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The Routledge History of Global War and Society

Matthew S. Muehlbauer, David J. Ulbrich

War and Society in , New Zealand, and Oceania

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315725192-4 Peter J. Dean, Tristan Moss Published online on: 21 Feb 2018

How to cite :- Peter J. Dean, Tristan Moss. 21 Feb 2018, War and Society in Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania from: The Routledge History of Global War and Society Routledge Accessed on: 28 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315725192-4

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 Australia, New Zealand, andOceania Dean andMoss while identifyingelementsofcommonalitybetween them. Australia inthisregion. ofthesethree areas histories theseparatemilitary This chaptercharts sphere of historical “Pacific history,” despitethedeepinvolvement ofbothNew Zealandand riences, scholarship, andinterpretation, thatofOceaniaisseenas occupying theseparate conflicts. Incontrast, whilethey are often perceived tosimilarpatterns, asconforming expe- experiences,military how andinparticular they have these remembered andmemorialized in tandem. However, significant differences exist between New Zealand’s and Australia’s Empire andCommonwealth, there ismuch tobegainedby lookingatthesetwo countries respects, given thewars they foughtfor, placeswithintheBritish andtheircorresponding and are history invariably history Zealand military Australian military compared. Inmany colonization andempire. Empire, ofsettlement byWith the British a common history New societies. amoreoftheeffectswar completeunderstanding gathered onthese andanalyzedtoform time whenEuropean empireshasevidence theregion transgressed beenmore systematically records, hasdissipatedwithpassinggenerations. andmuch oftheoralhistory Onlysincethe generations. However, thelonginhabitationoftheseislandstateslargelyescapeswritten Warfare in Australia, New Zealand, andOceaniacovers thousandsofyears andcountless Introduction 3 unites thecountry, Anzac Day Remembrance Day, (part 4thofJuly part foundation day) has, has,country however, never beenreconciled. nationalday Butintheabsenceofatruly that over how thedeathandwounding ofthousandsyoung Australian malesgave “birth” tothe points inthenationalstory, andformany itisregarded of thenation. asthebirthplace Debate soldiers, aplace, anational day, amyth, andalegend.) This event isseenasoneofthedefining Corps.Army parlance In modern “ANZAC” and formation refers to the military “Anzac” to Cove on April toward thecenterof Australia’s experience. historical keeping andpeaceenforcement deployments andmissions, have conflict placedmilitary two world wars, Korea, Vietnam, theGulf War, Iraq, and in 1788,Afghanistan, over events plus scores military of peace- thelastcentury have been especiallyprominent. The Boer War, While warfare ontheContinentdatesbackthousandsofyears before European settlement lation, andrelative power. but remarkablyAs anationithasshort eventful history. military Within thebroader ofitssize, Oceaniaregion interms Australia isthelargestcountry popu- Australia

Though separate entities, these three areas are linked by geography and the impacts of The centerpiece of Australian military history is the storming ofthebeachesat of isthestorming The centerpiece history Anzac Australian military Peter J. Deanand Tristan Moss Zealand, andOceania War andSocietyin Australia, New

25, 1915. (ANZA C beingtheacronym forthe Australian andNew Zealand Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 dominate thefieldtoday. Asnoted, thelandingat AnzacCove by theI in role history andplaceofmilitary Australia, elementsthatstill aswell ashistoriographical in theabsenceofonebeingcommissionedby the Australian government. a detailedcoverage of Australia’s involvement inthewar andactsasapseudo-officialhistory Wilcox (2002). Wilcox’s volume, aproduct ofan Australian War project, Memorial provides NickBleszynski(2003)andcounteredby (amongotherauthors) Craig popular historian on Australia’s involvement intheBoer War. ofMoranthasbeenputbyThe caseinsupport the mostcontroversial element ofthisperiod, andithasdominatedmuch ofthescholarship the controversy inSouth hisexecution surrounding military in1902is by theBritish Africa edited collection(2013). ofthe The story Australian officerHarry “Breaker” Morantand and theBoer War. These conflictsare well covered inCraigStockingsand John Connor’s Empire,conflicts across theBritish includingtheMā Australia (2008b), now initsthird edition. Grey’s onthefrontier chapters of conflictsinhiswidely History read andcitedAMilitary being John Connor’s excellent2002study. isalso very wellThis period covered inJeffery Australian colonialfrontier hasbeenwidelyacceptedforsometime, withthebestaccount andoperationallyfocused tegic “traditional” historians, military thenotionofwar onthe violence againstindigenouscommunities) versions of Australian history. Among more stra- white of Anglo-Saxon history Australia andoftenrejecting thenotion ofdispossessionand and ofindigenoussocietyandminorities) on thehistory “white blindfold” (focusedonthe politicized use of the discipline centered on the debate between “black armband” (focused also amicrocosmwars in oftheso-calledhistory Australia, which, atthetime, saw ahighly views andcore debates. ofthediffering (2003) offerthebestsummary wasThis discourse Lyndall Ryan (1997), andthecontroversial (2002); Attwood andFoster Indigenous Australia, mostprominentlyReynolds (1987), Henry Richard Broome (1994), and Aboriginal Australia. of This debatehasbeenmainlyfoughtoutbetween historians isthenotionofconflicton tralian history “” between European settlers at war.nation already had a long experience One of the most controversial aspectsof Aus- found intwo excellentstudiesby GrahamSeal(2004)andCarolyn Holbrook (2014). Anzac. Key works onthenotionof “Anzac” anditsinfluenceon Australiansocietycanbe that evokeson remembrance andsacrifice—one whatsomehave calledthecivic of religion in recent decades, evolved day important ofnationalsignificancefocused intoaspiritually Front), Stevenson Robert it hasevolved hascalled thatthehistorian ofwriting intoaform ily focusedonthe “diggers” (slang foran Australian soldierthatevolved onthe Western ing today. most oftheworks thathave been published on Australians’ uptoandinclud- war experience in history ofmilitary Australia.effect onthewriting This approach continues todominate fostered whathasbeencalleda “democratic” wartradition, history whichhashadaprofound opposed toafocusontheevents and onstrategy. atheadquarters This focusonthesoldiers time, Bean’s largely from as was the viewpoint history written experience of the regimental the operationsatGallipoliandon Western Front. Inasomewhat radicalmove forthe history, later appointedastheofficial war historian. Beaneditedthefifteen volumesoftheofficial was largely fostered by C.E.W. Bean, chosen in 1914 as the official and war correspondent fromhasevolved. history whichallsubsequent Australian military The Anzac legend up ofthe1st Australian Di Despite numerous operationsbefore 1914, military theFirst World War established the colonies in warThe British ofsmallcolonial throughAustralia nextexperienced aseries Before the events at Gallipoli seared themselves into the Australian consciousness, the Bean inspired a long tradition of journalists writing writing Bean inspiredAustralia’s alongtraditionofjournalists history. military Heav - Australia inthe War of1914–1918(1921–1942), andwrote thesixvolumes covering vision andtheNew ZealandDivision) was thepivotal event in ori ori Wars, Sudan War, , Australia, NewZealand, andOceania

ANZAC (made Corps

33 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 traditions of of thisfactor, inthehumanities, culturalistturn alongwiththecorresponding andthe “leftist argues, of academics came to see war as a the majority “morally suspect activity.” As a result Vietnam War. As Joan Beaumont, oneofthecountry’s ofwar, leadinghistorians that beganwiththemassexpansionofuniversity educationin Australia coinciding withthe (focused onstrategy, campaigns, operations, tactics, andcommand, leadership doctrine, etc.) fromthe academy outsideofit. writing andthelargernumbers works ofasimilarfocus, toachasmbetween in contributing thesmall number ofhistorians vor, MaxHastings, andRick Atkinson. Furthermore, few haveAustralian scholars produced and theUnitedStates, Australia lackshigh-qualityjournalist-historians, like Anthony Bee- use ofevidence. While thistrend isreplicated inmany othercountries, suchasGreat Britain remains mixed, knowledge well and ofdemonstratingsolidhistorical withmost falling short in2007.Australian History Unfortunately, histories thequalityofthesepopularmilitary journalist) also oftenthefavoriteofnationalistpoliticians, withLesCarlyon’s (anaward-winning sport Australia’s andpowerful“great friends” ortheUnitedStates. Great Britain supposed incompetenceofthehighcommand, are especiallyiftheseofficers provided by onarchivaltend tobeshort evidence andanalysis. Another key feature istheirfocusonthe flicts, are oftenlargeinsizeandheavily ofaging veterans. reliant onoralhistories They also thangoodhistory. ismore important story Suchworks, covering allof Australia’s majorcon- “diggerography”: onethatencapsulatesapopulistapproach reflecting thenotionthatagood 34 has beenco-optedandexploited by the stateinparticular, but alsoby nationalistelements as well aswithinthediscipline, controversy. continues tocourt For many, the Anzac legend Australian Landscape(1998). in Kencaptured Inglis’ brilliantly multi-award-winning as ashrine, museum, memorial, andresearch center. is ofthesememorials The importance by thenational Australian War established by inCanberra CharlesBeanthatserves Memorial onearth.highest numberofany (percapita)ofwar country memorials This isexemplified Australian society, andthisiscaptured mostprominently intheclaimthat Australia hasthe et overview of the POW across experience Australia’s wars can be found in Joan Beaumont some excellentstudies, notably by HankNelson(1985) andJoan Beaumont(1988). The best went into captivity thePacific atthehandsof Japanese during war, thisfieldhasseen of war (POW) in experience Australia. Driven largelyby thethousandsof Australians who history, the Anzac legend, oftheprisoner andwarhasbeentheimportance andmemory Liz Reed(2004)and, again, Scates(2013). Bruce ofmilitary Operatingattheintersection as key texts. The Second World War has also been well served in this field by thelikes of by Ziino works(2007), Bart written Tanja Lukins (2004), Scates (2006) serving andBruce memory, andpilgrimage. grief, Inthis theFirst World War hascontinued todominate, with notions around the Anzac mythology, toa strong has given collection of work rise on war, ian soldiers, sailors, airmen, from andnurses thetwo world wars, coupledwiththestrong Asia-Pacific).factor, This the remains of coupledwiththedecisiontonot repatriate Austral- fighting indistantplaces(mostlyEuropewars of andtheMiddleEast remote parts One ofthekey hasbeentheprevalence factors intwentieth-century Australia oflargely social effectsofwar, studies, ofmemory includingtherise commemoration, andpilgrimage. looked atwar ithasdonesofrom theperspective ofwar andsociety, withafocusonthe

al. (2015). Ov This separationalsoreflects the academy’s rejection of “traditional” history military Diggerography-styled books remain highlypopularamong the general public. They are The debateover Bean’s in influence andthehistory role ofmilitary Australiansociety, This war andsocietyapproach hasprovided groundin fertile history.Australian military Dean andMoss h GreatWar Minister’s beingtheco-inauguralwinner of the Prime The Award for

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. Australian intellectuallife” erall the losses that occurred during the world wars during hadaprofounderall thelossesthatoccurred effecton (Beaumont, 2003, 166), whentheacademy has Sacred Places: War in the Memorials Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 of studies, themost significantbeingDavid Horner’s excellentandbalancedaccount(1998). its most controversial), Field Marshall Thomas Blamey, has also been the subject of a number Serle (1982)andPeter Pederson (1985). Australia’s officer(andoneof mostseniormilitary ography and “diggerography.” by remainThe best biographies Geoffrey two of the originals insightand mostofwhichdelvewhich offerlittleifany- new thedepthsofhagi historical studies onGeneralSirJohn Monash, commanderofthe in1918,Australian Corps all of produced by professionally trainedhistorians. However, there hasbeenaplethora ofpopulist as have many ofthe Cross winners. Mostofthemore recent have biographies been all of Australia’s have commanders majorarmy beentherecipient ofatleastonebiography, decades. Inacomprehensive overview ofthisgenre, Peter Dean(2011) notesthatvirtually sweeping Oxford Companionto Australian (2008). History Military nation’s leadingnaval historian, David Stevens. Of notehere isalsotheexcellent andbroad Australian Navy’s comprehensive volume, century ofthe and ahistory Force.Australian Imperial Intandemwiththisproduction istheRoyal World War, with volumes covering the air war, the war with the Germans, the home front, Great War. tolightthebestofrecentin scholarship brings Australia ontheFirst This series editorofthefive-volume(2015–2016) was series of History TheCentenary Australia andthe of Australia’sAn Atlas Wars, now initssecondedition. Mostrecently Professor JefferyGrey lent ofDefence, oftheDepartment history notable forthefirst Professor Joan Beaumont’s excel- Defence (2001). hasavolume andisespecially ofallthree services onthehistory This series publications, thetwo beingtheseven-volume mostimportant Australian of History Centenary reference volumesresearcher. points forany serious fortheirconflictsandthestarting with control onlyover thepreservation ofclassifiedtechnicalsecrets. They remain thestandard records, thatthey tellthenationalstory, independentofgovernment andthatthey are written foundations forthe isthatthey haveAustralian traditioninofficialhistories accesstoofficial of diplomacyandstrategyaswell asoperations, services, andthehomefront. The enduring Afghanistan have evolved considerably from Bean’s timetoincludemore detailedcoverage ing andCold War operations, onEast andanewly commissioned(2016)series Timor, Iraq, and and officers veterans. Eachoftheseseries, covering theconflictsin Korea, Vietnam, peacekeep- O’Neill,ing Robert , andCraigStockings, military are alsoformer however, have theofficialhistorians allcomefrom theacademy, anda number ofthem, includ- twenty-two-volume ofAustralia history inthe War of1939–1945. Inthepost–World War IIera, tralia. Following uponhisepic, anotherjournalist, Gavin Long, was appointedandproduced a ofthe criticism Australian DefenceForce. howdeconstructs Anzac hasbeentradedonby companiesandassociationshow itlimits (2014). A andimperialism.militarism James Brown amuch more effective, haswritten recent critique knowledge onstrategyandoperations, of andamisinterpretation Anzac asanextensionof in of thework history thepublishing surrounding ofmilitary Australia andoverseas, alackof Australian society. However, argumentwas thislegitimate weakened by somepoorsections and laborhistory, exclusive andisparticularly ofwomen andthemulticultural nature of has overshadowed elements of the other nationalstory,(more) important such as federation Anzac hadachieved amonglargesectionsof Australian society. Itsbasicpremise isthat Anzac ofthelegend,due critique anditdisplayed considerable couragegiven thesacredness that With Anzac? of The Militarisation Australian (2010). History The bookrepresents alongover- politics.and right-wing produced In2010fourprominent What’s academichistorians Wrong Biography hasalsoproven history, groundformilitary fertile inthelastthree particularly Besides official histories there haveBesides officialhistories beena number ofgovernment- orservice-sponsored Another ofBean’s to legacieshasbeentherole ofofficialhistories andimportance Aus- Australians Defence: Sources and Statistics, and Lieutenant General John Coates’ superb

defense analyst, ar former my officer, and veteran ofIraqand Afghanistan, Brown In All Respects Ready, produced by the Australia, NewZealand, andOceania

35 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 A areas andthosecoveringmilitary the history”“new military orwar andsocietyapproaches. toexplore.generations ofhistorians has, more oftenthannot, eschewed theory. This leaves andfuture groundforcurrent fertile rarely addressed. and narrative-driven and tends to be empirical history Australian military coverage, are andlogistics andacross history very thescopeofconflict technicalmilitary plenty lefttobecovered. Otherbattles, operations, andcampaigns stilllackany oradequate fought-overhistorically First World War, theGallipolicampaign, particularly there isstill the literature are stilllarge. Across thematicapproaches andconflicts, even withthe much of the Vietnam War (2014). official histories flicts intheMiddleEast—although recent notable editionsinclude Peter Edward’s synthesis the officialhistories, andfew textshave yet toappearcovering Australia’s more recent con- nese. no texts have In the postwar period as yet beyond gone far the records and synthesis of the homefront, thePOW experience, andperspectives from theUnitedStatesandJapa- their insightandcoverage, combiningbattlefront analysisacross alongwith allthree services Dean’s ofeditedbooksonthePacific series war (2013; 2014; 2016)have beenpraisedfor 2002, withMarkJohnston; and2008)demonstratesomeofthebestanalysis, whereas Peter High Command: Australia and Allied Strategy 1939–1945. ’s three works (1997; prolific historian, military produced a comprehensive study in 1982, filling this gap with Australia’s role inthePacific war; however, David Horner, Australia’s preeminent andmost of avolume onstrategyintheSecond World War isstriking,given officialhistory especially number stand out for their approach or coverage, or the quality of the analysis. The absence is thenextmostprominent, given itssizeandscope. Besidesthe textsalready mentioneda GreatWar andJean Bou’sthe two works important (2009and2016). The Second World War overwhelming number oftitlesafew volumes standout, of History includingtheCentenary ontheirwebsites.tions mostlyappearinelectronic form throughsupported thenavy’s SeaPower Centre andthe Air Power Centre, whosepublica- other studiesproduced over thelasttwenty years. The othertwo have services also beenwell sity Press, and battle,that accounts for most of the high-quality biographies campaign, and includes anexcellentacademicseries, withOxford, first Univer andthenwithCambridge - well served by investments from theinstitutionin Australian Series. History Army This number ofvolumes andthefocusonitsbattles. These studieshave alsobeenparticularly 36 (2000),tory arguesthatrelative toMā view ofNew Zealand’s history, military TheOxford His - CompaniontoNewZealandMilitary gapsexistinNewmyriad Zealand’s history. military Within themostcomprehensive over- peoples, andtheUnited States, thewars ofBritain peacekeeping, and the War on Terror, ian historiography. insimilarconflicts,While participating including war withindigenous inNew Zealandhasnotoccupiedthesamecentralplaceasit hasin history Military Austral - New Zealand to work together toadvance the fieldofstudy(Grey, 2008a, 468). ofwar] andsocialhistory take[traditional military aleaffrom practiceelsewhere” andstarted Grey has noted, “Perhaps it’s time onbothsidesofthedivide historians Australian military but itisalltoorare inthehistoriography. Jeffery As thelategreat historian Australian military Michael McKernan’s coverage integrated oftheSecond World War (2008), thisdivide, bridge

few studies, suchasJ Furthermore, there stillremains alargedivide between those whowork inmore traditional Overall, on whilethere hasbeenmuch written history,Australian military the gapsin ofspecificconflicts,In terms oftheFirst thehistory World Wardominates. Amongthe The Australian has dominated the genreArmy of history,Australian military both in the Dean andMoss oan Beaumont’s award-winning First World War (2013)and history ori history inparticular, history ori history military Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 1923, whichcovered thecampaignsinPalestine, Turkey, and France. As McGibbon(2003) The First World War alsosaw fourvolumes published between ofofficial history 1921and there was of publications on New a rush Zealand’s war experience, memoirs. particularly relative tothepopulation, was amongthehighestinworld. Following theirreturn, the titleof sacrifice,”“greatest thesheer number ofmensent overseas from New Zealand, the lion’s attentioninNew Zealand. share ofhistorical While many nationslay claimto sion documentary, attention. sparked historical greater have continued to revisit these conflicts, Belich’s work, which was also presented in a televi- that theconflictbetween Europeans andMā Revisionist historians, ofwhichJames Belich(1987)isthemostwell-known, have argued older two-volume work (1922–1923)remains afoundational text in itsoperational detail. in thenew colony, ofcolonial andsaw themasoneofaseries “land grabs.” James Cowen’s theNew Zealand termed Wars. claimedthey Earlyscholarship stemmedfrom landdisputes the1860sand 1870s, during conflict occurred inwhat was known astheMā troopsan indigenouspeople by inthe Pacific imperial region. of Themostsignificantperiod muskets toolratherthanacatalystforchange. actingasacomplementary interpretation, arguingthatthesewars were anextensionofprevious modesofwarfare, with Zealand, changedthenature ofMā weapons,ern introduced by before traders theestablishment ofEuropean coloniesinNew between 1807and1845, thelong-standingassumptionthat theirnameincorporates West- acceptance ofMā ians (around 15and2 higher proportion ofthepopulationmadeupby Mā historians’ ofmilitary portion attentions. The reasons forthisare complex, but reflect the on Australian wars, conflictbetween andwithMā stark contrastwiththeplaceofindigenouspeoplesin Australia. Incontrasttotheliterature rests. history foundation onwhichNew Zealand military the “unremitting empiricism” oftheofficialhistories, like in Australia, they doprovide asolid debates,historical concentratinginsteadonnarrative detail. While Rabel(2001, 64)decries versities, forageneralaudience, andwriting are authors lesslikely toengageexplicitlywith body of New Zealand war and social history. Funded by the government rather than uni- history. Moreover, argues, asMontgomerie hasshapedthe thenature ofofficialhistories culture, and race rather than more “traditional” areas of study, such as diplomatic and military that found in Australia, work on issuessuchas gender, and the focusofacademichistorical ofaround inacountry fourmillion,of historians amore limitedsenseofnationalismthan factors, isthe result ofacombination of of official history includingthelimited number Rabel (2001)andMcGibbon(2003), bothofficial historians, arguethatthe “dominance” program,official history whichhas attention.receivedgreatest historiographical the Robert andfoundationaldetailofNew Zealand’sthe empirical wars isprovided by anextensive indistinct” acknowledged inNew Zealand’s asimportant history, “the detailsoftheprocess rather than theses to verities be proved.” then explains that, Montgomerie although war is connections between thetwo “are madeonlyinpassing, ortreated asstatementsofhistorical ofNew Zealand’sargues thatthehistory wars hasbeenquarantinedfrom socialhistory, and has been interest”“a minority inNew Zealand. Similarly, (2003, DeborahMontgomerie 62) As throughoutCommonwealth, much oftheBritish theFirst World War hasattracted European colonization in New Zealand saw the most sustained regular campaign against The Musket Wars example of the latter point. offer a prime Fought among Mā Mā oftheMā With theexceptionofhistory ori history andculture are history centraltoNew Zealand’sori nationalidentity, whichmarksa (62). ori warfare assimilarto ori Western conceptionsofconflict.

percent respecti ori warfare.ori Angela Ballara(2003)haschallengedthis vely); stronger afar Mā ori was insteadoverori sovereignty. While others ori people,ori andperhapstheFirst World War, ori, compared with Aboriginal Austral- with Aboriginal compared ori, Australia, NewZealand, andOceania ori hasreceivedori asignificantpro- ori politicalvoice;ori andanearly ori Wars,ori now

ori peoples ori .

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. remain

37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 official history ofthatconflict.official history Mā theSecond during served intheMediterranean World War, received itsown volume inthe history.subset ofNew Zealandmilitary The 28th(Mā place ofwar within it. of Jock Phillips’ (1989)explorationofPakeha (white New Zealander)maleidentity, andthe war inNew Zealanders’ identitieshasbeenonlysuperficiallyexamined, withtheexception New Zealandtendstobeforgottenin Australian commemorationinthewar. The role of in New Zealandsociety. Indeed, despitesupplyingthekey consonantstotheterm “Anzac,” forged theirnationalidentity. Unlike in Australia, Anzac hasnotoccupiedthecentralplace in thesecondhalfoftwentieth century. thebulk ofscholarlywork form onNew Zealand’scases thesehistories operations military involvement inpeacekeeping operations, examinedby Crawford (1996). However, inmost U.S.notably barring nuclear powered–ships from itsports. New Zealandhasalsohadalong from thatof Australia, embracedasmallerandmore pacificdefenseposture, asthecountry tralia inthePhuoc Tuy province. After Vietnam, New Zealand’s defensestrategydeparted New Zealand’s role in Vietnam, itsforces withthatof whichsawintegrate thecountry Aus- bution tothedefenseofMalaya. BothMcGibbon(2010)andRabel(2005)have covered senttoKorea,sailors whilePugsley (2003)documentsNew Zealand’s- decades-longcontri studies. McGibbon(1991, ofthearound and 1996)explores 4,700soldiers theexperiences path.strategic Eachdeployment isexplored by officialhistories, but hasattractedfew other oftheBritish,port theUnitedStates, and, mostrecently, New Zealand’s own independent historians, but there undoubtedlyremain many more gapstofillthan fortheFirst World War. of war.prisoners has Rabel (2001) arguesthat the sheer scopeof these histories “daunted” the entire breadth ofNew Zealand’s wartime experience, includingavolume devoted to tion tothehaphazard anduneven First World War officialhistories, andtheproject covers volume (1949–1986). officialhistory Insome respects, thescaleofthisproject was a reac- onthe Second Writing World War continues tobedominatedby themammoth forty-eight in thePacific, aided by airandnaval units, effort. remained itsprincipal theMediterranean and foughtinItalyuntilthewar’s end. Although the3rd Division foughtlimitedcampaigns from thefightagainstGermany, theNew Zealand2ndDivision remained inNorth Africa, Pacific, was focusedon theMiddle Eastand Europe. While Australiawithdrew itsdivisions and community. fromexamine issuesranging New Zealandandempire torepatriation, operations, gender, Great War: NewZealand, the Allies andtheFirst World War (2007), ofauthors inwhichanarray and the First World War is epitomized in John Crawford and Ian McGibbon’s New Zealand’s since the officialhistory. now Thedepth ofscholarship beingproduced onNew Zealand topher Pugsley’s studyofNew Zealand’s Gallipolicampaign(1984)marked oneofthefirst reexaminationsubject tothemostrigorous by ofallNew scholars Zealand’s wars.- Chris the1980sandaroundand public interest thecentenary, during theFirst World War hasbeen a government committee. First World War. Lessformally, produced by unithistories veterans groupswere overseen by official enthusiasm, they have ofNew Zealand’s nonethelessdominatedthehistoriography Although thevolumes were dealofcoordination commissionedwithout agreat orgeneral these volumes were managedwithinthemilitary, by forthegeneralpublic. officers written and Second of the First points out in his introduction to the official histories World Wars, 38

By contrast, the study ofMā Beyond thebattlefield, New Zealand’s have historians examinedthe way inwhich war has New Zealand’s post-1945conflicts were marked by small, insup- nichecontributions New Zealand’s Second World War, despitetheproximity oftheJapanese advance intothe With thecentralityofFirst World War toNew Zealandhistory, andsurgesinscholarly Dean andMoss ori soldiers and their martial identityhasbeenasignificant andtheirmartial soldiers ori ori soldiers were, soldiers ori andcontinue tobe, lionizedfortheir ori) battalion,ori) forinstance, which Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 martial qualities,martial andMā conflicts inthe region. Thesmall first decadesof presence the inthe Western Pacific during Melanesia, although earlyEuropeantheferocity accountsmarginalize andmagnitudeof anthropologists. As Knuaft (1990) argues, warfare was throughout a common occurrence dency forprecontact warfare tobepresented ina “generalized” and mannerby historians onthesethreechapters themes, but noneonconflict. on culture, race, andtheenvironment. andBashford’sArmitage book, forinstance, contains as representative ofa Western-oriented approach totheislands’ histories, andinsteadfocuses and looksto local, Pacific histories. Thisapproach, however, history tends toignore military thatmoves iscomposedofhistory The secondcategory beyond a Western periodization, negotiatedtheir placewiththecolonialpowers,islanders inwhatistermed “islander agency.” a impact,”“fatal work whilepostwar soughttoacknowledge historical theways inwhich of colonialisminthePacific focusedonthe ofEuropeansway constituted inwhichthearrival involvement in the two world wars, and decolonization. Broadly, of the effect initial imagining teenth century, thePacific was subjecttothesimilar waves ofEuropean contact, annexation, colonialism. Although colonizedlaterthantherest oftheworld, thelatenine- largelyduring of external,periodization usually Western powers, and inrelation toimperialism particularly and societyissparse, andoccupiestwo broad categories. First, and itfocusesonthestructures of other world regions. Within the “kaleidoscopic” Pacific historiography, the study of war age and Alison Bashford pointoutintheireditedcollection(2014), from issetapart histories the fieldsofanthropology, archaeology, andpoliticalscience. by historians, and any engagementwithOceania’s embraces necessarily conflictsandmilitary of theworld’s languages. Despite, orbecauseofthiscomplexity, isunderstudied theregion systems, and cultures. Indeed, Papua New Guinea alone is home to more than one-quarter by jungleandmountains, has aprofoundly theregion diverse rangeoflanguages, political separated by thevast Pacific Ocean or, inthecaseoflargestlandmassNew Guinea, smaller Oceaniacentered onthe tropical Pacific southoftheequator. With smallpopulations broad linguistic, ethnic, andculturalgroupsofMelanesia, Micronesia, andPolynesia, withthe ing this is the difficulty indefiningthe Pacific, although itcan be said toencompass the its tangentialrelationshipofgeopoliticalpower tocenters study. andhistorical Compound- ing on conflict in Oceania is exceptionally meager, conditioned by the region’s isolation and If there of are gapsinthehistory Australia andNew Zealand’s pastconflicts,- writ historical Oceania which bodeswell forthefuture ofthestudywar andsocietyinNew Zealand. are andsocialhistorians that military “on common, thoughsubstantiallyuncharted, ground,” to history hasreduced military insocialhistory “merethe rise background.” Yet, shenotes field. ExaminingthestateofNew Zealand war history, (2003, Montgomerie 74)arguesthat wartime pastinthevein of Australia, ensures thatthere isstillmuch work tobedoneinthe academy,the historical which, combinedwiththeabsenceofanationalobsessionits detailed scholarlywork onMā wars areasocial, represent ofstudythatintersects arich military, andracialhistories. Yet, no nial world. The centralplaceanduniqueinvolvement ofMā tial race,” throughout itselfaresilient andcolonialsoldiers thecolo- myth amongminority identity hasbeenexaminedby Francesca military Walker of (2012)through theprism “mar- porated intotheNew ZealandDefenceForce’s ceremonies. Recently, theideaofMā Moreover, records nature oforalanddocumentary the fragmentary has resulted inaten- As aresult, thePacific’s isasdisparateitsgeography and, historiography asDavid- Armit willcontinue to beshapedby history New therelatively Zealandmilitary smallsizeof ori traditions,ori theHakawar mostfamously dance, have beenincor- ori inthedefenseforce hasbeenattempted. ori Australia, NewZealand, andOceania ori soldiers inNew soldiers Zealand’sori

ori ori 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 praise isfulsome indigenous troops. onthePacific IslandsRegiment,Writing Nelsonwrote that “whilethe sand assoldiers. of Nelson(1980)alsoshedlightontheracializedlanguage usedinhistories inOceania,participants withover aslaborersandthree thou- fiftythousand menserving Allied troops andPapua New Guineans, bythelargestgroupofindigenous far whoformed theraciallybased relationships between Hank Nelsonledthefieldinexploring historian butwillingly aiding otherwise their tangential colonial to masters the conflict. Australia conceptualized the indigenous populations as passive in the writing war, participants often much remained oftheregion thepossessionof Western nations, andother officialhistories but untilrecently, there of was onthePacificwar. alsolittlescholarship experience While outside ofit. peoples but alsohow localconflicts, politics, andlifeinteractedwiththelarger war, orexisted ance in the French colony, Muckle here explores not justhow war “happened” to indigenous from the Western Front ofconflict. tolocalize thehistory ExaminingthelastofKanak resist- (2012) isanexampleoftheway have away inwhichrecent historians theperiod reimagined the Western of the Pacific. periodization Muckle’s Adrian studyof1917 in New Caledonia scholarly interest. away thatsoughttoreorientate An exceptionisfoundinthosehistories ples, thatwas, inaregion marginalized atbest, totheconflict, peripheral have attractedlittle the majority, suchasthose intheNew Guineanhinterland, thewar meantlittle. Pacific peo- Guinea. For somePacific peoples, onecolonialmaster was swapped foranother, whilefor been seizedby Allied powers. Only a handfuloflandbattleswere fought, inNew primarily the first year of the war, colonies inNew Guinea, German Samoa, had and theMarianas powersof theconflictbetween imperial inthe region, albeitmore overtly. Bytheendof diagnostic aspectofsocialforms, theircore values andhistory” (208). inOceania,arship inGosden’s casethestudyofwar andsocietyhasbeenusedas “a crucial relations, rituals, andconceptsofmaleness. Reflectingthebroad church ofacademicschol- the governed changedtheirmethodsofexchange, peoplesofPNGtovaryingdegrees social government extended its monopoly of violence—often through the use of violence itself— ance, ofsubjectsocieties. andinterrelations Gosden(2006) arguesthatasthecolonial Chris Oceania andPapua New Guinea(PNG)inparticular. Otto, Thrane, and Vankilde’s from edited collection on this topic (2006)draws itsmaterial field fortheanthropological andarchaeological studyof warfare; asignificant of proportion where they “discovered” hundreds ofthousandspeople. Oceania, therefore, arich offers colonial officialsentered the1930s, the Papua New onlyduring Guineanhighlands region meant that “traditional” warfare continued into the twentieth century. Indeed, Australian colonialism—the result ofdisinterest from colonialmetropoles ratherthanbenevolence— 40 offering any historical analysis ofhow, any historical offering why, and inwhatcontextthey didso. Onlyrecently to benarrative andnationalist, thatthesemendidserve, andfocusonthe fact ratherthan forces providedmilitary by inthePacific, islanders from PNGand Fiji. However, thesetend history.military it, placingthecolonial nature of Australia’s placeinPNGattheforefront ofthestudy thewar government andtheplaceofPapuamilitary ofPNGduring New Guineanswithin beach, andocean. An exceptionis Alan Powell’s Force(2003), whichexaminesthe TheThird campaign histories, ofthebackdrop andthe indigenous troops aspart ofjungle, are described and black skin” (203). Even inthetwenty-first century, words suchas “native” abound in fire asfixed,and unsteadinessunderartillery asthoughthey are asinherent asthecurlyhair

The Second World War, by contrast, causedprofound upheaval throughout thePacific, Essentially, theFirst World War inthePacific was anextensionoftheprevious fifty years Colonialism influencedindigenous ways of thecomposition,war by changing govern - A handful of studies have been written on the military contributions of the twoA handful of studies have contributions major on the military been written Dean andMoss

.

.

. there w as tendencytoseePapua andNew Guineantalentsinthebush Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:25 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315725192, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315725192-4 of military history,of military iskey tothisprocess. Pacific nationsas “developing” andtherefore unworthy discipline of theoftenstate-oriented constitutes “war” toinclude ethnicandnon-stateconflict, as nottosee well asaneffort close anddispassionateexaminationofthepast. Moving beyond narrow definitionsofwhat shifttheirwork awayhistorians from the(admittedlypressing) needsofthepresent, toa light. hasonlyrecentlythe region beenseeninahistorical Future work, therefore, willsee Moreover, the relatively recent ascent to nationhood among Pacific nationshasmeant that niche area, withrelatively plyingtheirtradeamongtheislandsandjungle. few historians reach backtotouchtheinstitutions ofthecolonialpowers. presence of Papua New Guineans in its army, and reveals the way in which the Pacific could the localcontext. Suchanapproach alsoexamines Australia asaPacific nation,given the independence, thetraditionalfocus onoutsideinfluenceinthe Pacific with Mossbridges of Papua New of the PIR with structure the experience Guineans and the progression to style unittothebasisforindependentPNGDF. thestudy oftherole Byintegrating and ofthePacific(PIR)from(2017) explores IslandsRegiment acolonial- thetransformation Tristan Moss’ Guarding thePeriphery: The inPapua NewGuinea, 1951–75 nization of Pacific nations leaverich field of studyof a “new” in the history Pacific. military Guinean state. ing theinteractionbetween the Australian-developed with thenascentPapua military New development contextwhileexamin- ofthePNGDefenceForce (PNGDF)initshistorical Ron May’s inPapua TheChangingRoleoftheMilitary NewGuinea(1993), whichplacesthe oral work remains tobeattemptedformuch oftheperiod. The strongest ofthesestudiesis simply beentaken as “history” by thoseexaminingthelatestcrisis, andin-deptharchival and politicalscienceratherthanhistory.porary Indeed, by olderarticles politicalscientistshave problems tobesolved. ascontem- canbecategorized ofscholarship As aresult themajority island ofBougainville from 1988. Invariably, theseconflictsare studiedascontemporary gency inNew Caledoniain1980, andadecade-longcivil war onthePapua New Guinean continued ethnicandcommunity violenceinPNGandtheSolomonIslands, asmallinsur- decolonization inthelate1960s, hasseencoupsinFiji1987, theregion 2001, and2006, byword fornationalinstabilityandwidespread, low-level violence. From thewave ofPacific ence of the scale seen in Asia or didnot occur in Oceania,Africa has become a the region the lensofdecolonizationandnationaldevelopment. While thebloody wars ofindepend- explore the “hidden histories” ofindigenoussoldiers. fromdiers Northern Australia, Papua New Guineans, andNavajo “code talkers” inorder to tal manner, suchasNoahRiseman(2012), of whocompares theexperiences Yonglu sol- have inananalyticalratherthananecdo- attemptedtoexamineindigenousservice scholars —— ———. Beaumont, Joan. BrokenNation: Australians intheGreat War. Crows Nest: Allen Australian ofDefence. History Centenary 7vols. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2001. Attwood, Bain, and Foster, S. G., eds. FrontierConflict: The .Australian Experience : NationalMuseum Australia Bibliography of Australia,2003. Like Pacificmore broadly, history war andsocietyapproaches tothesubject remain a The wealth andtherelatively ofarchival onthecolonialperiod recent material decolo- After theSecond World War, overwhelmingly scholars saw conflictinthe Pacific through —. “The Stateof of Australian History War,” Australian Studies, Historical 35, no. 21(2003): 165–168. Gull Force, Survival andLeadershipinCaptivity1941–1945. : Allen Australia, NewZealand, andOceania

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