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The Impact of Censorship on the Translation and Publication of Virginia Woolf in Italy in the 1930S

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The Impact of Censorship on the Translation and Publication of Virginia Woolf in Italy in the 1930S THE IMPACT OF CENSORSHIP ON THE TRANSLATION AND PUBLICATION OF VIRGINIA WOOLF IN ITALY IN THE 1930S Anna Maria Cipriani* University College London ABSTRACT: Defined as “the decade of translations”, the 1930s saw the publication of Virginia Woolf’s novels Orlando, Flush, and To the lighthouse in Italian. In the cultural and political context of Fascism, this is unexpected, given the peculiarities of Woolf’s experimental prose. Italian literary criticism was firmly founded on a normative anti-modernist canon, supported By Both the Catholic Church, which decried modernism and excommunicated some modernist writers, and by the literary movement led By the anti-Fascist and liberal philosopher Benedetto Croce. This de facto intellectual dictatorship complemented the official cultural policy of the Fascist regime By generating another dimension of censorship that invariably affected the puBlication of periodicals and books. The present work focuses on the effects of this triple (political, moral, and literary) censorship on the first translation of To the lighthouse. KEYWORDS: Translation Censorship, Domestication, Cultural Policy, Modernism, Aesthetics, Close Reading 1. Introduction This article aims to demonstrate how the first Italian translation of the “modernist” novel To the lighthouse, produced by Giulia Celenza in 1934 under the Fascist dictatorship, was affected by an interplay of three different types of censorship. The first derived from the de facto “idealistic or intellectual dictatorship” (Coli, 1982, pp. 236-237; Ruberto, 2019) or cultural influence (Gramsci, [1926-1930] 1966; [1932] 2014, pp. 213-215) of the liberal philosophy of Benedetto Croce (1902), who advocated classicism and the art of bello scrivere [“beautiful writing”]1 under traditional aesthetic principles of poetry.2 The second type of censorship came from the ex-communication of the “modernist” movement by the Catholic Church in 1908. The third type was the political censorship introduced under the Fascist cultural policy banning the cultural “foreignisation” of translated texts. It is argued here that these three independent but equally imposing types of “censorship” converged in the defence of national literary norms and against any forms of modernism. The present study shows how the first translation of the novel was highly “domesticated” in its literary and linguistic style. Critics have generally pointed to the openness of Italian culture to foreign literature. Cattaneo (2007, p. 17) notes that it was precisely under the Fascist regime that English literature was introduced into Italy in the form of original texts, translations, reviews, * [email protected] 1 All the English translations in square brackets are made by the author of this article. 2 Gramsci ([1926-1930] 1966, p. 153) defines Croce as “a world leader [whose function] could be compared with that of the Catholic Pope (…). The last edition of Encyclopædia Britannica commissioned the entry term ‘Aesthetics’ to Croce”. Similarly, the literary critic Cecchi ([1947] 1964, p. 131) declared “Né sono possibili dubbi che, sul pensiero e la cultura d’ogni paese civile, l’opera del Croce esercitò incalcolabili influssi” [“Neither can there be any doubts about Croce’s inestimable influence on the thought and culture of every civilised country.”]. 83 Cipriani, A. M. – The impact of censorship on the translation and publication (...) Translation Matters, 2(2), 2020, pp. 83-96, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21747/21844585/tm2_2a5 manuals and bibliographies, while Elisa Bolchi (2010, p. 199) claims: “Even though Fascism was a harsh and patriarchal dictatorship notorious for its strong nationalism, raised barriers and censored press, there were forums in Fascist Italy where Italian and foreign literatures could be published, read, and discussed”. In fact, during the 1930s, a period later labelled by Cesare Pavese (1951, p. 223) as “the decade of translations”, the Italian publishing market experienced an unusual flood of translations (Carducci, 1973, p. 23; Rundle, 2010a, p. 2, 2010b, p. 15). With so many translations circulating in the country, readers had the chance to encounter many classic and contemporary authors from abroad. Antonio Gramsci (cited in Fernandez, 1969, p. 14) and Cattaneo (2007, p. 46) have observed how paradoxical it was that the Fascist cultural policy in literature and arts effectively brought the nation under the hegemony of foreigners. Although the dictatorial regime never actually encouraged translations, Italian versions of foreign literary works outnumbered domestic products translated into other languages and published abroad. This meant that the country failed to achieve one of the regime’s aims of becoming a net cultural exporter (Billiani, 2007, pp. 138-160; 2020, p. 42; Ferme, 2002, p. 39; Rundle, 2000, pp. 72-74; 2010a, p. 3). According to Ferme (2002, pp. 210-211) and Rundle (2010a, pp. 55-66), the resulting position of the country as a net cultural importer was partly due to an earlier ambiguity on the part of the regime. It had initially considered foreign literature to be a source of innovation and an instrument of cultural exchange, but then gradually began to fear the subversive power of translation and could not refrain from enforcing censorship to defend national identity. What started as “silent tolerance” later became “an active hostility towards translations conceived much more as an idea than as an activity itself” (Taronna, 2018, p. 83). The “translation invasion” was not perceived until 1929, when the publisher Mondadori inaugurated the first low-cost series of detective stories initially distributed by newsagents (Rundle, 2010b, p. 23). This innovative way of selling translated books successfully spread across the country, paving the way for a long list of novels and literary works in general. Among the so-called libri gialli [“yellow books”] – “detective stories” initially published in Italy with yellow covers – were translations of Agatha Christie’s novels, whose immediate popularity became a cause for concern, leading to their being subject to censorship (Ferme, 2002, p. 50). The large number of inexpensive translations circulating in Italy during the 1930s increased publishers’ profits significantly. “Escapist fiction”, mainly comprising adventure and romantic novels or detective stories depicting a world away from the monotonous life of farmers and workers, was not generally opposed by the regime. Some publishers, such as Mondadori, Einaudi, and Bompiani, as well as translators, were engaged in a subtle cultural battle to allow the country to stay in touch with contemporary European and American experiences (Billiani, 2007; 2020, p. 63; Nottola, 2010, p. 178; Rundle, 1999, p. 427). For Rubino (2010, p. 150): 84 Cipriani, A. M. – The impact of censorship on the translation and publication (...) Translation Matters, 2(2), 2020, pp. 83-96, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21747/21844585/tm2_2a5 (…) 1929 was the year that saw the real launch of the new puBlishing strategy, with the appearance of three new series of foreign literature: “Scrittori di tutto il mondo” [“Writers of the world”], directed by Gian Dàuli on behalf of the Milanese publisher Modernissima, “Narratori nordici” [“Northern Narrators”], edited by Lavinia Mazzucchetti for Sperling & Kupfer, Milan, and “I romanzi della vita moderna” [“Novels of Modern Life”] puBlished By Bemporad, Florence. Translators played an essential role in selecting texts and deciding how to translate them. Many authors, notably Pavese, Montale, Cecchi, and Vittorini, translated books with a slant that often did not conform to Fascist ideology. Vittorini, in particular, was one of the most politically engaged intellectuals working against the regime, and his anthology of translated American authors, Americana, fell foul of the censors.3 However, in such a context, evaluating the impact of the censorship policy is not a simple task. There were other cultural, social, and historical factors in operation which often imposed a form of self- censorship upon literary translators before the works even reached the official censors. The first Italian translation of Virginia Woolf’s To the lighthouse (1927) by Giulia Celenza, published by Fratelli Treves Editori in 1934 under the title Gita al faro [“Excursion to the lighthouse”], is a typical case in point. The present study identifies certain stylistic features in the translation that are considered to represent a compromise between the demands of the foreign text and the need for cultural protectionism. Before embarking on this case study, however, let us briefly examine the role of periodicals in diffusing translated foreign literature under censorship, and the impact of historical and cultural factors on the censorship of literary translations. 2. Periodical and book publishing in Fascist Italy The twentieth century was defined by Langella (1982, p. 3) as “the century of periodicals” due to the hundreds of such publications on the market. Indeed, periodicals became the preferred channel of a militant culture, an instrument of communication and a new place for the production and distribution of cultural products. Many literary journals did not have any link with the regime, and in the thirties, represented important fora for discussions about foreign writers. Authors and translators were able to take part in the dissemination of international culture against national provincialism. The surveillance and censorship implemented by the regime did not prevent either the emergence
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