JULIUS CAESAR :

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CO NT ENTS

MORE THAN A MARI US

H T I IN O F A . HE TRA N G S TATES M AN

II I THE D O TI O LI I O . EM CRA C C A T N — GALLI C WARS CO NQUEST

THE LLI W S—S L V . GA C AR ETT EMENT

VI OS SI THE UBI O . CR NG R C N

THE S UPREME RULE

THE CROWN O F GREATNESS

BIBLI OGRAP H%

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JU LI US C AE SA R

CHAPTER I

MORE THAN A MARIUS

WITH little imagination a stu dent o f to -day can see many striking points o f likeness between the British Empire and the Rome into whi ch Gaius J ulius Caesar was born on the 1 2th day o f Qui nctili s (since his death called J uly) 1 02 There was the same highl y organised but small nucleus stretching o u t long tentacles nr n into z ones o f u est east and west, the same stra ge — anomali es in the central administration a government i l i nom nally by the people , but actual y by the ar sto i t o f i crat c body, the same ex remes poverty and r ches , and the same menace from younger nations which were beginning to covet spheres o f Roman influence for the i i s i i expans on the r number and mportance cla med . i i wi i Rome was a c ty state , a republ c th a vast emp re ‘ embracing Spain and parts o f southern France in the i i o f A i i in E West , a cons derable port on s a M nor the ast , i i i n w th Macedon a, Greece , and Illyr a , and most of know A i i i fr ca . Yet the ramparts of th s huge emp re were ’ in i the weak ; and the very year of Caesar s b rth , i to iv general , Mar us , was called upon repel an aggress e e i its G rmany wh ch had forced way through France , hi and , the year after, a horde w ch had penetrated i ’ f Italy and was w thin a few days march o Rome . A nation or an empire cannot thus be brought nigh to di it i i death bo ly, unless has prev ously been mor bund in i m nd and heart . Success had led to luxury, and the in its o wn senate , the actual ruler of Rome , ruled 8 JULIUS CAESAR

i i n interest . M srule at home , extort on and tyran y i i i o f i i abroad, w th the tw n ev ls cap tal sm and abject o ne o f i l i poverty, had led to those soc al upheava s wh ch t mi i i i o f sea have the rhy h c per od c ty of waves the . It was inevi table in such circumstances that the nephew i i r o f r o f Mar us , the sav ou Rome , a boy of pu est Roman il in ur blood , whose fam y had even recently served hono able positions in the state (his father and grandfather had both exercised the magistracy as praetors) shoul d i i i i i regard the t mes nto wh ch he was born pol t cally . That he was to do more than merely regard the forces i at work , Rome soon knew by unm stakable tokens . is i i in i o f hi s lif It s gn ficant , v ew later e , that Caesar shoul d have had for his tutor a free-born native of ul A ni Gni h o Ga , Marcus nto us p , a scholarly and i i ’ am able man , who , after leav ng Caesar s home , opened in hi s ri bo a school p vate house . Perhaps the y drank in hi s i in ul his i als O nterest Ga from tutor, and poss bly hi s e o ne ease about money matt rs , from who never hi s e to t haggled about wages , cont nt trust the mat er ns r inl to the generosity of hi s patro . Caesar ce ta y o ne ul s i hi s grew up what wo d call a dandy, con c ous of di i i hi s i st ngu shed looks , very careful about ha r , black - i in in eyed , spare , but tall and well bu lt , expert love i u i i tr g es , graceful and grac ous , w th an ever open and o f in a empty pocket . He was a youth the world , f ct ; o f o f hi s i in and the world t me . Yet was there a certa f r i el i i . d ference He was not thrown , but th ew h ms f , nto i i i ns of i s e the d ss pat o Roman l fe was not en lav d by , i s . but u ed them So that , however thoroughly a certa n pri mi tive vitali ty in hi m urged him to pour hi mself o ut o n i i if i i r tr v al not absolutely v c ous cou ses , there was i i hi m i f that w th n wh ch su fered not, but was ready when E ne dis the moment called . ven when o has counted the 1 i hi hi s scandalous goss p w ch grew up about name , there

3 O f th e more scandalous charges it is only necessary to say that s uch things w ere not uncomm on at that tim e in Roman society “ C er e ere ree r e but , as ic o says , such vil accusations w f ly u g d against all whos e youthful b earing was engaging enough to give ” e e r r th m som so t of colou . - H 1 2 0 O . 9 0 7 B . ] MORE T AN A MARIUS is sufficient left to satisfy any who are anxi ous to con demn ; but to her death he ever loved and reverenced his his wif li u in him mother , and e Corne a fo nd a more resolute ly loyal husband than the wife o f Po m peius 1 in i i l face of the threats of the v ctor ous Su la (p . Caesar grew to manhood in a Rome of turmoil and if o f i i i was str e , soc al ferment and c v l war . He but twelve i ri i i when the soc al c s s came . Theoret cally, the senate , hi ui i ni w ch was recr ted from the offic al gover ng class , was ul i to a cons tat ve body, subject the people actually, it in o ri e . was supreme the stat Below the senat al class , a kni ghtly order had been raised from the publicans i (the tax farmers) , and the negot ators (the com m ercial s i e i class) . When the e had been nvest d w th i e i i i o f mag st r al r ghts , they used them aga nst members the official class in the provinces who di d not allow them i i r free scope for the r operat ons . It was natu al that a bitter rivalry sprang up between them and the senate . ” Below both classes were the populares , the common i iz i i i c t ens of Rome , a class wh ch ncluded art sans and r nk is e t adesmen , peasants and ba rupt farmers , d charg d i e sold ers and fr ed slaves . The populares had succeeded ’ in in ae r i o f i plac g C sa s uncle , Mar us , who was plebe an i i six i in s lshi i i . or g n , t mes the con u p, the ch ef mag stracy i e mi But Mar us was no stat sman, and though he ad tted all i i classes to the leg on , and thus democrat sed the i i i fo r army, l ttle else was ach eved by th s democrat a i l li democrac y . There were thus t ng ble evi s cal ng for o f i o f remedy. The centre grav ty the state had been i di s to changed, w th re con equences the people . The i o vi kn ght class was a prey up n the pro nces , and the i in hi poor cr ed aloud the streets . But t s was not all . to win e The peoples of Italy, who had helped her pres nt i i e i i dom n on for Rome , were debarr d from Roman c t zen

1 I th e L r be e fo r Po m eiu s e think atin fo m must us d p , but whil I have been consistent in this I have used th e English fo r Antony . Th e reason is that Pompey s ee ms too ridiculous for th e nam e of th e re e er e An re for th e i r g at g n al , whil tonius is too fo ign famil a A C e e e r r o r e e ntony. onsist ncy is not n c ssa ily vi tuous v n con venient. 1 0 JULIUS CAESAR

i i e i sh p, wh ch both senat and people guarded w th a i Fo r jealous exclus veness . many years the Itali an li i in o f ivi e ri vil al es had l ved hope rece ng the covet d p ege, and when Marcus Livius Drusus was electe d tri bune in 91 it if i i i seemed as the r hopes were near real sat on . But o n hi s way home from the senate-house o ne day an u i n e nknown assass n struck Drusus dow . C ntral and southern Italy at once arose as though by a preconcerted i E l s gnal . qual y prompt in the hour o f emergency was o f i s ls o f the answer the c ty . Both con u , one them ’ u i i i Caesar s ncle, w th the veteran Mar us and L . Cornel us ins e li i o f Sulla, marched aga t the revolt d al es . In sp te i ri o f l o f ri the v cto es the consu , Caesar , and Ma us and ’ i to l Sulla, the c ty was unable break the rebe s power , and in 90 the vote was given to the non-revolted com m unities o f t it , and by the end the nex year was thrown open to any of the Italian allies who liked to claim it. i % The end of the Soc al war , however, was not peace The Italians admitted to the franchise naturally resented the fact that it was hampered by restri ctions which it o f its to in robbed real value . They were vote a small i i i e o f b i S number of new const tuenc es , nst ad e ng pread over the ordi nary city wards . The treasury was empty i di there was w despread stress . There was , moreover, the difficul t question as to whether Marius o r Sulla should have the command of the forces which were to ins Mith rad ates in A i i be sent aga t s a M nor . J ust as the action o f a tribune precipitate d the ” i it i di o f Soc al war, was now the mme ate cause the l l i i ri n in 88 BO i vi . . C war P Su p c us Rufus, t bu e , brought forward a seri es o f laws removing the gri evance o f the newly enfranchised Italians by spreading them i i ns i i r i throughout the ex st ng co t tuenc es , pu g ng the e i if i in i i senat by d squal y ng those deeply debt, and g v ng to i i o f o the command of the war Mar us . In sp te the p i i of o ne o f ll pos t on the consuls ( whom was Su a) , and the ul i senate , the laws were passed but S la , gather ng the i in i leg ons he had commanded the Soc al war, marched o n i l i i ll e Rome . Mar us and Su p c us fled , and Su a , aft r li i in firmly estab sh ng the senate power once more , and “ ” 87 B C H A 1 1 . .] MORE T AN MARIUS

in i ns t E in hold g the consular elect o , lef Rome for the ast 87 ’ i of i if Th s was a year much mportance in Caesar s l e . ’ his i o ne o f He had seen uncle Mar us , Rome s most ri li a l hi s i b l nt generals , compel ed to fly for l fe . He now ’ m a i hi . d saw return Caesar s father h just d ed , and the his r - boy put off pu ple bordered toga , and donned the f fif i o . ri wh te toga manhood He was but teen, but Ma us hi Bi i ri J i A made m Flamen al s , p est of up ter . few weeks e hi s i ul i aft r seventh elect on as cons , however , Mar us an i i no w iz i J . o f d ed ( L . Cornel us C nna se ed control i o f fo r affa rs as head the Popular party, and ruled the re i i i next th e years . The law by wh ch Sulp c us fully nf i i no w e ranch sed the Ital ans was finally passed . it In many ways seems strange that Caesar, a son of o ne o f i i i its the noblest Roman fam l es , wh ch traced to i i i s descent even the m sts of legend , cla m ng Venu as in hi s mother of the race , should have thrown fortunes i u w th the Pop lar party . The fact that hi s aunt marri ed Mari us is evidence that if hi s family were no t in actual wi i o f sympathy th the deals the Popular party , they were certainl y not prejudiced agains t them and Marius even in hi s ul i in i i fo r fa ts , wh ch resulted ncapac ty statesman shi p and impelled him to claim a bloody revenge on his i in 7 sufli enem es when he returned to Rome 8 , was a ’ cientl to win y human figure a boy s regard , the more read i as there lay behind hi m the glamour o f a success ul i His f . to generalsh p adherence the party, whatever its in 86 reasons , became complete and final when , , he repudi ated the marriage arrangement with the wealthy ’ Cossu tia ri i i , and mar ed C nna s daughter Cornel a . i wi i i i Caesar l ved th Cornel a happ ly unt l her death , and i J u i to the r daughter l a he was ever deeply attached . ul r to i his i i in 83 S la retu ned Italy w th v ctor ous army , hi s to i i and fought way Rome . C nna was k lled by one o f his i o ld sold ers , and Sulla commenced to pay off i scores . The prom nent adherents o f the late régime i were removed , and Caesar, l ttle more than a boy even i m iu s his i . Po e now , was ordered to d vorce w fe p and

. i i i Not M P so had obeyed a s m lar command . so , how 1 2 JULIUS CAESAR

ae hi s him nfi i f ever , C sar but refusal cost the co scat on o ’ his i r hi s ri o f w fe s dow y, and removal from the p esthood i to i ls Jup ter. He then fled the h l was captured and to hi s released ; and at length returned Rome , where ’ infl in to safety was secured by uence . In yield g Caesar s i is i ae ul fr ends , Sulla reported to have sa d that C sar wo d o ne in o f in him hi d day be the ru the nobles , for that lay ri more than a Ma us . r i o f Caesa , hav ng defied the master Rome , and yet hi s if i to preserved l e , was w se enough see that the less ’ e i to Sulla s att nt on was drawn hi m the better . He in 81 to hi s mi i therefore left Rome , serve first l tary i in E hi r campa gn the ast, a duty w ch had al eady been lfill hi s e i Po eius i fu ed by cont mporar es m p and C cero . It was customary for young nobles o f high birth to serve their military apprenticeshi p by acting as a sort of page i - - to in ri or a de de camp a commander, just as later centu es n o f in you g men learned the arts peace as pages the. ’ s Minuciu s hou es of great nobles . Thermus was Caesar s first tutor in the arts o f war and provincial administra i ill o f i . t on . Of M Thermus we know l ttle st less how wi Cae sar spent his first months th the army. But he coul d not have been long at the front before we find him “ ” in 80 inni r i i wn w ng f om Thermus the c v c cro , an i i o f i oak wreath , the V ctor a Cross those days , for sav ng if f i i the l e o a sold er at the storming of M tylene . Shortly afterwards he served under S erviliu s I sauricu s in Cilicia but on the death of Sulla in 78 he hastened bac k to win i Rome , more eager , no doubt, to fame by tak ng what share he could in the central administration than ’ by waging indecisive wars agains t the republic s foes in E the ast . ’ Sulla s rule had left the senate entrenched legally , as i as o f e it . custom had establ shed before , as m ter the stat ’ The tribu nes legislative freedom and veto were rendered ’ ’ useless as bulwarks o f the people s power . The people s ’ t assembly had to gain the senate s assent to i s proposals . ri o i i c o m lete it The a st crat c react on was thus p , and woul d be di fficult for any one to restore to the people i e ni i the ascendancy wh ch , always t ch cally the rs , had “ H A ” 1 3 C. 7 7 B . ] MORE T AN MARIUS only been ac tually in their hands during recent years ri for short pe ods . i s Marcus Lep dus , now con ul , held out the most tempt ing offers to persuade Caesar to join him in destro ying “ u i i i r i the S llan const tut on , but the latter, d st ust ng the ili i o f i i to im l ab t es Lep dus , had the w sdom hold h se f i i e i aloof. Lep dus ra sed an army, but was defeat d outs de P m ius his o e . the walls by fellow consul , Catullus , and p In 77 and the next year we find Caesar urging the charge o f extortion in the provinces against Do labell a A i in ni . u (formerly proconsul Macedo a) and C nton s , but he failed to sec ure a conviction at the hands of the i r co n senator al judges , who were natu ally averse from d emning what they looked upon as a pri vilege of their i i hi s order . But he made a great mpress on by oratory, and perhaps served hi s pu rpose by drawing atte ntion to i senator al abuses . He now left Rome to become more proficient in the f ri i art o rheto c by study ng under Milo of Rhodes . On hi s i i i way th ther he fell nto the hands of p rates , and the ’ circums tances of hi s nearly forty days detention are i i T him attract vely descr bed by Plutarch . hey landed on i i i i in fo r his an sland near M letus , where, wh le wa t g i in i in i e o n i ransom , he jo ned the r games , and s st d read ng hi s e them po ms and speeches . When they were slow to i e his i i apprec at compos t ons , he told them they were i s hr to i hi r barbar an , and t eatened k ll them . T s th eat he ri o u t actually car ed for , no sooner was he set at i e to l berty than he collect d some vessels , returned the e in i i i place where he had be n kept capt v ty, se zed the i to p rates , and put them death . to i Caesar then proceeded Rhodes , and stud ed for some im il His i e f t e under M o . stay w th that great mast r o ri it is i be rheto c was not long , but certa n that Caesar o ne o f s o i came the foremost orators o f hi day . Suet n us “ r in l s if rema ks that eloquence he equal ed at lea t , did no t e i in i he surpass , the great st , and C cero , speak ng o f i did e the great orators , sa d he not see that Ca sar was i i to nfer or any. ’ ae i o f i But C sar s m nd was a more pract cal bent , and 1 4 JULIUS CAESAR

is i w he valued oratory, as one conv nced he valued po er, is di as a means to an end . It accor ngly a gleam o f ’ insight which leads Suetoni u s to explain Caesar s sudden ’ departure from Rhodes to expel o ne o f Mithrad ates i i in predatory generals , who was ravag ng the ne ghbour g di ri in i st cts , as be g prompted by the w sh not to appear ” i o f ri i idl e . The pract ce rheto c at the t me is not inaptly ’ descri bed from Cae sar s point of view by the adjective ” idle . Caesar returned to Rome about 73 to find himself a o f i i c - man some cons derat on . He had been o opted to the l f P ntifi es in A col ege o o c the place o f his uncle C . urelius i i i i e Cotta . By th s pos t on he became assoc at d with hi s fourteen colleagues under the Pontifex Maxi mus in the admini stration of that part o f the civil law which re l A i gu ated the state worshi p . more s gnal honour had s o f si also fallen to hi share . He was elected first the x 1 i i i i i % m l tary tr bunes , and, as he at once threw h mself nto the agitation for the restoration o f the power Sulla had i i is hi s taken from the tr bunes of the people , th s first i in i i in in i nterference pol t cs . He was strumental obta n ’ in in llin i i his i g the pass g of an act reca g Luc us C nna , w fe s o u t brother . The Slave war now broke , and before the victories achi eved by Spartacus and the revolted slaves i i i in over the Roman leg ons , all m nor ssues the Roman insi nific ance i i state paled to g . These ndeed m ght its — i o f hamper well be ng , but the revolt the slaves r its i i th eatened ex stence . Spartacus , a Thrac an by i i f b rth , had escaped w th a small band o slaves from the i ri ini glad ato al tra ng school at Capua. He was a leader o f ili his i some ab ty and real power, and army, wh ch was i l i e rap d y jo ned by other slaves and malcont nts , overcame in 72 ns both co uls and , for nearly two years , overran

. i i i Italy The praetor , Marcus L c n us Crassus , after some mi e i nor reverses , totally defeat d the slave army and k lled

in 7 1 . Spartacus Part of the rebel band escaped , but i Po m eiu s Al was caught and cut to p eces by p near the ps , as he was returning from his victorious campaign in 1 As a patrician h e was ineligible for th e tribunate of th e people . “ ” 0 B C E H A M R 1 5 7 . . ] MOR T AN A IUS

Po m eius e ri Spain . p ent red Rome t umphantly at the

o f wi e s l . end the year, and he th Crassus was el cted con u Po mpeius was four and Crassus about thirteen years a o ne i ni older than Caes r . The had the ndefi te but i c o f hi cogent nfluen e successful generals p , the other of f ff i i m boundless wealth and experience o a a rs beh nd hi . two i The men were not on good terms , and the quest on n i in for Roma s , as ndeed a very personal sense for e l t o f Ca sar, was , wou d the two agree as servan s the i its e to r . state , or would they come g ps for mast ry Another dictatorship would have indefinitely checked ’ to e a a . C esar s march power Fortunat ly for Caes r, they i l s i i comb ned as Popu ar leaders , and the Sullan con t tut on ’ to filched came the block . The powers from the people s i e r tr bunes were restored , the senat was pu ged and put ’ in i i ri e in is gu d ng st ngs . Ca sar s part these changes left to in i i conjecture , but he must have been pol t cal sym i pathy w th them . er o f 70 i So matt s lay at the close the year , and , as th s ’ i o u t o f e it is year marks the open ng Caesar s care r , well to look back and see what manner of man he was whose path to fame w as thu s cleared by the renouncement o f the power which Po m peius mi ght readily and almost r a i - e sonably have cla med . Caesar was thirty two years o f i i i i age , a patr c an w th pronounced democrat c sym athi es vi in o f o f p , no no ce the art war, a man great i u o f to his fri s phys cal and personal co rage , loyalty end , As and of some humour . a boy, barely twenty years of h ad o f age , he defied the master Rome when twenty five he was sufficiently master o f hi mself to regard hi s u i e of i uffi i capt re by p rat s as a sort hol day, s c ently to i i his e humorous nfl ct poems and spe ches upon them , i i to to sufli suffic ently dar ng threaten hang them , and c ientl i to hi s y energet c and strong carry out threat . In ” l ai ri truth , as Su la had s d , here was more than a Ma us . 1 6 JULIUS CAESAR

CHAPTER II

THE TRAI NI NG o r A S TATES MAN

’ THE record o f the next eight years o f Caesar s life is that f to o f in o f o a steady march power , and growth the arts a i i i i great polit c an . Perhaps noth ng wh ch he accomplished until the Gallic war can be descri bed as real statesman E i ul in 60 i shi p . ven the work he ach eved as cons s greater than cons ummate policy onl y by a certain e nli i stat sma ke breadth of outlook , wh le fundamentally it i o f i rema ns at best an example masterly pol cy . r hi s i i in i i Th oughout l fe Caesar was nv c bly pract cal , and t i i l o u t never attempted any h ng wh ch he cou d not carry , and it is this that sounds most triumphantly the note hil hi s i i of hi s geni us . W e pos t on was insecure hi s e r ili work was t mpora y and conc atory . When he coul d i o f no t i d scard the support others , but before , he bu lt to endure . Caesar attained senatorial rank in 69 by hi s election o ne o as of the twenty quaest rs , and commenced hi s i i r i i connect on w th the weste n part of the emp re , wh ch ’ was to be the stage o f hi s evolution as one o f the world s i great generals and admini strators . Further Spa n was the province in which hi s first magisterial and admi ni s i o u t trative r . work was car ed Before , however, he left hi s i in 68 hi s wi di to take up dut es , fe and aunt ed, and Caesar delivered the customary funeral orations in i o f u i o f hi s pra se them . In the f neral process on aunt J li i i ni i o f u a, he had the ns g a and mages her husband , i i —a r Mar us , carr ed bold st oke , as the very name of the great general had been anathema under the Sull an r i hi hi s i o n o f hi s if eg me . T s and orat on the death w e i e o f i Cornel a , the daught r C nna, another Popular leader, coul d have had no other purpose and effect than to remind the Roman populace that there was still o ne ready and willing to espouse the fortunes o f the Popular di i i party, and to carry on the tra t on of Mar us and

i . did i in fu i o f C nna Caesar not om t , the neral orat on G O F A 1 7 6 8 B . C. ] TRAININ STATESMAN

to mi ni in his aunt , re nd them that the same man u ted o f i i e o f his descent the majesty k ngs , the ch ef st men , di i o f s to in and the v ne majesty god , whom even k gs are subject . ’ As quaestor it was Caesar s special duty to look afte r the finances o f the pro vince ; but o f hi s work in this i i k r e nn . co ect on we know noth ng Indeed , we now sca c ly i o f i hi m In i hi s anyth ng what occup ed Spa n , although t was hi s first attempt to grapple with the large r issues O f a great state , and for that reason any record would have un i i been o f told nterest and mportance . We can gather i o f i i that, at the des re the praetor, he undertook a c rcu t o f i ini r i i the prov nce for the adm st at on Of just ce, and ffi i i o u t a that this work was e c ently carr ed . But p arentl his f i p y he found office o fered l ttle enough scope , hi s i In i for he sought to be released from dut es Spa n , and left the province before he had ful filled the term fo r i i ins i which he was appo nted . Sueton us expla th s fact hi is i l 1 in by a story w ch g ven a so by Plutarch . When hi s i i i i i jud c al c rcu t Caesar reached Gades (Cad z) , and r is i o n i entered the temple of He cules , he sa d , see ng the A i statue of lexander the Great , to have s ghed deeply , as he reflected that the age which had seen Alexander conqueror o f the world had found him with no memorable i s act on to hi credit . ae to un i C sar then hastened back Rome , but fo d t me to visit many o f the town s o f the Gauls who li ved o n the i o f i P0 An i north s de the r ver . arb trary and wholly unjust distinction had given their brethren o n the south i ri l i i e i i ri s de of the ver ful Roman c t z nsh p , wh le offe ng i i i i e i di s them the less mportant Lat n c t z nsh p . Much r it hi s i to content was the result, and Caesa made bus ness stimulate the discontented to further efforts to obtain of i i i di i i is i the removal the nv d ous st nct on . It sa d that i he even attempted to urge v olent measures , but the cons ul s met the situation by keeping at hand the legions i i fo r vi in E wh ch had been ra sed ser ce the ast , and so i i i d scouraged any act on for the t me . in 67 Po m eius Caesar reached Rome the year , when p

1 v Not in e e er. this conn ction , how 1 8 JULIUS CAESAR must have been growing restive under his prolonged Po m ius e i . e i dleness p was not a stat sman , but a sold er, r re one of the g eatest Rome had produced , though semblin g somewhat the modern German type in being most efficient onl y whe n he had time to examine an i e i hi s ssue from very s de , and carefully mature plans . i h ad not Honest and stra ghtforward , he probably sufficient imagination to turn hi s victories to the same material and personal success as did other generals o f hi s i i in i l in a e t me . S mple nte lect as char ct r, he was i in i i o f hi s i nept confl ct w th the statesmen t me , and readily succumbed in war when fortun e pitted him e i i o f . aga nst a g neral gen us , Caesar Yet he was not i i hi s ir w thout a certa n charm , and ret ement was by no i ri o f i means sol tary. He had many f ends nfluence and ’ in the year of Caesar s return the tri bune Gabini u s intro d uced a bill giving hi m extraordinary powers to enable him to root o u t the pirates who ravaged the coasts of ’ i i Fo r the emp re and menaced the c ty s food supply. three years he was to hold a comm and over the whole i to i i Med terranean, exerc se author ty over all Roman magistrates in the provinces throughout the Medi ter ranean in i it f i , and the land bound ng for fi ty m les inl i i s i . and , and to ra se fleet and arm es as he w shed di i u Thus the people , sregard ng a careless and corr pt i e Po m eiu s i i senate , nvest d p w th a power wh ch need limi if it have no t he chose to have so . Po m eiu s in i and in p left Rome the spr ng , a few months i e the power of the p rates was complet ly broken . The ’ i e i v ctor by another law, propos d by the people s tr bune in i A i i the face of the senate , was now g ven the s at c i Mithradates A i i to o command aga nst . In s a M nor , , he Mit rad ate s ri . h was everywhere victo ous was crushed , i o f A i J ri T granes rmen a subdued , and udea and Sy a vi made Roman pro nces . i i i Meanwh le , a strangely nvolved drama was be ng a in it is i i di to en cted Rome , and d fficult at th s stance i e ve . in is ai nterpr t every subtle m o the play. It cert n that the majori ty o f men realis ed that a change in the i conduct o f the state was imperat vely needed . The

2 0 J ULIUS CAESAR

D uring his year o f office Caesar replaced the trophies ’ o f i i i o n i in i Mar us v ctor es the Cap tol , recall g yet aga n o f i the memory the great Popular leader . Some l ttle time afterwards he contrived that a tri bune shoul d e i i to him E hi sugg st the ass gnat on of gypt , w ch was under r t i i hi Roman p o ect on , as a prov nce . If t s had come to P o m eiu s e hi s pass , p would hav found power under con e in A i i or th e trol wh ther s a M nor Rome . But project had to be abandoned owing to the widespread resent He i o n ment . very qu ckly had another scheme hand . A i i i land b ll was proposed wh ch , ostens bly concerned i r di ri i o f in ff i e a w th the e st but on land , e ect appo nt d number of men with po wers almost equal to those o f ia e o f mi s i Pompe s . The ten m mbers the Land Com s on were to have mi litary and judicial powers simil ar to s l be i i e o f i i those of con u s , and to g ven w de pow rs ra s ng N r hi r money . atu ally , the senate , w ch rep esented the i it i r landed nterests , opposed , and the b ll was d opped but it had at le ast compelled Cicero definite ly to take i i i h e ia sides . By b rth and trad t on belonged to the Mar n ” i i e party. He was a new man , and at t mes b tt rly resented being patroni sed by members o f the old aris tocracy but the extremists o f the Popular party must inevi tably have revolte d the sympathies o f o ne who was ever dominantly a man o f letters rather than a i i i i no w hr in his i pol t c an . C cero t ew lot w th the sena ri al to party . Foiled in both atte mpts to raise some counterpoise o f Po m eiu s i to the power p , Caesar resorted to a dev ce i e l in A wh ch must s em a most humorous modern eyes . tribune was persuaded to impeach an o ld man named Rabiriu s for having taken part in the judi cial murder o f ’ S aturni nus e t ae i % Labienus , two y ars af er C sar s b rth , ’ who later became Caesar s chi ef general in the Galli c was i n Rabirius war , the tr bu e who pressed the case . e to e th e was sentenc d d ath , but senate , by whose order S aturni nu s i ul l e had been k lled , co d not a low the sent nce i R abirius e e to be carr ed out . When th r fore appealed to i isi nf r in the people , C cero prevented any dec on by u u l g o n J ani cu lan i i i at the red flag the H ll , the anc ent s gn th G 2 1 6 C. O F A 3 B . ] TRAININ STATESMAN the enemy was at hand and the assembly must be dis i no t i . solved . But the po nt of the mpeachment was lost It had been brought home to the senate that the arbi trar i y use of power must reco l upon themselves . In this same year (63 Caesar was electe d pontifex li i e i n . max mus , the head of the whole Roma re g ous syst m The choice had been taken o u t of th e hands o f the people i Labienu s it to by Sulla , but the tr bune had restored n imi u se o f ri them and then , by an u l ted b bery , Caesar r hi s i re i secu ed elect on , although the were two em nent in As i his candi dates the field . he k ssed mother when i o f o n ni O f i tak ng leave her the mor ng the elect on , Caesar promised her he woul d either return pontifex ' m am m u s or not at all . S t i hortly af er th s Caesar was elected praetor , another s i hi s r o f ad step toward the consulsh p . But p ospects vance were rendered very insecure by the famous con s irac o f i i i whi i e p y Catal ne . The susp c on ch had assoc at d ’ Caesar s name with the plot at the openi ng o f his aedil e ship at once connected it now with the much more ’ mi i Catalin e s r for dable consp racy. g eat object was to s u i hi r d secure the con lsh p , w ch he had al eady ma e two n i He m an o f u successful attempts to ga n . was a ri i l i pat c an rank , bankrupt both mora ly and financ ally , i i e mi amb t ous , greedy , cruel , but brave , r solute , and do i to i i i r nat ng . He attempted now ga n the ch ef mag st acy as representative o f all the nee dy and dis contented classes in the state and it had been arrange d that if hi s i ri a i elect on was not car ed , the people whom Cat l ne i to i h is An r cla med represent should r se on behalf . a my l i it r had been co lected outs de Rome , and was rumou ed i o n fire e to that the c ty was to be set , debts w re be can in i r i to be i . celled , and , fine , a soc al evolut on was ra sed r e r e o f C assus and Ca sar , who were not obscu ely accus d i i in it e o f . compl c ty the plot , undoubtedly kn w They may have had that fundamental sym pathy with it which the members of a party have with the extrem ists o n their

i r i r s . s de . Mo e than this s not wa rante d by the fact It is difficult to see how either of them sto od to profit r e cer by such an upheaval , any mo e than the ends th y 22 JULIUS CAESAR tainly had at heart ; and it is fairly clear that they inf i o f to i er ul gave ormat on the plot C c o , the cons . li e ul in Cata ne was not el cted cons , but stead was forced to listen to a fierce and elaborately oratorical c o ndem na i o f ri i in He e t on his c mes by C cero the senate . l ft to i Faesu lae i i i jo n the army at (F esole) . C cero se zed the ir i other consp ators , and called the senate to d scuss what ni e o u t r pu shment should be m ted to them . The fi st ’ in o f At a speakers were favour death . length C esar s o f li e turn came , and he at once gave proof statesman k i i i i ab l ty . He could not vote for death w thout tr al , and i i yet he must for his o wn safety condemn the cr m nals . i i d He i i ffi Th s he d . even ns sted that death was no su i e i i it c ent p nalty for such act on ; wh ch , moreover, was i unbecoming for them to meet wi th lawless penalt es . In so doing the y would raise up the most dangerous e i di preced nt for d sregar ng the law . If Caesar had had a better alternative than the mere i o f ri r in i i detent on the p sone s certa n Ital an towns , the i i i o f hi s calmness , moderat on , and orator cal sk ll speech ’ i ri i m ght have car ed the day. C cero s brother was won i i f hi s o f over , and C cero h msel moderated advocacy the i death sentence . The t de was stemmed , however, by e Cato , a man seven years younger than Ca sar , who has i in n been looked upon as the Sto c sa t , and whose fortu e it was politically to think at times almost wisely but idl i i i hi s ever to act stup y. Pol t cally and ntellectually i hi s i n hi s i greatest v ce was l teral ess , greatest v rtue that di e A he knew how and when to . poseur and a preacher, i i i ill ’ he was never a pol t c an , st less a statesman . Cato s o n vehement speech produced such an effect that, i i r i Caesar r s ng to make a fu ther object on , the sena to rial guards are said to have rushed o n hi m with their s if hi s ie in o f him sword , and fr nds had not stood front ul r i he wo d ha dly have escaped with hi s l fe . The con s irato rs i s p were qu etly led to the dungeon , and strangled i i di li o f his immed ately . Catal ne ed va antly at the head e i i troops aft r show ng h mself a bold , courageous , and resourceful general against a senatori al army o f much greater numbers . 6 B C. G O F A 2 2 . ] TRAININ STATESMAN 3

Caesar having failed to raise any counterbalance to o f Po m eius to ri the power p , now sought make f ends i hi m o f hi s fi o was to o w th . One rst acts as praet r prop se that the repairi ng o f the temple o n the Capitol should be e to Po m eiu s e i entrust d p . He also support d a b ll pro ‘ u N O flicer o f Po m eiu s wh o posed by Metell s epos , an p had i to i i ri mi i r become tr bune , g ve the v cto ous general a l ta y n in o f o in law comma d Italy, under pretext rest r g and o f in i was order after the outbreak Catal e . The b ll in o f i i w i stopped by Cato , and , the outbreak r ot ng h ch i and followed , mart al law was declared by the senate , i i ffi s N r o f . Caesar and epos were dep ved the r o ces Cae ar, i to e however, cont nued attend the courts and hear cas s Hi s e m ob as praetor . court was then clos d . The raged i hi s o ntifl cal it is i if outs de p palace , and certa n that he had put hi mself at its head much bloodshed woul d have l i i vi resu ted . But he had no l k ng for mob olence , and he e i prevailed upon the turbul nt sp ri ts to disperse . The i in wr senate , surpr sed , and put the ong by such forbear m ins hi . ance , at once re tated The toll of the year’ s experience for Caesar was not yet 5th s o f Bona Dea complete . On December the fea t was ’ i in hi s be ng kept house . It was a woman s feast , and no i i man was allowed to be present . Pompe a , a relat ve of Po m eiu s i p , whom Caesar had marr ed some years before , ’ i i o f A r i had aroused the susp c on Caesar s mother , u el a , i il i and apparently not w thout cause . Wh e the fest val its i i Clo diu s o f m i was at he ght , Publ us , a lover Po pe a and one of the most abandoned youn g patricians o f his i l e s day, dressed h mse f as a woman and ent red the hou e , i i m x ng among the women there . By some chance he di i i was scovered and recogn sed , and the sacr lege was i di i ae mme ately no sed abroad in Rome . C sar at once “ ’ di vorced Pompeia o n the ground that Caesar s wife ” i i i i his must be above susp c on , and the d scuss on of crime occupied official and patrician Rome for some months . It was in the mids t o f this that Po m peiu s landed at u i i i i i in Br nd s um (Br nd s ) , the same month , and at once i showed his hand by dismissing his leg ons . Caesar must 24s JULIUS CAESAR

i relie Po m eiu s have heaved a s gh Of f . p could reasonably have taken upon hi mself what the people had virtually i e hi m in 6 di hi in e i 7 . w ll d , a ctators p the stat Th s was ’ clearly th e turni ng-point in Caesar s career he was O ld enough now to have te ste d hi s own powers and have i e o n e ri e e tr ed th m the stone Of xpe nc . He had had sufficient acquain tance wi th public life to know the i e its e k its i ssu s before the state , w a nesses and poss bili ties in i its O f , and the way wh ch only hope future development lay . He had secured as the province for hi s ye ar O f pro ae i r i r his i pr torsh p Fu ther Spa n , whe e he had served t me a th e i Clo di u s e as qu estor , and after tr al Of (who by m ans i i t c o m Of wholesale br bery was acqu tted) , and af er di i hi s r di e in i poun ng w th c e tors , Ca sar left , the spr ng Of 6 1 e r his i Hi s , to undertak the wo k Of prov nce . ex penditu re as aedi le and in bribery to obtain the chi ef priesthood was so great that Crassus had to become surety for over before Caesar’ s creditors would i m allow h to leave .

CHAPTER III

THE D EMO CRATI C COALI TI ON

’ O F Cae sar s work in Spain we know sufficient to gather that he served a good apprenticeshi p in the arts O f war i fare and political admini strat on . He found the pro vincial u in i governors , as usual , deeply s nk debt ndeed , e thi s was an age Of huge d bts . Caesar effected a shrewd compromise between the claims of debt-o r and credi tor by ordering the debto rs to hand over to their creditors two - i O f i i e im i th rds the r ncom , at the same t e preserv ng i i i At i i i the r land and cap tal from se zure . the nv tat on o f i i O f iz i i o i the c t zens Gades (Cad ) , a Phoen c an t wn wh ch O f l i ir i e was a free ally Rome , he a so reorgan sed the nt rnal affairs so wisely that the town enjoyed a conspicuous i r r E ui prosper ty afte wa ds . ach Of these acts req red i tact , firmness , and knowledge Of men and affa rs . The 6 0 B C T E D R 2 5 . . ] H EMOC ATIC COALITION same as well as other quali ties were shown in hi s man agem ent Of the campaigns in the Galician mountains r r and in the hill count y of southe n Portugal . In each ’ r r case a fleet supported the land fo ces , and Caesa s suc e hi m i cess was such that the s nate voted a tr umph , and i hi s r in r i in Sueton us sums up wo k the p ov nce the words , ” li e i i He estab sh d tranqu ll ty . Hi s li to fo r work accomp shed , Caesar hastened Rome i o n hi s rri u him the consular elect ons , but a val he fo nd self in a dilemma which the senate had careful ly prepared im i if fo r for h . He must enter the c ty he would enter ul i i i e e i ui O f the cons sh p , and th s nvolv d the r l nq shment hi s , mi i im eriu m i hi s l tary command ( p ) , wh le to take i i e i i He i i tr umph the mp r um must be reta ned . pet t oned the senate to dispense him from the necessity Of residence i hi i o n i hi s w t n the c ty ; but , the r refusal , abandoned triumph and exerte d every effort to Obtain the chief i mag stracy . i e n . Rome was a strange stat Of unrest The senate , i i Po m eiu s no w wh ch m ght have been under the heel Of p , i i e his i i i i that he had d sm ss d leg ons , w th a cyn c sm that i e him di was utterly shorts ghted Op nly flaunted , scour i hi s O f e ul hi i i ag ng hope a s cond cons s p , refus ng to rat fy in E e in ir the arrangements the ast he had mad the name , and Opposing hi s plans for rewarding hi s soldi ers by r e i h allotments Of land . They had got at logge h ads w t the whole equestri an class over the que stion Of the re i r e in A i duct on O f the contract for fa ming the tax s s a . ’ ar r i to Caesar s way was therefore cle . He ad o tly came i Po m eiu s to an agreement w th p , and managed to add li i ri s in the coa t on Crassus , the che t man Rome , a narrow , e in mean , and jealous charact r, who stood some measure i i No t i was for the whole cap tal st class . a l ttle tact ” to hi so - i i vi e fo r needed form t s called F rst Tr um rat , Crassus was the enemy o f Po m peiu s but it was a meces i sary precaut on for Caesar, who well knew that the en m asse i hi m m an senate was almost aga nst . One other i fl e i to his i e u m Of n u nce Caesar sought to ga n s d , but i i i o f i e h s successfully . Us ng the med at on Cornel us B l u , a citiz en o f Gades who had received the Roman fran 2 6 JULIUS CAESAR

i i u s i ch se, a man Of subtle , k ndly, and n werv ngly loyal a e win i char ct r, he strove to over C cero , Of whom Caesar e i had probably been a schoolf llow . The attempt fa led i in Po m eiu s but Caesar, w th the fluence Of p and Crassus , secured the consul shi p in spite O f the bribe ry Of the o ri E u u senat al class . ven the scr pulo s Cato gave money e i ul All to attempt to keep the d mocrat c cons out . that was possible was to provide him with a colleague who l i was calcu ated to hamper, h nder, and obstruct at every u Hi s O f ffi i wi o ur t rn . year O ce prov des us th first chance O f seeing Caesar grappling with the vital interests O f the state . hi s i i it He began work w th great moderat on . Indeed , is abundantly clear that he exerted every effort to con i i i i was s i c l ate the oppos t on . He a man con p cuous for a certain charm which was hard to resist and he strove to the utmost to establish hi s rule by courtesy and con i i l hi s el i s s derat on . He Open y asked f low consul , B bulu , i hi m in hi s i to ass st year Of Office , and professed h mself perfectly willing to discuss any changes in his laws the i senate m ght suggest . Hi s first act was one Of eminently democratic char in acter . He had a summary Of each debate the senate with a list Of the proposals exhibited daily in the Forum . i r di i H therto the p ocee ngs Of the senate had been pr vate , although a senator mi ght and Often di d publish hi s o wn ’ r i speeches . Caesar s measu e had the effect Of suggest ng a sense Of responsibili ty not only to the senators but to l the popu ace . He next set about the fulfilment Of hi s pledges to hi s A i l i i supporters . b l was ntroduced to prov de for the ’ purchase Of land for distribution among Po m peiu s As r veterans . the pu chase money had been won by it is difli cu lt o ne these very men , to see how any could have been so perverse as to Oppose a measure based o n min ui ri n i so e ently eq table a p c ple . Yet the senate set i e i i i i ts lf aga nst the measure , and Cato , us ng a dev ce wh ch has been honourably adopted by o u r modern parli a i l o u t ments , set h mself to ta k the measure , although he was forced to admit he could find no Objection to the

2 8 JULIUS CAESAR

i n was i the equestr a order . It a measure Of exped ency , di e e i i i ctat d sol ly by the des re to secure hi s pos t on . But s ome sort Of balance may be set agains t it in h is law a i s i in i hi ga n t extort on the prov nces . T s had crystal lis ed i r i i r h is i nto a pe qu s te Of the gove nor and ass stants , who sought by that means to fill the coffers which loose ’ if in i ie te l e the cap tal had empt d . Caesar s law ex nded th e ri i i i ju sd ct on Of the courts , and made the penalt es h e avier and so wisely was it worded that it remained o n i the statute book for centur es . An important part Of hi s work yet remained to be — performed h e had to take precautions that his work should not be set aside immedi ately his term o f Office i i to i u fi i had exp red . He must contr ve reta n s f c ent power and be su fli ciently near the capital to exercise an infl u ’ e o n i s l hi nce the senate . In v ew Of Caesar s con u s p the senate had the preceding year appointed to the consul s r i i O f s li for the supe v s on road , forests , and pub c works ir s s i O fli ce i r the procon ul h p , an wh ch was honou able but woul d have ensured hi m neither power nor liberty. A tri bun e was therefore persuaded to suggest the set ’ i i O f to e t ng as de the senate s arrangements , and propos the all otment to Caesar Of Hither (or Cisalpine) Gaul with its i i l i l ri five flour sh ng popu at on Of Celts , and I ly a for hi i . in hi s ds years T s put han the strateg c key to Italy, i i w th the command O f at least three leg ons . In face Of this the senate anticipated a further move o n the part ’ o f e r i him o n Po m eiu s i n the peopl by g ant ng , p mot o , the i r in i governorsh p Of Fu ther (or Transalp e) Gaul , w th a i r ff su table a my and sta . One other precaution Caesar had to take to render hi s i l his i in work last ng . Cato Open y professed bel ef the ” li O f J i dl nul ty the ul an laws , and he undoubte y could i r e su fli cient i i i n not be gno ed . He had not ven mag nat o hi m i i o f . to render capable be ng terror sed He must , i er in therefore , be removed . C c o , although no sense so i form dable a foe as Cato , would be better out of the way, ’ particularly as in Caesar s vi ew he ought to be punished i r in ir o for the jud cial mu der Of the Catal e consp at rs . It seems clear that Caesar chose as the means fo r drawing 5 THE D R 2 9 9 B . C . ] EMOC ATIC COALITION

’ Cato s teeth and punishing Cicero the bitter enemy O f lo dius i i i e C . the latt r, Th s man , who was Of patr c an h ad be to i rank , long sought to reduced the plebe an state in order that he might be eli gible for th e tribunate e a f i io Of the p ople . C esar e fected th s reduct n , and l di i in im C o us became tr bune for the follow g year . He i e an i ni med at ly suggested embassy for Cato , the ro cal flattery Of the proposal being almost conclusive proof i i i i i i Of ts J ul an or g n . C cero was d sposed Of more him i s a O f ruthlessly . Caesar had Offered var ou me ns r i i o n escape . He had suggested an honou able pos t on his staff o r a position o n the Land Commission ; but each met with a refusal which Cicero must bitterly have e in few Clo di us s o n repent d , for but a months had pas ed O f i him a sentence ban shment . A further precaution against the arbitrary setting aside o f his laws Cae sar contrive d in securing the election ’ as cons ul s for th e following ye ar Of o ne Of Po m peius l i his o wn -in— genera s and Of P so , father law . his to it Thus year Of work came an end , and had been carried out without violence and with no very marked O f it His i i threat . coal t on was , Of course , an ever i him and stand ng threat . It gave the po wer he used in th e profited by , but the sword was ever scabbard . He did during his year O f Office all that he had tim e to in i i i i if it do sat sfy ng the cry ng needs Of the t me , and was done temporarily and with too keen an eye to i i di il to i to pol t cal expe ence , st l the effect was g ve back O f i i democracy somewhat ts anc ent power . On the whole he upheld democratic principles he did the work in un i Of democracy, although an democrat c way. He had not failed to gather from hi s o wn experience th e u i e f concl s on that the Roman syst m was ef ete , and that the strong arm with a military power behi nd was the nl r o f O y esource and hope the state . The mob can o r i l i never actually dea ly rule . If ts best interests are to it l be i s be served , can on y by prec sely the same mean n — i i r im that produces tyran y the absolut sm , e the s ple o r O f i temperate , some one ruler who can have bra n , heart , and arm for the many. 30 JULIUS CAESAR

CHAPTER IV — THE GALLI C WARS C ONQUES T

I T is i i i in th e 59 O f a str k ng th ng that year , the events i ri i i i wh ch we have just desc bed , the relat ve pos t ons Of the three most powerful men in the state became fixed il i Po m ei in . u s a way that lasted t l the r deaths p , the n d i most renow e general , and Crassus , the wealth est man , i i i a each occup ed a secondary pos t on to C esar , who had hi i r i O f o ne in not ng l ke the p est ge the , and certa ly no O f O f % et semblance the wealth the other . such was the position Of the members Of the democratic coalition ; i Po m eiu s and , desp te the attempts Of p later, Caesar remained in effect the first man in the state from this i mi o t me forth . He ght leave Rome and wage war n i i O f his i il re the l m ts the known world , nfluence st l mained ; and when he returned to Hither Gaul after a i i - li i i campa gn, the w re pullers and po t c ans hastened to m s i in hi for coun el . The senate m ght talk and urge quiries into hi s conduct O f the war it was little more than the brave show O f independence made by the Ger i i i wh o man Re chstag , wh ch dece ves none but those i e i w sh to be d ce ved . ’ A higher note is struck in Caesar s first campaign in Gaul than in anything to whi ch he had turned hi s hand before . If one may analyse the source Of the confidence , i i l i i i dec s on , and marve lous sk ll wh ch character sed all i it n i these campa gns , was compou ded partly Of nat ve genius and partly (and still more importantly) Of that mul tiplication Of strength that comes not so much Of ’ having found one s rank in life as O f having secured its i i i hi s recogn t on . In the ncomparable record he left Of “ ” i n i i idl campa g s , wr tten eas ly and rap y , though ” gracefully and correctly , he has left not only what — 1 — he intended the material for histori ans but also i i i a perfect spec men Of Lat n prose . Undes gnedly, also,

1 Hi iu s r lla l i co rt P e e Bk. VIII De Be Gal . , fac to 5 8 C THE G 31 B . . ] ALLIC CONQUEST

i i i i in wh le stud ously keep ng h mself the background , he has left an autobiography the sinceri ty and truth O f which cannot be doubted . ’ Caesar s first entry into hi s new provi nce was char acteristic . ii i ri i The Helvet , a tr be whose ter tor es were Al J bounded by the ps , Lake Geneva , and the ura , i li i e i - r i feel ng , just ke an enl ghten d twent eth centu y nat on , i i in that, w th so large a populat on and such renown ” 1 i i i ex an war and bravery , the r mperat ve need was p i i s on, had resolved to leave the r lands and take posses i sion of Gaul . Preparat on had been made for two i i i years , and then, after burn ng the r towns and v llages , and such corn as they could not carry , they arranged to i i li o n 28 o f gather w th the r al es , March , on the bank i i the Rhone , wh ch was at some po nts fordable , and at e i hi e ii G neva was br dged . T s meant that the H lvet intended to march through the te rritory Of the Allo — ' ’ bro es z e r in . g th ough Further Gaul , Caesar s prov ce in o u t Caesar heard the news Rome , and at once set by i forced marches for Geneva , and destroyed the br dge . The Helvetii now sent ambassadors to Caesar asking to i be allowed to march through the Roman prov nce , and 1 2 i i o n A i . Caesar, to ga n t me , told them to return pr l e i r i O f M anwh le he fo t fied the bank the Rhone , and when the Helvetian ambassadors returned he told them he t o in could not allow them pass through the prov ce , and

if l . that , they attempted to do so , he wou d Oppose them He had with hi m but o ne legion (about 5000 men) and such forces as he could gather in hi s rapid march through i i the eastern boundar es Of Further Gaul . Over aga nst him i its li i i r i e stood the tr be and al es , g rt , l ke the Is ael t s o f i i Old , for departure from the r country , number ng

in all i r . about , Of whom were warr o s ii The Helvet made many attempts to cross the Rhone , i s s i us ng raft and pontoon , and attack ng the fords both ni e ff day and ght ; but they were beat n O . They now i mi i ni e o n Obta ned per ss on from the Sequa , who dw lt i o f to the eastern s de the J ura and north Of the Rhone , 1 U e er e e r e er are e nl ss oth wis stat d, wo ds quot d in this chapt thos

O f Caesar.

34 JULIUS CAESAR

hr ir e i in a pass t ough the t rr tory, march g by the n rrow di ffi t ura and cult defile between he J and the Rhone . Leavin g Labienu s in command Of the works he had e to thrown up, Caesar now hast ned Italy, collected two i s A i i who i leg on , and led from qu le a the three were w nter in A i o g there , and by forced marches crossed the lps nt r ul r Fu ther Ga . He c ossed the Rhone near Lyons, and i si found that the Helvet ans were cros ng the Saone , and i i i Haed ui were ravag ng the terr tor es Of the , who were o u t i friendly to Rome . He set by night w th three i s i u leg on , and , com ng upon a fo rth part Of the enemy wh o to i a had not yet crossed , he cut p eces a great p rt to i ni and put the rest fl ght . The canton thus pu shed was the very one which had slain the cons ul Lucius i s un hi . Cass us and made army pass der the yoke Hence , i i whether by chance or by the w ll Of the mmortal gods , that very part O f the Helvetian state which had brought such a calamity upon the Roman people was the first to ff su er the penalty . a i and C esar had a br dge made over the Saone , the Helvetians had not recovered from their first rout before i they found the r enemy close upon them . They sent a i if ul ambass dors to Caesar to prom se , he wo d make a wi to is i e pe ce th them , go where he w hed , but po nt d o u t that if he persisted in warring upon them he must i i adm ini s remember the fate of Luc us Cass us . Caesar te re d a digni fied rebuke to their insolent boast Of i t if e to hi m v c ory, but Offered , they sent hostag s and i i hi li Haedu i All made sat sfact on to s al es the and obroges , i i he would make peace . W th a curt rejo nder that the Ro mans knew it was the Helvetian custo m to receive

to i i . and not g ve hostages , the embassy w thdrew i s i The Helvet an moved the r camp and Caesar followed , his vanguard being for about fifteen days no t more ’ o ne than about five mil es from the enemy s rear. On i e to i occas on the enemy was allow d sl p past , when he

' r i r n was p epared to g ve battle , th ough the blu der Of mi fi in i in i an e nent Of cer . Caesar , report ng the c dent, Co nsidiu s i merely remarks that , bew ldered by fear, ” h ad reported that he had seen what he had not seen .

36 JULIUS CAESAR

i e i to i d the Sueb were att mpt ng cross the Rh ne . In or er that they should not be able to join their brethren in e as i hi s to Gaul , Ca sar at once h tened w th all forces A i i i e . V so ntio r ov stus He se zed (Besancon) , the largest i i A i vi i town Of the Sequan , wh ch r o stus was sa d to

h t . r r i i e e s t rea en He e a st ange nc d nt happen d . Report Of the extraordi nary stature and prowess Of the Ger A i is o as e un mans , who , r ov tus b t d , had not slept der a ” ’ r a and roof for fou teen years , re ched Caesar s army ni s i it ro caused a pa c . Cae ar was nformed that was p r l bable the t oops would refuse to advance . He cal ed a il ri O f i counc and reproved the centu ons the compan es , “ i if o ne ul him ul say ng That no else wo d follow , he wo d o u t i i in i set w th only the tenth leg on , wh ch he fully ” ru i n t sted . The tenth leg on at once tha ked him i ili r ri i i ul through the r m ta y t bunes , and a sp r t Of em a i i r t on was ra sed th oughout the army ; so that when , i ui o s r i s after a long , c rc t u ma ch and some fru tle s parley in ac to s infli g, the forces came f e face , the Roman cted i i a crush ng defeat upon the Germans . The s te Of the i to - in battle was a l ttle the north east Of Belfort , the i hi i pla n between the Vosges and the R ne , across wh ch

Ari ovistus escaped . ’ Ari ovi stu s had thrown into chains Caesar s last em m a i Pro cill u s a hi . b ssy to , C V ler us , a young man Of ” i ni l the h ghest bravery and culture , a Roma sed Gau , i Proc illu s in and M . Met us . , as he was be g dragged his in ei i i i by guards , th r fl ght , bound by a tr ple cha n , ’ i a il in fell nto C esar s hands , wh e he was pursu g the i hi s And hi to enemy w th horse . t s gave Caesar no less le i o ne p asure than the v ctory , to see Of the foremost men in in hi s i i e ri the prov ce Of Gaul , nt mat f end, snatched s from the hand Of the enemy and restored to him . In the mi dst Of the details Of the great battle which to si hi i i i put an end the German preten ons , t s l ttle nc is i i dent set down s mply and naturally, and g ves one glimpse o f th e real side Of Cae sar that won his great victories by first winning to himself the hearts Of those m about hi . Caesar then sent his army into winte r quarters under 5 7 B C THE A C 37 . . ] G LLI CONQUEST

Labienu s i o u t i fo r among the Sequan , and set h mself

Hi ther Gaul to preside over the courts . It can caus e no surpri se that the yet unconquere d i i tribes O f Gaul now began to show s gns Of rest veness . A a w i i in Roman gener l , every here v ctor ous battle , had led his men far beyond the bounds Of the Roman pro i i ii to i v nce , had crushed the warl ke Helvet , put fl ght i r his in the fearless Germans , and had w nte ed troops the f r i ar territories O what was before a free t i be . Wh le Caes i e i in i l was w nt r ng H ther Gau , reports were frequently brought hi m that the Belgae had pledged themselves 1 by hostages in a cons piracy to overthrow the Roman i i power . The Belgae , who nhab ted that part Of France i north Of the Se ne and Marne , and east Of the lower hi e e s R ne , were the brav st p ople Of Gaul , becau e they were farthest from the culture and refinement O f the o vince i i e r , and merchants v s ted them least frequ ntly , Ei i i i i ili iri r ng ng those th ngs wh ch weaken v r ty Of sp t , and they were nearest to the Ge rmans with whom ” i co n they were ever wag ng war . The reasons Of the spiracy were that they feared when Gaul was settled o ur led ins t army would be aga t them and , fur her, they i i i had been nc ted by certa n Gauls who , just as they had ha e inin in t d the Germans rema g Gaul , objected to the i i i r Roman army w nter ng and settl ng the e , and by others who from changeableness and fickleness Of mind were ” o n ul bent a change of r e . i i i e i Caesar aga n acted w th prompt tude . L vy ng two i in Hi be leg ons ther Gaul , he sent them ahead at the innin O f r g g summer, and followed shortly afterwa ds i i is i s h mself . W th h accustomed energy he surpr sed hi enemy by suddenly appearing within reach o f them .

1 Th e a e n e re r giving of host g s , which has lo g since disapp a d f om th e r re e n th e r n e e e wa fa of civilis d ations , was st o g st pl dg among e e ere e th e nations such as th s , wh ti s of blood , always most funda e th e e e r e . h e rre d er m ntal bonds , had such int ns fo c T su n ing of e m en O f th e e o r e r e r ere e e e e chi f stat th i h i s w pl dg s that , if all ls a e to be re r e . C r re e f il d bind , would not dis ga d d ae sa app ciat d this th e u se it o ne th e re e n fact , and of is of fo most m a s by which , with ere O f m en h e e err er r a m handful , was abl to ov un and conqu a count y z e r e e e of such si and of such wa lik p opl . 38 JULIUS CAE SAR i i i The Rem , the most southerly Belg c tr be , at once sent an to ff i e di embassy O er the r surrend r ; and, accor ng to i i f i in the r n ormat on , Caesar learned that all there were l ins His o wn over Be gae pledged aga t him . force was not more than about men . He at once to him Divitiacus Haedu an called , the , and ordered him to di vide the enemy by ravaging the country Of i un i the Bellovac (ro d Beauva s) , the most numerous Of th e i ri s Ai Belg c t bes . He then marched acros the sne , i leavin g a strong force in charge Of the br dge . Some i a ae i Bibrax seven m les way the Belg were attack ng , a n mi to a tow Of the Re , and word was brought C esar that im they could hold o ut no longer without help . He medi ate ly sent a small force Of Numi di an and Cretan 1 ri s in i i archers and Balea c l gers . The s ege was ra sed i ns to by th s mea , and the enemy hastened the Roman e w ir t o mi . camp , and encamped l ss than les away The d camp , as was shown by the smoke and fires , extende r i il e i mo e than e ght m es . Caesar, after fe l ng the power in lr ir i Of the enemy cava y sk m shes , Offered battle but i s i in e to Ai the Belgae , n tead Of jo n g , hast ned the sne to i i i attack the force wh ch guarded the br dge . Th s was i i in o u t eas ly met by the cavalry , and , d scontent break g e i among the Belga , they broke up and made for the r i i ri o wn territor es . It was morn ng before Caesar ghtly i e i did apprec at d th s move , but when he so he sent first r his caval y and then three legions after them . The i in di enemy, fly ng great sorder, were an easy prey, and to i great numbers Of them were cut p eces . On the very next day Caesar marched into the terri o i o ne i i t ry Of the Suess ones , Of the Belg c tr bes who had in i in N ic been foremost the r s g , attacked and took ov u 2 ci s i e e to d num (S sson ) . The warr ors se m d become ’ ri i - r ter fied when they saw Caesar s s ege wo ks , and Offered

i di r i % no res stance . He sa med them and cla med hos l i Bratus i . tages , and then marched aga nst the Bel ovac antiu m i i a i p mmed ately surrendered , and the Bellov c were ordered to find 600 hostages and deliver up their 1 r th e e r M r M r . F om Bal a ic islands , ajo ca and ino ca 3 d unu m There were three towns named Novio . HE A C 39 57 B C. T . ] G LLI CONQUEST

a i o u t in arms . C esar po nted that he spared them i i Di vitiac s c respons e to the ntercess on Of u . Then e he i Am biani f marched aga nst the , another Of the con ederate i ri . S O t bes , who at once surrendered far the Belg c i campa gn had not cost Caesar a battle . On the borders o f the territori es Of the Am biani A i N ii a (about m ens) dwelt the erv , who repro ched the o i ri rest f the Belgae for their surrender . Th s t be had been o ne Of the three most important in the confederacy in i it r po nt Of numbers , and was reputed the most fea i Ner i s less and warl ke . The vn had stat oned them elves , i i li A ero m and ui o n w th the r al es the trebates and V , the northern bank Of the Sambre . The Roman cavalry i in o f six i marched to the r ver front the first leg ons , at i i for the head Of wh ch Caesar rode . The s te selected the il l i camp was a h l fa l ng gently towards the Sambre , from hi ll i i i . w ch , on the Oppos te s de , rose another h The N ii inf ’ erv , themselves well ormed Of Caesar s movements i - by nat ve camp followers Of the Roman army, were able to conceal their operations by means Of the hi gh hedges which they had raised to obstruct mounte d marauders . The cavalry crossed the river and engaged the cavalry O f i o n the enemy, carry ng a desultory struggle for some little time until the six legions had reached the camping

o u t u to i . ground , measured , and beg n fort fy the camp Then it was that the main body Of the Nervii rushed o u t e ran Of the woods , rout d the Roman cavalry , and i wi i i towards the r ver , th such ncred ble speed that to in in i they seemed be the woods , the r ver, and upon u s l in ae a most the same moment . C sar had every ” i to ai s to . n th ng do at Once The ban er had be r ed , the

to O ff r . trumpet sounded , men be called the wo ks vi i i Caesar, ha ng g ven necessary orders , went h ther ”

i di i di . and th ther, as chance rected , cheer ng the sol ers S O unexpected was the attack that the men fought i i hi in i i in w th the r s elds the r cases , w thout helmets , and any company to which they happened to be near . In i n s the fierce struggle wh ch followed , the Roman fortu e were in the balance almost to the last moment . The wi A e it th e left ng drove the trebat s before , and crossed 40 JULIUS CAE SAR

i in i r ver pursu t , the centre was hotly engaged o n the n o f ri i i very ba ks the ver, but the r ght w ng , contending i s i O f N ii in aga n t the ma n body the erv , was bad case . The two legions who had crossed the ri ver h ad left th e e i on camp unprot cted , and the twelfth and seventh leg ons i r d the r ght we e crowded together and almost surrounde . i o n o i The men were d smayed , and almost the p nt Of i i n e hi g v ng way, whe Caesar snatch d a s eld from a i i i to sold er , and call ng the centur ons by name , went

o i ins iri e . the front , rest red a l ttle order, and re p t d them Camp-followers and the native cavalry had fled to spread the news that the Roman force was defeated , when Labienu s e in difli cu lties O f i i , Obs rv g the the r ght w ng , i e i to his sent the hero c tenth l g on help general . The in o battle now turned favour Of the Romans . Th se h ad l i s in o n i who fal en under the r wound , lean g the r w i ds i i . e no sh el , fought aga n w th new heart But ev n N vii in i e i ai i o n the er v d cat d the r cl m to valour , fight ng ni S O the dead bodies o f their compa ons to the last . r e — h as i g eat was the slaught r fear l ttle—mercy, but fear whi ch has been overcome is merciless that when the bo s c am e o u t battle was over, and the Old men and y _ from their hiding-places in the marshes to surrender s inf e re them elves , they ormed Caesar that only thre i i 600 e o u t O f i ma ned Of the r s nators , and that the r i nl 5 s fight ng men there were left o y 00 . The e ei ri i were spared , the n ghbou ng states be ng commanded to e do th m no harm . “ Ad u atu ci o n ri i i s i The , hea ng Of th s d sa ter to the r li e e ni to i r al es , whom th y were hast ng jo n , retu ned home a a and took refuge in their strongest fortress . C es r surrounded it with a rampart twelve feet high and over i il e in i m hi th rteen m s c rcu ference ; t s , and a large o hi i e so movable t wer, w ch was rap dly construct d , worked in the upo n the enemy that they su rrendered . But ’ mi O f i i ddle the n ght follow ng , when , by Caesar s orders , the gates were shut and the Roman soldi e rs had left o i i o wn s the t wn , so that the sold ers m ght not do the t ” in in i Ad u atu ci d a folk any jury the n ght , the ma e c sudden ons laught on the Roman fortifications . Wat h A C U C . THE G 41 57 B . ] LLI CONQ EST

l e had been kept just as carefu ly as ever , and aft r a v i i n bra e stand the enemy were dr ven nto the tow , i 4 o n As i leav ng 000 dead the field . a pun shment for i the r treachery , Caesar broke open the gates , and sold o f i the whole the people , about nto slavery . The harshness Of thi s punishment can hardl y be sur prising when o ne remembers the sin gular forbearance Of ae hi s ao i e i C sar , and extr rd nary for thought for th s very race in wi thdrawing hi s soldiery from the to wn at ni ght f lest the people shoul d su fer any hurt . I make no pre ’ to i ae s in tence just fy C ar s act , but treachery such a is - case double dyed . hi s i s e One Of l eutenants , P . Cras us , who had b en sent with a legion again st the coast states from the Loire i — i elli c — e to Un & . the Se ne the Venet , , now r turned , bringing the information that all had submitted to the

Roman people . i all l In consequence Of these ach evements , Gau in i be g subdued , so great was the fame Of th s war that embassies were sent to Caesar by the nations whi ch live across the Rhine promising to give hostages and to do ill As a e i i and hi s w . C esar was hast n ng nto Italy i i to to hi m Illyr a , he ordered these embass es return next i el is e i in i summer . He then h ms f settled h l g ons w nter e Cam u te s A and quart rs among the , ndes , Turones , ri i a e whose ter tor es were near the theatre Of the l t war , ” ’ u t a e e and set o for Italy . When Caes r s lett rs had be n ' i in e him su licatzo rece ved Rome , the senat decreed a pp ee - a m a s i i i an Of fift n days sole n th nk g v ng celebrat on, ” e honour which until that time h ad happened to no o n . On his way to Italy Caesar sent Servu s Galba with the twelfth legion against the tribes whi ch li ved in the neigh bo urh o ak od over the St . Bernard Pass and along L e Hi s r o e a Geneva . pu p se was to Open up and r nder s fe the road which Roman merchants had been accusto med to travel at the danger Of their li ves: The lieute nant i i c t u rus rti occup ed and fort fied the town Of O o d (Ma gny) , l i hi s but he was attacked by overwhe m ng Odds , and force would have been cut to pieces but for a lucky and daring sally he made from the camp when all seemed 42 JULIUS CAESAR

in i i lost . The contest ended an nd scriminate slaughter

Of the enemy. Duri ng the spring o f 56 Cae sar at Lucca held i ur TO hi m r s what was v rtually a co t . came C assu and Po m peius and numerous senato rs to discuss affairs O f

. e i i i li state They were ent rta ned w th regal hosp ta ty. Measures were then concerte d for the future Of the i i Po m eiu s m a coal t on . p was to have co m nd o f the i i fo r i Span sh prov nces five years , Crassus , Syr a , and the to suls 55 e two were be con for Ca sar , who had now gras ped the magnitude Of the task he had taken upon ’ i f to r ul in ul h msel , was have a fu ther five years r e Ga . It was a strange turn whi ch made Lucca the virtual i O f li a cap tal the repub c , and Caes r , the commander Of i its i it was so two prov nces , d ctator ; but perhaps not strange a thing as that power which enabled Cae sar to cast Off all thoughts Of an arduous and critical campai gn fo r o f e h oweven and to plan the good the stat . For , l hi s s r in so se fish plan we e appearance , they were not u f to o in fact . They kept o t O power a body selfish to e in to be competent , and s cured dom ance men who were to lfi too able be wholly se sh . The subj ection Of the coast state s had been apparent i rather than real . They had surrendered and g ven w it i as . hostages , and m ght seem that all well But while Caesar was stil l in Illyria he was informed by C in e r . i P rassus , who was w t ng among them , that they e e o u t i to h ad revolt d . The general had s nt embass es i in to r it the ne ghbour g states procure co n , and seemed to i i e the Venet , the most powerful tr be , who dw lt along O f i i the coast north the Lo re , a s mple and rather clever application Of retri butive justice to detain the am bassado rs and Offer to exchange them against their i hostages . The example was qu ckly followed by other ri i i i t bes . Caesar saw the pos t on at once , ordered sh ps i o n i to i e to be bu lt the Lo re , rowers be ra s d from u i to a i s F rther Gaul , p lots be got re dy, and a levy Of sh p in i to be raised from the fri endl y states . Then the spr ng t i s O f 56 o . the year , he hastened the scene Of preparat on ’ i if it Caesar s conduct Of th s war , had not been amply

44 JULIUS CAESAR

A i is o ne in . e a tlant c There other remarkable po t . Ca s r notes that the Veneti had been in the habit o f sailing i i in i s to Br ta n , and that th s war they had a ked ” ri i hi s B ta n for help . He had already begun to turn thoughts to that refuge for his enemies which he must e o r i i soon r later v s t. i i i i The battle w th the Venet was dec s ve . The enemy e r i hi had v ntu ed all the r forces and s ps , and hence ri e to e i nis they were now d v n surr nder . The r pu hment, o ne i r ri is in in Of extraord na y seve ty, expla ed by Caesar two bri ef se ntences Caesar thought puni shm ent should be meted out to the m the more se verely so that for the future they might respect with a greater diligence i i O f And i ill the mmun ty envoys . hence , hav ng k ed all i r the r elde s , he sold the rest as slaves . Caesar, whose o f e l o l cast charact r was whol y t lerant , became a most i in o f c is merc less the face trea hery. It clear that , unless there exist some convention Of good fai th between i l i O f is enem es , the on y poss ble end a struggle the ex termination O i o ne o r the other ; and it may be that Cae sar felt it a humaner po licy to economise bloodshed by stamping out wi th extraordi nary harshness the first evidences Of a mood that mus t inevitably turn a i e ul i battle nto a shambles . Doubtl ss the t mate cause i all hi Of th s, as Of other cruelty, was fear ; but t s does not i it it i o r it Fo r just fy any more than expla ns blackens . i e is o ne fear , l ke love and hat , of the elemental human At e i s . it pass on any rat the fact must be stated , and would not be so remarkable if it were not thrown up agai ns t the background Of a strong and habitual for e bearanc . ’ e a li e ts i o i Ca s r s eut nan were also v ct r ous , the young Crassus earning much renown by hi s reduction o f the terri to ries O f the Aquitani (which formed a third part ’ Of and justifying hi s general s choice o f so e Th e r O f his di i young a command r . p ogress expe t on , o f his li e is faith q as Of others eut nants , reported as y r ‘ lfishl unse a a . oe I ituri u s and y by C es r The man uvres Of , i i i i i wh ch bear a susp c on Of coward ce , are deta led from the point o f view Of Tituriu s rather than that o f h is 56 THE GALLIC SETTLEMENT 45

i t is ass stan s . There no trace Of censure , though there is no stint Of praise for the eagerness and valour Of his i i e sold ers and the r lead rs . rini Mena n o f The Mo and p , to the north and west i i to the Sambre , had st ll not subm tted Roman sway, di and Caesar accor ngly, although summer was almost ” irm i hi s i . over , led forces aga nst them In the few sk shes hi o i i w ch t ok place the Romans were always v ctor ous , in i t but the enemy took refuge the r fores s and , stormy i in O ff hi s s i e i weather sett ng , Caesar led force , w nt r ng i them among the tr bes which had last revolted . i i i Th s was the end Of the th rd campa gn , and the vast territory from the Pyrenees to the Rhine had been wi i - ( th the except on Of the north western corner, where ini Mena ii the Mor and p , though beaten , had not sub mitted r m n e ) reduced . In th ee sum ers Caesar encou t red and conquered the numerous savage tri bes which o o r i in pe pled had temporar ly settled France , and all i i i w th a force wh ch at no t me far exceeded men . That the conquest was not perfectly stable and complete li 1 i i is e Caesar must have known , for the Gal c sp r t ver spoiling for a figh and their mind is unstable and i i s very unprepared to endure calam t e .

CHAPTER V — THE GALLI C WARS S ETTLEME NT

DURI NG the following winte r the Ge rman tribes the i e i i ei Us petes and Tenct r , dr ven from th r homes by the i i o f Sueb , crossed the Rh ne , a vast host men , i it i sea . women , and ch ldren , near where falls nto the When Caesar joined hi s legions in the early part Of the 55 s year , he found that the German had been encouraged i i e i to by prom ses Of Gall c help . Caesar d term ned i dr ve the invaders from the country . The usual pre i i i r e e l m nary parley ng p oceed d , and the G rmans pre

1 ’ Caesar s j udgment on th e Celtic race would not be consid ered - an unfounded o r careless general isation on its m embers to day . 46 JULIUS CAESAR i va led upon Caesar not to attack that day. When Caesar h ad agreed to the truce and given orders to thi s ffe s i e ct , the German suddenly surpr sed the Roman to fli A i in cavalry and put them ght . mong those sla n A ui i i ve the battle was the q tan an , P so , a ry brave O f i i i man , llustr ous b rth , whose grandfather had held the sovereignty in his state and had been styled friend

o ur e . i i n to his by senat He , wh le try g help brother n n c him who was surrou ded by the enemy, s at hed out O f hr hi s u danger , was t own from wo nded horse , but i is i i u st ll most bravely res ted , unt l covered w th wo nds d His r i and surrounde he fell . brother, who had et red i ur his from the field , saw th s from afar, sp red on horse , s l threw hi m e f upon the enemy and was killed . his to i The day after cavalry was put fl ght , Caesar, e i i exasperat d by the treachery, and th nk ng that the enemy merely wished to postpone battle till rejoined i r i r i by the r caval y, deta ned the Ge man ch efs and Old to hi m men who came as envoys , marched about seven i r i e m les , fell upon the su pr s d and leaderless host, and i routed them w th great slaughter . The battle had been i fought near the confluence Of the Meuse and Rh ne , into which the enemy plunged and great numbers ’ ri A i to o ne is pe shed . ccord ng Caesar s account , left to assume that all the in vading host perished but this inf i i inf is u stifi erence , wh le just fiable as an erence , not j ill a i e . able as fact, and was probably not nt nded St is i the event black enough . Caesar had establ shed the i i i readi Rh ne as the Roman and Gall c front er , but the ness O f the Ge rmans to cross it suggested the expedi ence his i it wi to fo r Of cross ng , as he shed the enemy fear their o wn lands by convincing them that the arm y o f the Roman people was not only able but also had the i di hi s dar ng to cross the Rhine . Caesar accor ngly set legi onaries to work somewhere between Bonn and o z in ten ri C blen , and days a b dge had been made strong to i enough enable his force to cross in safety . In th s i i i m i short t me the t mber was collected , tr m ed , and dr ven home by engines into th e bed Of the ri ver the Oblique i d i i to p les were supporte by others st ll more Obl que , 55 THE GALLIC SETTLEMENT 47 hold up the bridge agains t the current o n the lower ri i o side Of the b dge , and another ser es t wards the mouth Of the river provided agains t attempts Of the enemy to ae sar wreck the bri dge by floating down trees . C ” i m ri i i w planned th s for Of b dge , and a modern cr t c kno s not whether to wonder more at hi s skill o r at the spiri t he i in is i vi i ae s h . insp red sold ers Ha ng crossed the Rh ne , C ar i t i i S u am bri h ad la d waste the err tor es Of the g , who received the cavalry Of the Usipete s but although he i i stayed beyond the Rh ne for e ghteen days , he fought i in i . no battle , the enemy retreat g nto the r forests But he had accomplished his purpose in showing the Germans that the Rhine was no more a protection to them than to i hi s in Gaul , and he w thdrew troops , break g down the bridge after him . O f It was now towards the end summer , but Caesar hi s i to i i i i had made up m nd v s t Br ta n , as he under stoo d that in almost all the Gallic wars help had been to o ur i if sent from thence enem es , and , even the season sui to i o n war it were un table carry ng a , yet he thought ul o f us e to hi m if wo d be great , he but entered the i l i un s and , and saw the k nd Of people , co try, harbours i - i n to and land ng places , most Of wh ch were unk own ” l to o t the Gau s . He ordered a supply O f ships be g a ini i in e re dy by the Mor and ne ghbour g stat s , and the i i e i fleet wh ch had fought aga nst the V net . The adventure upon which he was now to embark proves that there was in Caesar still a very distinct a i i tr ce Of the boy . In sp te Of the we ghty reasons he l ri hi s e r i i in cou d b ng forward for ent pr se , the preva l g i was i i O f mot ve cur os ty and a love adventure . The territories in whi ch was situate d his port Of embarkation s ae i e l was held by an un ubdued enemy . C sar h ms f i 81 ro o s e i adm ts the danger ; for , p p Of r presentat ves from a great part Of the Morini coming to hi m to Offer i si i fo rtu subm s on , he remarks , th s happened rather natel him i i i e y for , s nce he ne ther w shed to l ave an in i enemy the rear , nor at that t me Of the year had ” ni in o n Opportu ty for push g a war . i i i s In e ghty selected sh ps he embarked two leg on , 48 JULIUS CAESAR

i i i for A leav ng e ghteen sh ps the cavalry. strong guard was a r o f w left at the h rbou , and the rest the army as sent under two lieutenants against the tribes Of the i i hi h ad i te Mena ii Mor n (w ch not yet subm t d) and the p , i i r the r ne ghbou s . 1 o u t r are What port he set f om , and the exact date , u i i ni in both matters Of spec lat on . It was about m d ght “ late August when the little force sailed in favourable weather from some port o n th e coast between Boul ogne i ’ i i i and Cala s , and Caesar s d v s on was the first to come s hi m to d 9 AM . i near enough lan , at about Over aga n t were high cli ffs o f the land between Dover and Folke in i e th e e had stone , and , sp t Of fact that several stat s to a o u t i o s sent envoys C esar before he set , the Br t n e e o n to th e iff w re rang d p Of cl s armed for battle . Caesar did i e i di o n so not l k the dea Of lan ng such a coast , and i 2 ai i he lay at anchor unt l about R M . w t ng for the other i i i i in % sh ps to arr ve . Then , t de and w nd be g favourable , i six mi e he sa led about and a half les farth r , and stood ” e i n ov r aga nst an Open , level shore , probably Rom ey At it o if i l Marsh . first lo ked as no land ng wou d be i nl i in e made . The sh ps could o y be stat oned d ep t wi to i i ; it was e wa er o ng the r s ze and , no easy matt r i ie e i for the leg onar s , encumb red by the r heavy armour, to jump into the water and stand agains t the cavalry i e s i s i ns and char ot er Of the Br ton . Wh le the Roma i i - o f e i were hes tat ng , the eagle bearer the tenth l g on

1 P r r r . M e e W e e so e e e . It is stat d by m w it s ( g omms n , lham , a d F er & c as th e e r e h e set r m owl , that on this , on s cond jou n y, sail f o P r I ti u s T h e u e r e r e o tus . hat s d this po t on his s cond j ou n y is not i n e bu t r th e w a y h e e . 2 P r disput ; , f om in which m ntions it (v ) o t I tiu s from which po rt h e h ad l earn ed th e j ourn ey was short est ” r e t e y - e e e r th e e to B itain , b ing abou tw nt s v n mil s f om contin nt, it s eems more probabl e that this was anoth er port O f which h e had e r s m c e fir o All o ne e r r th e h a d his st invasi n . that can l a n f om Comm entarie s ( Strabo identifie s Port Itins with th e chief port of e mba rkation on th e firs t voyage) is that on th e first e xp e dition r w ere e o ne th e r o ne th e r two po ts us d , by caval y and by infant y ; and from th e ci rcumsta nce s o ne may in fer that th e y were be twee n e C a th e nd a e E n th e Boulogn and al is , and la ing pl c in ngla d on % e Th e r er r e th e s e ntish coast . fu th a gum ntation of ca has no a e r er ere pl c p op ly h . 55 THE GALLIC SETTLEMENT 49

in i s i nl shouted a loud vo ce , Leap , old ers , u ess you wis to u to : h betray yo r eagle the enemy I , at least i to w ll perform my duty the state and my commander , and he leaped from the ship and commenced to carry ” s i i the eagle toward the enemy . The sold ers , see ng their eagle in danger Of falling into the hands Of the

i r . enemy, at once leaped nto the water and ran forwa d i s in i For the moment the Br ton , by surround g the sold ers n i o r in l as they adva ced s ngly sma l numbers , were able to throw the legionaries into confusion but as soon as the soldiers were formed up o n the shore the enemy

to i e . were routed and took fl ght , pursu d by the Romans

The Britons at once gave hostages for peace . Four days fte i in i i di d a r the land ng Br ta n , a great storm arose and a to i i much dam ge the Roman sh ps , wh ch lay at anchor o r w o n i ns O f i a were dra n up the beach , and s g pan c p in red the army, for there was no corn at hand , many Of the shi ps which were to have carried them bac k to r no vi Gaul had been destroyed , and the e was e dent ’ i i l At is means O f repa r ng the vesse s . th juncture Caesar s i indomi table good sense agai n won the day . Sett ng half his men to repair the shi ps wi th the parts O f those i had l wh ch been worst damaged , he sent the other ha f i e i i o s to . gather corn On th s latt r leg on the Br t n , hinkin in i t g the Romans an extrem ty , fell as they were in o f in i . a engaged reap ng C esar, hear g the treachery at i l from the watch the camp , qu ckly gathered a smal e O f i to c forc those who rema ned , and marched the pla e ri o where the engagement was taking place . The B t ns s i o retreated and Caesar drew back hi men nt camp . ri But the B tons had not yet learned reason. T that a bold stroke now might put an end to any further O f i i e hopes a Roman nvas on , they collect d a large force

inf to m . Of antry and horse , and marched the ca p The battle was soon over , and the enemy broke and fled . i i t i The leg onar es pursued them , and burned every h ng for i r A i to some d stance f om the camp . ga n envoys came e r negotiate peace . Caesar order d double the fo mer a to to him in number Of host ges be sent Gaul , and,

e i il ri i his li . s tt ng sa , ar ved there safely w th ttle force D 50 JULIUS CAESAR

i i i e The reconna ssance , for th s was all that Caesar nt nded in hi s i i to i i i exped t on Br ta n , had been successfully carr ed o u t ffi i ri to . Caesar had seen su c ent Of the B tons learn i rf O f and the r methods Of wa are , the nature the harbours , O f r His i something the natu e Of the land . campa gn Of thi s year was crowned with a solemn thanksgiving of twenty days . hi s r in i a Before departu e to H ther Gaul , Caes r left o n hi s orders for a large fleet to be prepared, and return in the sprin g Of 54 found that by the extraordinary i O f hi s di in i e O f hi ndustry sol ers , sp t Of the dearth s p i di i 600 i 28 i bu l ng mater als , transport sh ps and warsh ps ” ir i had been buil t . The ndustry was rewarded by the i i to warm pra se Of the r general , who commanded them e r in i h as assemble the fl et at Po t It s , a port wh ch been i e i wi n i i i as i d nt fied th co s derable probab l ty W ssant . i i i o f Treveri Then , after an exped t on nto the lands the , to i A si t he hastened the port h mself . con derable amoun O f r i in i i un est preva led Gaul , and Caesar w sely dec ded to take with hi m all the chiefs upon whose full fidelity A Du mno rix he could not count . mong these was , the Haed u an in i to , who , attempt ng escape from the camp, ki At hi s 800 i 1 was lled . sunset fleet Of over sh ps set i i i s 2000 s i a sa l w th five leg on and hor e , leav ng the s me number O f horse and three legions under Labienu s to w ul At ri atch over the port , and Ga generally. sun se i i i o n i e i e in they were pass ng Br ta n the r l ft, . a northerly direction ; but Cae sar wished to make the same port as o n his r di i fo mer expe t on , and set the rowers to work to such purpose that the soldi ers wi th the trans ports and hi i ” heavy s ps kept pace w th the warshi ps . The i i i mid - sh ps reached Br ta n about day, but the enemy, i r O f i see ng the huge a mada , kept out s ght . ’ ae u i i C sar s account O f o r forefathers s full Of nterest . He tells us that the coas tal regions were inhabited by i i i l i i Belg c nvaders , but the n and d str cts were peopled by i i ri i and the abor g nal B tons . The r currency was brass iron rings ; and he notes that the cli mate was milder 1 “ “ Am o tin n Mr r e er h as r liu s c e tae . 8. W e p g , v . a d Fowl mo than This is a misreading of an earlier chapter

52 JULIUS CAESAR straight for the lands beyond the Thames where Cassive l s i aun u s lay entrenched . The bank Of the r ver near the i wi s ford had been fort fied th sharp stakes , and the e l in i were a so fixed the bed Of the r ver. The Roman o n i n i cavalry was sent ahead , and the leg o ar es marched i i i w th such speed , though they had to ford the r ver w th to i e the water up the r necks , that the enemy was rout d . ri l arf l w i a More guer l a w are fol o ed , then the cap t l Of i Cassi velaunu s was taken . The Br tish chief retorted i i t d o n by organ s ng a concer e attack the naval camp . e i i Cassivelaunus Wh n th s , however, proved abort ve , and heard Of the wholesale defection Of native states to a i s to C esar , he h mself sent envoy treat Of surrender . fi i co n Caesar demanded hostages , xed the tr bute , and ve ed hi s i r in to l y sold e s two journeys Gau , just before i the equ nox . A bad harvest in Gaul forced Cae sar to di vide his i i i in i f e O n * leg ons , w nter ng them several d f erent stat s . account Of the hazard Of this resource he remained in i s i i rt i Gaul h m elf unt l the w nter qua ers were fort fied , in i it e and , v ew Of the sequel , must be rememb red that a Roman camp was an unus uall y well arranged and fortified u i town in mini at re . But the w nter was fated to be the most disastrous the Roman troops h ad experienced i e i o in ul i s nce s tt ng f ot Ga . It seems only about th s time to have penetrate d the minds Of the numerous i i in i e ir ra warl ke tr bes that , sp t Of the numbers , cou ge , i i in h ad i and tra n ng arms , they been conquered by l ttle df i more than a han ul Of Roman sold ery . O ne legion and five cohorts were stationed among the Eburo nes , who dwelt north Of the Sambre , between the ’ u s hi i Me e and the R ne . Over them were Caesar s l eu e i Titu rius S abinu s i Aurun t nants , Qu ntus and Luc us cul eius i di Cotta , both exper enced and brave sol ers . They h ad been but fifteen days in winte r quarters when the Eburo nes informed them that a co ncerte d attac k was to o n i e it be made all the w nt r quarters , and hence was S abinus to i i the duty Of jo n the other leg ons , and that this was the more necessary as German mercenaries were ’ ut s dis Fr a b two day journey tant . ee p ssage through 54 . C THE A C SE NT 53 B . ] G LLI TTLEME

i e i o r i o ne i Am bio rix the r t rr t y was prom sed , of the ch efs , , i i confirming the prom se w th an oath . Decoyed from hi i i n the camp by t s nformat on , the Roma s were allowed to r to w to i c ma ch a narro defile , and were there cut p e es . Thi s was the first disaster the Roman arm s suffered in ’ i Caesar s campa gns . A i i i i i nother leg on , under Qu ntus C cero , was w nter ng N ii Am bio rix i i o among the erv , when , flushed w th v ct ry , e i Eburo nes Ad u atuci roused the stat , and w th the and w as attacked the camp . So sudden and unexpected the i vi i it i attack , and w th such gour and fores ght was carr ed o u t o f e i i l , that the band d fenders , grow ng smaller rap d y, i o f had to watch both day and n ght . The messengers e e Cicero were int rcept d . Hope seemed almost gone when several chi efs of the Nervii who knew Cicero o h tained f i m o him leave to con er w th hi . They t ld the a to S abinu s s me story as had been told , but now they ’ ise added the news of that general s death . They prom d him e c i a free passage , as they only object d to the pra t ce o f i e i i in ill w nt r ng among them . C cero , who though i i i hi s i health had been work ng n ght and day w th sold ers , i him i unt l they forced to rest , now proved h mself an apt i o f i i ff e i pup l Caesar . W th magn ficent e ront ry he repl ed that the Romans di d not accept conditions from an if i w i armed enemy, but that they la d do n the r arms he woul d be their advocate with Caesar to obtain what i they requ red . i i i N m i Host l t es were then resumed . The erv , tak ng a ’ o u t o f o ui i leaf Caesar s b ok , b lt ramparts ten feet h gh , and in three hours erected fortifications nine miles in ci f e ae i in hi s rcum er nce . C sar cannot res st account of these critical days describing the rivalry o f two centurions besie t o f i among the ed , whose fea s dar ng were so equal w At n that no one co d say who as the braver . le gth o ne of the messengers sent by Cicero got throu gh to i as i o f hi s Caesar, whose act on was prompt as the stra ts i i m i e s s l eutenant demanded . He m ed at ly ordered Cra su , who was winteri ng with three legions among the Bello% i to i i to to him i . vac , come w th a leg on , ordered C Fab us i him i i Labienu s was jo n w th another leg on , and , who 54 JULIUS CAESAR wintering among the Remi o n the boundaries o f the T reveri to i hi s i if so , advance w th leg on he could do i s o f Nervn w th safety to the bound the . The next ni i mor ng Crassus had arr ved , and the army marched i i S am arobriva e ghteen m les that day and reached , where o f Caesar left the baggage , the corn , the hostages the i o i hi m o n states , and publ c d cuments . Fab us had met Labienu s it i the march , but thought unw se to leave hi s ri in o f i camp , as the t bes were such a state elat on o f S abinu s i hi s over the overthrow . Caesar w th two legions now set o u t by forced marches into the lands o f N ii to i li hi m o f the erv . He sent a letter C cero tel ng hi s i m u hi o t. approach , and exhort ng to hold The o e hi s bearer was t ld to fasten the lett r to spear, and hurl it i i ’ if it hi nto C cero s camp he could not enter . T s he did e hi i i , and the lett r w ch bore the hope of the r del ver ance lay beside the Roman soldiers two days before it i Wh i o f was d scovered . en th s happened , the smoke in vill r ie burn g ages had al eady carr d the news . The i enemy, who were strong , also apprec ated the i i ri i s gn , and left at once to meet the leg ona es . C cero then by lette r informed Caesar o f h o w large a force was hi i s him i so marc ng aga n t , and Caesar fort fied a camp , cramping it as to make hi s little force of 7000 men look i i even more contemptuous . By th s and other dev ces m him i i he led the large ar y to attack ncaut ously, fell w to upon them , sle a great number , and put the rest i ae to i r fl ght . C sar then marched C ce o , and found that e s not a tenth of his soldi rs had escaped wound . He i i i commended C cero and the leg on for the r valour, and e e ri r l thanked ach c ntu rion and t bune pe sona ly . The next day he told the soldiers o f th e death o f S abinu s and e hi o f it i Cotta, but exhort d them to t nk w th equa ni mi t i o u t i to y , s nce what had fallen ow ng the fault and i rashness o f hi s lieute nant had been retr eved by them . abienu s The recent victory was at once announced to L . Caesar now went into winte r quarters himself at S am arobriva i i i w th three leg ons , resolv ng to spend the i r i him i hi s . w nter w th a my The whole per od , Caesar an f l i i . o se f says , was filled w th x ety Rumours plots 3 B C THE A C E NT 55 5 . . ] G LLI SETTL ME

i i o f came in da ly . Meet ngs the enemy were held at ac A i o f i night o r in secluded pl es . counc l the ch ef o f iff e members the d erent states was call d , and Caesar i ri e i i succeeded n f ght n ng some and encourag ng others . H I ndu tio m aru s i o f Treveri owever, , a ch ef the , was not i i l hi s to be won over . He qu etly dr l ed men , procured i lli i i i horses , and ga ned a es among the ne ghbour ng tr bes . o abienu Then at length he marched to the camp f L s. ’

i . Th s , however, was Caesar s finest general He sum i i e to moued the , ne ghbour ng stat s send cavalry , and , i in when these arr ved, shut them up camp , so that no i o f i i o u t suggest on the r arr val should leak . Then , after in the enemy had spent a day round the camp , cast g i in l in the r weapons , he a lowed them to leave the even ’ in i o f n g conv nced the Roma s terror , and consequently in di and No w careless sorder scattered . the cavalry o u t ou t i I nd u tio m aru s was sent , the enemy was to p eces , i i was sla n , and Caesar for a short t me ruled a more ’ i No t fo r and if tranqu l Gaul . long , however Caesar s e command had not been ext nded by another term , he would have left behi nd him a Gaul whi ch was as little i ’ hi i tranqu l as a hornets nest w ch has been st rred up . i e o f vi c Caesar, however , recogn sed the stat the pro n e hi s i inf r under command . He obta ned re o cements from i in Treveri C salp e Gaul , and planned to subjugate the , in i who had long been a restless state , to pun sh the N ii i Eburones o f all erv , who had a ded the , but most to take vengeance o n the last-mentioned tri be and the Am bio rix i h e a treacherous . Before w nter had ended p eared in i o f N ii o f p the terr tory the erv , at the head four i i leg ons . The tr be whose members had fought so brave — i i . 39 40 e r a battle for l berty (pp ) were utt rly surp sed , and were compelled to surrender and send hostages to i imi i the r conqueror . In a s lar way he surpr sed the i i A to . Senones , who were urged by the ch ef, cco , res st They at once submi tted when they found Caesar in their i i m dst . Then he threw himself heart and soul nto the i Tre eri Am bio ix r a war aga nst the v and r . Ve y c re to i Am bio rix fully he set work to pun sh the latter . Mena ii had been helped by the p , who had never yet sent 56 JULIUS CAESAR

to s A di i i i i envoys Cae ar . ccor ngly, w th five leg ons d v ded i o i a i d nt three part es , C esar advanced aga nst them , burne ir ill s i the houses and v ages , e zed both men and cattle , to i and forced them surrender and g ve hostages . Then he set out for the Treveri but before his arrival Labienus had lured the enemy into an incautious attack and e i r v rout d them w th much slaughter. Caesar then esol ed i to i m to cross the Rh ne , both pun sh the Ger ans , who had o n i Treveri to e been the r way to help the , and prev nt o f i i to Ambio rix An i e any chance hosp tal ty . other br dg i i ui i i o was bu lt , but the Sueb , the g lty part es , retreated nt ds s i i the woo , and the Roman returned , leav ng the br dge a i i an r i int ct at the Gall c s de d st ongly fort fied . Then he set o u t with hi s legions through the vast forest which extended across the country about 450 he alr e i . T m les cav y , who had b en sent ahead , by chance Am bio ri x i a came upon unarmed w th a few attend nts , i T e but for whose fidel ty he would have been taken . h o n i o ne men threw themselves the Roman horse , wh le o s e h ad of them set hi s chief n hor eback . When Ca sar come thither he left the baggage under Cicero with o ne i Adu atu ca S abinu s e leg on at , where had been quart red , m i telling hi he woul d return w thin seven days . Then ’ i vi di hi s d ng forces , he ravaged the whole of the enemy s t i r i i i i in ri to i in err to y , even nv t ng ne ghbour g t bes ass st Eburo nes n i i the plunder . The were hu ted l ke w ld i to beasts . Horsemen even came across the Rh ne help in o f uni Su ambri the orgy p shment , but these , the g , Adu atuca hi i in almost took the camp at , w ch C cero , ’ i hi s contravent on of general s orders , had left almost d in hi s i ri to completely unguar ed , allow g leg ona es go i e o u t of the camp on a forag ng expedition . The hunt d Ambiorix i , however, managed to escape w th four horse men. A i at Du ro co rtiu m i counc l was now called (Rhe ms) , the cons piracy o f the Senones and Carnu tes was in vesti ated A i iri o f te g , and cco , the mov ng sp t the lat r ri to il i o f i t be , was put death . Tranqu l ty a sort be ng e ae i thus restor d , C sar left for H ther Gaul . i e o f 53 i o f The w nt r was , however , l ke that the 3 B C THE A C SETTLEMENT 57 5 . . ] G LLI

i i fo r ae preced ng year , one of great anx ety C sar . Very shortly after his departu re a revolt broke out among i a i the central and southern tr bes , the he d be ng the noblest and most heroic figure in the whole o f the Gallic i i o i Arvernian campa gn . Verc nget r x , the , whose father h ad ul o f r ed over the whole Gaul , was not only brave , o f i o f but he had also a grasp strategy. In sp te much i i his i i oppos t on at first from own tr be , wh ch were among l i o f l i the most powerfu and fa thful Roman a l es , he coaxed o r forced the majority of hi s countrym en into i i to ini hi s patr ot sm . Caesar was be prevented jo ng o f i i troops . Most the southern tr bes had jo ned the nf i n to co ederacy , and the leg o s would have them over come in the absence o f their general if they were to try to f i wi hi m ef ect a junct on th . As i i m ght have been expected , Caesar surpr sed both friend and foe by suddenly appearing on the Gallic side mid - i e m o f A in . N in n the lps w nt r arbo , a town the Ro a i s i prov nce , was threatened , and mea ures were rap dly te to i i ti i i concer d strengthen ex st ng for ficat ons . Hav ng i hi s l thus checked the enemy, he marched w th smal i n i newly ra sed force across the Ceven es , wh ch lay nearly six e in A ni co n feet de p snow ; and the rver , who had sidered i ri i i the mounta n bar er mpassable , found the r great enemy as it seemed almost by a miracle within i e i o i to the r t rr t r es . The cavalry was sent work over as great an area as possible to spread terror among the to r o ff i ri enemy, and thus d aw Verc ngeto x . Then i was see ng after two days that the ruse successful , he r to i in o f went sec etly V enne , jo ed a small body horse i he had sent on ahead there , and w th them marched o f Haed ui Lin ones and through the country the to the g , i i i e i jo ned the two leg ons who were w nt r ng there , and his m i ti gathered whole army about hi . The fasc na on o f s i s the first act which end here is irresist ble . Rumour o f w i is en wars beset the Roman commander , h le he grossed watching from Hither Gaul disturbances at the o f r i is i e heart the epubl c . It the depth of w nt r , yet his i A e he leads recru ts over the lps , then tak s them — — across the Cevennes c avalry and all though the 58 JUL IUS CAESAR

’ snow is as deep as a man s height he ravages the sur i pr sed enemy , departs secretly, and , before the confused i i e is confederacy have real sed the d sast r, at the head o f hi s i All if ul i to unconquerable leg ons . d fic t es seem shri nk and grow di m before him ; no di scomforts can m i h as o f keep hi back . In the h story he left these days there is nothing to draw atte ntion to the abnormality o f ’ hi s is if o f movements . It all set down as part the day s work . did s s Caesar not rest when he had hi army at hi back . e i Vellauno dunum He succ ss vely reduced and captured , Cenabu m r No vi o du nu m Avaricum (O leans) , , and finally i o f Bituri es hi (Bourges) , the ch ef town the g . T s last was not taken until the Roman soldiers were so desperate with hunger and fatigue that an indi scrimi nate massacre in At o ne i took place the streets . t me Caesar thought it is i his i f w er to g ve men the opt on o retreat . He sug gested to them that if they felt the hards hips to o pressa in i i e him g he would ra se the s ege . But they b gged not to min di hi m l in do so , re ng proud y that dur g the years they had served under hi m they had ever carried o u t what they had begun . A i i hi s di a fter rest ng and refresh ng sol ers , Caes r Ger o via Arverni an t marched towards g , the for ress , hoping to force Vercingeto ri x into a decisive engage to i i ment . Caesar was , however, forced ra se the s ege — — hi s first real defeat o wing to the defection o f the i i ful Haed o ne to h therto fa th u i . In attempt take the fortress he had lost many men through the rashness o f di e hi i the sol rs , whom he reproved for t nk ng that they i ae knew better than the r general . C sar now marched to i Labienu s i ae jo n , who , find ng the Belg had also taken to e arms , had marched from camp and defeat d the He r to A edincu m ae enemy. then retu ned g , where C sar i s r Haedui no w e jo ned hi fo ces . The had utt rly broken faith and thrown in their lot with Vercingetorix and r the hostile forces meant to attack the Roman p ovince . In order to check thi s the Romans advanced through r i i o f Lin o nes to its A the te r tor es the g support . body o f l e i to German cava ry had be n ra sed , and added the

60 JULIUS CAESAR

i e was not adopted , but nst ad they drove from the to wn all - t i i non combatan s , who , refused adm ttance nto the o li to R man nes , were left starve between the two . When the Gallic allies appeared without the Ro man i i in i l nes , hearts beat h gh the bes eged town , and a sally c e lr was at on e made . But when the G rman cava y , e i i ns dr aft r an engagement last ng from noon t ll su et, ove i o i i to i the enemy nt camp , cutt ng the r archers p eces , the men returned into the to wn cast down and with ” i An l ttle hope o f success . attempt was then made at midnight to carry the fortifications within and without i i o i but aga n v ct ry was w th the Romans . i ac to to The th rd att k , Caesar says , seemed all be i i i did i s dec s ve , and the all es the r utmo t to succour the i o ne i o f ifi i bes eged town . On s de the town the fort cat ons s i i to l i hi were nece sar ly weak , ow ng a sma l h ll w ch could not be included in the siege works because o f the extent i i Ver asillaunu s Arverni an l of the c rcu t . g , an genera , ’ wi i e i th p ck d warr ors , more than Caesar s whole r ac i i a my, now att ked the l nes at that spot, wh le the rest o f the army and the cavalry assaulted other parts i i At i in o i o f the fort ficat ons . the same t me Verc get r x hi s i i led forth men , and attacked the nner l nes at every i ae s va hi weak po nt . C ar chose an ele ted spot from w ch i er asillaunu s i his he could see the whole act on . V g w th picked men was bearing down resistance o n hi s side e hi s i Labienu s wi when Caesar s nt best subord nate , , th to some 3000 men help the defenders . Caesar, mean i i i i wh le , went about among the other leg onar es , cheer ng i i them and urg ng them on . In the pla ns the ramparts and r i b eastwork had been torn down w th hooks , and things were in desperate case when first the young e wi 3000 i Brutus was s nt th about men , and later Ca us i E i wi to . Fab us th a larger body, help the sold ers ven i f i i these were nsu fic ent so he led up more h mself , and when he h ad beate n them o ff he ordered part o f the to e i i and cavalry go round the ext rnal fort ficat ons , take

in i to Labienu s . the enemy the rear, and h mself hastened isi in i e o f The cr s had come . The enemy, sp t the utmost f s e fort of the defenders , had made headway at the fatal 5 2 C THE A C SETTLEMENT 6 1 B . . ] G LLI

At i Labienu s weak spot . th s moment , when made a f r to i i f final ef o t repel them , Caesar arr ved w th a urther o f i f reinforcement n antry and cavalry . The general i i A u o n . was recogn sed . great shout went p both s des e in a The crisis was over . The cavalry was se n the re r r to of the enemy , who tu ned and fled , but were cut hi er asillaun . V us pieces . Many noble c efs fell that day g — w was taken , and seventy four standards ere captured . i ni The huge camp broke up , and when after m d ght the o in u i R man cavalry was sent p rsu t , great numbers were in i i i il to . k led , and the rest fled w ld pan c the r homes The besieged had returned to the town when they saw r ul o f i o i i the es t the battle , and Verc nget r x called a counc l and offered to surrender hims elf to the Ro mans o n behalf E to ae f . o the rest nvoys were sent C sar, who demanded i l be i e that the ch efs and arms shou d g ven up . He seat d i s in o f i i to h m elf front the camp , and th ther, accord ng r in i in hi s s r Pluta ch , Verc getor x , arrayed fine t a mour , idl is e rode out on a splend y capar oned hors . He rode round the place where the victorious Roman commander s i i i n m was eated , and, hav ng d smounted , la d dow ar s and ’ in il i e r armour and sat at Caesar s feet s ence , unt l Ca sa hi m to hi s ri m in gave be kept for t u ph Rome . Thus ended the career o f the noblest figure in all the Gallic was in o wars , for he later put to death R me . Under him for once Gaul uni te d and joined to meet a common i m all i hi s . i foe . W th fell the r hope He ra sed the level o f to i so a i the struggle the hero c stage , that , v nqu shed , l i i his race fe l not nglor ously. Haedu i s and i i The were then ettled , the leg ons sent nto i e e is 52 i r w nt r quart rs . Th year w tnessed the final e i l i o f its i duct on of Gaul , though the fu l mach nery erect on i i o f A s nto a Roman prov nce was the work ugu tus . ’ e f ad Ca sar s command o Gaul h yet two years to run . i e in i o f A i He w nt red Gaul after the reduct on les a , and led o u t punitive expeditions against the isolate d risings o f tribes . In this way in J anuary 5 1 he reduced Bituri es am the g and C u tes . The Bellovac i were de wi r feated th more t ouble . He ravaged once more the l o f Am biorix s Labienus i s Tre eri ands , and ent aga n t the v . 62 JULIUS CAESAR

o u i D He t ok Uxellod num , wh ch had been held by rapes Lu teriu s o ff o f all and , and cut the hands the armed i i f r w i i defenders , a h deous p ece o c uelty h ch noth ng can hi i excuse , and w ch can only be expla ned by the fact i i i to him that he felt that the , t me wh ch yet rema ned in was i to ui Gaul short , and he w shed hand over a tranq l i Co m mi u s prov nce at the end . , who had been so long a mi i o f a . fr end the Romans , was the l st to sub t B CJ ae a it his i Duri ng the year 50 . C sar m de bus ness to e hi s in i i i xert all powers the d rect on of peace , treat ng r i i i i i the states honou ably, conc l at ng the ch ef men w th ” di r i i s . splen d p esents , and mpos ng no new burden In thi s way he easily kept Gaul (wearied by many u n il i successful battles) in peace . Unt well nto the Chri stian era Gaul was tranquil from this last year of in ul i o o r Caesar Ga , and the country had t me and pp t to tuni y develop . ’ Dominantly Cae sar s success in the reduction o f Gaul had bee n the triumph of discipline over di sorder and barbarism ; but there was more than thi s in so signal in i a conquest . If there was power a sold er, the general l l it i cou d cal forth , and all through the n ne long years o f war he w as able to obtain from them the most u n i hf l i wearied labour and the most fa t u serv ce . Such was the power of the man that his mere presence with o f n the army sent a wave co fidence through the troops , i mi i to win hi s i i and a sp rit o f deter nat on good op n on . He was never anything but extremely careful o f the f o f hi s di if wel are sol ers , and he spared them no labour , they knew he di d not spare hi mself .

CHAPTER VI

CRO S S I NG THE RUBI CO N

THE last we have seen of the domestic side o f the ae Po m eiu s Roman Commonwealth was C sar , p , and Crassus disposing of its affairs at Lucca in 56 Crassus was to have the rule of Syria and Po m peiu s o f 49 B C CR N THE 63 . . ] OSSI G RUBICON the two Spanish provinces for five years from the end o f 55 ri hi du ng w ch they were to be consuls . To — Caesar was renewed for another five years 41 a to March 49— e the command o f the two Gauls . It had also be n ’ arranged that the question o f appointing Caesar s suc i e 1 50 cessor should not be debated unt l aft r March , , when it woul d be impossible for any o ne to take over i 49 the command unt l the end of , and then Caesar was to o n hi s l i e enter second term o f consu sh p . The r ason o f thi s arrangement was that if Caesar were left any time as a private person it woul d be Open to bring an i 1 i him mi i i accusat on aga nst , when he ght be d squal fied i o r if for the consular elect on as an accused person , , convicted (which could easily be accomplished by i i i i i i s br bery) , he m ght be dr ven nto ex le . In e ther ca e it to hi s would be death all hopes . By the agreement at Lucca the triumvirs settled the affairs o f all as ami cably i as poss ble . ’ But in the next three years Caesar s star seemed e i i His A i i st ad ly to decl ne . mother urel a , a splend d o f o ld u type the Roman matron , whose pr dence and selflessness secured to the day o f her death the respect o f i hi i 54 J i and love her son , d ed about t s t me . In , ul a , hi s e i i beloved daught r , a woman of s ngularly grac ous i Po m eiu s r character, who , as the w fe of p , was the st ongest o f e r i bonds between the two great g ne als , also d ed and the next year Crassus was killed at the head of hi s in his i troops , prov nce . Crassus , who had ever hated Po m eiu s f i u p , would have been an e fic ent safeg ard i Po m eiu s i wi aga nst p break ng th Caesar . Between the in i i i i i in army Syr a and the nv nc ble leg ons Gaul , Pom i i it pe us , who was certa nly not rash , would have found i imposs ble to move independently. Gaul had now i to i broken out , and the work of subject on seemed requ re i i repet t on . ’ i i hi Yet Caesar s courage di d not fa l . The l nks w ch

1 Th e best m ethod for an ambitious young m an to attract attention was th e bringing an accusation against som e promin ent er T e o ne re r for th e p son . his was don by any without any ga d r or r th e S ee a e 1 3. t uth p obability of act . p g 64 JULI US CAESAR

e u to d ath had s ndered he strove forge anew . He asked ’ Po m eiu s l e f for the hand of p on y daught r, and of ered ’ hi m o f hi s i Po m eius that s ster s granddaughter . p , i is l f from what mot ve not c ear, refused both of ers , and i o f i s i i marr ed the daughter Qu ntus Metellu Sc p o . The “ li ttle ri ft within the lute may be dated from this o f tim e . But although a lack confidence sprang up o n r o f Po m eiu s e the pa t p , generat d beyond a doubt o f hi s i i i by fear r val , th s general commenced a pol cy which the weakness and indecision o f his mind peculiarly e m to fitt d hi adopt . For the next four years he sat upon the fence which divided the inte rests of the o li archical senate from those of the democracy and ae s li i o n i ar, a leg dang ng encourag ngly each s de . i i i i Somet mes the senator al leg swung om nously, but th s was generall y succeede d by a correspondi ng swinging o f din o f i Po m eiu s the other . By t these tact cs p saved i m l of i hi s i i h se f the trouble mak ng up m nd , wh ch was , ’ ‘ li i i i a ke the m nds of all such people , l ke a fash onable l dy s i a a s o f e ha r , to be m de up only by the h nd a dext rous i coifleuse and bustl ng . 5 i in 4 s o . l In he was st ll Rome , although he shou d in i An i in i have been Spa n . archy preva led the c ty i o f 53 s i s dur ng the early part , so that the con ular elect on d i Po m eiu s co ul not be held unt l the summer . p had

to o i . the power rest re order, but he refra ned It would to have been necessary descend from the fence . Mobs i i o f 52 paraded the streets , and at the beg nn ng the worthless Clo di u s was killed in a brawl with the l i Mi di equa ly d sreputable lo , who was a can date for the i in i i to a di e o f Po m eius consulsh p oppos t on the c n dat s p . i r o f Clo di u s i The mob , ncensed at the mu der , the r patron i r s - s and champ on , bu ned down the enate hou e , kept i i in hi s ur Po m eiu s M lo a pr soner house , and clamo ed for p . i i and The senate procla med mart al law , called upon m eiu s to c i m Po hi l . p restore order , ele t ng alone consu The dictatorshi p whi ch had been his for the asking for i s i e t two years , and to wh ch Caesar , who e best nt res s i in i requ red order the c ty, had agreed , was now thrust u him n im i . pon , and he fou d h self champ on of the senate C O ING THE RUB N 65 B C . R . ] SS ICO

e o in te d i i his He r st red order , and then nom a Sc p o , t -in—law ni a di i fa her , as colleague , thus tech cally b cat ng ac i the rule which to the end o f the year he in f t w elded . But this was a year in whi ch the leg-swingin g was very As to i im eriu m cons picuous . Caesar was reta n the p i o f 49 to in 48 it was unt l the end , and yet be consul , necessary that he shoul d be dispensed from the law A di law necessitating personal canvass (p . ccor ngly a was initiate d by the tribunes di spensing Cae sar from as Po m eius the necessity o f personal canv s . p agreed i le o to this . Here swung the democrat c g. But so n afte rwards he passe d a law reasserting the law o f personal ’ o ria w n i ae canvass . The senat l leg s u g v gorously. C sar s friends pointed o u t that thi s was against the inte rests o f i s a e the absent general , and he nserted a clau e ft r the n r i i r vi i n i act had bee ca r ed , except ng p o s ons made a ter or t i i t e to i . Here aga n was the democrat c leg . But gulatio ns for the appointment o f governors issued about % ’ the same time made it possible to appoin t Caesar s e to a in 49 in i as succ ssor t ke command March , wh ch c e he would have been a private citizen for ten months i his i and open to prosecut on by enem es . Here was the i in s enato r al leg aga . This same play went o n durin g 51 Pompeias ’ opposed the suggestion o f Caesar s party that the latte r should be allowed to hold the provin cial comm and with the consulship as he hi mself had done but he sugges te d that perhaps the law of personal canvass might be waive d ’ in Caesar s case . The second act tempered the rebuff o f fi r i the rst . Then he ag eed that Caesar m ght be allowed to hold hi s com mand until November 49 but ’ consented that the question o f Caesar s successor should e i o f be postpon d unt l the last day February 50 . A suggestion now arose whi ch would have the effec t ’ o f r i tri i e b eak ng up Caesar s army, but the bunes nt r posed their veto ; when Po m peiu s dec lared that the ’ tribunes veto should be done away wi th and all magis te e to is tra s be absolut ly subject the senate . This the onl y act in pronounced sympathy with the se nato rial a i Po m eius i e i s l i is p rty wh ch p perm tt d h m e f, and th s E 66 JULIUS CAESAR probably to be inte rpreted as merely a petty blow at his i i in r o f ri n i r val , masquerad ng the fo m a p c ple . the 50 e i In year matt rs came to a cl max . The senate demanded from Po m peius r and Caesar a legion fo r the i Po m eius Parth an war . p at once asked Caesar to re o i to st re the leg on he had sent Gaul. Caesar, therefore, i i i te o f in had to g ve up two leg ons , and ns ad be g sent o ut to ri i Sy a they were deta ned at Capua . In March ’ i C ri ri n e i e Ga us u o , a t bu e who represent d Caesar s nt rests , proposed that both Po m peiu s and Caesar shoul d relin uis h i e f i o n q the r commands , and aft r much shu fl ng the part of the cons uls the motion was put to the vote and ri in i r to o ne in its car ed , the vot g be ng nea ly twenty l to favour . The resu t was most agreeable the Roman ula i e its air pop ce , who apprec at d f ness and had fo r Po m eius nl e him to p , whose weakness o y fitt d be a f rin in tool in the hands o a da g m ori ty . It has already ’ been seen that r o m peiu s in 5 1 had declared against the i o f i s and w shes the people as declared by the tr bune , with the help of a bold minority he now set the majori ty s o f i o f s . s the enate at defiance The con ul , who were th s i ri i to e m no ty, now tr ed spread the rumour that Ca sar h ad o f o i i in ul moved a large body tro ps nto C s alp e Ga , it i e Po m and, although was contrad ct d , suggested that i i e is u . pe s should march aga nst Ca sar Th was rejected, ns s - e fo r 49 but Marcellus the co ul , and the con uls el ct , asked Pompeia s to take the field with the two legions a i mili i i i him at C pua and the Ital an t a , and th s suppl ed with the requi site impetus to tumble o n to the senatori al si o f r o ut de the fence . He left Rome to ca ry the orders i e with wh ch he had been entrust d . Cae sar had thus forced Po m peius to declare war under i i s His o wn the most flagrantly lawless cond t on . de ’ mands ha d all been for the carrying o u t o f the state s t ds him o r o o r engagemen s towar , at least for equal pp i t i i ad n t a . un y w th Pompe s He h settled at Raven a, i mi o f i i wh ch was a few les north the Rub con , a t ny r in Ci a i ul i st eam separat g Italy from s lp ne Ga , wh ch a provincial governor might not cross with his arm y . his in ri He had left troops beh d, but when the t bune

68 JULIUS CAESAR

i Au xim m l u i his . u i u road from Rome nto prov nce , C ng m , Asc ul u m w i in i i ere occup ed qu ck success on , and several of the officers o f Po m peiu s who fell into hi s hands we re l e to He e six honourably a low d depart . was d layed days r o f Co rfiniu m i i o ne o f befo e the walls , where Dom t us , the m eiu s to o ral Po . gene s of p , had delayed long On February 2ot e i o i in i i h the d fend ng tro ps , bel ev g that Dom t us i to i ul e ntended escape alone , cap t at d and swore alle ia o i ad g nce to Caesar . The senat rs and kn ghts who h i a s taken refuge here were m ldly addressed by C e ar , and i mi i s s an o f then , w th Do t u , were relea ed , act forbearance i hi m A e wh ch almost at once secured Italy to . lett r sent by hi m to Balbus at this time contri bute d to this e in it r o f c eff ct , for the future uler Rome de lared that l i i o o f c he wou d be no m tat r Sulla , but that the s eptre o f his rul e would be generosity and forbearance ; Po m peiu s h ad hastened to Brundisium in order to leave a E i i i his It ly for p rus , bel ev ng that troops were not to s i Co rfini u m s be tru ted , a fact that the exper ence of seem finium to . Co r prove beyond a doubt The delay at , Po m eiu s to however, had enabled p get together a fleet , a Po m eius so that C esar , although he overtook p , came 1 too to o f his up late prevent the escape enemy, who d hi m refuse to see . ’ i it to his It was Caesar s w sh , and would have been to r idl e Po m eius r advantage , cross ap y aft r p and fo ce a decisive action at once before the arri val o f help from ’ E s i s i e hi . the ast , where r val s pre t ge was great st But hi to ai r no s ps were be obt ned , and hence Caesa resolved to i i o f Po m eiu s in ai crush the e ght veteran leg ons p Sp n , in it is e in say g , report d , that he was go g to fight an army wi ul thout a general , and when he should return he wo d a r i wi m ch aga nst a general thout an army . If the two ’ s i s o f Po m eiu s in i ect on p army should jo , they m ght i i e blockade Italy . To obviate th s Caesar sent a l eut nant i i to di i u i i w th a leg on occupy Sar n a , and C r o w th three e i s i i Ea dil ied a l g on to S c ly . ch was rea y occup , and Caes r o o s ini in marched upon R me . The senat r yet rema ng Italy we re lawft called to gether by the tri bunes

1 ’ M r 1 7 al os five ear t h i a n a ch m t y s o t e day fro m Caesar s assass n tio . 49 1 m ] CRO SSING THE RUBICON 69

An iu ae r . tony and Cass s , and C sar add essed them He i e o u t is i po nt d that he w hed for no extraord nary honour, l i i n but on y what was allowed to every c t zen , the cha ce r e to stand for the cons ulshi p . He t avers d the whole hi s to hi m in of case , and asked them help the govern i if l ment of the republ c . But they feared , he wou d be no u to ul ff i hi m b rden them , but wo d manage a a rs by i di th e i i self. F n ng that one of tr bunes would be nduced to o all di d in i oppose a vet to he , he left Rome , appo t ng Aemi li i r i A o . us M Lep dus p aetor over the c ty , and nt ny r over the t oops in Italy . o n A ri 5 o n rri vi sili He left Rome p l , and a ng at Mas a , s i i n to li i i i per uaded the c t ze s neutra ty unt l Dom t us , i di i i to fo r hi s who , w th extraor nary ngrat tude Caesar if O f i i l e and freedom , both wh ch had been forfe t at rfi m i i Co niu i . i its , arr ved w th a fleet Th s c ty then shut to e i i r i ns gates Ca sar, who left a l eutenant w th th ee leg o to it i s u e i reduce , and ordered sh p nd r Dec mus Brutus to i i six i assault on the sea s de . He now jo ned the leg ons i i lr under Ca us Fab us , who were a eady not far from I lerd a o n i o f Sico ris i , the r ght bank the , wh ch was held Afraniu s Petreius i e o f Po m eius by and , the l eut nants p . Cae sar made an attempt to cut O ff the hostile camp from o is il to dis the t wn , but when th fa ed he began feel the t i i is i advan ages o f hi s pos t on . Wh en h suppl es were at the lowest ebb a convoy reached the left bank o f the Sico ris i i m o n , and was brought nto camp by an adro t ove ’

ae a i . i a C s r s part at n ght L ght cor cles , such as the ri i i e i u B t sh bu lt , were construct d , and at n ght sent p i o f in mi the r ght bank the stream carts . Some les i e fo rtifica above the camp the sold ers crossed , erect d i i i i to t ons and a br dge , and brought the prov s ons the in i a e army safety . Several Span sh st t s , moved by the o f is ff an d Po m news th success , sent o ers of help , the peian troops resolved on re treating to the northern part o f i e e i ri . the central Span sh plat au , then called C lt be a They had marched some distance when they found ’ s oe r i e r o n them elves outman uv ed , w th Ca sar s caval y i his i r in o the r rear and nfant y fr nt . Though he had ri i har ed them w th hi s cavalry during their march , he 7 0 JULIUS CAE SAR

r to i to c fo bore attack them , as he was anx ous se ure i i i if Th e Po m v ctory w th the least poss ble loss of l e . i e to ire i to I lerd a pe an generals now resolv d ret aga n , but i i o ff i the r suppl es were cut , and find ng themselves sur No i in rounded they surrendered . pun shment was fli cted upon the troops ; but Caesar required that all S d e in i hould be di sbande . Those who had s ttled Spa n were di smi ssed at once ; the rest were escorted to the ri Ni ver Var, near ce . i s i u i Caesar now sent two leg on nto F rther Spa n , where the troops o f Po m peiu s were commanded by i l i 600 Varro , and advanced h mse f w th horse by forced i i in marches . He ssued a proclamat on order g the magistrates and chiefs o f all the states to wait upon him i n at Corduba . Varro , confronted by defect o s every v hi s o wn where , e en among followers , surrendered i to i the leg on he commanded Caesar, del vered up the in his i his money possess on , and gave an account Of all r i ri i i i ili . v resou ces Meanwh le , after va ous c ss tudes , Mass a e i i i had finally surrender d . Caesar rece ved the subm ss on o f i i his a to the c t zens on way b ck Rome , where he stayed s e i but eleven days , to hold the con ular el ct ons , as i ” i l i i d ctator. He was appo nted consu w th Publ us S ervilius A e i hi in . ft r accompl s ng necessary bus ess , he i i i to is i res gned the d ctatorsh p and went Brund um , where he had ordered twelve legions and all his cavalry to J 4th i i i gather . On anuary he set sa l w th seven leg ons , and landed without the loss o f a vessel at Palae ste . ’ Po m peiu s meanwhile h ad used the nine months re it to i i o f i iz s sp e gather together n ne leg ons Roman c t en , and he had also a strange medley o f troops from different o f Eas i parts the t . There were archers and sl ngers from e i s i Cret , Pontus , and Syr a ; hor e and foot from Cappadoc a , r Hi s Th ace , and even from Gaul and Germany . stores h ad ul l e D rrh achi u m been caref ly col ect d at y , and there was a vast fleet un der the supreme command Of Marcus i l i o f i B bu us , who had been a b tter enemy Caesar s nce his r t o f e fi s attempts at the game stat craft . wi hi s i Yet here was Caesar th troops d sembarked , and the dream o f Po mpeius and his supporters o f a successful N 1 C . THE RUB 48 B . ] CROSSING ICO 7

o i descent up n Italy, when the t me seemed good , was at an Palae ste O ricu m c i end . He landed at , was soon o cup ed , A i Po m eiu s and pollon a followed ; and p , who had been in i and i absent Macedon a , was forced to march day n ght D rr ac u m o f to prevent the fall of y h hi . The army Po m eiu s i e i ni i s p was now se z d w th pa c , but the l eutenant , i ri tr bunes , and centu ons swore they would never desert hi m hi i i . Caesar reports t s , gravely ment on ng that the to i L ie u is o ne o f first set th s example was ab n s . It the greatnesses that always strike o ne as un expecte d in a to i ri Caes r, that he seemed ever forget personal nju es , e i Labienu s a even the great st . It was th s , though Caes r ’ i it h ad i e does not ment on , who been Caesar s l eut nant li s through the Gal c wars , the mo t able and the most u o f his s e i hono red general . When entrust d w th the supreme comm and in Cisalpine Gaul in 50 he had i ri i Po m eius o n o f nt gued w th p , and the outbreak war ’ nl o fi cer m to had deserted , the o y of all Caesar s com and i c g ve way to trea hery.

Caesar was in no hurry to strike for the present . Part of his army had not yet succeeded in crossin g to E i At f t i Lissus . o i s p rus length news came arr val near , i rr m wh ch was some di stance north Of Dy h achiu . If Po m eiu s e o f a p had b en Caesar, the two branches the rmy would never have met ; but Caesar quickly effecte d a i i e in i junct on, and by a rap d march succeed d cutt ng ’ O ff Po m eiu s m D rrh achi u m p fro y . Caesar s next step , Po m eiu s en however, was not so successful . p had c a i o f D rrh achi u m s at amped l ttle south y , and Cae ar to ad him i o f t tempted block e , erect ng a number for s , and then drawing a lin e o f circumvallation between i i in them . But the bes eging force was much infer or i numbers , and food was so scarce that the sold ers were to s i compelled eat root . In a short t me , however , the pinch Of want began to make itself felt in the army o f Po m eiu s i o f p , when, by the defect on two Gauls , he was put in the way o f inflicting a crushing blow upon hi s i . o f i in r val In one part the huge blockad ng l es , he inf i Po m e iu s was ormed , the rampart was unfin shed , and p , a i i i i m k ng a sudden attack upon th s weak spot , nfl cted 7 2 J ULIUS CAESAR

’ v e i aesa a hea y defeat upon Ca sar s troops ; ndeed , C r hi mself says the only thing which prevente d the ruin of the whole army was that Po m peius hesi tate d through s fear of an ambu h . A e i no w o ff and e ft r th s engagement Caesar drew , , aft r A ni e i to i a short pause at pollo a , det rm ned equal se the a o f ri Po m eiu s o s ch nces a battle by lu ng p from the c a t , o m a o f a where his c m nd the sea gave him an advant ge . i w as diffi to ie i i e -in Th s not cult ach ve , as Sc p o , the fath r law Po m eius hin to hi s i i of p , was marc g ass stance w th inf r i h ad far e re o cements . The junct on so b en prevented Do i i Cal vi nus e to by m t us , and Ca sar at once sent word m to i hi s Po m eiu s hi jo n commander . Both p and ae to i e i C sar seemed have been an mat d by the same dea, ’ o u t a i i Po m eius and set to m rch towards Sc p o s army . p e his i a hi s su mad camp at Lar ss , but was urged on by p e r to i e e e port s Pharsalus , a few m l s farther south , wh r ’ s in Cae ar s army lay encamped . The generals Pom ’ peius army were so confident that they spent much o f i i in i i t ae ar the r t me allott ng the pr zes Of vic ory. C s e t i i i i D i i r coun s , w th a gr m humour , how Sc p o , om t us , and Lentulu s Spin th er came to the end o f their te mpers in a quarrel as to who should have hi s priesthood . The i i dec s ve blow was deferred for some days . Caesar could hardl y be expecte d to attack an army whi ch was more t a hi s o wn . Bu th n double , and was strongly entrenched o ne day Po m peius marched his army farther than usual his e i from entrenchments . Ca sar at once se zed the i i in hi s opportun ty, and , br efly encourag g men , marched ’ i i Po m eius ri i at the r head aga nst the enemy. p ght w ng was e i hi i def nded by a r ver, and t ther he stat oned the Cilician legion and the Spanish tr0 0 ps ; in the centre ci i i i s i o n S p o commanded the Syr an leg on , wh le the i in left were two leg ons , the sl gers , archers , and all the ’ lr inf n ai e cava y . The a try numbered ag nst Ca sar s and the disproportion between the cavalry was ’ e his i e . s i gr at r Clearly, Cae ar s weak po nt was r ght i i w ng , wh ch had to stand the brunt of the cavalry and i n Po m eius l c the leg o s under p . Caesar therefore p a ed t r i l and he e the famous tenth leg on , his sma l cavalry, a '

4s B . C I C. ] RO SSING THE RUB CO N 7 3 strong reserve compos ed o f a cohort from each legion r i i i o six fo m ng the th rd l ne . He t ld these cohorts that l o n i r hi s the battle wou d depend the r cou age . On left were the nin th and eighth legions commanded by Antony ; and Domi tius Calvinus commanded in the ll o f ri i centre . P . Su a had charge the ght w ng , and there ls his a His d to Caesar a o took st nd . army now marche t Po m eiu s di il i the at ack , that of p stan ng st l to rece ve the

. i us i i i i and charge Th s they s ta ned w thout g v ng way, ’ r in li aesa the caval y then charged force , compel ng C r s to i i to hi s . horse g ve way, and commenc ng attack flank But at thi s juncture Cae sar ordered his reserve infantry to o n i s o n march the Pompe an cavalry. They ru hed i r e and them w th fu y, rout d them , then the archers

in o u tflanked e wi . sl gers , and the l ft ng of the enemy i n no w i i in i The s g al was g ven for the whole th rd l e , wh ch a had not before engaged , to advance , and the vast rmy Po m eius r o n hi s men Of p broke and fled . Caesar u ged to ir a it mid -d a in pursue the advant ge , and though was y A u o m ug st they bravely went forward , st rmed the ca p , to and chased the enemy the hills . The next day over m t o f i il d men, the re nan s the Pompe an army , p e i r A ra i the r a ms and surrendered . sudden and t g c i r in r cl max had occur ed the life of the beaten gene al , i i e and the rest o f his life found hi m a fug t ve . Wh n ’ Po m eius o ff Caesar s army had forced the camp , p put ’ his e o f general s robe , and galloped out of the back gat to a i a i i the camp L r ssa . From L r ssa he rode w th a o f to i to Mi handful horse the coast, took sh p tylene ,

i i i i s l i . C l c a and Cyprus , seek ng un uccessful y a certa n refuge all E as Last of he went to gypt , but was treacherously ’ sassinate d A il ai ds . by ch las , capt n Of Ptolemy s guar Caesar had hurried after his rival only to hear o n arrivi ng in Alexandri a in October 48 of hi s death . He wi hi m 3200 n i it im had th only men , and when , fi d ng i to i ds poss ble leave Africa owing to adverse w n , he e to i imse attempt d settle the success on , he found h lf in E i and r s to hemmed by gypt an troops , hard p es ed i At i el d to support ex stence . one po nt he was comp le his i o f ie and burn fleet , and the vast l brary the Ptolem s 7 4 J ULIUS CAESAR many of the fine Alexandri an bui ldings were irr eparably e At Mit in . win hradate s ru d length the ter passed , and a to in Of Pergamum , whom Caes r had sent gather troops ri ili i e t h e Ni i and Sy a and C c a , cross d le at Ca ro , estab li sh ed r f E in in o 4 . Caesar as uler gypt March 7 He l gered , in E i J it is however, gypt unt l une , held , commonly t e inl i thought, by the charms of Cleopa ra . C rta y the b rth rimm Caesari o n i o f Of a son ed , and the accompl shments i li to his . Cleopatra , g ve more than a ttle colour t theory On leaving Egypt Caesar had to turn hi s attention to i mi i Calvinu s hi s i e Syr a , where Do t us , l eut nant , had been Ph arnaces i o f Mithrad ate s defeated by , the he r the i i i o f Great , who had se zed aga n upon the k ngdom i Po m eiu s to Pontus , wh ch p had added the Roman E i Ph arnaces is c e i i l mp re . used h chan es charact r st cal y . n hi s He stormed tow s w ch had been settled by Roman , i e i ffe s i se z d upon the r e ct , and behaved w th the utmost i di i in cruelty . Caesar marched through Syr a str but g i o ld i i in in s rewards , settl ng controvers es , and rece v g k g i i s nto fr endship . He left hi kinsman Sextus Cae sar in i s charge as governor , and sa led for Tarsu , the finest i ili i c ty of C c a, where he had summoned the states to e hi m i i m et , crossed Taurus nto Cappadoc a , and pro ceeded At i i to Pontus . % ela he jo ned battle w th and d Ph arnace s wi dl utterly estroyed , th a force har y any, if all i i i i to i D . at , super or that w th wh ch om t us had lost Pharnaces was foolis h enough to join battle in an un i i fo r it is i to favourable pos t on and , the rest , suffic ent say that it was o f this engagement Caesar said the famous “ i i i i —“ I ” v i . Ven , d , v c came , I saw, I conquered Aft i i ni i er pass ng through B thy a , Caesar sa led for Italy, hi e 4 0 . w ch he reach d towards the end of 7 B . il in E re- di Wh e gyp t he had been elected ctator, and ul in he now r ed as such . He spent but three months i his i Rome , but w th usual t relessness he got through his o f i i much work , and charm personal ty and equ table ul in ts o f all r e settled peace i borders . Officers grades i e i e to were appo nt d , mag strat s and governors , carry o f on the government , and he then left for the scene his i A . last great struggle , fr ca What Caesar had won

7 6 JULI US CAESAR

r d to nfu i turned , se ve to add the general co s on and r the r hampe ed a my . A c i ae a l ei c ord ng to Plutarch , C s r was sudden y s zed wi ill ire e th ness , and ret d b fore the fight began . a o i ar C t was at Ut ca , and when the broken my re in i r all turned d so der from Thapsus , he saw that was i i i A ri over, qu etly arranged for the fug t ves to leave f ca , e a e i his and then, wh n the l st vessel had l ft , ret red to i e e a e i i was pr vat apartm nts and st bb d h mself . Th s , the e in hi s ife o f r i perhaps , b st act strange l tu mo l . Fate h ad compou nded this man o f many excellent ri i s e hi m in o f hi s characte st c , and l ft the hand own ’ idi i f ae . O sai stup ty On hear ng Cato s death , C sar d , t i di Ca o , I envy thee thy death , s nce thou dst envy me ivil ivi e i the pr ege of g ng th e thy l fe . s i A i in J 46 For some month after leav ng fr ca une , es i e in e r i al Ca ar rema n d Rome , aft r a go geous tr umph i e di t te o f entry , and, aga n chos n cta or and Mas r ” r s e his to i i was mo al , he turn d hand the leg slat on that ne T e dl . h i sa y eded But not for long. relentless Lab had s i i s him in N e enus rou ed Spa n aga n t , and ovemb r was i Caesar aga n on the march . Further Spain had hardl y needed an external impetus i w e to . C i h o to revolt ass us Long nus , had been l ft e r vi in 49 o gov rn the p o nce , had l oked upon the charge i An li as a golden Opportunity for extort on . y s ght ff i it r O ence was v s ed by him wi th exo bitant fines . SO r was se his i g eat the re ntment roused by tact cs , that an e r ini hi s if s . att mpt was made on l e , and the t oop mut ed i e i r o f i ai n Cass us s nt to Lep dus , gove nor H ther Sp , for es o i i help to r t re order . But by th s t me Caesar had e r to si s nt a mo e trustworthy officer supplant Cas us , and ’ e i rri c the latt r, hear ng of hi s successor s a val , de amped and s was drowned in trying to escape with hi money . - But the ill feeli ng in the province could not be recalled . The name of Po m pe iu s had for many years been co n necte d i ai O f w th Sp n , and the eldest son that general i i found little difficul ty in bringing matte rs to a cr s s . Whe n Cae sar reached Spain the southern province was raised against him under the son of Po mpeiu s and 1 - THE U RE E RU 4 C. 77 1 9 4 B . ] S P M LE

ie u s to o f Lab n . Caesar marched south the valley the da i i o e m e to Gua lqu v r near Corduba (C rdova) , and att pt d e i i l force the enemy to a d cis ve engagement . The c vi r i o n a war had now been d agg ng for three ye rs , and o n i was war in tempers were short both s des . It not a i l to i n i o ne wh ch laure s were be ga ned , or upo wh ch mi ght look back and find pride in the skill which van s r i f a m i qui hed mo e by bra n than by force o r s . It m ght ” ri e as i m if o ne m a aptly be desc b d pun sh ent , y gravely ’ % i li i r use Mr . p ng s j ngo te m . In the engagement at ’ u Labienu s l Po m eius so n M nda the treacherous fe l , and p n e o u t and il e in was wou ded , and lat r was sought k l d e r the cave where he had taken refuge . But the slaught i i imi i hi to i was nd scr nate . The arm es fought s eld sh eld , i r o f and hacked the r way th ough . More than i l had the enemy are sa d to have been kil ed. Caesar i ds in r i i e ul was g ven od numbe s and pos t on , but the r s t e i i i i it o u t to i d c s ve , and , l ke war work ng self an ssue . ’ a i s r i l d i Caesar s c mpa gn , ma ked always by sk l , ar ng and e c m i e in i r source , and forbearan e generally, cul nat d th s s S it a ai orgy Of blood hed . The hame Of can h rdly be l d was o i i his . f at door It the last stand the oppos t on , and the fierce spiri ts who were ranged here again st m e i i i hi had gone to o far to be op n to conc l at on . ’ O i o n e s Fo r ee S the curta n falls Ca sar s war . fourt n in o r o f years he had known noth g but wars , rumours i s c and preparat on for war . But now when he went ba k to Rome in Septe mber he had secured the empire to hi f— t i six t s msel all but the hear . For a br ef mon h he was to be left to the work o f adm inis tration which d u i to i . cr e be done , and wh ch he alone co ld do

CHAPTER VII

THE S UPRE ME RULE

TO apprec iate justly the work o f Caesar du ring the five and a half years he was master o f the des tinies o f o E i s re e the R man mp re , we mu t memb r the problems 7 8 J ULIUS CAE SAR

i hi m o ur sti e o f hi s wh ch faced , for e mat work should not be confuse d with the thorny questions o f Imperialis m i E i ll i i o r . Caesar sm conom ca y, morally, pol t cally, Rome i in o f N at this t me was a state chaos . ever perhaps certaml i i e before , and y never s nce that t me , hav wealth we ee in o i i and po r b n the hands f so small a m nor ty. T i l s in At o ne o f here was no m dd e cla s Rome . end the i w as i o f i soc al scale there a small coter e very r ch people , i vi in e r o in r i is l l ng xt a rd a y luxury , wh ch hard y equalled by the vulgar display of the same class to -day ; and at r i l e ri e i i the othe was an d e prol ta at , l v ng on free doles 1 i e o f o ul . corn , and the vast slave p p at on The gov rn ment o f provinces had degenerated into a scientific means of extortion ; the government o f the city a ie i i i o f ri r i i re sc nt fic appl cat on b be y . Cap tal sm was its im d u ce d to ul . , so say, to ult ate res ts Money, land , mini i in o f the ad strat on , were all the hands the same is o handful of ar t crats . What root could morality find in such a state i w i Bribery and corrupt on were every here rife . Domest c if its i xu n l e was at lowest ebb , wh le lu ry and extravaga ce had worked thems elve s o u t to their highest pitch o f i in exaggerat on . Men aped women the extravagance r e o f their d ess and j wellery . Luxury at table was i e to i ni ra s d an abnormal degree , and v ce was a defi te ’ pursui t for whi ch in one s youth one coul d find pro i al i s o i a i dl fess on n truct rs . Cel b cy and ch l essness grew i rofii ac was yearly more and more , wh le p g y rampant . Divorce meant so little that th e sainte d Cato put aside his i a o f hi s ie te s i re w fe for the s ke fr nd Hor n us , and er e e si o f marri ed h wh n Hort n us died . Fashi onable men i i in i i i wi the t me sow ng , euphem st c phrase , the r ld oats , reaped debts which seem almost the most abnormal in l i feature so who ly corrupt a per od . The huge sum in 62 ee Caesar owed the year has already b n remarked, though thi s was spent chi efly in buyin g power and favour . o f rin Yet there were laws , many them st gent enough , ins o f s s it th e admini s aga t most these abu e . But was

1 Cl od iu s 8 e th e r in 5 had mad e dol s of ch eap co n free. THE U R RU 9 B . C. ] S P EME LE 7

l di u s tration . E C o in that was at fault ven , who , attempting to carry o n a liaison with the wife o f the if xi it to i pont ex ma mus , had not hes ated comm t a i i fl . agrant act of sacr lege , was not pun shed What did Caesar do when confronte d by such a ‘ ‘ Rome 3 What foun dation had he to buil d upon 2 In — the short ti me he was able to spend in Ro me so me — twelve months in all it woul d seem that he had little to n di opportuni ty effect any great cha ge . Yet by nt o f uns paring thought and toil he left hi s mark o n every i i s th ng wh ch needed readjustment , from the pool and congestion o f traffic in the streets o f the capital to the i in ri ain o f extort on of governors Sy a and Sp . Some the mate rial whi ch oiled the wheels of the revolution i r i e he accompl shed was frankly ana ch c . Ca sar was no i a is re dis i fr end of anarchy, and the an rch ts we appo nted o f their hopes . It was the break-down of the system o f government i di i il which mme ately caused the c v war . Caesar had hi s i i th e been from youth assoc ated w th Popular party , and had been early famili arised with the idea o f reali sing democratic ideals by the autocratic rule of a popul ar ri inn in leader such as Ma us and C a had been . The version o f the cons titution by which a supreme senate hi m i i o f ruled confronted as them , and the nnovat on Cae sar was not the inauguration but the crystallis ation i i o f i to and legal sat on a supreme personal author ty, which the senate shoul d act in its origi nal relation o f ’ i i aim c an adv ser at request . That th s was Caesar s l o ne i hard y be doubted , whatever the name may g ve to i i the new pos t on he created . The senate soon forgot its obduracy in obsequiousness th e o f di r c i e when power the latest ctator was app e at d, f i m acted and showered o fices and t tles upon hi . He di 0 . as ctator when he passed through Rome in 49 B . o n his to i A his way Spa n . fter return he was made dictator but temporarily ; after the victo ry o f Phars alus he was made dictator from autumn 47 wi th no state d term ; afte r Thapsus he received the dictatorship as an annual office from J anuary 45 and 80 JULIUS CAESAR

e i o fo r lif in February 44 he b came d ctat r e . These him i i in e powers gave the first pos t on the stat ; but , i i i n w th the except on of the last , wh ch was an a omaly (as the di ctatorshi p was traditionall y a te mporary di ni i a expe ent) , they were the recog t on of an abnorm l i is condi tion in the state . But bes des th and the consul i hi o ne in i sh p , w ch he held every year except wh ch no c s e i o f onsul were elect d , he rece ved the grant powers i di i ’ wh ch were st nctly new, and Caesar s acts prove very clearly that he was claimin g a new function in the e was i ni i i stat . He granted a tr bu c an power for l fe , r in e ri c r o r fi st place the senat , the ght to de la e war o i o f mi c nclude peace , the d sposal ar es and treasures , i i o f vi i v i o f nom nat on pro nc al go ernors , the r ght con i i o f i i ri i mi i o f duct ng elect ons , nom nat ng pat c an fa l es , in i to declar g half the recru ts the senate , and member hi f l o f A ur si i o f all o . n s p the Col ege ug s Most g ficant , in 46 i if Th e t the year he became mperator for l e . fac that Caesar u sed this as hi s chi ef official title shows that o it e i i i e i he t ok to d scr be someth ng qu t defin te , and there can be no reasonable doubt that he exercised the fulness in im eriu m in i of power the state ( p ) , the way wh ch e i i i i hi o r i i post r ty assoc ated w th the mperators p , d gn ty o f e r i in emp ror . He appea ed publ cly the purple robe which to the Roman mind was the tradi tional regal dre ss hi s i s . He had statue set up bes de those of the even in o n i o s r l k gs the Cap t l , and oath were swo n not on y by the household gods but by the genius o f the emperor . From the year 44 the head o f Cae sar appeared o n the i e i was the co ns of the Roman stat , and th s perhaps las t stroke which was nec essary to fill in the perfect outlin e o f the new imperatorshi p o f the Roman Empire . The repo rt that he tried to have hi mself made king by i in o o f is i i si u c rculat g the st ry an oracle ntr n cally abs rd , and his rejection o f the crown when An tony offered it to him is more reasonably interprete d as an utte rly sincere rejection o f a title which was ill -soundi ng to all o ns R ma . But be exercis ed the whole power o f king and em

r t . r l ce s din hi s s pe o He cont ol ed the finan s , en g servant THE U R RU 81 B . C. ] S P EME LE to the mint ; hi s o fli cers were over the army ; he tried o s c as es of treason in the Forum r at hi house . The e us in its ri i i i e senat he ed o g nal funct on , and ra s d the to its i number o f senators 900 . He broke defin te aris tocratic taint by adding to it men from the provinces ’ and men who had not even the right to wear th e knight s In these ways he strove to make it an efficient i At i consultat ve body. the same t me he preserved the principle o f democratic government by having hi s im i portant measures sanct oned by decree o f the people . in i hi s l e ati i e s Prov c al governors were now g , l eut nant , hi s i i i r men who were m l tary subord nates and , the efore, e s i hi m l i absolut ly respon ble to persona ly. In th s way he imposed a sufficient check o n extortion which im o verished in o ff o ne r p the prov ces , and cut great sou ce o f i o f i the abnormal accret on cap tal . i i ir i i fli cient Th s nd ect check upon cap tal sm was not su . The declin e in credit and values produced by the Ci vil War threatened a crop o f bankruptcies and a vast i i o f i li nflat on wealth to cap ta sts . Many people were in to di un if i i debt an extraor nary amo t , and cap tal sts seized upon property while its value was at a mini mum ’ re l o ne r ul i o f the could on y be es t . Caesar s solut on i is i i mi it m et th s problem ndefens ble econo cally, but i i N 49 e ee di the s tuat on . In ovember he d cr d that cre tors must accept the property o f their debtors at the value to be i i it ( settled by arb trat on) bore before the war . He also struck o ff interest in arre ars and ordered in terest i i to e e i wh ch had been pa d be d duct d from the cap tal . i i u n to o f Th s , says Sueton s , amou ted a loss a quarter o f i to i i t r e the cap tal the cap tal s s . The e had ever be n ” o f o f advocates the clean slate , and these , course , e th e r 4 4 e were not cont nt. In yea s 8 and 7 th y u r in i e fo nd leade s , but the attempted surrect ons mer ly t in n resul ed the death o f a few o f the butterfly patricia s . ’ But Caesar s solution was really the germ o f o ur r r i ti e mode n bankruptcy laws . P ev ous to thi s m a i to s li borrower was l able lose hi freedom . The abo i o f t on this resort was unquestionably a great step in. 8 2 JULIUS CAESAR

An other of the great evils o f the time was the misuse o f i i i i r the corn d str but on , wh ch , never a ve y happy i ir i o litical nsp at on , had come to be regarded as a p ri i idl ac i p v lege by the e Roman popul e . By turn ng it i r vi i i nto a reasonable p o s on for the poor, Caesar la d the i o f o f i foundat on modern systems outdoor rel ef. He reduced the number o f recipients from to a fixed maximum o f and a heavy fine prevented magistrates from giving such relief to cases which had no t i i i t i i rece ved publ c sanct on . He went fur her, str k ng at the root o f the situation by settling the Roman and i in ni e o ld o i Ital an populace colo es , aft r the cust m , w th ’ o f if i i allotments land . In Caesar s l et me colon sts r di we e thus settled beyond the seas . He settled sol ers a e in diff ts o f a in ft r the wars erent par It ly, grant g them allotments whi ch coul d not be sold until afte r twenty ’ e l e i e o n years t nancy. He regu at d nt rest loans , and helped agriculture by compelling capitalists to invest i in part of the r money land . His administration o f the laws proclaims alm ost more signi ficantly than the laws he passed how firml y r e il i o f i he had ma k d down moral ev s . Cr mes v olence ni i i i were pu shed w th great sever ty, and d vorce and i ri i e i adultery w th a gour qu t new to Roman deas . He f i r i i of ered substant al rewards to fathers o f la ge fam l es . i ir to ins i e He mposed d ect laws check luxury, and st d o n i A i i the r observance . max mum expend ture for the table was fixed and many dishes were expre ssly for i i o n a i i re b dden . Customs dut es It l an mports were i hi r mposed , w ch were at once a tax upon luxu y and a i ul i i in o f r st m us to Ital an product on . The wear g pu ple robes and pearls was restricted to certain ages and o f i to classes . The sons senators were forb dden leave mili r i i i Italy except for ta y educat on , and no c t zen was allowed to be absent more than three years between the ages o f twenty and forty unl ess he intended to settle in permanently a colony . He extended the franchise to many state s outside ul i e i Ga , and apparently nt nded that the prov nces should i i u ltimately enjoy not only Lat n but Roman r ghts ,

84 J ULI US CAESAR the work of the imperator The answer to this question is sufficiently given by the concluding drama ’ o f li Caesar s fe .

CHAPTER VIII

THE CRO WN o r GRE ATNESS

MAN% I ND has ever reserved o ne fate for its prophets ’ a life o f i i its death , and C esar s to l and turmo l was near it its i l o ne in end when had but come to zen th . On y stance o f such utter folly and insane ingratitude as that which must now be recorded has left its mark i o n i . e h story I have shown , though very nadequat ly, how much work for the empire Caesar crowded into the last years when he h ad the opportuni ty o f giving hi s mi to i o f - whole nd the serv ce his fellow men . He had i hi s i l i ns so t red out fa thfu tenth leg on by co tant war , that they clamoured for their dis charge and mutinied i before the Afr can war . Yet he who had borne the direction and responsibili ty in these campaigns was at the very end planning another to secure the eastern i o f ire i s s An o ne boundar es the emp aga n t the Parthi an . y wi th an atom o f self-seeking in his composition woul d have thought that no w at leas t he might take a little it is i ae rest . But was far otherw e w th C sar . Meaner men sought power for the chances it afforded them o f i ga n ; Caesar for the Opportunity it gave o f work . A u him o f inds ro nd were grouped a host small m , men who loved names and shadows at the best ; at the ” i i o f worst those , l ke Cass us , a lean and hungry look . Cae sar alone among all saw that barbari sm must give place to order and civilisation both withi n and beyond limi t i o f the s of Italy, and the amplest condemnat on i rim o f hi is th s , almost the g mest tragedy story , that what these nominalists and vu ltures now set them to i vi selves destroy they merely rendered more ne table , and that the immediate result o f their mad act was the plunging o f the empire once again into a sea o f blood ’ in i d r which the chief actors per she . Caesa s work alone THE CROWN O F GREATNESS 85

i h ad a i it i im rema ned , for he est bl shed w th the pulse of all to fo r great men work others , and they had wrought with the instin ct o f the mean and weak to prey upon others . No matter what o ne may say o f the characters o f o f hi e in o f some the c f actors the murder Caesar , the fact is clear the impul se o f the movement was envy and is ill o f hatred . It true that there was st a strong body republican sentiment in Rome that fou nd its way in hr in i lampoons placarded t ough the streets , the hect c i o f c in applause of republ can jokes a tors , and the hl t i pamp e war over the dead Cato . Th s even gave birth to cons piracies ; but Cae sar fathered them i it hi all , deem ng a stronger and more wholesome t ng to absorb such elements into the state then to attempt to r e i r i i dri ve them fo th by p nalt es and p oscr pt ons . It was not of such elements the last conspiracy was born . i in in it o ne o f There were some s xty prom ent men , s i ae them Marcu Brutus , who had fought aga nst C sar at i e l Pharsalus , but had s nce been treat d a most as a i son by the emperor. Brutus was an enthus ast . ” ir i a Whatever he des es he des res vehemently, Caes r s i o f hi m o ne o f e a d . He was those weak charact rs upon whom their consciences seem to batte n as a prey . Win l i i i that facu ty by some deal st c appeal , and honour, i i - duty, grat tude fall as de as a worn out garment and r i t the person steps fo th a new man . L ber y was i ’ i i i s . the ba t wh ch won Brutus s con c ence . C Cass us , i i o f i ni an exper enced sold er, was a man nfi tely me i s i e i mould . Caesar by h mere personal ty had t rr fied him in o ne to surrender after Pharsalus , when , so far as i all s in o f . can see , the odd were strongly favour Cass us Did Cassius hate Caesar because he had revealed fear to ’ him i o f o i Or was he env ous the emperor s p wer , wh ch he woul d have used so differently We can only l won to s ir c wi specu ate . But Brutus was the con p a y th difficulty ; Cassius was either the ringleader o r o ne o f the first to suggest the removal o f the emperor . All arrangements had been made for the Parthian fo r i to war, wh ch Caesar was leave Rome a few days 86 J ULIUS CAESAR

t the ides f Hirtius ns f o . o hi s af er March and Pa a, two ie hi s i l i ds tr d generals and most fa thfu fr en , were to be s l in 43 u e in i con u s Brut s was to be pra tor the c ty ,

’ si s as i in the war and Cas u to s st . In numerous ways the feelings o f Brutus had been was it hi s to worked upon . It suggested that was duty i ah remo ve the tyranny. He was rem nded that an ces i i i o n At to r h ad done a s m lar th ng and so . length e in o f o n r 1 5 i the m et g the senate Ma ch , the fateful des . w i di as e . fix d for the deed The even ng before , Caesar ned i i f e i s D i u w th the fa th ul L p du , and ec m s Brutus , who had li i c . also be ome an accomp ce , was there The conversat on u his i i t rned on death , and Caesar gave as op n on that the as i bes t death was the le t expected . For some t me now u he had dis carded his bodyg ard and gone about alone . That last night has become fabulous ; but at least ’ one may record the story that Caesar s wife Calpurnia was so disturbed that she endeavoured to di ssuade him i co n: from go ng to the senate the next day. The

s irato rs i u him . p sent Dec mus Brut s for , and so he went A paper warning hi m o f the plot was thrust into his e s i i it i di hand , but , utt rly unsu p c ous , he put away, nten ng to a it re d later . When he had seate d hi mself the cons pirators gathered

b hi m l i Ci i i . a out , and Tu l us mber presented a pet t on i him it An ar mot oned to defer . tony, too dangerous l - i to in i and se f seek ng a man be taken to the consp racy, i li was be ng held in conversation by Treboni us . Tul us i d r o i then se ze Caesa by the t ga . Casca a med a blow hi e i m it at m . Ca sar se zed hi by the arm and stabbed i his w th only weapon , a steel pen . The others crowded s i e e i him round . Cae ar tr ed to run forward . Th n s e ng l n i be r hi s i se f surrou ded w th naked daggers , ar anged sk rt his i to i around legs w th hi s left hand cover h mself , drew o e hi s l o f o f the t ga ov r head , and fe l at the feet the statue ias ru h ad n to him Pompe . B tus been amo g those stab , i i e is e to i and see ng th s , Ca sar report d have excla med Et tu E % , Brute ven you , Brutus as o f An n i It was the fe t na Peren a . Outs de the crowd n in dr to into xi jostled and sa g the street , and ank deep THE CROWN O F GREATNESS 87

’ i s i o f l cat on . In de the thud Caesar s body was fo lowed t o f i e by a tense momen s l nce . Then the assembly at di r fo r i i once spe sed , and the body lay there a l ttle wh le until his slaves laid it o n a litter and carried it to hi s

u ill was . ho se . The w opened later and read He had i t i - e i Pin arius appo n ed three he rs grand n phews , Luc us , i Pedi u s o f his and Qu ntus for a fourth estate , and vi r A Octa an (the futu e ugustus) , whom he also adopted i o his i r to his r nt fam ly, and o dered take name , th ee i s . e h fourths To the Roman p ople he left gardens , and to o f o f i each man a sum money . Many the assass ns i o f an i were named guard ans y son he m ght have , and , ll i i o f a i . most pathet c , Dec mus Brutus was a second he r i i When , a few days later, the body was carr ed nto the i wh o it Forum , the b er was fired by the mob , , as soon as i i i i o n to t. was al ght , heaped fuel The veteran leg onar es flung their armour into the fire and many women their i m o b i ornaments . In the exc tement the ran w th to o f i torches the houses Brutus and Cass us , and were ri off i di f r d ven w th ficulty , and they mu dered a man i whom they took for o ne o f the consp rators . The and i o f did floodgates were opened , the t de blood not l hi i h ad fa l for t rteen years , when what the consp rators i i i to in i sla n Caesar for emerged as the nev table , ma ta n ’ its hold o n the world s civilisation for several centuri es . On thi s strange and mo vi ng background o f his time some picture o f the great Caesar has been growing little i all i to is to dr by l ttle , and that rema ns for me do aw attention to some o f the features which go to make up e mi that ever memorable charact r . Mommsen has ad rably pointe d o u t the absence in Caesar o f what may be called i i i i t i i i in d st ngu sh ng charac er st cs , wh ch are , fact , but i o f i i the ev dences mperfect on . Of all the greatest men it may be said

th e el em ents ( were) S o m ixed in h im that Natu re might stand u p And ’ 1 say to all th e wo rld This was a m an.

1 It is strange that S hake speare should have inaptly chose n this e r fo r - a r pan gy ic so ill bal nced an enthusiast as B utus . 88 JULIUS CAE SAR

In Cae sar thi s is so conspicuous as to in duce a certain bewilderment and powerlessness to sum up the characte r hi i w ch nature had so subtly, sanely, and symmetr cally l anned . Yet will there always be a class o f critic who can ul i hi s li lif is co n find fa t w th Caesar , so far as pub c e E i i cerned . ven Mommsen cannot res st the temptat on to point o u t that according to the same law o f nature in virtue o f which the smallest organism infini tely i i hin i i surpasses the most art st c mac e , every const tut on , i hi i to however defect ve , w ch g ves play the free self min i o f i o f i i infini e deter at on a major ty c t zens , t ly sur i i i ” 1 passes the most br ll ant and humane absolut sm . And thi s same weapon has been used in a vari ety o f ways i i io aga ns t hi s work . But such a cons derat n would not 2 i ac i have troubled Caesar . He was a real st and a pr t cal u in i statesman through and thro gh , and no ev l that confronted h im di d he for a moment hesitate between ‘ the small improvement that he certainly could carry o u t i e i im , and the d al renovat on he knew would be i hi e in is rs i poss ble to ac ve . Thus h wa he w sely left i s hi e . the Rh ne as boundary, and halt d at the Thames Is there any need to labour this point It cannot be doubted that if he had restored the republican govern i its ment , e ther he would have been ousted from control in favour o f others who would merely have repeate d hi o r i in past story, he would have rema ned control , but constantly pullin g against a senate composed o f ri i in the worst mate als . In th s case he could never, did his in i . short stay the cap tal , have wrought what he e i i o f If he had wholly chang d the const tut on the senate , the ide alist would still object that he broke wi th a long i and honourable past . The ult mate test then must be

1 ’ M H t r th R v e is or o Rome E e e . omms n s y f , nglish t anslation , by

W. P . D . C . ix. ickson, Book v hap 2 No statesman of any power has ev er allow ed himself to be d ffere shackl ed by such a consideration . S uch obviously i nt type s Per e Cr e are o ne e e e as icl s and omw ll , at l ast , in this ; and v n Mr er r S a re e e e h e . B na d haw is in implicit g m nt wh n holds that a bene factor should not give th e people what the y want but what th ey ought to want . THE CROWN O F GR EATNESS 89 o ur i di d it is to e valuat on of what he , and unjust accus him o f i o f e in hi s the s ns remot successors office , for u hi s i di e he very caref lly chose mme ate succ ssor , and might reasonably hope that Octavian woul d exercise a i r i li inl di d l ke ca e w th a ke success . He certa y much to e r lif ri cl anse the tone of mo al e , he checked paupe sm , e i o f i i som what controlled the ev ls cap tal sm , i i i ns hi i i i i n t ated the mea by w ch c v l sat on , such as he k it mi r r E ir . new , ght be sp ead th oughout the mp e On e i i e o f o f the oth r hand he k lled the l b rty a host men , th e e o f e in i e to many of b st whom , aft r be g adm tt d the n o f ie dl i i i him charm and frank ess fr n y nt macy w th , were capable o f the extraordinary treachery and supreme l o f i m fol y assassin at ng hi . Caesar was a man who onl y deserved such a fate by s r i ul hi g eatness not that he was w thout fa t. He was un - i l - a l - e a ro d l mbed , fu l f ced , ful blood d man , who for 1 hi s if e the most part of l e enjoy d good health . He was ir e th e uln o f his i almost t el ss , and f ess l fe was not i fi As always turned nto unsel sh channels . a young ul i i his ri man he was tra fash onable . W th finely t mmed i hl i hi s fl wris ha r and smoot y shaven face , w th ruf ed ts - ir i hi s e and loosely g t toga , w th bold black ey s and

i e th e i o f i . easy graceful carr ag , he was deal man fash on He was expert in the manl y accomplishments o f the i i e i t me a fac le fencer, a good hors man , and a sw mmer o f such power that even when over fifty he saved hi s i i i in Ni Hi s con l fe by sw mm ng the le . manners and versation were easy and charmi ng ; he was a born o f — Po m eiu s r hi s h r ruler men and women . p fea ed c a m r hi s r e mo e than swo d , and ther fore made a gauche i i i an i e ie excuse at Brund s um to avo d nt rv w. Doubtless ” ir Th e in hi s e if . he had many affa s , even lat r l e morals o f the time were wholly rotte n but many o f the i o f hi s are l stor es looseness intrinsical y absurd . He in i e found pleasure the company of cult vated wom n , but could not have been the reckless rou é he has been

1 Any one who knows anything of th e calls which a long cam ’ paign make s upon th e phy sique will consi d er Caesar s wars as ffi e r su ci nt p oof of this . 90 JULIUS CAESAR

hi s represented . He loved and reverenced mother and e i his i daughter, and bore aff ct on for w ves which we have every reason to thi nk in the case o f his first and ’ i ni last was warmly rec procated . Sueto us , who records o f i - most the scandalous t ttle tattle about Caesar, also i hi s i adm ts that he was , after early youth , abstem ous i o f i i w th regard to the use w ne , and a s mple eater, that when all his friends refused a di sh dressed with rancid ’ o il i i f his , he ate heart ly so that he m ght not o fend host s eli i fe ngs , and that he was a t reless worker . These are r u Add not the marks o f a o é. to these that he loved his e and was loved by troops , won and k pt the devoted i ds i i nl i fr en h p of many s mple men , that the o y t me he ever departs from the grave tone in hi s Commentari es - is , when some dee d o f heroism o r self sacrifice is to be it i i di ao recounted , and seems mposs ble to cre t the ri o f i curacy of the sto es the cap tal . He had a great i ni s i i personal , d g ty, and was very sen t ve about the i i o f i o n hi s i th nn ng the ha r head , carefully brush ng the thinning wisps from the crown to hi de the bald spot o n i o f his i i the front, and valu ng above most regal pr v leges that of constantly wearing a laurel wreath whi ch serve d i i o f to h de the s gns age . i i e He was never perturbed . Pass on st mulat d but i i o r ul hi m never ntox cated r ed . It was he who restored es o f ll Po m eiu s - the statu Su a and p to the senate house , wi s i and he ever spoke th respect o f hi great r val . When papers were discovered at Pharsalus incri mi nating numbers o f promin ent men as hi s enemies he promptly u e His i it b rned th m . memory was very retent ve , but — failed when confronted wi th the task to meaner minds — i mi as so inevitably easy o f remember ng ene es . Great ’ o f r had been the revenge Sulla, Caesar s fo bearance and i ei it hi s e ri in forg veness far outw ghed . In Comm nta es , i n ns i hi wh ch he u co c ously reveals mself , though he c s wi i r e i ould present hi cause th v gou and p rsuas veness , he was un able to foll ow the Roman custom o f glorifying r in s hims elf and dispa ag g hi enemy. Of hi s accompli shments something h as already been He i said . was reckoned second only to C cero as an

BIBLIOGRAPH%

’ MR AR DE O WLER S J u lius Caesar u 5s is . W F (P tnam , . ) i o f e the best larger l fe Caesar for the gen ral reader . is i e i re o f i There , at t m s , a sl ght ca lessness deta l , but ’ in i e c o f not mportant matt rs . Mommsen s sket h Caesar The Hi sto r o Ro m e i 1 is v . . xi 868 ( y f , vol . , chap trans . ) S di di is i r i plen d rea ng , but not so mpa t al as Mr . Warde ’ ’ e in i Fowler s work . The chapters d al g w th Caesar s if e r i i i re l e , however, pres nt a mo e v v d p ctu of Rome at ri A r i i r is the pe od . t anslat on of the h sto y now pub ’ lish e d in E i A i i i veryman s L brary . cr t cal but l feless ‘ presentation may be found in the article on J u li u s Cae sar in the last edition o f the Encyclo paedia Bri i c tann a . ’ A translation o f Plutarch s Lives of the No ble Greeks ’ d Ro m ans is i i E i r r an n 3 . publ shed veryman s L b a y, vols , i ’ 1 . o n Lives o the Caesars is e s . each Suet us f translat d ’ ’ in Bo hn s as i i r rie r om Cl s cal L b a s , as also are Caesa s C ’ mentari es A i Histo r r , pp an s y , the lette s and speeches ’ o f i Lu can s Pharsali i is fo r a . C cero , and Th s those r dl who p efer corn to made bread . It need har y be said that it is better to re ad these books in the languages in whi ch they were written but I wri te for the general e e wil n i . read r , the stud nt l k ow how to look after h mself The article o n Roman history in the last edition of th e Enc clo aedia Britannica i y p wh ch , so far as I can see , ’ is O u tlines o Roman Hi stor is Professor Pelham s f y , a useful summary. INDE%

A ES A e e 59 1 9 24 25 e 63 L I , si g of, with , , , ; d ath of, ; A e re 1 0 S r i f e 42 62 lli s , Italian, volt of, y ia g t d to , , ’

A M r 67 69 7 3 7 5 Cr P . C e ar s ie e ntony, a k, , , , assus , , a s l ut nant, Ar e er er 41 42 43 44 iovistus , l ad of G man , , , r e 35 36 t ib s , , A C e r 83 87 DI V I T I ACUS e er th e ugustus a sa , , , l ad of ’ A re C e ar er 2 1 2 3 Haed u i 35 38 39 u lia, a s s moth , , , , , ,

63, 90 h ci se GA C W r t e 0 . LLI a s , , 3 q ’ BE GE C e r war th e G e C e r 28 L , a sa s with , aul , allott d to a sa , ; 37—41 re 58 re e r e 52—6 2 volt of , b llion of t ib s in , 26 2 7 70 er r e e e e Bibulus, , , G man t ib s , d f at d by Dea e 23 C e r 35—36 o f Bona , f ast of , a sa , invasion ’ r C e r 47 R r e 45 B itain , a sa s invasion of , , oman p ovinc s by , ’ 50 Gni h o C e r r 8 p , a sa s tuto , ’ r C e r e r B itons , a sa s d sc iption of, 5 —51 HAE DUI th e 34 35 58 0 , , , , Br De e er flee Hel vetii th e e e e C e r utus , cimus, l ad of t , , , d f at d by a sa , - 43, 69, 86 , 87 31 35 Br M r r utus , a cus, conspi acy C e r 85 TA A Al e e n r e against a sa , I LI N li s , f anchis e t 1 m n of, 0 CA AR th e R 83 LEND , oman , ’ C C. ir J U A C e r er 1 1 62 assius, , consp acy against LI , a sa s daught , , ’ ’ C e r 84 85 J M r e C e r a sa , , ulia , a ius wif , a sa s C L S 7 5 er r 1 6 assius onginus, in pain, , fun al o ation on , 7 6 J C e r r er 8 ulius a sa , cha act of, . Cassivela u nu s r e 51 1 3 1 5 26 44 62 87—92 , B itish chi f , , , , , , , ; e r e e 8 a ly lif and ducation , , C e r th e 2 1 1 2 1 3 r r n atalin conspi acy , , , ; milita y t aini g in C 22 26 2 8 29 7 5 7 6 7 8 th e E 1 2 rr e 1 1 ato , , , , , , , ast , ; ma iag s , ,

C er 2 0 22 26 29 91 2 3 e r ca u se . ic o , , , , , ; spousal of popula C 1 0 1 1 1 5 1 6 2 9 e e e e r inna, , , , l ct d s nato , C e r 74 1 6 fir G 1 7 l opat a , ; st visit to aul , ; Cl o d iu s 23 24 29 7 9 64 ex end itu re d ebts r er , , , , , p , and b ib y , ’ C r e C e r e 9 1 1 1 6 1 9 2 1 2 4 78 e o n lia, a sa s wif , , , , , . ; appoint d r th e 1 4 1 5 r e e e 1 9 e e e d C assus, capitalist , , , cu ul a dil , ; l ct ’ 21 30 C e ar ex x 2 1 24 1 9, , ; a s s coalition pontif ma imus , , ; 94 INDE%

e e e r e r 21 23 r r M l R e 1 3 l ct d p a to , , ; ival y i o of hod s , Po m eiu s 20 23 63 Mith radates war 1 0 1 8 with p , , , , , against, , 6 al Pom ei u s 6 ; co ition with p , 2 4 e e e 2 5 26 NERV th e 39 R ma e ; l ct d consul , , ; II , , o n l gions d em o c rati c m eas u res a s c o ns ul ar e 53 , h ass d by , 26 2 7 28 G e , , ; aul allott d to , 2 8 63 G r 30 PART H A r th e 84 85 , ; allic wa s , ; I N wa s , , , He e e e e 31 —35 Ph arnac es S r r er 4 lv tii d f at d by , ; , y ian ul , 7 G er r e e ea e P r e 7 2 7 3 man t ib s d f t d by , ha salus, battl of , , 37—41 e e P r e Me err e 1 3 1 8 ; coast stat s subdu d i at s , dit an an , , 42 erm P e a 1 8 by , ; invasion of G an omp i s , as consul , ; ’ t r e re e e 46 C e ar r r 20 23 ib s p ll d , ; invasion a s s ival y with , , , ’ o f r 47 50 G l 30 63 C e r B itain by , , ; al ic , a sa s coalition with , e e e e 52-62 25 S r e l e s ttl m nts subdu d , panish p ovinc s a lott d r th e R 66 42 63 a r en e c ossing of ubicon , , to , , ; dict to of s at , ’ pu rsuit of Po m pei u s s le gions 64 ; S panish l egions conqu e re d i n S 68 war Po m C e r 68 69—70 r e pain , ; with by a sa , , ; pu su d e S r E 63 C e r th e E 1 d e p g , , b , 7 ius in y i—a and ypt y a sa in ast 64 65 66 74 e e o f e a t e P r 7 3 , , ; d f at f at battl of ha salus, ’

S r A r 7 5 Proc ill u s C . re e cipio s a my in f ica , ; , , scu of , 36 r S e 7 6 ising in pain subdu d , , 7 7 r s re e RO MA E re th e 7 ; dictato and up m N mpi , , r er R e 7 7 7 9 80 : R e r er e 9 ul of om— , , , law om , o d s and class s in , ; re r 81 83 1 0 7 7 fo ms , assassination , , 86 87 erar r R r n th e 66 his will , lit y wo k , ubicon , c ossi g of ,

30, 91 S C P O 64 65 7 2 I I , , , , 7 5 LABI ENUS 2 1 24 37 40 S e War th e 1 4 , , , , , lav , , 50 7 1 7 5 7 7 S e er e e 1 0 l l 1 2 , , , ulla , l ad of s nat , , , L 27 S R 1 0 1 1 and bills , ulpicius ufus , , L e re are aws , syst—m p p d C e ar 82 83 TE TH Le th e 40 48 49 a s , N gion , , , , , Le M r 1 3 7 3 84 pidus , a cus , , L C e r 42 62 Tr r e th e fir 35 62 ucca , a sa at , , iumvi at , st , ,

AR US 7 8 1 1 1 6 20 VENE T th e 2 M I , , , , , I , , 4

M r A 67 69 7 3 75 Ver e r x. 57 58 61 a k ntony , , , , cing to i , ,

Pri ed b BAL ANT% E HA SON ér’ Co nt y L N , N . Edinburgh 69° London T HE PE O PLE ’S BO O % S

m i l l anned an A w o nd erfu l enterpris e , ad rab y p , d ” — Th e Na ti o n . d es e rvi ng th e h igh es t s u cc e s s .

T HE FI RS T DO% E N VOLUM E S

BO T AN : T HE MO DERN S T UD O F P LANT S . 5. Y Y

. L . M C. STO P S D . so . Ph . D . F S . By . E , , , ’ A d er r its won ful multum in pa vo , and cannot fail , by lucidity and e e e x e th e re er e r c o nce pl asant m thod of position , to giv ad not only a cl a p t th e e e e e re fo r er ion of sci nc o—f botany as a whol , but also a d si full know . otes a n u eri s ledge o f plant life N d Q e .

WA S O c . ERED T . B . A. S . T B. S 1 0 . H I Y y J N , A r e r e e e r h e t e ccu at , and w itt n in a simpl—mann whic will stimulat hos er re . A t/zen e u m who are interested to W id ading .

1 2 AN C C EM S T R . Pr fe r . . CO H . R O G I H I Y By o sso J B EN ,

. . F . R. B S c , S . An e xcellently clear and e fficient treatise on a subj ect not easily co n — Al a na/tester G u a d fi e t r o r e r e . l e r i an . n d wi hin a. sho t unt chnical discou s

N RM T HE PR N PLE F E E R T . O A 1 3. I CI S O L CT I CI Y By N

M . R . AMPB A. C ELL ,

' ' As for M r N r C e re e ‘ in e I . o man ampb ll s t atis p tto cannot but think e i ts He e ex t fo r r e —S zm d a it a mod l of kind . tak s n t to no hing g ant d. y

. W 1 . HE C E N E O F T HE T ARS . B E . MAU ER 5 T S I C S y ND , th e R O er r ree of oyal bs vato y, G nwich . Will convey to th e attentive reader an enormous amount of informa e e e r a nd re rre e e tion in a small spac , b ing cl a ab ast of cu nt knowl dg . T A tlwnceu m /ze . NR T 2 6 . H E I BE R G S O N : HE P H I L O S O P H Y O F

W A . C A E H . O C RR H NG . By ILD N ’ Th e M Ber h a s re th e r - ee M r C rr fact that . gson ad p oof sh ts of . a s admirable survey W lll give it a certain authoritativeness fo r th e general ” - re er. D a i 1 New s ad y .

MA T M . . . O % O Pref 2 . RO N CA O L C S C . e 3 H I I By H B N ac ,

r R H . S O . Mg . . BEN N T his small book is o ne which cannot fail to be of u se to those who d e re to C t and e — a t 4 e e . T/ze C /1 0 1 7: si know what a holics do , do not , b li v

’ N . E . A MA B O M . . R E F c r s . 39 Y QU EN O s o y EILL ,

' ’ M r Nei l M S te s . O l o n r ee S e , a y Q u n of cots . is pl ndid ; it is an at mpt to give th e ve ry truth about a subj ect on which all feel interest a nd most be ree —D ai l e ress f ly . y xp . W M EN’ O S S RA E . B M . U . AW . C TT LL . D 47 FF G y G F E , . ' M r e r c e - s. Fawc tt s admi ably oncis and fai r minded his to rical sketch of ' th r e e ge e e . W e r fo r bet er wom n s suff a mov m nt— could ha dly ask a t sum r O f e e r e . D a z l News ma y v nts and p osp cts y .

A% E P EARE . Pr fe 1 . S S r C. . R FO R Lit D . 5 H By o sso H HE D , t. ' W ell worth a place alongside Professor Raleigh s book in th e English 0 l en Le er . S e e and re W e f r of tt s ts a high not tains it ithout f o t. gésen /er . — P RE O LD A C O CE F . 53. U G H I O LYRI CS AND S O N ’

H . T . C O N NE S . By EILL . An anthology of good poetry such as we might e xpe ct from a man of % ' — News a e D a z / . t st . y

DA E . A. . RR RS O W 57 . NT By G FE E H ELL .

I t fine e e c ar be re an o ne i is a pi c of s hol ship , and should ad by y who s e th e O f D e o r ee o ne wh o tere e e e r b ginning study ant , ind d any is in st d g n ally i n th e ear r c e E r e ter re fo r th e r c es e re ly p o ss of u op an li atu , p o s is h admi t ' T/ze M a nch ester G u a ra za n. ably analysed.

T HE S E CO ND DO% E N V OLUM E S ( Ready)

A N E E ND T O S F S C NCE . W H O U O . 1 . T C D F I I By . .

A . F . R . HAM M . WHET , , S .

I E M R . Pr fe r E . C . 1 1 . IN G N C C I S T C. AL% %% £ H Y By o sso B , D D AT . P. PH PS . so . 1 . RA O N 4 I I By ILLI ,

. M A. D . 2 2 L RD % E LV N. A R USS . so . . O I By ELL , , , f M % LE . B Pr e r . L GH TO . D . 2 3. H U Y y o sso G EI N , E H W . T HE RO W T O F R E DO M . . N V S O . 36 . G H F By E IN N UL US CAE S AR : S O L D E R S T AT E S MAN E M 41 . J I I , , HAR H AR% G . P E RO R. By IL DIN E

E M r L IN HE DDLE A S . AND T M s. E E NG I G By . ’

N M . A. O EILL,

RANC S BACO N. Pr fe r A. R . S % M P M . A. 54. F I By o sso E ,

T HE BRO NT ES . M O RA MASSO . 53. By iss FL N

A D CT O NAR O F S NO N M S . AUS T % . 60 . I I Y Y Y By IN

GR A% , B A.

R MO O WAR . O M E RULE . L . G . 6 1 . H By ED ND H D

fiel List qf ot/zer Vol u m es i n P reparati on m ay be d .

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