University of Cambridge Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages Popular Magazines in Fascist Italy, 1934 – 1943 A dissertation submitted by Manuela Di Franco Sidney Sussex College For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) April 2018 The dissertation examines the field of popular magazines in 1930s Italy, by first examining the broad field of magazine production under Fascism and then undertaking three case studies of individual magazines – L’Avventuroso (1934 – 1943), Omnibus (1937 – 1939), and Grazia (1938 –) – in order to build an in-depth analysis of the production, format and reception of the popular press in this period. In the interwar years, and in particular from 1934 onwards, innovative printing techniques and production methods transformed the periodical press worldwide. The emergence of new forms of illustrated magazines expanded the readership and started a process of standardisation and mass production of periodicals. The dissemination in Italy of the rotocalco, a new product aimed at the masses that was developed in the 1930s, offers a particularly interesting starting point for analysing the development of a modern Italian mass press and culture within the peculiar dynamics of a controlling Fascist regime and the mixed national and international forces that shaped it. Modern Italian magazines developed in dialogue with foreign industries, imitating models from abroad and adapting them to the Italian culture. The development of popular press in the 1930s represented a challenge for the Fascist regime, which approached it both as a threat and an opportunity to shape Italian popular culture. Through the analysis of three case studies, each from a key sector of popular press – comics, general cultural magazines, and women's magazines – and each produced by one of the three main publishing companies in the field – Nerbini, Rizzoli, and Mondadori – the dissertation aims to provide a detailed picture of the development of mass print culture in Italy during Fascism. The analysis provides examples of the impact of and cracks in Fascist censorship and cultural autarchy on the periodical press and argues that the Italian popular press developed in dialogue with European and American culture, which influenced both the form and content of rotocalchi, reinterpreting and adapting these models to Italian standards and to the constrictions of Fascist control. Cambridge, 5 April 2018 This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. All images have been redacted from this version for copyright reasons. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I started the PhD I had no idea what a life-changing experience it would become. Although my name is the only one on the cover of this thesis, there are many people without whom this project would have never been possible. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof Robert Gordon, for his guidance. Without his precious advice and constant encouragement, I would have never completed the thesis. His support has been invaluable, and I am grateful for his patience in reading (and editing) my countless drafts. I would also like to thank Dr Bianca Gaudenzi for her support and advice; Dr Francesca Billiani, for her invaluable suggestions; and Dr Pierpaolo Antonello for reading the longest chapter of my thesis and give me feedback at the end of my first year. The structure of the thesis would have not been the same without their suggestions. A special thanks goes to Prof Guido Bonsaver and Prof Stephen Gundle, who patiently read my dissertation and gave me a chance to discuss my work during the viva. Sharing my views with such experts in the field has been an invaluable opportunity, and I am grateful for their extensive feedback on my work. The Italian Department has been incredibly supportive, and its stimulating environment contributed to broaden my approach to research. Thanks to the department I also met wonderful people with whom I shared the ups and downs of the PhD, and I would particularly like to thank Alessandra, Daniele, Sara, and Nicolò. Sidney Sussex College supported me in the past few years in any possible way, from contributing to fund my research expenses to offering me the best possible accommodation. In particular, I would like to thank Dr Berry Groisman for his help and patience during tough times. Sidney’s incredible community has been a central part of my life in Cambridge, and I am grateful to have been part of it. I have met incredible people and made good friends who supported me and made me laugh when I needed it the most. There are so many people from Sidney Sussex I would like to thank for being part of my life that my acknowledgments would be endless, but I would particularly like to thank Arathi Ramachandran, Rachel McCallister, Arjun Sharath, William Fotherby (and his incredible wife Erin Dillon), and the Herne Lodge Crew – the best housemates I ever had. A special thanks goes to my friend and former housemate Dr Sam Ottewill-Soulsby, who patiently proofread my thesis. Last but not least, I would like to thank Romilde Kotzé, for encouraging me when I wanted to give up and supporting me all the way through this PhD. Part of the research for this thesis has been carried out in Italy, and I am grateful for all the help I received during my archival research from the archivists of the Archivio Centrale dello Stato and the Biblioteca di Storia Moderna e Contemporanea in Rome, the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Florence, and the Fondazione Mondadori in Milan. Finally, I would like to thank my family for supporting and believing in me. A special thanks goes to my niece Alice, whose first smile put my PhD struggles into perspective. Popular Magazines in Fascist Italy, 1934 – 1943 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 I. THE FASCIST REGIME, CULTURE AND THE PERIODICAL PRESS 9 1.1 From the Ufficio stampa to the Ministero della Cultura Popolare 17 1.2 The Minculpop and cultura popolare 23 2. The popular illustrated press and the rotocalchi revolution 29 2.1 The evolution of the mass press in Europe: illustrated weeklies in the interwar years 31 2.2 Mondadori, Rizzoli, and Nerbini 35 2.3 Printing rotocalchi under the Fascist regime 38 3. Fascist Italy and the perception of ‘America’ as a myth, a model, and a threat 44 3.1 The illustrated popular press, a model from America? 54 4. Conclusion 58 II. SPREADING A NEW IMMAGINARIO: L’AVVENTUROSO (1934 – 1943) 60 1. Introduction 60 1.1 American comics 63 2. The development of a modern Italian fumetto and the Fascist Regime 65 2.1 Il fumetto 66 i 2.2 The rise of adventure comics and the Fascist Regime (1925 - 1938) 67 2.3 Autarchic comics (1938 - 1942) 73 3. Adventure comics and entertainment: L’Avventuroso 76 3.1 Nerbini and the creation of L’Avventuroso 76 3.2 The golden age of American comics in L’Avventuroso and Fascist censorship, 1934 – 1942 78 3.3 L’Avventuroso and the image of women 96 3.4 Italian and American comics in L’Avventuroso – four key stories 99 4. Conclusion 105 III. THE FIRST ITALIAN ROTOCALCO: OMNIBUS (1937 – 1939) 108 1. Leo Longanesi and the creation of Omnibus 108 1.1 A wide network – Omnibus and the influence of French, German and American magazines 113 1.2 ‘È l’ora delle immagini’ 118 2. Omnibus on literature and cinema 123 2.1 Page 10, serialised novels and short stories 124 2.2 ‘Giorno e notte’ 129 2.3 Omnibus’ ambivalent images of America 137 3. Conclusion 139 ii IV. AN IDEAL MAGAZINE FOR THE IDEAL WOMAN. GRAZIA (1938 – 1943) 142 1. Introduction 142 1.1 The Italian women’s rotocalchi and the Fascist regime 142 1.2 Women and the Fascist regime: the donna nuova 147 2. Grazia between marketing, ideology and modernity 150 2.1 November 1938: the launch of Grazia 150 2.2 Grazia and the Fascist regime 157 2.3 Grazia’s first issue: 10 November 1938 159 2.4 The everyday woman 161 2.5 The good wife: ‘Vivere in due’ 165 2.6 Grazia’s advice 170 3. Conclusion 179 CONCLUSION 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY 184 iii iv INTRODUCTION This dissertation examines the development of mass print culture in Italy during Fascism, focussing on the second half of the 1930s, and on the presence and influence of foreign models. One of the aims of the dissertation is to show how, in spite of the presence of a centralised system of state control over cultural production, foreign models influenced the development of popular press in the Fascist era. In particular, the analysis of 1930s popular magazines is revealing of the presence of a constant dialogue between Italian and foreign cultures, including French, German, and particularly American models.1 Through the analysis of three magazines chosen as case studies – L’Avventuroso, Omnibus, and Grazia – the dissertation aims to provide the first in-depth study of the popular illustrated press in the Fascist era, putting together a range of different sectors and concentrating on both the influence of foreign culture and the impact of the Fascist censorship and cultural autarchy.