en-needed to write "he" is not introduced untilDuring that period he oversaw the develop- joyment as early on in the course as we could. several lessons later. ment of Nepal's Nonformal Education Pro- We introduced the syllables gradually and tried In the same lesson there is a four-page com-gram from starting as a pilot project at a to provide as much interesting reading in eachic about a hard-working woman whose hus- university research center to becoming the gov- lesson as the pool of syllables allows. 'lend is a gambler and a drunkard. She earnsernment's national adult education program.

Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 produce materials !rt their own subject area. Unit Five emphlsizos specific instructional"URTNA SCREEN" On File at ERIC writing skills with advice on distinguishing be-TV for and by Africans tween different kinds of instructional materials, what to include and how to organize it, and by Barbara Minor writing correspondence units. The final unit The First International Screening of African- outlines processes of editing, reproducing ma-made 1V Programs, "URTNA SCREEN," was Documents recently entered in the ERICterials, administration, tutoring, and evalua-held in Nairobi, Kenya, October 1-3, 1986, (Educational Resources Information Center)tion. Four supplements provide additional in-sponsored by the Union of National Radio and files include a tr.4a1 for writing distance edu-formation on learning theories, behavioralTelevision Organizations of Africa's (URTNA) cation instructional materials and sample ma-objectives, media, and readibility and layout.Programme Exchange Centre. Designed spe- terials, a resource book for adult basic educa-Available from EDRS in microfiche only for 75cifically for professional media people in Afri- tion,a report on the development ofcents ca, this event allowed participants to meet one fotonovelas for teaching literacy, a guide for Writing for Distance Education. Samplesanother, to discuss common problems. to re- teaching reading through the newspaper, and view programs from across the African conti- a guide for producing publications. All of theseBooklet 1983, 46pp. (ED 246 897) Approaches to the format, design, and layoutnent, and to plan constructive TV program- documents are available in microfiche, and ming for the future. Winners of the best TV three are also available in paper copy, fromof printed instructional materials for distance education are illustrated in 36 samples de-programs of the year were announced at the the ERIC Document Reproduction Service conclusion of the screening. (EDRS), 3900 Wheeler Ave., Alexandria, Virgin-signed to accompany the manual reviewed above. Each sample is presented on a single The 1986 session of the Programme: Ex- ia 22304, USA Be sure to include the ED change and Cultural Affairs Commission of number and payment in U.S. fur for thepage with a note pointing out its key features Features illustrated indude use of typescriptURTNA followedimmediatelyafterthe price listed plus shipping. Shipping.xsts may screening. be calculated on the basis of three microfichelayout, a comic strip story, various question and instruction formats, checklists, signs and a URTNA provides a vital broadcast develop- per ounce and 75 microfiche or pages of paper ment link to its 43 member-organizations copy per pound key, study guidance, diagrams, list formats, pictures reinforcing written messages, objectives,throughout Africa. It focuses particularly on deJardon, Linda King, ed. Writing for Dis-culturally relevant design, charts, flowcharts,program development, program exchanges, tance Educ,ation. A Manual for Writers of Dis-tables, photographs, and illustrations. Materi-training, and technical research. Recently, tance Teaching Taus and Independent Studyals used in the examples are taken from aURTNA assisted in organizing media coverage Materials, 1983, 91pp (ED246 896) variety of actual projects and courses in such of international events, and advising on the Six Instructional units from the Internation-institutions as the Mauritius College of the Air,protection of copyrights. There are plans to al Extension College (Cambridge, England) of-Javeriana Open University (Colombia), Bot-hold more workshops and screening sessions fer guidance in the process of writing printedswana Extension College, -enya Cooperative for the benefit of member-organizations. News educational materials. Each unit provides ob-College, Open University, Lesotho Distancefrom the screening and the conference proceedings will be reported in a future issue of jectives, writing exercises and activities, andTeaching Centre, and the National Extension end-of-unit discussion questions. Unit OneCollege. Available from EDRS in microfiche DCR. considers the first steps in writing, emphasiz-only for 75 cents. ing the importance of varying instruction according to student needs and background, and Cheyney, Arnold B. Teaching Reading discussing how people learn. Active learningSkills through the Newspaper Second Edition. and different types of learning activities areReading Aids Series: An IRA Service Bulletin. then examined in the second unit. The th 1 1984, 6Opp. (ED 250 672) addresses ways of improving a presentation, Recognizing that newspapers are among the such as writir:: in an appropriate style; usingbest supplementary instructional materials, Barton, Frank and Lehrke, Gunter. The clear, simple language; and trying alternativethis booklet from the International ReadingLayman Printer Communication Manual presentation forms, as with pictures and dia-Association offers suggestions for the use of1983, 96pp (ED 257 056) grams. Unit Four covers all steps of productionnewspapers for teaching or reinforcing specif- Intended for those responsible for all kinds rod starts students on an individual project toic reading skills. The booklet focuses on infer-of publications in developing countries, this ential and evaluative comprehension skills,manual from the Friedrich Ebert Foundation and the suggestions range i_ om how to teach(Bonn, West Germany) has three main objec- r- students to identify main ideas and details totives: (a) to give the ordinary person who A Call for Papers the development of higher order critical read-knows nothing about printing or printing The Association for Educational and ing competencies. Though its major emphasisprocesses enough information to be able to Training Technologyisholdingits is on comprehension, the booklet gives somedeal intelligently with a printer; (b) to show Twenty-second Annual Conference in attention to the reinforcement of decodinghow it is possible for a person or group of Southampton,EnglandfromApril skills through the use of newspapers. Follow-persons with no previous experience to set up 13-15, 1987. The theme for die Confer- ing an introduction, the first two chapters pro-their own printing operation; and (c) to dem- ence is "Designing for Learning: Educa- vide a rationale for using the newspaper as anonstrate how modest publicationsfrom leaf- tion, Work, and Community Perspec- instructional resource and using it to teachlets to small booklets, and even rural newspa- tives." Papers should reflect one of the reading. The remaining chapters provide sug-pers serving particular groups of peoplecan facets of the conference theme: "What gestions in the following areas: (a) teaching abe produced. Various sections of the manual has happened to learning design?" us- reading lesson with the' newspaper; (b) devel-deal with relief block, rubber printing, lettering one or more of the conference per- oping critical readers; (c) i _veloping vocabu-press, linotype, offset litho, stencil duplicating, spectives of education, work, and com- lary and word identification skills; (d) develop-dealing with the printer, starting one's own munity.Papers and workshops on ing appropriate reading rates; and (e) readingpublication, getting price quotations, prepar- theory and practice are also welcome. and the language arts. A list of suggesteding the manuscript, proofreading, and pagina- For submission guidelines d fur- books, materials, and periodicals is appended.tion. Available from EDRS in microfiche for 75 ther h;ormadon about the ct...rence Available from EDRS in microfiche for 75 centscents or in paper copy for US$7.20. please write to Robin Budgett, Confer- or in paper copy for US$5.40; or from the ence Coordinator, ETIC '87, Depart- International Reading Association, 800 Barks-Barbara B. Minor, Publications Coordinator, ment of Teaching Media, The University, dale Rd., P.O. Box 8139, Newark, DelawareERIC Clearinghouse on Information Re- Southampton, S09 5NH, England 19714, USA (IRA Book No. 210, US$3.00 mem-sources, 030 Huntington Hall, Syracuse Uni- ber, USs4.50 nonmember) 84 versity, Syracuse, New York 13244-2340, USA Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 O n c e U p o n a Time. . . Telling a Story

by Mary Whittington Employing a story that carries a Pacing is the selection of which actions takestory line from the comic book that was pro- development message is a suc-place in which frames (sequences of illustra-duced in Pakistan by the i.ga Khan Central cessful way of reaching an audi-tions that "tell" the story) Commercial pho-Health Board with technical assistance from ence, and a piece of graphic liter-tonovels and comic books usually follow twothe Program for Appropriate Technology in ature that tells a story, such as a comic book orprinciples1) Do not confuse the audienceHealth (PATH) This comic book was part of a a photonovel, is a unique way of transmittingwith an unfamiliar layout If the audience istwofold project, an accelerated program that that message. used to reading from left to right, let themencouraged people to take iodized oil cap- Maw development professionals prefer tocontinue to do so in your publication. 2) Ex-sules to prevent goiter development and a address the audience in a didactic manner plain the conflict quickly, depict the crisis inlong-term program to promote replacing non- one of instruction, not persuasion Some pro-the conflict, show how the people will contin-iodized rock salt with iodized salt fessionals view their message with such impor-ue their lives after resolution of the crisis After The comic book chronicles the story of Iiur tance, that using an illustrated story appears tointroducing the characters and plot, the authorBibi, who has had a goiter since childhood and be unnecessary "sugar-coating." However, in abuilds the story with scenes that increase inis now pregnant, and her interaction with Ra- community that has coped with a situation forintensity as they approach the end of the con-bia, a Lady Health Visitor Rabia compa cs I lur a long time or is facing more pressing prob-flict. The pace of the plot should vary, gradual-Bibi's son, who has goiter, with another child lems and cannot take the time to respond im-ly building to a climax, then slowing down towho does not mediately, a more appealing format is neededpermit characters to reflect on their actions, Although they are the same age, the child to hold their attention plan new actions, and continue Pacing the dra- with a goiter is shorter and smaller Rabia ex- ma effectively is an important key to develop- plains that the other family uses iodized salt, Selecting an Approach ing a good story. The needs of the audience determine and that iodized salt will produce healthy, ac- The climax of the story reveals the final reso-tive children, while children with goiter lack whether or not a story-oriented approach willlution or attempted resolution of the main work and what type of story to use in deliver- the energy to play or concentrate in school. The conflict. Most authors quickly wrap up the sto-merchant extends his support to the program ing an educational message The story/illustra-ry after the climax tion format can be very effective in certain and will no longer carry noniodized rock salt situations. A community that has already decid-Ensuring Efrectiveness The pamphlet, developed by a local artist, ed to install a well needs only clear instruc- An exciting plot and impressive visuals willuses bright colors, details of the local land- t ons and illustrations on how to proceed tobe wasted if the audience does not understandscape, indigenous farming practices, animals, install one. In this case, much of the educa-or identify with the actual message. Pretestingfood, and even common body positions; it tional task is already accomplished becauseof the materials is an absolute must, as all thespeaks directly to the intended population they havtaken a course of action. Illustratedfactors that have been discussedplot, charac- .tory- orier'ed comic books and photono- print material is a powerful tool to cor.veyterization, visual style, and pacing must re-vels can be a powerful tool in development these "how-to" messages flea the culture in which the story unfolds.communications. Through audience market A more difficult task is to convince an audi-Pretesting should focus not only on the audi-research, communication practitioners can be ence to change a particular behavior. In thisence's perception of the character's visibleassured that the intended audience has played case, both instruction and persuasion aretraits such as facial features, clothing, or bodya central role in designing an educational mes- called for. For example, convincing a couplecarriage, but also indicate the emotional reac-sage and that the message is more likely to be that they should practice family spacing callstion of the readers to the story. Which charac-received by anattentive and responsive for both clear instructions and illustrations onter did you like best and why? Do they remindaudience effective contraceptioa practices, and for per-you of someone you know? How? Or whatMary Whittington is a writer and researcher suasive messages that family spacing is formakes them different? Could any of thesewith B J Cam & Associates, Inc and, as a them. This is a "will-you" situation; that is, willevents happen to you, or someone you know?freelance writer, has produced programs for you change your behavior to accomodate this For example, the illustrations below wouldpublic and cable television She holds a M FA. practice? not be interesting to many Western readersm Theatre from The Catholic University of who are used to action-packed novels It is aAmerica Effective Story Development In order to effect an emotional response, a story should have an interesting plot and characters that appeal to the audience. Th! plot is the action or what happens in the story It usually consists of a main conflict between people, organizations, families, with an endless combination of possibilities. In the begin- nine of the story, the audience should recognize the cause of the conflict and be,tin to develop alliances with certain characters. Characterization is another important factor in story writing. The audience should quickly develop feelings about the characters, and care about the outcome of their struggles. Audience identification, such as with a woman who does not want any more children, can be a solid basis for persuading the audience, or even forexposing theissues and generating discussions.

Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 7 A Communicator's Checklist

Guide to Mass Media and Sup- The Guide is extremely useful as an annotat- The methodology section includes descrip- port Materials fin Nutritioned description of materials. It provides an easytions of the region, sampling procedures, the EducationinDevelopingreference for educators wishing to use exam-application of variables, the questionnaire, 1Countries, by Marcia Grif-ples and types of education and media materi-data, statistical analysis, and the limitations of fiths, et. al., (Newton, Mass.: Interna-als that have been developed in nutrition Thethe study tionalNutritionCommunicationreader will have to use his or her own judg- In the results section, Munoz concludes that Service, 1985) 128pp. ment as to whether any of the materials wouldthe tests support the hypothesis that Illustra- This Guide contains 316 reviews of nutritionbe appropriate for their target audience, givention is not an intercultural language, but that education materials, which are organized bythe large diver: Ity of educational, cultural, cli-interpretion of illustrationsis primarily a topics including nutrition for the family, ma-matic, regional, and linguistic differences be-learned skill. Munoz suggests that rural people ternal nutrition, young child feeding, growthtween populations of the world. be given more exposure to illustrated materi- monitoring, and nutrition-related health prob- Available free to nutrition educators in devel-als to encourage development of their visual lems. Furthermore, names and addresses ofoping colmtries, and for US$10 elsewhere from:skills, and that this should be supported by the producers are provided so that the readerINCA, Education Development Center, 55 Cha-research to increase our understanding of vis- can request additional information and sam-pel Street, New." hfessadrosetts, USA. 02160 ual literacy. ples of the materials. It combines the efforts of Reviewed by Marilyn Rice wbo is the Region- The monograph has a 92-entry bibliog Manoff International, Inc., and the Educational Advisor in Health Education at PAHO/WHOphy, a 23-page literature review, and an appen- Development Center, Inc., two wen-knownin Washington, D.C.. Sbe has worker' in thedix with numerous statistical tables. The paper and respected groups in the field of educationfield of publk health project coordination anddid not have a table of contents, which consid- and communication. education in the U.S. and abroad for 13 years.ering its technical nature, would have been The worldwide acceptance and use of mass helpful media and educational materials in nutrition This useful study made me as/ -we of what education programs is well demonstrated by Understanding Visual Illiter-can be done to improve illustration techniques the broad range and diversity of materials re- acy: A Study of Comprehen-I have used as a resource scientist who has had viewed in this book. The Guide includes sion of Pictorial Messagesto communicate with Africans of different edu- charts, radio spots, puppets, stories, games, Among Farmers by Miltoncational backgrounds ranging from college- flannel graphs, filmstrips, booklets, manuals,Munoz, Richard Powers, ed. (Madi-educated technical counterparts or adminis- slides, etc. Contributions come from many de-son, Wis.: University of Wisconsin,trators to rural villagers. I believe others who veloping countries in Africa, Asia, Latin Ameri-1986) 94pp. are involved in visual communications, partic- ca, and the Middle East. The reader is given a Most people, whether they can draw or not,ularly in developing countries, will benefit good overview of the types of and trendsoften refer to the old adage that a picture isfrom reading this study with its thorough and in educational materials being developedworth a thousand words. Those who work inrigorous approach. throughout the world. developing countries and who like to draw, Available free of charge from the Department Materials included in this publication aretend to try and prove this saying by using manyof AgrieulturalJournalism, 440 Henry Hall, Uni- described according to their country of origin,grapkics they consider to be good. Ea as Mu-versity ofWisaxisin-liadison, Madison, Wiscon- language, content, format, and target audience.noz says in the introduction to his study, pic-sin, 53706, USA. Include US$1.35 for postage. In some instances, the authors provide furthertures might not always be worth a thousand Reviewed by Chuck Dorigan, an environ- information about how the materials were de-words. Some people in developing countriesmental scientist and consultant who has signed and evaluated However, the book doesmight have a difficult time interpreting pic-worked for ten years in remote sensing and not provide an evaluation of the materials' pos-tures because of their lack of exposure to illus-integrated resource assessment projects in itive and negative features. tration techniques or because their life experi-Africa In defense of this approach, the authors giveences do not allow them to relate to what they recommendations for the successful incorpo-see in a drawing. The study points out that Issues in Planning and Im- ration of mass media and educational materi-illustrations are often selected on the basis of plementing National Literacy als into nutrition education programs. Theysubjective feelings of design and on concepts Programmes, G. Carron and suggest that evaluation of materials should beof pictorial composition that are intuitive rath- A. Bordia, editors.(Paris: based on more than physical appearance ander than scientific in nature, and thus notUnesco, International Institute for statistical impact; it should include the processalways perceived in developing countries as Educational Planning, 1985) 385pp. used in developing the materials and the roleintended. Despite some significant national programs they play within the overall communication By examining the differences in pet ception mounted in recent years, the international lit- strategy. Thus, specific questions and guide-patterns among individuals with different liter- eracy effort has languished for more than a lines are provided for the reader to use as aacy levels, Munoz believes his study will help decade. Following the disappointing results of standard for measuring the materials. LV imicaav ps-vp11.7:0 'Of .$__.Experimental IX'crld Liter:Xi PrCiT2111 In addition to the reviews, the Guide pro-munication theory, particularly about visual (EWLP), Unesco has done little refashioning of vides a glossary of communication terminol-communication. In addition to its theoretical its assumptions, concepts, or approaches ogy and a nutrition education game. The glos-contributions, the study also seeks to provide The EWLP (1967-73) was a series of pilot sary is helpful in establishing a common framepractical recommendations for communica-efforts through which Unesco developed its of reference. The game is useful in providing ation programs in Colombia, where the studyconcept of functional literacy and tried to pro- concrete example of a non-formal educationaltook place, as well as in other countries mote a methodology which would be used for tool. It leads one through the steps to follow in Understanding Visual Literacy is 2 technical a global literacy program. The results of the developing such materials and in this respect itstudy, that asks two major questions. First, EWLP were not compelling enough to push follows the guidelines suggested in the begin-what are the differences between the percep- the international community toward an all-out ning of the Guide. Nevertheless, the gametual patterns of literate or illiterate individuals attack on illiteracy. does not seem to offer an opportunity for dis-when they look at an illustrated page; second- The present book is a collection of papers cussing alternatives in food selection or prepa-ly, how much do different literacy levels and presented at a workshop held in 1982. The ration, which is an important aspect of thelife experiences effect people's comprehen- reader is left to judge whether it was worth the participatory education process. sion of photographs and drawings? wait. In any case, the book is thoughtfully orga- 86 8 Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 nixed and well-edited. It contains useful na-spend their time and limited resources gettingSurvival," will be offered for participants from tional "self reports" on literacy efforts in Chi-materials printed and delivered; convincingcountries with limited resourcesSpecific na, Nicaragua, Vietnam, Iraq, Ethiopia, Kenya,often unwilling participants to join or stay in achild survival technologies and program ap- India, Tanzania, Nepal, and Brazil. Other pa-group; recruiting and retaining tutors to workproaches will be reviewed and state-of-the-art pers treat topics related to training, evaluation,without pay; trying to generate new in.Ie;developments discussed. There will be a mass media usage, language, post - literacy, andand then trying to demonstrate a connectionone-week field practicum in the Caribbean the relationship of literacy to formal schoolingbetween income and acquiring rudimentaryCourse costs of US$4,276 include tuition, field and to providing other basic services. As a skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic practicum expenses, materials and health in- sourcebook of descriptio,of recent experi- Many of us look forward to a renaissance atsurance. Allow an additional US$1,770 for ence in literacy, the book succeeds and is of Unesco and for its return to r. position of lead-housing, meals, and miscellaneous expenses interest to development professionals. ership in international education. A rethinkingApplications must be received by January 15, Unfortunately, the book contributes little toof its approach to literacy is long overdue and1987. the understanding of literacy's role in national might well be a good place for the renaissance For applications write to: Management for development. Much of what is said has been to begin. Child Survival Course, Office of Special Proj- said many times before. Worse, many difficult Available for US$29.7% from Bernan/Unipub,ect, Room A-310, Boston University School of policy issues are not treated openly or in their10033F blardn Luther King Jr. Highway, Ian -Public Health, 80 East Concord Street, Boston, full complexity, and this is a disservice to thoseham, Maryland 20706, USA, and from UnescoMassachusetts 02118-2394, USA. hoping to learn more about planning anddistributors worldwide. Also offered by Boston University is a sum- managing literacy programs. Reviewed by Stephen Anzalone of the Insti-mer certificate program in "Health Care in De- One gets the impression in the Preface thattute for International Research, McLean, Vir-veloping Countries." The course will empha- the international literacy effort has blossomedginia. He is co-author of Making Literacy Work:size effective application of epidemiological since the end M.P. It has not. We are remind- The Specific Literacy Approach. principles and methods to primary health care, ed of Unesco's contention that "literacy educa- and the impact of development and urbanization for adults and the provision of schooling tion on health status and services delivery in for children must be seen as two sides of the countries where resources are limited. Course same coin." This had appealing face value, but Management Skills costs of US$5,110 include tuition, books medi- it masks the difficult policy and resource allo- Training cal insurance, and housing. An additional cation choices: adult literacy activities must US$1,500 for other expenses should be antici- compete with primary school education for Courses designed to enhance skills in man-pated. Inquiries and applications should be scarce development funds. In the majority ofagement of rural development programs andaddressed to:Certificate Program, Boston agencies are being offered by the International developing countries, provision of schooling University,Schoolof PublicHealth,80 for children is both sides of the coin. Instituteof RuralReconstruction,Silang,East Concord Street, Boston, Massachusetts Also, in the Preface, readers are referred toPhilippines 02118-2394. USA. the Persepolis Declaration (1974) and the no- A six-week course starting Feb 9, 1987 tion that functional literacy should be regard-"Middle-level Managers' Course," is designed ed as "not just the process of learning reading,to increase participants' knowledge and skills PTC Ninth writing, and arithmetic skills but a contribu-in project planning, implementation, and eval- tion to the liberation of man and his full devel-uation. Subjects covered include history and Annual Conference opment" The poetry above obscures reality, inphilosophy of rural reconstruction, reflection on development, and strategies in working The Ninth Annual Forum of the Pacific Tele- fact, "literacy for liberation" emerged as a re- communications Council, PTC '87, will be held action against functional literacy and not as its with peasants. The cost is US$2,500 including at the She:-aton Waikiki Hotel, Hondlulu, Ha- extension. The idea of government-sponsoredroom and board. The "Senior Managers' Seminar," also start-waii from January 18-21, 1987. Telecommuni- literacy efforts contributing to liberation can cation professionals from some 30 countries hardly be taken seriously. ing February 9, 1987, will broaden and reinforce the participants' skills and knowledgerepresenting government, industry, and edu- The books's Introduction sketches a process cation will participate in this year's conference of planning and managing literacy programsneeded for effective management of rural development agencies and programs. Macro is-entitled. "Pacific Telecommunications Users: A that might play well at an intern;.. nal meet- Spectrum of Requirement ing but has little connection with the realitiessues and trends in development, organization- For more information or to register contact: outside the meeting room. Consider the fol-al and program management, comparative analysis of rural development agencies andPTC, 1110 University Avenue, Suite 308, Hono- lowing conclusion for the Introduction (p. 18): lulu, Hawaii 96828, USA. Telephone (808) Expressed in more general terms, dif- programs, and history and philosophy of rural 941-3789. ferent dimensions of functionality could reconstruction will be covered in the seminar. be introduced at different points of an The cost is US$1,800 including room and integrated package of pre-literacy, liter- board. acy and post-literacy according to the English proficiency, experience in rural de- needs and possibilities of participants. It velopment programs, and a B.S. degree are was further stressed that the operationa- required for both courses. For further infor- lization of the functionality concept im- mation and application material please con- plies that systematic linkage mecha- tact: Training Director, IIRR, Silang, Cavite, nisms with various agencies be es- Philippines 2720, or Vice President, IIRR, 1775 tablishedatdifferent levels and at Broadway, New York, NY 10019, USA. appropriate moments in time. In what developing countries do conditions permit such an orchestration of reality? Where are there literacy program planners and man- Health Care agers who have the time, resources, or the control over events to engage in planning ex- Courses ercises that consider where to insert this or Boston University Schools of Medicine and that "dimension of functionality" at specificPublic Health offer a number of courses in points in integrated training packages system-1987 for those interested in health care in de- atically coordinated with all other aspects ofveloping countries. From February 27 April development? Most planners and managers 12, 1987, a course on ement fo- Child

Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 9 Improving Visual Comprehension in Non literates

by Sibandra Spain bled and administered to a sample group ofhigh ability to understand pictures (This article has been adapted from the 1983Gambian mothers in 20 villages in August This suggests that even though an intended Master's Thesis of Sikandra Spain, who died in1983. Flyer comprehension was measured byaudience may not be visually literate, pictorial an automobile accident shortly after complet-showing mothers the flyer and asking them toeducational materials can be used effectively if ing her research with the Mass Media anddescribe what they saw Simple line drawingsexplanations are provided either in person or Health Practices Project in The Gambia. 1were used to measure mothers' ability to iden- by 1 acho, preferably both The results also would like to thank Sikandra's family whotify and make inferences about depicteddemonstrate how crucial pretesting is for a kindly granted DCR permission to share herscenes, and to measure depth recognition Pic-project that plans to use posters, flyers, or research with our readers 1 would also like totorial experience was measured by determin-other visualmaterialsinan educational thank Dr. Robert Hornik of the Annenberging previous exposure to pictures in books, campaign School of Communications, under whomphotographs, and other sources. Spain studied and who assisted in the preparation of this article. 131) Results How do you know if your target Survey results showed that comprehensionNew Education Journal audience is receiving an intendedof the flyer was high, with approximately Journal of Distance Education (fDE) isthe message from specially preparedthree-quarters of the mothers in the samplenewest addition to scholarly distanct_ et haat visual materials when they havegroup correctly answering at least 10 out of thetion publications A peer-reviewed interna- not had regular exposure to this medium, and17 items in the questionnaire There was also ational journal of the Canadian A.ssociation for are likely to be visually nonliterate? The resultsvery strong relationship between pictorial ex- Distance Education,the Journalis intendei ,is of a special study in The Gambia indicate thatperience (having seen photographs, drawings,a forum to reflect current theory, research,; -tl in a community with low visual literacy, mate-etc.) and the ability to understand pictures.practice related to teaching and learning a: rials with pictures can be used successfully ifFifty-five percent of the mothers who had haddistance Submissions of a theoretical or e, training is given in interpreting the pictures. exposure to all three types of pictures used inpirical nature that represent original work I., This special study, funded by the Annenbergthe survey, scored high on the pictorial com-the field of distance education are welcome School of Communication, Univet, y of Penn-prehension test, whereas among mothers whoManuscripts are accepted in English or French sylvania, was conducted during a nationwidehad had exposure to only one kind of pictureJDEis published twice yearly beginning in Oc- campaign of the Mass Media and Health Prac-or no pictures, under five percent had a hightober 1986 The subscription fee is $40 00 in tices Project, in The Gambia (seeDCR 51forscore Canada, US$62 55 elsewhere For subscription articles hat describe this project). It was fund- Measurements of the relationship betweenand submission information please write to. ed by the U.S. Agency for International Devel-training in "reading" the flyer and flyer com-Dawn C Howard, Editor, Journalof Distance opment and implemented by the Academy forprehension indicated that the two were clearly Education,do Centre for Distance Education, Educational Development. The purpose of theand positively related. Mothers who had noContinuing Studies. Simon Fraser Uniersity, project was to introduce home-based oral re-training scored the lowest in flyer comprehen- Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6 hydration therapy (ORT) to rural Gambiansion; those who had heard instructions over mothers, and to itnprovemasscommunicationthe radio scored higher, and those with both techniques used by existing health services inradio and personal training by health workers The Gambia. scored highest in flyer comprehension Cornell Communication The effect of training was strongest on moth- ORT Flyer ers with low initial ability to understand pic-Courses Instructional flyers were to play an impor-tures. Radio training alone clearly enhanced Cornell's Department of Communication tant educational role in teaching mothers toflyer comprehension scores Radio and per-summer 1987 courses have been announced properly mix and administer the simple water-sonal training together increased the averageThe regularly offered four-week "Communica- sugar-sa solution to their children sufferingscore for this group even further The trainingtion Planning and Strategy" course offers the from diarrhea. While visiting Gambian villageseffect was far less pronounced among thosebackground and skills that will help partici- prior tc the development of printed materials,women who already had moderate to highpants organize and carry out systematic and project planners observed that there were fewpicture comprehension effective information and communication ac- print and visual materials (photographs, post- tivities. The course blends discussions and lec- ers, and drawings) in compounds or publicConclusion tures with case studies, problem-solving, and places. With the possibility that visual literacy In summary, the findings confirm that expo-hands-on experience might be low because so few materials weresure to pictorial materials correlates with the Another course, "Training and Develop- available, only two pictorial flyers were devel-ability to understand pictures which, in turn, isment. Theory and Practice" is an intensive oped, and these were specially designed soassociated with the ability to comprehend par-four-week course focusing on the analysis, de- radio could be used to teach mothers (theticular educational material They showed thatsign, and administration of training programs primary target audience) how to interpret thenonliterate Gambian mothers could b' taughtfor the development of human resources in pictures. to "read" ;pictures of the ORS mixing flyer andsmall-farm agriculture, rural health and nutti- The multi-step ORT flyer Illustrated how theseveral months later still recall how to correct-tion, literacy and nonformal education, and ingredients should be measured, mixed, andly prepare the solution according to the in-general community development The course then administered to a child suffering fromstructions given on the flyer By providing theis appropriate for professional personnel and diarrhea. The flyer was distributed throughoutmothers with a flyer of their own and givinggraduate students the country and explained during radio broad-them traininc in interpreting it, their ability to Admission is based on relevance of the ap- CaSts that were aired during a special campaignunderstand the flyer was significantlyin-plicant's background to the program. Each called the "Happy Baby Lottery." creased. Radio, particularly, was found to be ancourse costs US$1825.00, with an additional To determine how effective the mixing flyereffective medium for training them to under-US$650 for housing Meals and personal ex- was in teaching mothers the correct ORT prep-stand the mixing instructions. In fact, test re-penses are extra. For an application please aration and administration techniques, whensults show that exposure to the flyer combinedwrite to. Dr. R D. Colle, Communication Arts, combined with radio instruction and trainedwith radio training could close the gap in flyerCornell University, 640 Stewart Avenue, Ithaca, health workers, a questionnaire was assetn-comprehension between mothers of low andNew York, 14850, USA. t 88 Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 Women Learn with Visual Aids: Experiences in Peru

by foam Haffey, Materials Use Training health post In Puno, the participants of one Once the booklets were printed, communi-course planned a community pharmacy. Nancy Newton, ty activity leaders were selected from ten dif- Women in a number of the courses through- and Blanca Figueroa ferent areas of the country to receive a trainingout the country requested additional family course in how to use the materials to stimulateplanning and immunization materials so they group discussion and problem-solving In ad-could conduct courses of their own with their Female literacy plays a criticaldition, a guide was developed for the promot- 4111\ neighbors. The demand from other women roleinchildsurvival.Eveners to assist them in this process. Illiteratefor additional courses in the community has though mothers may be poor, ifwomen in each of these communities werefar exceeded the expectations of the project they have received some school-invited to attend sessions in which the promot- staff In all areas where the courses were con- ing, the chances of their infants survivingers used the print materials as a complement ducted, the use of family planning and immu- childhood increase dramatically. In the Worldto other participatory techniques, such as role- nization services by course participants in- Health Statistics Annual 1985 (WHO, 1985),playing and dramatization,toencouragecreased,although the exact level of the analysis of data from World Fertility Surveysgroup identification of problems, discussionprogram's impact is still being assessed. involving 160,000 women in approximately 30of possible solutions, and decisions on what Peru-Mujer has also made a concerted effort countries shows that in countries where theaction to take. to share its experiences and materials with adult female literacy rate is low (less than 35 Participants were also given crayons and en-other Peruvian organizations involved in adult percent), children are two to three times ascouraged to color or decorate their booklets ateducation activities. Officials from the Adult likely to die during the first two years of lifehome. This activity in itself was motivating toEducation Program in the Ministry of Educa- than in countries where the literacy rate isthe women, some of whom commented thattion participated in a workshop sponsored by above 90 percent (WHO, 1985). Over 24 sepa-this was the first opportunity they had beenPeru-Mujer and PATH on the development of rate studies in 15 countries have establishedgiven to learn to read. As one participant said,health education print materials for illiterate that the level of a mother's education is a key"Education is the best thing we can have andadults and subsequently developed pictorial determinant of her children's health, State ofpass on. They haven't let us women learn, as ifmaterials of their own on population topics. the World's Children, (UNICEF, 1984). we were animals in the field." Pride of owner- The process developed by Peru-Mujer of Despite the importance of formal educationship of the materials also contributed to thiscombining well-designed visual materials with in improving women's and children's lives,new sense of self-reliance. A number of wom- entertainment and action has led to some in- many literacy programs have been criticizeden subsequently enrolled in literacy or othernovative and helpful community-oriented ac- for their heavy reliance on primers which mayadult education activities. tivities, while at the same time giving female have little relevance to the adults using them Several beneficial health-related communityparticipants greater confidence in their own The impact of maternal education on childactivities emerged as a result of the groupabilities to gain more control over their health is related not so much to the mother'sproblem-solving orientation of the course Inenvironment absorption of printed information as it is to herChiclayo, course participants organized a day acquired ability to question, analyze, and actof activities to focus public attention on theJoan Haffey and Nancy Newton are Associate upon new information. A mother with someneed for improved maternal and child healthProgram Officers at PATH (Program for Ap- schooling is better able to assess the healthservices in the community. In Cajamarca, apropriate Technology m Health), Washington, status of her family, to understand an I adoptgroup of participants organized to gain sup-D r Blanca Figueroa is Project Coordinator preventive health practices, and to knob whenport from the local government to build aat Peru-Mujer in Peru. and how to intervene when a family member becomes ill. An example of such a project follows, where carefully designed visual materials were used to promote the active participation of Peruvian women in child survival activities. Asociacion Peru-Mujer is a private, nonprofit organization whose main objective is to stimulate, through study and action, the participation of women in national development at all levels. Since September 1984, PATH (Program for Appropriate Technology in Health) has been collaborating with Peru-Mujer on a project to develop materials, as well as to provide technical and financial support that motivate illiterate and semi-literate women to participate in family planning and child immunization services. Booklets on these two sub;ects were developed one each for the coastal, the highland, and the jungle regions of Peru based on initial qualitative research and locally conducted pretesting. The materials are primarily pictorial but contain a simple line of text on each page for the benefit of semi-literate booklet recipients, as well as for community development workers in their program ac- LA 116:41A OWE EIFLICA SO ItY010 OE IPLAMOCACWIN FAMILIAR A SG;. tivities. (See illustration.) GJ Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 11 (Cain continued from page 14) ments of the message. Possibly a brochureCreative Choices for Latin Am ifican with a photostrip explained by an extension worker would have comparable impact. If a comparable media treatment can be located,Photonovels and Comics its cost should be compared to that of the photonovel or comic book. by Cornelia Butler Flora Assessment Steps To walk the streets in a working have changed the content of the message to There are four main steps to follow in as- class neighborhood or a small Inform and educate their target audience sessing the costs and developing a plan for town in Latin America is to see There are a variety of ways to develop alter- using graphic media cost-effectively: Etij first hand the popularity of inex- native photonovels and comics, but the three 1) State objectives as precisely as possiblepensive, sensational print materials or pulpvariables that most strongly influence the ex- How many people are to be reached? Howmedia. People read comics and photonovels as tent of their success and their cost benefit ratio many messages are there? Is it a one-timethey ride the bus, or buy them from littleare. (1) who creates the content (the audience, effort or an on-going campaign with plansstands in town, or rent them from vendorsthe artist, or the publisher), (2) who absorbs for other media packages? who, for a small fee, allow readers to sit besidethe risk of production (the creator or the spon- 2) Decide how effective you need to be. Whatthese curb-side libraries and read them. sor), and (3) how it is distributed (commercial is your minimum successful impact level? Community educators in Latin America have vsalternativechannel). Combining these How will you measure this impact? Whatlong recognized the popularity of such printthree variables in different ways offers a wide are the consequences of reaching less thanmaterials and have attempted to adapt themvariety of production and publication alterna- 100 percent of the target audience or offoralternativepurposes, aimed atsocial tives, many of which can be found in Latin some people misinterpreting the message?change In this way, educators and activistsAmerica The mix of the variables, to a certain What costs are you prepared to pay to develop a more complex campaign with higher quality materials or other media 3) Assess the resources available. The manager should look at the net costs of the pro- Literature Review on Comics gram. Include staff time, facilities, and any contributions in kind as well as finance by John A. Lent Also include any possibilities for cost re- Despite several decades of controversy about their effectiveness by educators, psychologists, covery such as sales of the product, adver- and other critics, the role of comic books in national development programs has increased tising revenue, and grants or contributions steadily. Today, comics are used in national campaigns to increase literacy and educational which may come as a result of dissem- performance, to encourage family planning, and to increase high rice yields in areas such as the hation. Philippines, Latin America, and China. 4) Determine the costs of production, consid- The following list includes some of the more relevant books, articles, and evaluations that ering factors of scale and technical produc- consider the educational uses of comics in developing countries tion qualities. How many books will be dis- Angeles, Enrique E "A Subjective, Thematic Analysis of Philippine Komiks AB Thesis, University tributed for how much? KM of the Philippines, 1969, 55pp Barta, Armando. "De Monitos: Del Carton a la HistonetaSNIF El Mitin del Nuevo Comic (Mexico) 3(n.d.), 82 Carrillo, Bert B. "The Use of Mexican Comics as Teaching Material in Bilingual Classes." Hispa- A 514V LE nia. March 1976.126-. 28 UFT Chen, L. "Cartoons Ain't Just for Fun." Free China Weekly. 31 August 1980.3 Chen, L "How Cartoons have been Used." Free China Weekly 18 May 1980.3 Cheng Chi. "New Serial Pictures." Chinese Literature 2(1974) 111-117 Constantino-David, Karina. "The Changing Images of Heroes in Local Comic Books Phi'ppine Journal of Communication Studies September 1974.1-22 Cruz, Agustina Ortega C "Interest-Stimulating Qualities of Comic Strips and Comics Magazines to Grade Six Children in Certain Elem'mtary Schools in Manila MA Thesis, Philippines Wom- en's University, 1957. DevCom. 1:2 (n.d.) "Comics and Komiks," p 8, "Yellow Journalism," p 10 Dineen, Louise. "C2 echetics in Comics Colombian Mission 60. February 1977 6-7 Epskamp, Kees "Cross-Cultural Interpretations of Cartoons and Drawings "Media Development. 3(1984):38-42. Fernandez Paz, Agustin. "Practica Lose Comics en la Escuela." Cuandernos de Pedagogias (Mexico). February 198147-53. Flora, Comelia B. "Roasting Donald Duck. Alternative Comics and Photonovels in Latin America." Journal of Popular Culture. 18:1(1984).163-183 Fueter, Paul. "Role of Comics in Religious Teaching." Media Development 2(1982)11-14 George Washington University. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of illustrated Print Media (non- yr ball on Family Planning Attitudes Among Colombians Program of Policy Studies in Science and Technology. Washington, DC. George Washington University, 1974. Hall, Wendell and Enrique LaFourcade "Teaching Aspects of the Foreign Culture through Comic Strips." H. Ned Seelye, ed. Teaching Cultural Concepts in .Spanish Classes. Springfield, IL. Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1972.

Development Communication Report/ Autumn 1986 extent, determines how successful the publica-In the latter two approaches, less concern My research shows that the risk factor is a tion will be in presenting alternative view-needs to be given to the production and distri-major challenge for alternative publications. points, in reaching its audience, and in havingbution phases since the targeted audience isCreating the content for these publications is an impact on the target audience. already partially involved, which is part of themuch more costly than It is for commercially original educational goal produced comics or photonovels The increased cost results from having to consciously Who Creates? and systematically change the story lines of Creators of alternative photonovels andWho Takes the Risks? mass produced popular comics or photono- comics, generally those trained as specialists in Rinds to meet the cost of artists, productionvels when applying this approach to alternative media production, are attempting to mold anmaterials, and printing need to be identifiedpublicationsFurthermore, the educational old form to a new content. While these special-before alternative comics or photonovels canmessage presented in each frame of the story ists have the tedir ical knowledge with whichenter the production phase. In the commercialmust first be discussed to make sure It is inter- to carry out the assignment, they may be usingmarket, those expenses would either be as-nally consistentsomething most commercial old approaches that inadvertantly reinforcesumed by loans or covered by the future salespublishers of popular pulp media generally established values and accepted knowledge,of the publication. I know of no such supportare not concerned with. often resulting in publications that comefor alternative comics or for photonovels in acrosseitherustoo moralizing or tooLatin America. Production costs tend to be as- ideological. sumed by an outside sponsor, meaning thereWho Distributes? In some cases, the intended audience is theis probably not a predictable cash flow. There Distribution of alternative publications pre- creator when media professionals collaborateare examples of funds coming from middle-sents another challenge Often, the traditional with them to develop materials and designclass volunteers, but it is difficult to link themchannels are bypassed in favor of less com- messages. In other situations, production tech-with the working class or peasants withoutmercial approaches. In part, this reflects the niques are taught to members of the potentialhaving outside sponsor stand the produc-intellectual bias of those involved in the pro- audience who then become the sole creators.tion risks. duction of alternative publications. My research shows that while much thought has gone into the alteration of the content and production phases, there is little understanding of how comics and photonovels are cur- and Development rently distributed or which channels to use. In examining various alternative photonovels' and comics' distribution systems, I found Hembrador, Ma. Theresa V. "Exposure to Comics-Magazines and Knowledge/Attitude Toward that the most effective technique was to create alternative forms of distribution using already Family Planning of Rural Residents." AB Thesis, University of the Philippines, 1975: 6Opp established grassroots organizations as the Hinds, Harold E., Jr. "Comics." Harold Hinds and Charles Tatum eds. Handbook of Latin channel. This suggests that alternative media American Popular Culture. Westport, CTGreenwood, 1985, 81-109 do not take the place of other forms of out- Hwang, John C. "Lien Huan Hua: Revolutionary Serial PicturesIn Godwin Chu ed Popular reach, but best serve to supplement itIt is Medic; in China. Honolulu: East-West Center, 1978, 51-72 expensive to produce alternative comics and Lent, John A. "Comic Books, Funnies, and Political Cartoons. The Asian Experience." Internatton- photonovels in the necessary quantities to ef- al Popular Culture. 2( 1982):22-51. fectively exploit commercial channels, the ini- Lent, John A. "A Different Japanese Comic Strip Media History Digest Fall 1985:51 tial capital outlay would exceed the resources available to most nonprofit operations. Also, it Lent, John A. Comic Art. An International Bibhography. Drexel Hill: Published by author, 1986, is difficult to track readership once the materi- 156pp. al enters the commercial channel. One never Maglalang, Demetrio M. 'Agricultural Approach to Family Planning." Manila Communication knows how the content is Interpreted or how it Foundation of Asia, 1976. is being used. Mag-Uyon, Madeline G. "Comics Readership and Performance in Classes of Elementary and High I am aware of two attempts, one in Colombia School Students in Manila." AB Thesis, University of the Philippines, 1972 41pp and another in Venezuela, where production Media Development. 29:2(1982). "Children's Magazines" (special issue). staff and editors of commercial photonovels Movido, Monica S. "Comics-Magazine Exposure and Family Planning, Knowledge, Attitudes, and made conscious attempts to Improve the cul- Practices among Murphy labis Housewives." Philippine Journal of Communication Studies tural level of their publications Their limited September 1981:44-59. success suggests that had educators been working with them to introduce socially rele- Movido, Monica S. "The Attitude of Comics Magazines Readers on Family Planning " AB Thesis, University of the Philippines, 1970:92pp vant educational themes Into their photonovels or comics, their efforts might have been Parlato, Ronald, Margaret Burns Parlato and Bonnie Cain Fotonot'elas and Comic Books. The Use more successful. of Popular Graphic Media in Development Washington, DC: Office of Education and Human in summary, a system that uses the existing Resources, Agency for International Development, 1977 243pp private sector and slightly modifies the con- Peng, Sheng. "Picture Story Books of China." Asian Culture. January 1980:2.3 tent, or that uses private voluntary organiza- Schodt, Frederick L. Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983 tions and grassroot organizing to produce and Vigano, Oscar. "Comic Books Carry Health Messages to Rural Children in Honduras." Develop- distribute alternative publications seem to ment Communication Report. March 1983:3-4. yield better results than attempting to set up a parallel subsidized alternative source of mass Vigano, Oscar. "Estudios sobre aceptacion y efectividad de las fotonovelas e historietas en la culture in a developing country. comunicacion de conocimientos en areas rurales de Guatemala." Rural Education and Extra Scholastic Program of Guatemala. Guatemala: Academy for Educational Development, 1976 Weaks, Daniel. The Photonovel: A Tool for Development. Progran. 22nd Ira:a Atig Journal Manual Series, No. 4. Action, Peace Corps. Washington, DC, 1976.

Dr.Jobn Lent has written extensively on mass media topics dealing with der eloping countries. He Cornelia Butler Flora is a professor of sociolo- UAW the organizer of the Working Group on Comic Art at the 1984 and the 1986 meetings of the gy at Kansas State Unitersity who has done International Association for Mass Communication Research research on photonovels in Latin America for O. ti..q past 16 years.

Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 13 The Pass -along Factor: The pass-along factor takes into account Looking at Costs how many people will actually see a magazine or other periodic publication Descriptive evidence, mostly anecdotal, shows that audiences of Graphic Literature share their photonovels and comic books with their families and other community members Shops where used commercial photonovels and comic books are resold can he found in Adapted from Thotonovels, Comics, andannouncements. most countries Graphic Literature: Popular Print Media for The pass-along factor should also he consid- Development," by Bonnie Cain Expense Factors ered in the printing and distribution costs It Market research, modes of message pre- can safely be projected that at least two other sentation, quality of illustrations, distribu- people will read each copy distributed Thus, if A medium cannot be judged cost- tion systems; 2,000 photonovels or comic books are handed effective unless it is first effective. Salaries for photographers, writers, re- Only when no other medium ex- out, the costs should be divided b', 6,000 to searchers, and staff support; reflect this pass along factor ists that is less costly for at least Printing of covers and duplication ser- the same level of effectiveness, is it a worth- vices; while investment. And, ultimately, the medium Distribution and transportation costs Commercial Versus Educational Costs can only be a cost-effective choice when the Commercial photonovels and comic books educational program using it can afford the are produced cheaply and rapidly Often the costs of development and dissemination. TheSavings Factors. entire production process of a photonovel- fact that photonovels and comic books are rel- Costly in-country printing and paper sup- conceptualization, scripting, casting, shoot- atively inexpensive is not the only reason, or ply problems are avoided when two localing, and editing takes only four days With wide necessarily the best reason for considering businesses agree to donate the use ofdistribution, unit costs of the materials are ex- them;rather,thatthey are aneffective high-speed Xerox machines which repro-tremely low, and a sizable profit can be means of delivering persuasive instructional duce photographs well and to provide theexpected messages. paper at cost. They will also donate per- Educational photonovels or comic books, What are the costs involved in producing sonnel to run the machines. on the other hand, are developed by research- photonovels and comic books? Costs of any Polaroid pictures bypass the film develop-ers and instructional media specialists. Their medium are the costs of obtaining services and ment process and immediately show theconsulting fees or salaries absorb a sizable part supplies to put that medium together within a am- -ur photographers whether or notof the production costs specific setting. In one country, printing paper their pictures are good. may be readily available at reasonable prices. Participating ministries have agreed to use In another, there may not be a reliable suppli- their existing extension and community High- end/Low -end Production Costs. er and paper costs may be excessive. Afford- education programs to distribute the Production choices influence cost enor- able graphic artists may be available in one materials. mously. For example, photonovels can be country and nonexistent in another. Some Multiple ministries using the same medi-made with a researcher, ministry personnel, costs can be retrieved through advertisement um for their educatior.al menages, willevaluators, pretesters, professional photogra- or sales, or by haling an efficient distribution realize savings through s cared costs. phers or artists, paid actors and professional system. The following hypothetical case study Market research and testing will producewriters. They can also be developed by one illustrates the numerous cost factors that make instructional materials that will be under-loc2"v-trained media specialist using a Polar- it difficult to predict what the final expense will stood without the intervention of outsideoid, who writes the story with help from the be. specialists. audience and pretests at the same time. The The photonovels will be read and sharedlatter type of production can be completed in The Case Study among families and other communitytwo weeks and is typically printed on newspa- A populous country has seven major ethnic members. Because aatenals will be circu-per stock, while the former often takes six groups, each with a different language Malaria lated for a long period of time, it will bemonths and may be printed in three colors on is found in all these regions and all recognize attractive to potential advertisers glossy stock there is a need for a national educational cam- A more elaborate production may still be paign to treat the problem. The need is for the more cost-effective if it is widely distribut- universal action to cover or treat mosquitoPotential Cost Recovery ed, is so well-designed that trial readers easily breeding grounds and for increased under- Poorly trained extem.on personnel willunderstand the graphics, and is integrated with standing of how to treat trauma cases of malar- be able to use the materials as effectiveother elements of the program to ensure ia. The objectives are to ensure that the fam- instructional aids impact. ilies of each region learn about family and Public service announcements by other A decision must be made on how many re- community health, control of malaria, and departments and ministries not involvedfinements should be made to a product. While community organization and adult education in the malaria campaign, might result inthe publication might be capturing only 70 The communicators decide that the mes- paid advertisements percent of the intended audience, it may not sages are too complex to use the broadcast Businesses may request ad space on thebe cost-effective to try to reach that last 30 media, with language differences complicating covers, or wish to include inserts in thepercent It may be cheaper to create a separate matters further. After considerable research booklet. message for that group than trying to appeal to and analysis, the campaign directors decide the entire audience with a single product. that the most cost-effective approach is to produce a series of photonovels built around theCost Effectiveness Decisions Cost Effectiveness: lives of the Ranna family. The lessons are to be The important question is, which medium How do the costs of photonovels and comic illustrated as the Ranna family grows and pros-will achieve the best results for the lowestbooks compare with those of other media pers. Story lines wiit ue developed and mes-price? Given the high cost of paper in the caseequally effective in achieving the same instruc- sages tailored to the regional and ethnic audi-study presented above, would radio broad-tional goals? Photon ovels and comic books are ences.Polaroidphotography and Xeroxcasts or print advertisements have been a bet-uniquely effective in delivering instructional, copying techniques will be used to create cul-ter choice? Photonovel and comic books haveemotional, persuasive messages to audiences turally accurate booklets for each of the rz-unique cost characteristics that influence thethat wish to remember and review the ele- gions. Booklet covers will carry public servicecost decision: 92 (Continued on page 12) 14 Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 .0`1,TT4

Radio Education in theDominican Republic

by Beattie Casab-Andrews and Ruth Eshgh

The following article appeared in the fastsignificant investme." in accessory instruction- Key responsibilities of project management, issue of Radio Learning August 1986, a publi-al materials. design, and implementation were assigned to cation of the Radio Learning Project. DCR Institudonalbad on staff members already part of SEEBAC. Thus would like to thank Thomas TiLson, Project the project was able to provide vital training Director, for allowing us to reprint this article On March 19, 1986, RADECO realized its in-and development needed to manage such a in its entirety. ternational development goal when the Seal program. By including institutionalization in tariat of Education formally institutionalized the project as a peep anent educational pro-the management plan from the onset of the project, the foundation needed for continua- In 1982, the Radio-assisted Community Ba-gram in the Dominican Republic. Key factors tion of the program was developed sic Education (RADECO) project was imple-which contributed to institutionalization are I) mented in the Dominican Republic as a meansthe existing need for an alternative to formal Through clearly defined project objectives, local capacity building, utilization and expan- of bringing basic education to children seveneducation, 2) acceptance of interactive radio sion of existing resources and infrastructures, to 14 years old who do not have access toby professionals as well as the communities as and hard work, RADECO has succeeded in en- public schools. Through the cooperative efforta viable alternative to formal education, 3) the of the U.S. Agency for International Develop- suring that children in the southwestern re- human commitment and involvement, and 4)gion of the Dominican Republic will continue ment (AID), InterAmerica Research Associates,development of local capacity to maintain the to have access to a primary education. and the Dominican Secretariat of Educationproject after AID support ends. (SEEBAC), basicskillsarebeing taught The scattered population of the southwest For more information on RADECO, contact BeatrizCasals-Andrews, through the medium of radio in the rural areasregion of the Dominican Republic and the lack InterAmericaRe- of the Dominican Republic where there are no search Associates, 1555 Wilson Boulevard, of schools and teachers created the need for anSuite 700, Rosalyn, Virginia 22209, (703) schools and where children must work duringalternative educational approach. Initially, ed- 533-0870, or Dr. James Hoxeng, U.S. Agency regular school hours. ucators doubted the methodology of interactive radio. Open communication between thefor International Development, Bureau for Sci- RADECO project and the educational community mini-ence and Technology, Office of Education, Washington, DC 20523, USA The goal of RADECO is to teach children themized any resistance and the positive outcome basic skills they would have learned had theyof the evaluations gained their support gone to regular school. To achieve this goal Commitment to the project existed at all RADECO has developed a program of practi-levels. Local as well as AID support for the(Rappaport continued from page 16) cal, low-cost, effective radio-based instructionproject enabled the benefits and successes of in the primary grades. Lessons are based onthe project to be highlighted and provided the lence, or hesitations Incorrect facts presented existing Dominican curricula and reflect theessential support needed to implement theno real problem. A too-low fence keeping a special historical, cultural, economic, and so-program. Local support and acceptance werecamel out of a garden or the wrong tool in a cial characteristics of the nation. theresultof thecommunity outreachcharacter's hand was soon put right, but the RADECO faces the task of incorporating in-component. picture strip of an unfamiliar process, such as struction for an entire grade-level into a se- By visiting the targeted communities in themixing kerosene emulsion, was received with quence of daily, hour-long broadcasts The re-southwest region of the Dominican Republic,bland politenessa clear sign that it should be sulting program has to be fast-moving enoughthe RADECO staff learned that education wasthought through again. to hold the interest of a seven-year-old childconsidered an urgent need The community When those tested could immediately iden- and, at the same time, cover sufficient materi-members wanted to be able to write letters totify the characters and their actions, they could als so that the required skills are learned friends living in other communities to he ableoften also tell what was being said or at least Each day, after completing their work in theto read the newspaper, and to make purchasesfind the remark in the balloon. In some pic- fields, the children meet at the centers wherewithout fear of being cheated. tures they could recall the words used to de- they are given instruction in basic skills. Read- The communities were asked to help byscribe various pictures after several days. Hu- ing, writing, and arithmetic are stressed, whileidentifying candidates for radio auxiliaries, po-mor, emotion, and social appropriateness social studies, science, music, and physical ed-tential students, and possible sites for the en-serve to make a picture memorable. It pays to ucation are also presented. Although the chil-ramadas or shelters where the children wouldgive as much thought to the human setting of dren are supervised by an adult proctor, orlisten to the radio broadcasts. They also helpedthe information as to its technical content. One radio auxiliary, instruction is given almost en-build small learning centers for the children toaccepts advice from friends much more happi- tirely by radio. use. These centers were frequently very sim-ly than from strange or unidentified sources. The success of interactive radio educationple, but the labor put into them reflected the From casual audience testing, it would seem can be attributed largely to the innovative stylestrong need felt by parents for an education forthat taking advice from a book presents no of the broadcast lessons. During interactivetheir children. By involving the communitiesparticular difficulty to the preliterate rural radio lessons the learner is constantly active,in the decision-making process and in the con-population of the western Sahel and that read- asking and answering questions, engaging intribution of goods and labor, they becameing pictures is a natural and effective way to structured :onversations, reading, writing, cal-partners in achieving the goals of the project transmit technical information. A handbook of culating, solving problems, standing up, mov- The development of local ability to sustainthis nature would speed rural development ing purposefully about, participating in activea project of thistype was as importantand repay further research. For further infor- songs, games, and exercisesfor the course ofto theinstitutionalization of RADECO asmation, contact Rosalyn Rappaport, 31 Lodge an hour of lively, focused study. was the community outreach component. TheLane, London N12 8JG, England. The results from the RADECO project areRADECO management plan relied heavily on the most powerful demonstration to date ofexisting resources and on the host country the capacity of interactive radio to provide ef-infrastructure. By remaining flexible when de-Rosalyn Rappaport, has worked with the US. fective instruction in basic skills, whether orsigning the management plan, RADECO was&tension Service and as a research horticul- not a trained teacher is present, and withoutable to more closely respond to local needs. turist in the Caribbean and in Africa.

Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986 9 15 enlivened and "telescoped" the stories. enabling more information to he included in one Why Another Handbook? frame It more closely reflected life, where family members pursue their responsibilities The Clearinghouse would like to thankthe format seemed equally cleara dispas-simultaneously Facial expressions could ex- George Grimmest for his kind permission tosionate, carefully sectioned text illustratedpress acceptance or rejection of ideas, neigh- reprint an abridged version of the followingwith diagrammatic figures The project hiredbors were added, interpersonal relationships article which originally appeared in the JuneMohammed hen Bara, a high school boy with abecame important to the effective telling of 1986 issue of Media in Education. talent for copying. It didn't take long to pro-events by Rosalyn Rappaport duce the first sheet, "Planting OnionsMo- As time passed and the refinement of the After a year of working at thehammed had combed the technical literaturecartoons proceeded, I realized the enormous Mauritanian Vegetable Produc-to good effect, reproducing familiar personspotential of comic strips Mohammed and the tion Project at the Sani Oasis andplanting, measuring, etc., in profile The pageprojects staff now contributed ideas to the observing the farmers of the Sen-could not have been clearer. comic strips The figure below Illustrates how egal River Valley, planners had confronted the Preliminary comprehension tests were car-people would benefit from having more vege- problems of vegetable gardening at the edgeried out on the project's three drivers Thetaoles in their diets Marianne dreaming of of the desert. At Sani, simple methods hadoffice staff read them the text, pointing out thecous cous topped with vegetables brought roars of laughter and set me to search for more resulted in a paradise of plenty and it was timeillustrations and then asked who the drawings comic situations (See illustration below to spread the good advice around. The Projectwere of and what they were doing The drivers hired an artist, and I (the horticulturist) starteddul yadmired, but were mystified They did not to write "method sheets" intended to growunderstand the text nor could they theorizePictures Carry Information into a handbook of vegetable technology about the pictures Dismayed, I started asking A well-drawn picture presents a whole situa- Mauritania has its share of intelligent, inno-questions such as "Who is this man?" whichtion, facts plus implications at a glanceIts vative farmers who, by trial and error, haveproduced answers such as "He is poor," "He isadvantage over the written word A: its best, solved many of the problems of Sahelian vege-a picture." If our work was incomprehensibleour comic strip combined this overview with table production. Unfortunately, distances andthe idea must be abandoned. Our artist's jobthe precision of the written word in a very the costs of travel trap these ideas at theirwas preserved when I discovered, in a cornerconcise formthe "ballonOne such frame points of origin. A handbook that presentedof his notebook, a delightful caricature of amay carry multiple messages of equal or these ideas in a lively teaching format seemedbird perched droopily on a camel. I persuadedranked importance the most economic, adaptable, and lastingMohammed to draw some cartoon people car- The main message may be varied. Most agri- means of technique transfer. It would informrying out familiar agricultural tasks cultural procedures recur hut, particularly farmers of what their peers were doing in oth- He drew a plump seductive matron hoeingwith vegetables, they do so with variation. er parts of the country and could start othersand her hus,mnd, cheery and musci lar, wield-Comic strips have a special ability to present thinking along similar lines. ing a pick. Upon showing them to our drivers,this repetition with variation. This leaves the There is a small Extension Service but, eventhey voiced the general opinion that "TheseInstructor or reader free to select from several were its numbers increased, it would alwaysare the people to ask because they know thestory situations exactly what he or she needs to be insufficient to meet with all the gardeningbusiness;" and Suzie, the bird, "the outsider,"make or understand a point The opportunities cooperatives in this huge country. Accordingwas free to speak her mindtactlessly if nec-for crass reference are practically endless to the World Bank, "Agricultural Extensionessary The next step was to develop the story Services are most effective when they supportline; the real difficulties began at this point Comprehension and Retention a profitable or risk-free technology." The Each cartoon comprised six to eight conver- As ex-farmers who had for years ranged the handbook is planned as a source of this kind ofsations. Problems emerged as we merged thewestern Sahel, our drivers were well-qualified information. cartoons with the script In particular, the farmobservers of the rural scene and their reac- family seemed locked Into the role of lecturerstions to our pictorial representation of the What Kind of Handbook? who were not doing much. To emphasize thework they knew so well, was exceptionally en- Small landholders, large-scale farmers, ex-family's active role, I started to write up thelightening Politeness forbade them to criticize tension agentsall would want tne factsbutscenarios aslittle dramasEmphasis wasopenly and the existence of errors or miscon- in different detail and presentation In largermoved away from technology toward the fam-ceptions could be Inferred only from their si- villages there is usually someone who can readily's attemp: to use the technology This both (Continued on page 15) and, since scientific background should be available to those who can use it, this suggested two levels of text. The contents would be confined to locally developed techniques drawn from western Sa- he' . Mauritania, as throughout the Sahel, ra /fall management and date-palm irrigation are ancient practices and in the thirty years since irrigated vegetables appeared in the region enough local expertise has accu.uulated to complete a text covering some fifteen vegetable crops. Local solutions are well adapted to climate and terrain, are within ordinary labor and financial limits, and take account of consumer preferences. Each information unitpreparation, crops, protection, processing would be composed of a simple account of what to do, followed by the scientific explanation of why the procedure works, the latter intended mainly for the Extension agents.

Doing It Justification arrived at and content decided,

16 Development Communication Report / Autumn 1986