Article Kardan Journal of Social Soviet Invasion of : Sciences and Humanities Reasons, Objectives and 2 (2) 26–43 Ramifications ©2019 Kardan University Kardan Publications , Afghanistan https://kardan.edu.af/Research /CurrentIssue.aspx?j=KJSSH Sidiqullah Sahel

Abstract The ideological rivalry between USA and USSR, as exponents of Capitalism and Communism respectively, led to cold war between the two super powers where they focused on finding a buffer state for their antagonism. Afghanistan became victim of the same rivalry where the two powers strived to preserve their hegemonic interests by funding, financing and arming their allies. Soviet Union invaded the country for preserving socialism and strengthening communist bloc, which astonished the world and reacted to the invasion as threat to peace, Afghans too resisted the invasion and with the help of foreign allies successfully defeated USSR, but the woes of Afghanistan did not reduce after the withdrawal of red troops, and the dreams of millions of Afghans for establishing a peaceful and prosperous government were all belied. The miseries continued after the breakdown of communist regime, and the holly fighters turned their guns on each other for acquiring power, which pushed the country into civil wars and formation of Taliban and radicalism.

Keywords: Cold War, Saur Coup, Soviet Invasion, Afghanistan, Warm Water, Mujahideen, Geneva Pact, Civil Wars

Mr. Sidiqullah Sahel is Lecturer at Faculty of Social Sciences, Kardan University, Kabul Afghanistan.

26 Sahel (2019) Introduction Afghanistan had always been the focal point for invaders and conquerors in order to strengthen their grip on countries of South Asia, for the purpose to be achieved every aggressor tried to capture the country, throughout ages, either by suppressing them through coercion or Brining the tribal leaders to join hands with the Aliens.1 Mughals Conquered Kabul in 15th century in order to reach India, their rule lasted for almost three decades in the region until Safavid Dynasty took over Herat province in western part of the country and moved towards Kandahar in the same decade, when Mughals were ruling over Kabul.2 It was not only this that the country has suffered and was used as a buffer state during the great game between East India Company (Britain) and Czarist Russia during 19th century, henceforth the country went through three wars with British forces in 1839, 1879, and 1919 respectively, also known as Anglo-Afghan wars.3 The story does not end here, super powers of the time once again found Afghan soil conducive for their proxy wars, and this time the war was not a typical imperialist one but was an ideological conflict between Communism and Capitalism.4 Ahmad Shah Durrani, aka Ahmad Shah Abdali, the architect in chief of the modern Afghanistan, and his family ruled Afghanistan for 226 years until King Zahir Shah, the last Monarch of Afghanistan, was dethroned by Muhammad Dawood Khan on 17th July 1973 through a bloodless coup, and established a Republican form of Government.5 Dawood lost the support of clerics, tribal heads and rural population since he portrayed himself as a progressive nationalist and a pro-Socialist. In doing so, he was inclined towards Soviet Union in early days of his government. Since he acquired power with the assistance of Afghan Communists, mostly members of PDPA, he gave more value to them, by appointing them in key military and government posts, and failed to form an inclusive government.6 Dawood received economic and military aid from Soviet Union, and during his first visit to Moscow he acquired 428 Million assistances from Soviet Union, and in response he was advised to work more closely with Parcham Faction of PDPA and also Support Soviet foreign policy in United Nations Summits. This resulted in filling of high governmental offices by PDPA, and they started targeting all their opponents and religious circle. 7 The university campuses and government offices were changed into a platform for ideological tussles between radical leftists “mostly educated

27 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications in the west and Moscow” and radical rightists “mostly educated in Al- Azhar University and Madrassas inside the Country”. 8 Since the government was in hands of leftists, situation for the rightists inside the country were infeasible, especially after a demonstration by women against them, which resulted in their imprisonment by Dawood, and some of them fled to Pakistan in 1975. 9 They were welcomed to Pakistan by premier Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and were provided sanctuary under Auspices of INTER-Services Intelligence (ISI) in order to use them as pressure against Dawood, and reciprocate it with Dawood’s policy of supporting Pashtun Rebels. Despite meetings and agreements between Dawood and his Pakistani counterpart in 1976 and 1978, the country did not stop supporting and training Afghan Rebellions.10 Dawood was not as flexible in his relations with communists of Afghanistan as they hoped for, and started shunting their military officers into provinces and replaced them with religious and non-Communist people. This way he tried to make his government more inclusive which deteriorated his relations with Soviet Union and reached its zenith in 1977 on a visit to Moscow, where he not only rejected Brezhnev’s demand of expelling UN and NATO workers from Northern Afghanistan, and also working closely with Afghan Communists, but after returning to country announced his visit to USA.11 Soviet Union started looking for alternative of Dawood, and ambiguous murder of Meer Akbar Khyber 12 on 17th April 1978 in Kabul precipitated antagonism of communists against Dawood. PDPA accused Dawood for the murder, and the funeral ceremony of deceased person transformed into anti-government demonstration of 10000-30000 people led by Noor Muhammad Tarakai and Babrak Karmal. On 25th April 1978 Dawood Arrested Communist Leaders including Tarakai and Karmal but Hafizullah Amin remained out of bars. He started conspiracy against government and gathered pro-communist officers in Army, and went for a military coup on 27th April 1978, the military besieged Presidential palace “” with several hundred officers and 50 tanks, Dawood after one-day resistance was killed with 39 “according to Mohammad Hassan Kakar with 18 members” of his family on 28th April 1978 “aka 7 Saur or Saur Revolution”. The coup succeeded and military council took the charge of affairs, both Aslam Watanjar and Abdul Qadir Announced the takeover of government by PDPA on radio, and handed over government to revolutionary council of PDPA on 30th April 1978.13

28 Sahel (2019) Although Soviet involvement in Saur Coup is denied and is regarded as sudden action and reaction by Dawood and PDPA respectively, the fact is that the Soviet Advisers were present in Afghan Military who used to train and advise Afghan officers, also the military officers who went to Soviet Union for military training and were indoctrinated by Marxist ideology, were more loyal to Communism rather than preserving government, and also the Soviet embassy in Afghanistan was in constant contact with Afghan Communists, providing them financial assistance for propagating and spreading communism and also recruiting people into PDPA, which strengthened their lines.14 Dawood Couldn’t protect his government because of ambivalent policies in respect of Right and Left internally, he couldn’t decide about his allies inside the country, first suppressed the rightists and later on started transferring the leftists to provinces too, that’s why in his last days he appointed personal friends into government positions. 15 President Dawood was neither communist nor pro-Soviet Union, he was a progressive nationalist “not ready to compromise on Pashtunistan Issue” and a Fabian socialist16, who believed in bringing reforms gradually, and tried to maintain balanced relations with Both the Super powers “USA and USSR” but United States was reluctant in keeping relations with Afghanistan and refused selling Arms to Afghan government three times in 1948, 1951,1954 respectively, and was not ready to provide military aid to Afghanistan, Soviet on the other hand was ready to provide not only economic assistance but also military and political assistance to Afghanistan in Pashtunistan Issue, hence Dawood turned towards soviet bloc.17 After the Saur Coup, Revolutionary Council of PDPA formed government. Noor Muhammad Tarakai was appointed as head of Politburo “(political bureau) is executive committee for Communist parties in all countries having communist government.” and president. Hafizullah Amin was his deputy Prime Minister and head of AGSA “De Afghanistan de Gato Satelo Idara (Afghan interest protection agency”, the communist Regime “Khalq Faction” started suppressing all their opponents brutally, whether they were teachers, religious scholars, tribal heads, even the government officials of Zahir Shah and Dawood Khan. Not only this, Khalq regime also suppressed their leftist opponents “Parcham Faction”18 and executed most of their workers, and sent their leaders into exile and were appointed as Ambassadors.

29 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications Noor Muhammad Tarakai after receiving power signed friendship treaty with Soviet Union on 3rd December 1978, Article iv of the Agreement stated: “the signatories shall consult each other and take by agreement appropriate measures to ensure the security, independence and territorial integrity of the two countries.” 19 The new government brought new socio-economic reforms which were radical and blasphemous in their nature, the reforms included land reforms “Banned Mortgages, High profits, and Re-distribution of land was taken place by government”, government seized the land of all those who owned more than 14 acres of land and was given to landless class, reduced dowry which damaged dignity of women and made them economically dependent, and left out “In the name of Allah” from government documents. These reforms were radical in nature and in contrast not only with the traditional society of Afghanistan but also contended Islamic values and were against human nature too. 20 Most of the land owning class were tribal heads and religious scholars, and they strongly opposed the new reforms by government, and those reforms failed miserably, because of non-cooperation by local population and its implementation in bureaucratic level, and also were against their traditional and Islamic values that’s why people strongly opposed government, and not only cut off their relations with government but also started attacking government. A soviet analyst quoted Afghan cleric stating that: “in Afghanistan one cannot challenge faith, honor and private property, and communist challenged all three” 21 The situation in country worsened with every passing day, from one side the communist regime intensified their atrocities against their opponents and from the other side local population also accelerated their rivalry and resistance against government, and started migrating towards Pakistan and by the End of 1978 more than 80000 people migrated to Pakistan, and according to Reports within two years Regime Killed 50000- 100000 people, AGSA was the main Agent of all these terrors. 22 Tarakai in response to the resistance by local population especially after the Herat uprising in 1979, demanded direct intervention by soviet troops, but each time politburo rejected demand, saying Afghan society is a religious one, and communism cannot be established there by coercion, and also direct intervention instead of normalizing the situation will worsen it. Not only Soviet Union also Tarakai’s own minister Hafizullah Amin was not happy for intervention by soviet troops.23

30 Sahel (2019) This time the Relations between Tarakai and Amin Strained on holding Governmental positions, Amin blamed Tarakai for failures in implementing government policies, Tarakai accused Amin for nepotism, that’s why Tarakai after returning from Havana stayed in Moscow, and there he secretly met Brezhnev and exiled Parcham leader Babrak Karmal who had been denied Afghan citizenship a year ago by Tarakai, they conspired against Amin, and would be replaced by Babrak Karmal. But Amin came to know about it and Killed Tarakai through suffocation in September 1979, Amin acquired power and proclaimed himself as president and Party leader on 16th September 1979. 24 Amin a nationalist leader, tried to bring changes in his cabinet and made his government more inclusive by including non-communists, religious scholars, and people from different ethnic groups in government, he started appearing in religious places and reached people directly, and he also condemned the atrocities of AGSA under Tarakai’s regime. Although Soviet Union accepted Hafizullah Amin as president, he was not favorite of USSR, USSR also was suspicious of Amin and his policies towards them, since he tried to have balanced relations with other countries, that’s why he met consistently US Ambassador to Afghanistan Adolf Dubs when he was Deputy Prime Minister, he also tried to normalize his relations with Pakistan, all these things did not go well with Soviet Union and made Amin into Soviet Hard liners. He was educated in USA, that’s why Soviet Regarded Amin as CIA Agent.25 Despite presence of Soviet Military Advisers in Afghanistan, Amin was strongly against military intervention of Soviet Union in Afghanistan, and also proposed keeping the Soviet advisers under the authority of Afghan government, all these contributed to the deterioration of Amin’s Relations with Soviet Union and this was the starting point of the rift in relations between Amin and Soviet Union, which continued afterwards. When Amin killed Tarakai, Brezhnev considered it as personal insult, though continued working with him, Amin summoned Soviet ambassador Puzanov into his office and accused him of conspiracy against him, he also did not accept Moscow’s invitation to discuss about the domestic issues of Afghanistan and acted like of a sovereign ruler, he also had issues with Soviet Union regarding the prices of natural gas, which they used to export to their country from Afghanistan below international rate 1968 onwards.26 All these issues made Amin into Soviet hard liners and were in the search of an alternative to Amin.

31 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications 2 The Invasion As per Brezhnev’s doctrine “every communist country had the right to intervene whenever and wherever socialism was under siege”27. The statement by Brezhnev indicates that he also like most of the other communist and his predecessors did not believe in national barrier, and was exponent of global proletariat revolution, and establishing communism all over the world. That’s why on 12th December he ordered his troops to go ahead and affirmed the invasion of Afghanistan. As per communist ideology the invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet Union was unjust, because communism’s main theme was anti-capitalist exploitation, their struggle was against the free market, and cosmopolitan industries and Multi-National Corporations which exploits laborer, and extract surplus value through their labor power, Afghanistan did not fulfil any of these criteria, since Afghanistan was not a capitalist country and people lived a primitive life, and society had a feudal structure. The feudal structure of society also was not to the extent that it divided society into two factions which are haves and have not, rather society was bound with each other through collective life, tribal and ethnic feelings, and most importantly people were bound together by Islam, where everyone was considered equal and everyone would share their sorrows and joys of life with each other. So, Afghan Society was neither ready to welcome any alien ideas of communism, nor for accepting foreign troops inside the country, that’s why strongly opposed the invasion. Soviet Union provides their justification of invasion, and argues that they have been invited to Afghanistan, and brings the friendship treaty with Noor Muhammad Tarakai signed in December 1979 as evidence, but the fact is both the supporters of Soviet Military presence in Afghanistan Tarakai and Babrak Karmal were dead and living in exile respectively, Hafizullah Amin was ruling the country who was strongly against presence of foreign troops in the country, plus the article 4 of the treaty itself is ambiguous, it states: “the signatories shall consult each other and take by agreement appropriate measures to ensure the security, independence and territorial integrity of the two countries.” First of all, Soviet Union did not consult Hafizullah Amin while invading, second by stating preserving territorial integrity of the countries, it is vague preserving from whom? From outsiders? Afghanistan at that time did not face any threat from outsiders, if the article meant, preserving from Afghan rebellious groups, why did they kill their own communist ally Hafizullah Amin while invading.28

32 Sahel (2019) They also claim that religious military resistance was strengthening with every passing day, that could not only topple the existing communist regime, but also could threaten the security in southern border of Soviet Union, so in order to get rid of the existing threat of rightist radicalism it was necessary to intervene militarily in the country, but the reality is that the militant movements were not as strong that could topple regime and establish their own, because the resistance was not so organized, and were not supported by any foreign country, especially USA. 29 Some Soviet Analysts also claim that Soviet Union intervened, because of Amin’s growing cordial relations with United States, since he was a western educated, he was not favored by USSR. And soviets were conscious of his relations with USA, which can make Afghanistan into a hub of imperialism, but Amin was a nationalist leader like Dawood, who wanted to preserve neutrality in his foreign affairs, and also maintain his sovereignty, That’s why he not only built relations with USA, but also with regional countries. And also, the relations between Afghan Government and USA strained after abdication and murder of US Ambassador Adolf Dubs in 1978 by Parcham faction of PDPA.30 Afghan historian Dr. Mohammad Hassan Kakar rejects all the reasons and justifications provided by Soviet Union and claims that Soviet invaded Afghanistan in order to extract and utilize its natural resources and wealth, to improve their stagnant economy and strengthen communism, so they can support their policies of international communism. 31 Brezhnev Agreed the invasion of Afghanistan in politburo meeting on 12th December, and attacked Afghanistan on 25th December, entered Kabul on 27th December 1979 with 5000 troops and headed towards Tajbeg palace, where Amin had transferred on 9th December 1979 on consultation of Soviet advisers, and they also deployed their forces to Pul-e-Charkhi, Qargha, Rishkhor and other areas of strategic importance, and also seized Television and Radio station through which they disconnected the whole communication system, that government officers could not defy. Aslam Watanjar, Asadullah Sarwari, and Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy accompanied the invaders and were guiding Soviet troops in order to attack Tajbeg palace, after resistance by the guards of presidential palace, red troops successfully wiped out the guards and killed Hafizullah Amin, who was already poisoned by Russian cook and waitresses with some of his family members, Pro-Amin officers who were considered to be patriots did not oppose the invaders, because of the faith which they had on Soviet Union and communism, and also presence of influential communists like

33 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications Watanjar, Sarwari, and Gulabzoy debarred them from reaction against Soviet forces.32 After Amin, Karmal announced breakdown of Amin’s regime and regarded it as of violent and repressive one, and assured all the people of establishing a democratic regime, where people can freely enjoy their personal liberty and private property. He also legalized multi-party system, ordered the release of political prisoners, announced non-interference in customs and traditional affairs, pro-government tribal heads were exempted from confiscation, in redistribution of land priority was given to the families who would send their sons to Army, and re-establish religion under auspices of state authority “Religion became in the service of state”.33 Despite all reforms and his efforts to achieve support of local population, he failed, and people did not support his government. Because all his promises were mere promises, and were promises of a liberal not a communist, and was more brutal and loyal to soviet compared to earlier communist presidents. Hence people all over the country continued their opposition to Soviet invasion and pro-Soviet government. All over Kabul Allah u Akbar movement Started, people each night started chanting Allah u Akbar “Allah is greatest” from their roofs, and the entire Kabul echoed with anti-government slogans. 34 The attack astonished the entire world specially United states, and reactions started pouring in from different quarters. US president Jimmy Carter regarded the attack as extremely serious threat to peace, and violation of ‘United Nations Charter’. US government-imposed sanctions on USSR, they put the strategic Arms limitation talks II on hold, they also reduced contracted shipments of grains to USSR from 25 to 8 million tons and boycotted 1980 Moscow Olympic games which was followed by other countries as well. 35 American Analyst described the invasion as long term imperialist thrust towards warm water and Persian Gulf, and regarded it as achieving strategic superiority, Jimmy Carter Announced that any assault on Persian Gulf would be retaliated militarily. Czarist Russia had always been in search of reaching Indian ocean and Persian Gulf, in order to have access to warm water “Ice-free sea” during winters that they could easily connect with south Asian countries and dominate the region and strengthen socialist block.36 Anglo-American analysts have described in their writings that peter the great had the intention of reaching warm water and controlling the

34 Sahel (2019) region, American Geopolitical thinker A.T. Mahan regarded warm water as an evident need for Russia, this desire for reaching Indian ocean led to Russian expansion to its Southward borders, which led to two Anglo- Afghan Wars in 1839 and 1879 and is regarded as great game. 37 After world war i Russian drive for warm water port disappeared from Anglo-American political writings, because the successors of Czarist empire were left with diminished territory, resources and Naval forces, and revived back during second world war and cold war period, and was propagated by western Media, Politicians, Pakistani officials and Mujahideen during Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. For them the main motive behind invasion of Afghanistan was Soviet imperialist intention of reaching Indian sub-continent and warm water, so that they could control the entire region, but the fact is it was an ideological conflict between capitalism and communism, not the intention of Reaching Persian Gulf or warm water, even Soviet foreign policy says nothing about the warm water. in early 1977 Brezhnev declared that “USSR had ruled out any quest for superiority, and rejected any first strike.”38 Soviet foreign policy after Bolshevik revolution in 1919 revolved around establishing international communism and declared that “we shall establish workers’ and soldiers’ council in Berlin and Warsaw, in Paris and London, and the might of the soviet will one day extend throughout the whole World”. Soviets too were not averse in using the resources of Soviet Union to speed up the world revolutionary process. The revolution in the west failed and did not succeed the way Lenin had predicted, that’s why Soviet Union proposed the policy of coexistence and started trade ties with neighboring countries of Turkey, Afghanistan and other central Asian countries, and this remained until Mikhail Gorbachev 1985. 39 and also by 1970s, the Soviet union already had reached the warm water ports in allied countries such as Somalia and Aden, and had replaced Britain as the most influential power in India, so they did not need Afghanistan as a pathway to either of those goals.40 It was not only USA and Muslim countries who condemned the attack and expressed their solidarity with Afghanistan, United Nations security council too demanded USSR to immediately withdraw from Afghanistan and respect the sovereignty of the country, and for the purpose two UN Resolutions were also passed, which were vetoed by Soviet Union, until 1988.41 People inside the country too started reacting against the Soviet invasion and fought back against the imposed regime, migrations which

35 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications started After ‘Saur Coup’ accelerated after the invasion to Pakistan, General Zia ul Haq embraced them in different refugee camps in order to use them in fighting communist regime of Afghanistan. He also convinced once Reluctant Jimmy Carter to Help Afghan Resistance, which started providing aid after the murder of Adolf Dubs in July 1979, but precipitated assistance after the invasion to Mujahideen through ISI, and USA also encouraged other Muslim countries to Support the rebellious people both ideologically and financially.42 Pakistan started training Mujahideen under the Auspices of ISI in Refugee camps 43, in order to fight back the Babrak Regime, and they recognized seven Mujahideen groups mostly Pashtuns and Sunni44 in order to fight the communist regime of Afghanistan and Soviet Union, the reason for not bringing all people under a strong command and single authority was that, Pakistan did not want a single authority to command Jihad, and build a strong government after withdrawal of USSR.45 Major Jihadist groups formed in Pakistan included, Hezbe Islami Afghanistan led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Jamiat Islami Afghanistan Led by Burhan Uddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Masood, Harakat e Inquilab Islami Led by Mawlvi Nabi Mohammadi, Etihad e Islami Afghanistan led by Abdul Rab Rasool Sayyaf, Hezbe Islami Khalis led by M. Younus Khalis, Mahaz e Milli Islami led by Syed Ahmad Gylani, Jabha e Nijat Milli led by Sibghatullah Mojaddedi.46 Hekmatyar, Rabbani and Khalis were inspired by prominent Islamic scholars Sayed Qutb, and Hassan Al-Bana and were followers of Muslim Brotherhood and wanted to establish a theocratic regime, but ‘Jamiat’ was moderate compared to Hezbe Islami of Hekmatyar. Hekmatyar compared to other groups was more favorite of both Pakistan and United States, hence he received more Aid and Equipment from CIA and ISI, which led to his predominant role in Afghan Jihad, although USA was concerned of his Radical and extremist views too. Sayyaf was follower of Wahhabism, he studied in Al-Azhar University, that’s why he was influenced by Wahhabi school of thought, Arabs provided more assistance to Sayyaf, beside these groups other factions of the mentioned jihadist groups were moderate in their ideology, and their main motive was soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and bringing back the exiled King Zahir Shah to the throne, and for this purpose they Arranged Jirga in Quetta, but Hekmatyar and Sayyaf not only boycotted the Jirga, they strongly opposed the decision too. 47 Brezhnev died in 1982, he was replaced by Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko respectively, both had a very brief tenure due to their ailing health. The war during Chernenko intensified, since he was of the opinion

36 Sahel (2019) that he could solve the issue through force, in response USA also accelerated their assistance to Mujahideen, and provided around 2300 Stinger Missiles to them, and was first used on 26th September 1986, this is considered to be the turning point in the battlefield, since after this Mujahideen were able to crack down soviet airplanes. But after Soviet withdrawal, USA was concerned about its re-collection, because around 600 Stinger missiles were missing and around hundred were bought by Iran, and USA was afraid of its use and going into wrong hands, that’s why purchased them back from Mujahideen 70000-150000 $ each. And this became a good means of business and livelihood for Mujahideen commanders.48 3 Decision of Withdrawal After Chernenko Mikhail Gorbachev became general Secretary of the party and was head of state too 1985-1991. Gorbachev proposed tremendous changes in soviet foreign policy, as he did not believe in international revolution, and downplayed the importance of class struggle in international relations, and emphasized on Mutual security and role of Politics in resolving disputes. Since predecessors of Gorbachev believed in international communism , and were not averse in funding and propagating the ideology, Soviet Economy stagnated and suffered miserably, that’s why he took the path of peace and reconciliation49, and decided to withdraw his troops from Afghanistan and he announced immediate withdrawal of 8000 Soviet troops in 1986. Gorbachev also replaced Babrak Karmal with Dr. Najeebullah Ahmadzai in 1986, former head of Khad “Khidmaat Atlaat Dawlati.” who was Known for his cruelty and brutalities against Anti-Revolutions when serving as head of Khad. After Being appointed, Najeeb followed National Reconciliation Policy, summoned a Loya Jirga in November 1987, approved new constitution and Multi-party system and announced one sided cease fire for six months which was extended to 12 months.50 Gorbachev’s decision for withdrawal paved the way for Geneva Accord, although the informal negotiations started in Geneva in 1982, but Pakistan was reluctant in playing a positive role in it, because if the negotiations in Geneva were succeeding, they had to recognize the communist regime in Afghanistan and would also be deprived of flowing Aid for Mujahideen by USA and Saudi Arabia, that’s why Geneva conference accelerated after 1986 when Gorbachev acquired power and decided to withdraw from Afghanistan.51

37 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications The Geneva Accord was signed on 14th April 1988 by foreign ministers of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Soviet Union and secretary of states for United States. It was agreed that Soviet Union would withdraw all their forces from Afghanistan within 10 months, and both super powers would continue supply of arms to their allies in Afghanistan.52 4 Civil War After the withdrawal of Red Troops on 15 February 1989, USA lost interest in Afghanistan and did not play a constructive role in building a strong centralized government. Hence the country plunged into civil wars, Mujahideen continued fighting the last communist president Dr. Najeeb, and attacked Jalalabad but government defeated them by killing 1000 guerrilla fighters and were compelled to retreat back their militants. Najeeb’s government sustained more than it was expected and lasted until 1992, He followed the policy of National Reconciliation, formed his own Party “Hezbe Watan” and was ready for making a coalition government with Mujahideen but the triumphant Mujahideen were more confident after the withdrawal, and were thinking about forming an Islamic State, that’s why they were not ready by anyway to share power with Najeeb and demanded his resignation. Najeeb was not only engaged with Mujahideen but also busy in internal Rivalry between Khalq and Parcham, once his ally Abdul Rashid Dostum53 switched side and formed an alliance with Burhan Uddin Rabbani, and his military general Shah Nawaz Tanai54 conspired against his government with the help of Radical Islamist Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and attempted a coup in 1990, but failed and escaped to Pakistan with a Military Helicopter, where he was welcomed and was officially regarded as an ally of Hekmatyar.55 Najeeb Government stucked between Right and Left rivalries was unable to continue with the situation, and also after the collapse of communism and breakdown of Soviet Union in 1991, they were not ready to extend support to the communist regime of Afghanistan and completely retreated from the country, hence Najeeb agreed to resign on 18th March 1992, UN Envoy Benin Sevan announced a handover of Government from Najib to a third person. Najeeb After his Resignation took sanctuary at UN compound and stayed there for four years, until he was killed and hanged in Pashtunistan Square with his brother by Taliban in 1996. The victorious Mujahideen rushed towards Kabul, on 24th April 1992 Mujahideen through Peshawer Accord elected Sibghatullah Mojaddedi and

38 Sahel (2019) Burhan Uddin Rabbani as heads of interim government for 2 and 4 months Respectively, which would be followed by a general election.56 But the dreams of millions of Afghans for an Islamic, peaceful and prosperous Afghanistan were all belied with the rule of Mujahideen, the holy warriors were no more holy fighters of Islam, their eyes filled with the greed for power, their minds were filled by cunning and envy and hearts by the love of money and wealth. More than nine years of wars corrupted their minds, and made them bigots and bias towards each other, they proved seditious and pernicious for the country. In such situation the country went into Civil wars and Anarchy, and was divided between feudal lords and different principalities, each part of the country was ruled by a warlord. Each periphery was a safe haven for specific group of Mujahideen, each of them trying to conquer and capture Kabul, and non-hesitated for Bombarding the city from their bases. Mujahideen Commanders started abusing common people, forced marriages and looting people on highways was normalized, they were more brutal and ferocious than communists of Afghanistan. The country remained in a complete Anarchy and ‘warlordism’ until Taliban captured Kabul in 199657, and conquered almost 90% of the country by 2001, except places under command of northern Alliance, they defeated all Jihadist groups and retreated back to neighboring countries Pakistan and Iran. They formed a complete theocratic regime, and regarded their Government “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan”. People tired of the cruelties of Mujahideen welcomed them, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates recognized their Government. USA was also optimistic about Taliban, But the optimism of people and the world did not last longer, since they were more brutal and radical compared to Mujahideen and the country from an anarchical situation transformed into a more extremist, dictatorial regime. 5 Conclusion The invasion proved disastrous to both USSR and Afghanistan, their information about Afghanistan, its people, culture, topography, and demographic condition was insufficient and wrong. Their assumption of invading Afghanistan and subjugating rebels and normalizing the situation in favor of communists within two years were all proved wrong, because when they entered the country, they remained for more than nine years and could not retreat back easily.

39 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications Mujahideen with foreign Assistance resisted and defeated Soviet Union, which resulted not only in withdrawal of USSR from Afghanistan, but also in breakdown of Soviet Union into Russia and failure of communism in 1991. This way the cold war between Union Soviet Socialist Republic and United States of America ended, and the world from a Bipolar world changed into a unipolar capitalist world. America in Afghanistan “By defeating Soviet Union through Afghans” retaliated their defeat in Vietnam, USSR couldn’t save socialism not only in Afghanistan, but was defeated all over the world and resulted in the victory of capitalism. They also couldn’t save the country from Islamic Militancy, rather their invasion precipitated Religious extremism, which after their withdrawal was the sole Authoritative force in the country, which led to not only the rise of Taliban, but made the country a safe haven for International Terrorist Organization “Al-Qaeda” and other Regional Terrorist groups from china and countries of central Asia. Khalilzad in his Book “The Envoy” claims that during Taliban Regime the country was a hub for 10000-20000 Islamist Militants from across the world Specially Arabas, which at any point of time could threaten the southern borders of Russia, and is still afraid of deployment of religious militias or Islamic state in northern Afghanistan.58 The war cost dearer to both the countries, Soviet Union lost more than 13000 soldiers, and 35000 were wounded, and spent approximately 2 billion$ each year on war as per the CIA reports. The casualties to Afghan side were tremendous, one million lives were lost, three million wounded and six million people migrated to neighboring countries, and most of the educated elites fled the country towards other parts of the world, and the country suffered miserably during and after the invasion.59

Notes and References Barry, Wahab Shaista and Youngerman. 2007. A Brief history of Afghanistan. New- York: Infobase Publishing,. Coll, Steve. 2004. Ghost Wars, the Secret History of The CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden from Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin Books. Collins, Joseph J. 1980. "The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: Methods, Motives and Ramifications." U.S. Naval War College Press 53-62. David C. Gompert, Hans Binnendijk and Bonny Lin. 2014. "The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979." In Blinders, Blunders, and Wars. Rand Corporation. Green, William C. 1993. "The Historic Russian Drive for a Warm Water Port: Anatomy of a Geopolitical Myth." Naval War College Review, Vol. 46, No. 2 80- 102.

40 Sahel (2019) Kakar, M. Hassan. 1997. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. London: University of California Press. Khalilzad, Zalmay. 1997. "Anarchy in Afghanistan." Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 51, No. 1, South Asia: The Challenges of Statehood 37-56. Khalilzad, Zalmay. 2016, The Envoy: from Kabul to White House my journey through a turbulent world, St. Martin's press. Mahapatra, Chintamani. 1997. "The Afghan Turmoil: problems and prospects, India international Centre." India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 1 131- 143. Mueller, Wolfgang. 2011. A Good Example of Peaceful Coexistence? Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. Oliker, Olga. 2011. The Soviet Decision to Withdraw and the Legacy of Soviet Efforts to BuildAfghan Security Forces. Rand Corporation . Oudenaren, John Van. 1990. "Understanding Soviet Foreign Policy." Mc Nair Press, April: 1-46. Runion, Meredith L. 2007. The History of Afghanistan . USA: Greenwood Press. In Afghanistan-Soviet Relations during the cold war: a threat for south Asian peace, by Azhar Javed Siddiqui, 617-31. Smith, Jeremy. 2016. "Old Habits, New Realities: Central Asia and Russia from the Break-up of the USSR to 9/11." In The Regional Security Puzzle around Afghanistan, by Helena Rytövuori-Apunen, 29-49. Verlag Barbara Budrich. Westwood, James T. 1982. "The Soviet Union and the Southern Sea Route." Naval War College Review, Vol. 35, No. 1 54-67. Kakar, M. Hassan, 2015, The Afghan Soviet War, Danish Publication. O.P. Gauba, 2018, an introduction to political theory,7th edition, Mayur paperbacks.

1 Shaista Wahab and Barry Youngerman, A Brief History of Afghanistan (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007),64-67. (Hereinafter, Shaista, A Brief History). 2 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 68-70. 3 Meredith L. Runion, The History of Afghanistan (USA: Greenwood Press., 2007) 76-91. 4 Green, William C. 1993. "The Historic Russian Drive for a Warm Water Port: Anatomy of a Geopolitical Myth." Naval War College Review, Vol. 46, No. 2 80- 102. 5 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 113 6 Meredith L. Runion, The History of Afghanistan ( USA: Greenwood Press., 2007) 102. 7 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 132. 8 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 125-128. 9 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 131 10 Colonel Imam says: Bhutto was ready to left out Support from Afghan Rebellions, but the Army and ISI secretly continued supporting them. “Colonel Imam, The story of Afghan jihad” 11 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 131-132 12 Meer Akbar Khyber was leftist Intellectual, and Leader of Parcham Faction of PDPA. Meredith L. Runion, The History of Afghanistan ( USA: Greenwood Press,2007) 103.

41 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Reasons, Objectives and Ramifications

13 Meredith L. Runion, The History of Afghanistan, ( USA: Greenwood Press,2007) 103. 14 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 134-135. 15 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 134-135. 16 Fabianism is an English School of Democratic Socialism, which was originated in 1884 in London, in order to bring reforms gradually and through Democratic means not revolutionary. O.P. Gauba, an introduction to political theory,7th edition, Mayur paperbacks, 2018. 17 Azhar Javed Siddiqui, in Afghanistan-Soviet Relations during the cold war: a threat for south Asian peace (South Asian studies, 2014) 622. 18 PDPA split into Khalq and Parcham in 1966, former headed by Noor Muhammad Tarakai and later by Babrak Karmal. Meredith L. Runion, The History of Afghanistan (USA: Greenwood Press,2007) 106-107. 19 Azhar Javed Siddiqui, In Afghanistan-Soviet Relations during the cold war: a threat for south a threat for south Asian peace (South Asian studies, 2014) 625. 20 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 140-142 21 David C. Gompert, Hans Binnendijk and Bonny Lin. "The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979." In Blinders, Blunders, and Wars. (Rand Corporation,2014)134. 22 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History,143-144. 23 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. (London: University of California Press., 1997)55. 24 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-198 (London: University of California Press,1997)57. 25 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 (London: University of California Press,1997)62-63. 26 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 (London: University of California Press,1997)64-65. 27 David C. Gompert, Hans Binnendijk and Bonny Lin. "The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979." In Blinders, Blunders, and Wars. (Rand Corporation,2014)129. 28 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. (London: University of California Press, 1997) 72-74. 29 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War (Kabul, Danish Publication, 2015), 77- 97. 30 M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 (London: University of California Press, 1997) 68-69. 31 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War (Kabul, Danish Publication,2015), 94- 96. 32 M. Hassan Kakar. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. (London: University of California Press, 1997) 35-43. 33 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History,155-157 34 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War (Kabul, Danish Publication, 2015), 126-142 35 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History,158-159. 36 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War (Kabul, Danish Publication, 2015), 112- 113. 37 Green, William C, "The Historic Russian Drive for a Warm Water Port: Anatomy of a Geopolitical Myth, “Naval War College Review, Vol. 46, No. 2,1993)83.

42 Sahel (2019)

38 Oudenaren, John Van, "Understanding Soviet Foreign Policy.( Mc Nair Press, April 1990) 13. 39 Oudenaren, John Van, “Understanding Soviet Foreign Policy." (Mc Nair Press, April 1990) 1-46. 40 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 149. 41 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War (Kabul, Danish Publication, 2015), 110- 111. 42 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History,159. 43 The triangle “USA, Saudi and Pakistan” Played a tremendous role in Afghan Jihad Against Soviet Union, the earlier two providing Financial Aid, and the later trained them in their camps. 44 Iran Also Supported some Rebellious Groups Mostly Hazara Shiite. Zalmay Khalilzad. "Anarchy in Afghanistan." Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 51, No. 1, South Asia: The Challenges of Statehood, 1997, 41. 45 Zalmay Khalilzad. "Anarchy in Afghanistan." Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 51, No. 1, South Asia: The Challenges of Statehood, 1997, 41. 46 Chintamani Mahapatra "The Afghan Turmoil: problems and prospects, India international Centre." (India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 1)135. 47 Zalmay Khalilzad, The Envoy: from Kabul to White House my journey through a turbulent world, (St. Martin's press, 2016), 81. 48 Steve coll, Ghost Wars, the Secret History of The CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden from Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001,(Penguin Books, 2004)336-337. 49 Oudenaren, John Van. "Understanding Soviet Foreign Policy." (Mc Nair Press, April, 1990) 1-46. 50 Shaista and Youngerman, A Biref History, 168-170. 51 Zalmay Khalilzad. "Anarchy in Afghanistan." (Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 51, No. 1, South Asia: The Challenges of Statehood, 1997) 42. 52 Azhar Javed Siddiqui, In Afghanistan-Soviet Relations during the cold war: a threat for south Asian peace, (south Asian journal, 2014) 627. 53 Dostum an ethnic Uzbek, was a communist general at the beginning of soviet invasion, he is known for switching sides towards the triumphant ones, that’s why in 1992 left Najeeb and formed an alliance with Rabbani, Later Hekmatyar…. 54 Shah Nawaz Tanai was Radical Leftist and Member of Khalq Faction of PDPA, he Attempted coup when the relations between Khalq and Parcham were strained, and Najeeb “Parchami” started trials of Khalq members. 55 M. Hassan Kakar, The Afghan Soviet War, (Kabul, Danish Publication, 2015), 582-585. 56 Zalmay Khalilzad. "Anarchy in Afghanistan." (Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 51, No. 1, South Asia: The Challenges of Statehood, 1997) 43-44. 57 Taliban were formed in 1994, spearheaded by Mullah Omer “Amir ul Mominin”, started fighting guerrilla fighters of Mujahideen in southern and western parts of Afghanistan, until conquered Kabul. 58 Zalmay Khalilzad, The Envoy: from Kabul to White House my journey through a turbulent world, (St. Martin's press, 2016), 113. 59 Chintamani Mahapatra. "The Afghan Turmoil: problems and prospects, India international Centre." (India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1997) 131-143.

43