SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... Selling Sacred Cities: Tourism, Region, and Nation in Cusco, Peru A Dissertation Presented by Mark Charles Rice to The Graduate School in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University May 2014 Copyright by Mark Rice 2014 Stony Brook University The Graduate School Mark Charles Rice We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, hereby recommend acceptance of this dissertation. Paul Gootenberg – Dissertation Advisor SUNY Distinguished Professor, History, Stony Brook University Eric Zolov – Chairperson of Defense Associate Professor, History, Stony Brook University Brooke Larson Professor, History, Stony Brook University Deborah Poole Professor, Anthropology, Johns Hopkins University This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Charles Taber Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation Selling Sacred Cities: Tourism, Region, and Nation in Cusco, Peru by Mark Charles Rice Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2014 It is hard to imagine a more iconic representation of Peru than the Inca archeological complex of Machu Picchu located in the Cusco region. However, when US explorer, Hiram Bingham, announced that he had discovered the “lost city” in 1911, few would have predicted Machu Picchu’s rise to fame during the twentieth century. My dissertation traces the unlikely transformation of Machu Picchu into its present-day role as a modern tourism destination and a representation of Peruvian national identity. Beginning in the 1920s, cusqueño elites embraced the discourse of tourism to re-imagine their region’s indigenous heritage not as a sign of backwardness, but as a modern attraction for cultured travelers. Aligning with transnational diplomatic and cultural institutions in the 1930s and 1940s to promote tourism, locals elevated Machu Picchu and cusqueño folklore as symbols of Peru to the world. After the Second World War, locals continued to lobby the state to invest in tourism using recovery efforts following a 1950 earthquake to promote tourism. Finally, in the 1960s and 1970s the Peruvian state, in coordination with UNESCO, spent heavily on iii developing tourism. Yet, state-led tourism failed to bring economic prosperity to Cusco. Rather than attract elite travelers it encouraged the arrival of hippies and backpackers to the chagrin of locals. Tourism in Cusco nearly collapsed in the 1980s under the pressures of debt crises and political violence. Out of this chaos emerged grassroots and adventure tourism that, by the 1990s, became a widely successful economic model. Recently, however, outside investors and corporations have displaced local participation in the tourism economy. Now, control over the profits and politics of tourism has emerged as a central source of conflict in Cusco. Examining the development of tourism in Cusco, my dissertation reveals how transnational forces can alter the relationship between region and nation in Latin America. Thanks to transnational actors involved in promoting tourism in Cusco, Machu Picchu now serves as a global representation of Peru. However, if tourism has the power to elevate a region’s culture and identity, cusqueños also discovered its destructive ability to erode local political and economic independence. iv Dedicated to my parents, Anna Marie Rice and Charles Rice v Table of Contents Introduction …………………………………………………………………….….…………...1 Chapter 1 Making the Modern Destination: The Roots of Cusco Tourism, 1900-1935……19 Chapter 2 Good Neighbors Make Good Tourists: The Rise of Cusco and Machu Picchu Tourism, 1930-1948……………………………………………………………...53 Chapter 3 Disaster Destinations: Restoration, Rebuilding, and Recovery of Tourism after the Cusco Earthquake, 1948-1960…………………………………………………...94 Chapter 4 Generals, Hotels, and Hippies: Development Tourism and Military Government, 1960-1975………………………………………………………………………138 Chapter 5 Between Maoists and Millionaires: Changes and Challenges Leading to the Modern Tourism Boom, 1975-1995…………………………………………....185 Conclusion “The Synthesis of All Things Peruvian”: Revisiting the History of Tourism in Cusco …………………………………………………………………………..221 Bibliography ……………………………………………….…………………………………236 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1. Ciudad y Campo y Caminos cover……………………………………….………….50 Figure 1.2. Alfred Giesecke’s first call for making Cusco a center for modern tourism………...51 Figure 1.3. José Gabriel Cosio’s El Cuzco Histórico y Monumental……………………………51 Figure 1.4. Guía General………………………………………………………………………...52 Figure 2.1. New tourist rail transport to Machu Picchu from the 1930s………………………...90 Figure 2.2. The Citadel of a Hundred Stairways………………………………………….……..90 Figure 2.3. First Edition of Turismo……………………………………………………………..91 Figure 2.4. Panagra Publicity in Turismo………………………………………………………..91 Figure 2.5. Panagra Publicity in Turismo…………………………………………………….….92 Figure 2.6. Illustration promoting the new Cusco Hotel………………………………………...92 Figure 2.7. Government Hotel Map of Peru……………………………………………………..93 Figure 3.1. Article denouncing conditions of Machu Picchu and the activities of the Archeology Council………………………………………………………………………………………….133 Figure 3.2. Junta/CRYF Restoration Expenditures in Cusco…………………………………..133 Figure 3.2. Graphics showing the lack of restoration progress in Cusco………………………134 Figure 3.3. CRYF-managed Machu Picchu Supervision report showing reconstruction of Machu Picchu…………………………………………………………………………………………...134 Figure 3.5. CRYF-managed Machu Picchu Supervision report showing reconstruction of Machu Picchu…………………………………………………………………………………………...136 Figure 3.6. CRYF-managed Machu Picchu Supervision report showing reconstruction of Machu Picchu with the figure of Bingham displayed prominently…………………………………….137 Figure 4.1. PANAGRA Jet Advertisement…………………………………………………..…179 Figure 4.2. Machu Picchu enters the jet age…………………………………………………....179 vii Figure 4.3. Machu Picchu symbolism in the Velasco Era……………………………………...180 Figure 4.4. Cover of COPESCO planning document reflecting multiple development interests........................................................................................................................................181 Figure 4.5. Even at the height of the Velasco populist period, tourism in Cusco remained imagined as elite, jet-set, and white…………………………………………………………….181 Figure 4.6. One of the proposals for the new Machu Picchu hotel……………………………..182 Figure 4.7. Elevation of proposed hotel………………………………………………………...182 Figure 4.8. Topographical map of Machu Picchu after “protected zone” designation…………183 Figure 4.9. El Comercio del Cusco documents the “hippie threat”.....…………………………184 viii List of Tables Table 5.1. Tourism visits to Cusco, 1954-1993………………………………………………234 ix List of Abbreviations ANEA Asociación Nacional de Escritores y Artistas, National Association of Writers and Artists CANATUR Cámara Nacional del Turismo del Perú, National Tourism Chamber of Peru CCPT Comité Central de Propaganda Turístico, Central Tourism Propaganda Committee CIAA Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs CNT Corporación Nacional del Turismo, National Tourism Corporation COPESCO Plan Turístico y Cultural Perú-UNESCO, Peru-UNESCO Tourist and Cultural Plan CORPAC Corporación Peruana de Aeropuertos y Aviación Comercial, Peruvian Corporation of Commercial Airports and Aviation COTURPERU Corporación de Turismo del Perú, Peruvian Tourism Corporation CRYF Corporación de Reconstrucción y Fomento de Cuzco, Cusco Reconstruction and Development Corporation DGTUR Dirección General del Turismo, General Office of Tourism ENTURPERU Empresa Nacional del Turismo, National Tourism Company FOPTUR Fondo de Promocion Turística, Tourism Promotion Fund ICPNA Instituto Cultural Peruano-Norteamericao, Peruvian-North American Cultural Institute IDB Inter-American Development Bank INC Instituto Nacional de Cultura, National Institute of Culture INRENA Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales, National Institute of Natural Resources MICTI Ministerio de Industria, Comercio, Turismo, e Integración, Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Tourism, and Integration x MINCETUR Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y Turismo, Ministry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism OIAA Office of Inter-American Affairs RG Record Group TACP Touring y Automovíl Club del Perú, Touring and Automobile Club of Peru UNSAAC Universidad Nacional San Antonio del Abad del Cusco xi Acknowledgments Like many of the wayward tourists hiking to Machu Picchu, I have depended on the help and advice of others in finding the end destination of this dissertation project. Unfortunately, limits of time, space, and ink limit my acknowledgements to only a few of the many who contributed to this project. For those left out in these acknowledgements, you know who you are; and you have my thanks. Mr. Raymond Pienta first introduced me to history and showed how history could be both relevant and exciting. As an undergraduate, I was fortunate to have Mary Beth Norton as an advisor who introduced me to the craft of historical research and scholarship. Ray Craib greatly helped and encouraged me to apply my historical interest in Latin America as a professional career. Studying at Stony Brook has brought