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The New Paradigm of Protected Areas

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The New Paradigm of Protected Areas Adrian Phillips Turning Ideas on Their Head The New Paradigm For Protected Areas Introduction he ideas that this paper brings together will be individually familiar to resource managers, protected area planners and managers, and other conservation experts, but they may not have considered their combined Tsignificance. So its purpose is not so much to break new ground as to suggest that the changes that have occurred in our thinking and practice towards protected areas over the past 40 or so years amount to a revolution. But while the merits of many of these individual changes have been fiercely debated, their col- lective significance, which can be traced in the decisions of four world parks con- gresses, has largely gone unnoticed. Yet taken together they have produced a new paradigm for protected areas in the 21st century. Powerful forces have helped to bring about this new paradigm—and they will have an even greater influence on protected areas thinking and practice in future. Protected Areas •To be area-based concepts that A starting point is a definition of might be found anywhere; “protected area.” IUCN adopted this •To require specific measures (dedi- in 1994: cation, designation, regulation) for [An] area of land and/or sea especial- the purposes of biodiversity con- ly dedicated to the protection and servation (i.e., protection and maintenance of biological diversity, maintenance); and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal •To require management, delivered or other effective means (IUCN 1994). through legal or other effective means; and The Convention on Biological • By implication, to require that Diversity (CBD) uses a different defi- some kind of management authori- nition: ty is in place to secure conserva- [A] geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and man- tion. aged to achieve specific conservation There are some 60,000 protected objectives (Article 2). areas around the world—that is, places In practice these definitions are that satisfy the IUCN definition and only marginally different. Either are held in the database kept by the would suffice for the purposes of the United Nations Environment Pro- argument in this paper. Note that both gram’s World Conservation Monitor- of them consider protected areas: ing Center (UNEP/WCMC) at Cam- 8 The George Wright FORUM bridge, United Kingdom. However, A Classic View fewer than a quarter of these are large of Protected Areas enough to be included in the United It is traditional (and correct) to Nations List of Protected Areas, accord to the United States the honor whose listings are normally restricted of pioneering protected areas in their to areas greater than 10 sq km. The classic form, as government-owned, U.N. list is published every few years; government-run areas set aside for the last edition dates from1997 protection and enjoyment. This (IUCN 1998a). model was, and remains, a simple but Protected areas are managed for powerful expression of peoples’ con- many purposes and nationally have cern to protect their heritage for all been called by many different names. time. If this paper sets out to show To bring some order into this compli- why it is now often regarded as incom- cated situation, IUCN has developed a plete, and in some situations potential- system of protected area categories, ly counterproductive, this is not to based on primary management objec- diminish its achievements in many tives (IUCN 1994). All categories are countries, nor to suggest that it has no intended to fit within IUCN’s overall role to play in the future. definition of a protected area. These Notwithstanding the leadership categories are summarized in Table 1. role of the USA, in fact the idea of for- Table 1. IUCN categories of protected areas (IUCN 1994) Category Description Ia Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed mainly for science. Ib Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection. II National Park: Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. III Natural Monument: Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features. IV Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention. VProtected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. VI Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Volume 20 • Number 2 2003 9 mally designated protected areas— around the world, though the driving national parks in particular—took root force has been different in different in a number of countries around the regions. For example, in Africa, the same time. The origins of Yosemite emphasis was on creating large game National Park go back to 1864, and parks; in Europe, a focus on landscape Yellowstone National Park, of course, protection was more common. came into being in 1872. But the Por- The inspiration of the United tuguese colonial government of Brazil States was much in evidence in this initiated what is now Tijuca National worldwide trend—creating a family of Park in 1861. The British colony of “Yellowstone’s children” (Everhart New South Wales (Australia) reserved 1972). Indeed, active marketing of the a number of areas west of Sydney for U.S. experience has a long history. protection and tourism in the 1860s Thus, the 1940 Washington Conven- and 1870s, some of which later tion on Nature Protection and Wildlife became part of Blue Mountains Preservation in the Western Hemi- National Park. In 1879, Royal Nation- sphere called on contracting parties to al Park was created in the wilds south create protected areas, of which the of Sydney as a natural recreation area principal model was national parks, for its burgeoning population. In sensu USA. The first two world parks 1885, Canada protected hot springs in congresses were held in the United the Bow Valley of the Rocky Moun- States (Seattle in 1962; Yellowstone tains; part of this became Banff and Grand Teton national parks in National Park. Several forest reserves 1972). Beginning in 1965, the USA were set up in South Africa in the last (and Canada) hosted a very influential years of the nineteenth century. In annual short course on parks for 1887 in New Zealand, the Maori Chief young conservation leaders from Te Heuheu offered the Crown 2,400 around the world. Also, the interna- ha of sacred mountain summits, which tional office of the U.S. National Park later became Tongariro National Park Service helped many countries to Act. The provincial or state tier of gov- establish national parks. Pride in the ernments also started to create pro- American achievement was evident: as tected areas: the province of Ontario the writer Wallace Stegner said, in Canada created Queen Victoria “National Parks are the best idea we Niagara Falls Park in 1885, and Algo- ever had. Absolutely American, nquin National Park (later Algonquin absolutely democratic, they reflect us Provincial Park) in 1893 (Holdgate at our best rather than our worst” 1999). (Stegner 1983). While the modern protected areas As protected areas were set up in movement had 19th-century origins more and more countries, it became mainly in the then “new” nations of more difficult to generalize about why North America, Australia, New they were established and how they Zealand, and South Africa, other were managed. Nonetheless, for many countries were quick to follow.During years the classic model dominated the twentieth century, the idea spread thinking, and was at the center of 10 The George Wright FORUM much national legislation to set up areas were set up favored a top-down protected areas. This view was rein- and rather exclusive view of protected forced by IUCN’s advisory, promo- areas. Setting up large game parks tional, and training work in this field, without too much concern for the which treated national parks as primus impact on local people fitted well with inter pares among the different kind of the autocratic style of colonial admin- protected areas.1 These ideas were istration (especially in Africa), and it delivered on the ground in many parts was equally at home in the early days of the developing world through sup- of post-colonial government which port given to national park projects by followed many of the same styles of FAO (the Food and Agriculture Orga- administration. Thus, modeled in part nization of the United Nations, in on the 1940 Western Hemisphere which U.S. experts played a very influ- Convention, the 1968 Africa Conven- ential role, especially in Latin Ameri- tion on Nature and Natural Resources ca), and (after its establishment in encouraged the creation of protected 1972) UNEP, as well as by some other areas from which local people would donors. Also, many countries set up be excluded, though tourists (and specialized agencies (national parks their activities such as sport fishing) services) to manage these areas. would be welcome (see Table 2). At least until around the mid- Certainly the opinions and rights of 1960s, the climate in which protected indigenous peoples were of little con- Table 2. Extracts from the 1968 Africa Convention on Nature and Natural Resources. Conservation area “means any protected natural resource area, whether it be a strict natural reserve, a national park, or a special reserve....” Strict nature reserve “means an area ... under State control ... throughout which any form of hunting or fishing ... [is] strictly forbidden ... where it shall be forbidden to reside, enter, traverse or camp....” National park “means an area ... under State control ... exclusively set aside for the propagation, protection, conservation and management of vegetation and wild animals ... in which the killing, hunting and capture of animals and the destruction or collection of plants are prohibited ... and [in which measures are taken] to enable the public to visit these parks...
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