Draft: The German government’s Environmental Report 2019

(Environmental Status Report pursuant to Section 11 of the Environmental Information Act)

Environment and nature – the basis of social cohesion

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Table of contents

Table of contents ...... 2

Introduction: The integrity of nature and the environment as a basis for freedom, democracy and social cohesion ...... 5

A. Protecting the natural resources that sustain life ...... 21

A.1 Water ...... 21

A.1.1 Management of inland and coastal waters ...... 21

A.1.2 Living by water – flood control ...... 29

A.1.3 Fracking ...... 31

A.1.4 Marine conservation and fisheries ...... 32

A.1.5 International cooperation and global water protection policy ...... 37

A.2 Soil ...... 41

A.2.1 Soil protection and contaminated sites ...... 41

A.2.2 Use of undeveloped land for settlement and transport – land take ...... 47

A.3 Air ...... 53

A.4 Biodiversity ...... 61

A.4.1 Protecting species, habitats and genetic resources ...... 66

A.4.2 Sustainable use ...... 74

A.4.3 International biodiversity policy ...... 87

B. Climate change, climate action and the energy transition ...... 90

B.1 Climate change ...... 90

B.1.1 Climate – a life-sustaining natural resource ...... 90

B.1.2 The current status of global climate change ...... 90

B.2 Climate action ...... 91

B.2.1 Emissions trends in Germany ...... 92

B.2.2 Measures implemented at federal level ...... 95

2 von 301 | www.bmu.de B.2.3 European and international climate policy ...... 113

B.3 Climate change adaptation ...... 120

B.3.1 Climatic changes and impacts ...... 120

B.3.2 The German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (DAS) ...... 124

B.3.3 From research to implementation – the German government’s measures for adaptation to the impacts of climate change ...... 126

C. The environment and the economy ...... 131

C.1 The green economy – towards a sustainable financial and economic system ...... 131

C.2 Resource-efficient business practices ...... 141

C.3 Sustainable production and consumption ...... 151

C.4 The circular economy ...... 162

C.5 Sustainable urban development ...... 180

C.6 Leisure, tourism and sport ...... 194

D. The environment and transport ...... 198

D.1 Rethinking and reorganising mobility ...... 201

D.2 Reducing energy consumption and emissions ...... 214

D.3 Renewable energies in transport and alternative drives ...... 223

E. Environmental quality and health ...... 228

E.1 Environmental quality, safety and health ...... 228

E.2 Sustainable chemistry and SAICM ...... 247

F. Legal foundations for environmental protection and international agreements, treaties and alliances ...... 251

F.1 Legal instruments for environmental protection ...... 251

F.2 European and international initiatives and alliances ...... 255

G. The environment and the public ...... 271

G.1 Citizen participation and public dialogue ...... 271

G.2 Environmental education and communication ...... 281

G.3 Environmental and sustainability research – a sound scientific foundation for environmental protection ...... 291

H. Outlook: Environment and nature – the basis of social cohesion ...... 294

3 von 301 | www.bmu.de I. List of abbreviations ...... 298

4 von 301 | www.bmu.de Introduction: The integrity of nature and the environment as a basis for freedom, democracy and social cohesion

If we are to tackle poverty and enable people to live in peace, freedom, democracy and dignity, we must ensure that the integrity of nature and the environment is maintained and that the natural resources that sustain life and underpin sustainable development are safeguarded. Environmental policy is committed to implementation of the 2030 Agenda and has the task of preserving the Earth’s natural resources for present and future generations. The carrying capacity of our planet and its ecosystems is the absolute boundary within which our policy objectives must be realised.

This task encompasses, among other things, the protection of water, soil, air, nature and the climate, as well as issues such as noise control, and is an essential element of the process of transformation and restructuring which the international community has pledged to undertake by adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

In its environmental policy, the German government takes an integrated approach: that is, it is aware of its responsibility to consider how policies impact on society and the economy and actively uses this awareness.

In this integrated approach, environmental policy:

• ensures people’s wellbeing with regard to health, food security and safeguarding the scope to organise social relations and cohesion, • identifies the costs arising from human action and consumption that the community incurs in the form of climate change, loss of biodiversity, land take, soil acidification, air pollution or overuse of water and, in dialogue with the key social stakeholders, devises ways of avoiding these costs, • promotes the development of technical and social innovations to tackle the environmental problems and steer the transformation, • provides opportunities for dialogue and participation. Processes of social change pose a major challenge for everyone involved. Active engagement with the different points of view and invitations to participate in the dialogue can help in identifying new solutions and new ways of advancing the necessary transformation process.

Germany is pursuing this path against the backdrop of the remarkable success of its environmental policy. Action to protect the environment commenced in the early 1970s, when the problems that needed addressing included summer and winter smog and polluted soil and water. Since then, high levels of protection have been achieved in many areas in

5 von 301 | www.bmu.de relation to both the environment and health. Then as now, a high level of environmental awareness in Germany has been an important factor. The public is broadly supportive of ambitious environmental policies with effective environmental legislation and duly authorised administrative bodies.

However, what has been achieved so far gives no grounds for complacency but must spur us on: both nationally and internationally, society faces immense challenges on account of climate change, biodiversity loss, air pollution on busy roads, environmental inputs of reactive nitrogen compounds, microplastics and the overuse of natural and non-renewable resources.

Environmental policy addresses these challenges. The German government aims for robust and sustainable results based on a scientific approach and is proactive in helping to shape multilateral environmental policy processes.

At national level, for example, the German government is drawing up a programme of measures to implement the Climate Action Plan 2050. The programme specifies the steps to be taken in the period to 2030 in order to meet national and international commitments on tackling climate change.

These steps include more climate-friendly solutions in the transport sector: interlinking of environmental policy and transport policy enables everyone to be mobile and makes mobility significantly more environmentally friendly. We want to ensure that transport is not only green and climate-friendly but also that it has no harmful effects on health. The German government’s Environmental Report – Environmental Status Report

In its Environmental Report 2019, the German government provides information on the current state of the environment in Germany, as required under Section 11 of the Environmental Information Act. The report examines the most important policy measures taken over the past four years and explores environmental problems and policy challenges arising during the current legislative period. The activities that are described are the responsibility of the relevant ministries and are funded by them in accordance with the applicable financial and budget plans (including posts for civil servants and public employees).

Information about the status of the environment is constantly changing. This report therefore does not include a detailed review of trends in individual parameters. This data can be found in “Data on the Environment – Environmental Trends in Germany”, a comprehensive overview published and regularly updated by the Federal Environment Agency (UBA). The

6 von 301 | www.bmu.de Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) publishes data on nature conservation in “Nature Data” (Daten zur Natur), which last came out in September 2016. And the Federal Statistical Office (StBA) issues a report on indicators every two years, most recently in 2018. www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten www.bfn.de/infothek/daten-fakten.html www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Nachhaltigkeitsindikatoren/_inhalt.html

This Environmental Report is divided into the following chapters:

A Protecting the natural resources that sustain life

B Climate change, climate action and the energy transition

C The environment and the economy

D The environment and transport

E Environmental quality and health

F Legal foundations for environmental protection and international agreements, treaties and alliances

G The environment and the public

H Outlook: Environment and nature – the basis of social cohesion

7 von 301 | www.bmu.de Protecting the natural resources that sustain life

[↗ chapter A]

Water is one of our most important resources and we must protect it with particular vigilance. This applies to groundwater and surface waters, which fulfil various functions (for example as a source of drinking water, as a natural habitat, as places for recreation and as transport routes), and it also includes the ecosystems that ensure the sustainable availability of water. Managing the risks of both floods and low water levels is a climate change-related challenge that must be taken seriously. The low water level in the Rhine in 2018 and the drought in the summer months, with its consequences for people, nature and the economy, are two recent examples that show how important it is to manage the risk of floods and low water. Water protection policy safeguards habitats in and around water bodies.

In the current management period under the European Water Framework Directive, only 8.2 percent of the roughly 9,800 water bodies in Germany have “high” or “good” ecological status. The reasons for failing to achieve the ecological status target include changes to the natural structure of water bodies and their banks and high nitrogen and phosphorus inputs. Across all land uses, 36 percent of groundwater bodies have poor chemical status. Roughly 27 percent of groundwater bodies exceed the quality standard for nitrate, mainly on account of nitrate inputs from agricultural land and leaking sewer pipes in urban areas.

The protection and use of water bodies are always subject to competing demands. Rivers, lakes and seas are not just habitats for a wide range of plants and animals: they are also important as areas for recreation and economic activity. The Federal Water Act regulates the principles of water resources management with regard to use, water quality, flood protection and other issues.

The EU’s Floods Directive requires member states to take preventive measures to protect people and business activities from the consequences of flood events, and this remains an ongoing task. The federal government provides the responsible Länder with significant assistance – including funding – for projects that have a supraregional impact and create more space for rivers.

The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) aims to achieve “good environmental status” of marine waters by 2020. Use of the seas must be ecologically sustainable if a high level of marine protection is to be ensured. For example, adverse effects of fisheries on the marine ecosystem must be minimised, as must inputs of nutrients and waste.

8 von 301 | www.bmu.de Soil is a vital yet finite resource. The Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the United Nations therefore call not only for action on desertification and other forms of land degradation but also for the restoration of degraded soils. Soil on former industrial or commercial sites or land where waste was treated or stored may be so contaminated that it poses a threat to human health and the environment. The status of the soil shows that inputs into the environment of long-familiar pollutants – such as heavy metals, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – have decreased significantly in recent years. The aim is to keep soils in good condition, which means preventing compaction, the accumulation of pollutants, and loss through overpaving and erosion.

Land – like soil – is a finite resource that people need to use sparingly in order to sustain the basis of their lives and livelihoods. Although the pace of land take for settlement and transport has noticeably slowed in recent years, there are no grounds for complacency. On the contrary: the current demand for new housing poses a particular challenge to land management, as reducing land take has long been one of the German government’s sustainability policy goals. The increase in settlement and transport areas is to be curbed from 58 hectares per day in 2017 to less than 30 hectares by 2030. Under the Climate Action Plan 2050, the German government even hopes to achieve net zero land take (circular flow land-use management) by 2050. In the overall assessment of soil and land, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 with its vision of a “land degradation neutral world” is of particular importance.

According to the World Health Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, air pollution continues to be the world’s biggest environmental health threat. Improving air quality has therefore been one of the German government’s major concerns for many decades. Emissions of airborne pollutants have decreased in Germany and Europe in recent decades, partly as a result of the use of regulated catalytic converters or particle filters in cars and commercial vehicles and reductions in sulphur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants. Nevertheless, air pollution still causes significant health-related, environmental and economic damage in Germany. Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxides and ammonia are the most common air pollutants. For example, nitrogen dioxide

(NO2) damages the mucosal tissue throughout the respiratory tract and irritates the eyes. The resulting inflammation amplifies the irritant effect of other air pollutants. Nitrogen dioxide concentrations have decreased, but the annual average limit value is still being exceeded at numerous monitoring stations close to traffic. The high pollution levels recorded at these stations are caused mainly by NO2 emissions from diesel cars.

9 von 301 | www.bmu.de Habitat and species loss is the second major challenge of our time along with climate change. Human activity has caused a massive downturn in biodiversity over past decades and this is threatening the natural resources on which life depends. To safeguard nature’s wealth in all of its aspects and ensure that ecosystems remain fully functional, it is therefore important to halt not only the decline of particular species but the loss of biodiversity overall. The international basis for this is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Its objective is the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable access to and sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources (access and benefit-sharing – ABS).

Traditional nature conservation tools such as special protection programmes for endangered species and the designation of protected areas have proved their worth and should continue to be used. Sustainable, near-natural use also preserves and promotes biological diversity. This is particularly important in agriculture and forestry, which use more than half and around one-third of land in Germany, respectively. Under the Forest Strategy 2020, sustainable management of Germany’s forests aims to maintain and develop site-appropriate, vigorous forests that are able to adapt to climate change and contain predominantly native tree species. A significant increase in the naturalness, stability and diversity of forests is envisaged.

Agricultural use has steadily intensified since the 1950s and production has become ever more efficient. Farmers have shortened crop rotations and often concentrated large-scale cultivation on a few crop species. This has led to the loss of vital habitats for wild plants and animals, such as wildflower meadows. Nitrogen inputs from agriculture play a major part in the eutrophication and acidification of ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity. For the period from 2028 to 2032, the average nitrogen surplus is to be reduced to 70 kg per hectare of agricultural land per year. By 2030, 20 percent of all agricultural land is to be farmed organically. Improvement of the current situation depends to a large extent on the future form of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Climate change, climate action and the energy transition

[↗ chapter B]

Climate change is not a distant prospect – global warming has been under way for some time. The five hottest summers since modern weather record-keeping began around 140 years ago have all occurred since 2010. The annual mean air temperature in Germany rose by 1.4°C between 1881 and 2013. The average number of hot days has risen from around three per year in the 1950s to nine per year now. Winters have become significantly wetter,

10 von 301 | www.bmu.de while summers remain virtually unchanged. Sea levels along the German coast have risen by 10-20 cm over the last 100 years.

Global climate change is leading to an increase in extreme weather events in the form of heat waves, drought, severe weather, hail and storms, increasing the potential for damage to nature, society and the economy. For people in Germany and all over the world, 2018 provided a vivid example of the major damage that extreme weather events can cause. This is already resulting in growing problems in Germany, while in other parts of the world these events threaten lives and livelihoods and are a significant cause of migration.

Climate change is caused mainly by emissions of greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, as a result of human activities. This drives a steady increase in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; in 2017 this had already reached an annual average of 405 ppm, a rise of around 41 percent above pre-industrial levels.

The climate agreement which was adopted at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in December 2015 and entered into force in 2016 is the first such agreement to impose obligations on all countries. Under the agreement, which is binding under international law, all nations are committed to the goal of limiting global warming to well below 2°C compared with pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase, if possible, to 1.5°C. For the first time, the international community has also set itself a long-term goal for adaptation to climate change. To promote achievement of this goal, all nations agree to wide-ranging commitments that require them to take action, to support particularly vulnerable developing countries and to participate in a periodic review process. These requirements put adaptation on an equal political footing with mitigation.

The Federal Environment Agency estimates that Germany’s greenhouse gas emissions in

2017 totalled 905 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. This means that emissions have fallen by just under 28 percent since 1990. The national target of a 40 percent reduction by 2020 is unlikely to be achieved [↗ chapter B.2.2]. The energy sector was the largest emitter, accounting for almost 38 percent of greenhouse gas emissions; it was followed by the industrial sector (just under 21 percent), the transport sector (over 18 percent) and households (around 10 percent). Agriculture accounted for eight percent while the sector comprising commerce, trade and services generated four percent.

In November 2016, the German government adopted the Climate Action Plan 2050, becoming one of the first countries to produce the long-term emissions reduction strategy that the Paris Agreement requires. A separate reduction target, with 1990 as the baseline, was set for each sector and is to be achieved by 2030. The targets range from emissions

11 von 301 | www.bmu.de reductions of 31-34 percent in agriculture to reductions of 66-67 percent in the buildings sector. Overall, Germany’s emissions are to be reduced by at least 55 percent by 2030 by comparison with the 1990 baseline. Germany’s long-term aim is to become extensively greenhouse gas neutral by 2050.

The EU’s carbon dioxide emissions are to be reduced by at least 40 percent by 2030 against the 1990 baseline. In November 2017, the European Commission, the Council and the European Parliament agreed on a reform of the European Emissions Trading System (ETS) for Phase 4 (2021 to 2030). The Effort Sharing Regulation, which covers the non-ETS sectors of buildings, transport, small-scale industry and agriculture, was approved in January 2018. The regulation requires Germany to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in non-ETS sectors by 38 percent by 2030; the baseline in this case is 2005.

Common rules on implementing the Paris Agreement were approved at the Climate Change Conference in Katowice in December 2018. From 2024, there will for the first time be common binding minimum standards on national reporting on greenhouse gas emissions and other climate change mitigation measures.

In light of unavoidable climatic changes, adaptation to the effects of climate change is an important challenge and therefore has emerged as an ongoing task for the German government.

The national adaptation policy is set out in the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (Deutsche Anpassungsstrategie – DAS) and regularly updated. The long-term aim of the strategy is to make natural, social and economic systems less vulnerable to the consequences of climate change while increasing these systems’ adaptive capacities and ensuring that any opportunities that may arise are utilised to the full.

A DAS reporting system has been set up.

This ensures that the steps the German government is taking to adapt to climate change are based on scientific observations and forecasts and are properly evaluated and monitored.

The effects of climate change are already noticeable in all sectors of society and all regions in forms as varied as the health risks posed by heat, flood damage to buildings and harvest losses as a result of extreme summer drought. With the updating of the DAS, around 140 mandatory adaptation actions were agreed to tackle the challenges of climate change. They cover various policy areas, including transport, construction and health, and range from funding mechanisms to research activities and statutory regulation.

Many measures require implementation on the ground at regional and local level. To support the various actors, the German government has set up a German Climate Preparedness

12 von 301 | www.bmu.de Portal (KLiVO) that offers municipalities, Länder, businesses and civil society stakeholders information on adaptation to climate change impacts that is tailored to their needs. Via the portal, quality-assured and up-to-date data that has been verified by the German government is available free of charge. The new portal enables municipalities, Länder, businesses and civil society stakeholders to identify the precautionary measures needed in their sphere of activity and plan and implement suitable activities.

The German government will continue to actively support climate change adaptation as a joint task. The next update of the DAS is planned for 2020.

In this connection, the German government has set itself the goal of doubling its international climate finance by 2020: the target of two billion euros that was set in 2014 is to be increased to four billion euros (budget funds and the grant equivalents of its development loans). This increase is in line with the announcement made by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2015. The environment and the economy

[↗ chapter C]

In adopting the 2030 Agenda, its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement, the international community has acknowledged that policy-making, business and society must operate within a socially negotiated framework. Sustainable economic activity conserves the natural resources that sustain life and thus establishes the basis for preserving prosperity and quality of life for future generations. Ambitious environmental policies not only protect the environment but also create major economic opportunities, as is evident from the results for the greentech lead markets detailed in the environmental technology atlas “GreenTech made in Germany 2018”.

The sparing and efficient use of natural resources is essential for a sustainable economy. Improving resource efficiency means considering the entire life cycle of products. In the German Resource Efficiency Programme (ProgRess), adopted in 2012, the German government set out how Germany can conserve and make sustainable use of natural resources throughout the value chain. The indicator used in the German Sustainable Development Strategy to depict the extent to which the target is met is total raw material productivity. Like ProgRess I, ProgRess II addresses resource efficiency improvements all along the value chain and focuses on material uses of abiotic and biotic resources. A new aspect introduced in ProgRess II is that it considers the interplay between material efficiency and energy efficiency.

13 von 301 | www.bmu.de Mobility, food, housing and households, office and work, clothing, and leisure and tourism are the areas of consumption with the greatest potential for reducing pressure on the environment. Many “green” products have been launched on the mass market in recent decades. Quality seals, labels and other schemes make consumers more aware of opportunities to buy sustainable products. At the same time, consumer behaviour is changing rapidly as a result of online shopping. In Germany, the consumer spending of private households has been rising steadily for decades and has doubled since the country’s reunification.

Moves to establish a modern waste management system commenced in the 1980s. Since the early 1990s, it has been evolving into a circular economy, which is now a key priority of German environmental policy. The fact that there are economic interests in protecting the environment, health and resources can be regarded as a successful example of the green economy. However, there are still plenty of opportunities to further improve the system.

Emissions from the waste management sector fell from around 38 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 1990 to 10 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2016 – a decrease of almost 73 percent. The waste sector is now responsible for a very small proportion – just one percent – of greenhouse gas emissions in Germany.

Waste prevention saves resources and protects people and the environment and is therefore a German government priority. The existing waste prevention programme is currently under review and is due to be extended in the form of a second waste prevention programme at the end of 2019.

Germany is involved at international level in efforts to ensure the sustainable and resource- efficient use of plastics, boost the conservation of resources and tackle the problem of marine litter. At the prompting of the German government, the issues of resource efficiency and marine litter have for the first time featured on the agenda at international summits. As part of its international cooperation, Germany helps partner countries establish and expand waste management systems and circular economies. It also supports partners’ efforts to prevent marine litter. The environment and transport

[↗ chapter D]

Mobility permits participation in social life, lays the foundation for production and export and thereby safeguards employment and prosperity. At the same time, though, many people and businesses experience on a daily basis that the transport system is being stretched to its limits. Traffic jams, pollution and noise impose stress not only on the environment but also

14 von 301 | www.bmu.de on transport users, the economy and local residents. Sustainable mobility therefore benefits everyone.

Considerable progress towards sustainable mobility has been made in recent years.

European fleet limit values for CO2 have improved the energy efficiency of vehicles, and, on average, new cars now use less fuel per kilometre than before. In addition, further tightening of the legislation on vehicle emissions and further fuel improvements have ensured that significantly fewer pollutants are emitted.

However, despite positive developments at individual vehicle level, overall energy consumption has risen as a result of growth in traffic volumes. Greenhouse gas emissions are currently at the same level as in 1990. Boosting the environmental performance of the transport sector remains a major challenge. Further improvements are needed if climate change mitigation and air pollution control targets are to be met.

The German government has set up the National Platform Future of Mobility in order to involve key stakeholders from business and society in drawing up proposals for a sustainable mobility system. Through its Immediate Clean Air Programme 2017–2020 the federal government is encouraging cleaner urban transport in cities with particularly high levels of air pollution.

The German government is doing more and more to get electric mobility going. Buyers of electric vehicles are paid an environment bonus and tax benefits have been introduced. The federal government is also providing 300 million euros for expansion of the publicly accessible charging infrastructure. With this programme, the German government aims to initiate the development of a comprehensive network of charging stations. Cycling is an important component of active, environmentally friendly mobility. Under the National Cycling Plan, the links between cycling and other forms of transport, especially local public transport, will be improved. In a new move, the federal government is putting more money into the construction of fast cycle routes. In addition, the National Climate Initiative supports particularly promising pilot projects so that more and more people have better conditions for cycling. Sharing services have become a fixed component of the mobility options available in many places.

Although responsibility for the planning and financing of local public transport, including local rail transport, lies with the Länder and municipalities, the federal government supports them with annual payments. As stated in the coalition agreement, government funding under the Local Authority Transport Infrastructure Financing Act will be increased to one billion euros per year by 2021. This will fund measures such as the expansion of local tram and

15 von 301 | www.bmu.de underground rail systems. The federal government is also promoting a switch to cleaner vehicles – especially electric vehicles – in bus fleets.

Partly as a result of the growth in online shopping, cities are experiencing a steady increase in delivery traffic, which is raising pollution levels. In consequence, policy-makers are turning their attention to urban logistics. The federal government helps cities and municipalities create the right framework for efficient and sustainable city logistics. For example, it promotes pilot projects and urban logistics strategies and supports the implementation of innovative logistics solutions and the procurement of heavy-duty cargo bikes.

It is also important to devise effective environment- and climate-friendly options to address the issue of the unabated growth in freight transport. Improving the railways and inland waterways, which are environmentally friendly modes of transport, is therefore a key aim of the German government’s transport policy. Appropriate regulation of train path pricing will make the railways more competitive. The Rail Freight Master Plan provides a blueprint for the development of rail freight transport. In the Climate Action Plan 2050, the German government has declared its intention to develop a strategy for rail transport in order to utilise the potential for a modal shift to rail. A master plan for inland waterway transport has also been drawn up with the aim of making it more attractive and fit for the future.

Investment in infrastructure shall establish the basis for an environmentally friendly transport system. The most important instrument in the federal government’s transport infrastructure planning is the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 2030 (BVWP 2030), which maps out the transport policy course for the next 10 to 15 years.

Transport by sea and air has increased steadily in recent decades. As an important step towards reducing emissions from shipping, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has decided to lower the international cap on the sulphur content of marine fuels from 3.5 percent to 0.5 percent from 2020. A stricter limit of 0.1 percent has been in force since 2015 in designated Emission Control Areas (such as the North Sea and Baltic Sea). The IMO has also approved an initial strategy on reducing ships’ CO2 emissions.

In air travel, members of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) have agreed on a global market-based measure designed to limit the CO2 emissions of international aviation to the level reached in 2020. Emissions in excess of 2020 levels will thereafter be offset by the aircraft operators, for example through climate change mitigation measures in other areas or the use of more climate-friendly fuels. Environmental quality and health

[↗ chapter E]

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Steps must be taken to prevent incidents in industrial plants that could have serious impacts on the environment or human health. Germany is guided by the provisions of the EU’s updated Seveso Directive. The REACH Regulation requires manufacturers, importers and downstream users to take responsibility for ensuring that chemicals they produce and place on the market are used safely. At the same time, the member states identify, in an ongoing process, substances of very high concern.

Many chemicals that may adversely affect health cannot be detected in the human body at present.

The quality of indoor air is also important for health. In 2017, the Indoor Air Hygiene Commission at the Federal Environment Agency (UBA) revised the guidelines on mould and issued guidance on improving indoor air quality in schools.

With the Radiation Protection Act of 2017 and the new Radiation Protection Ordinance, promulgated in 2018, German law on protection from the harmful effects of ionising radiation has been comprehensively revised and updated, further improving an already high level of protection. New rules govern issues such as protection from radon, a radioactive noble gas, in recreation rooms and workplaces and the management of radioactively-contaminated sites. The new emergency management system of the federation and the Länder updates the legal and administrative framework for the response to radiological emergencies in light of lessons learned from Fukushima.

On the basis of the Act on Protection Against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans (NiSG), the Ordinance on Protection Against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans (NiSV) was promulgated in 2018. One of the main aims of the ordinance is to ensure that people who use non-ionising radiation for cosmetic and other non-medical purposes have the necessary knowledge and expertise to protect the consumers concerned from its harmful effects. It covers the use of lasers, intensive light sources, ultrasound and electromagnetic fields for purposes such as hair removal, skin tightening, fat reduction and tattoo removal.

To prevent catastrophic chemical accidents, the industrialised nations, led mainly by the OECD, have established a system for the safe management of chemicals and enshrined it in the Stockholm, Rotterdam and Minamata Conventions. Germany holds the presidency of the conference on the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) and is engaged in promoting a broader and more ambitious mandate beyond 2020. However, what is needed is not just a safe system for managing chemicals but a sustainable chemical industry overall.

17 von 301 | www.bmu.de Legal foundations for environmental protection and international agreements, treaties and alliances

[↗ chapter F]

Planning and regulatory law defines environmental targets and standards and establishes systems for ensuring compliance. One of the key legal tools of environmental policy is environmental impact assessment, which provides a means of identifying, characterising and assessing the environmental impacts of industrial plants and infrastructure projects. To improve compliance with and enforcement of applicable environmental law, further effort is needed in connection with the compliance assurance process throughout the EU. The amendment of the Environmental Appeals Act in 2017 demonstrates that legal protection in connection with environmental matters continues to be a dynamic issue and one which is receiving considerable attention in the courts, among academics and practitioners and within the German government.

Environmental damage such as water and air pollution crosses national boundaries and often extends across very wide areas. Germany is therefore engaged on a transboundary, European and international level. The European Union’s environmental policies help to ensure that the air in Europe is becoming cleaner and that we can take clean drinking water for granted. Environmental conventions negotiated by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s Committee on Environmental Policy are important here.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted in 2015, is a milestone in international cooperation. With the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the global community has for the first time agreed on a list of objectives with clear deadlines that cover all three dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social). Four years after the adoption of the Agenda, it is clear that the necessary transformation is proceeding far too slowly for the SDGs and their 169 targets to be achieved by 2030. The High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development, which meets annually, has become established as the main United Nations platform for monitoring implementation of the SDGs and sharing information on good practices and common challenges. The meeting of heads of state and government in September 2019 aims to provide impetus for the necessary acceleration of the process.

The Group of Seven (G7), consisting of seven major industrialised economies, also sends important signals that can affect people’s lives. Environmental issues, especially climate change mitigation, have become increasingly important items on the G7 agenda. During its presidency of the G20 in 2017, Germany was able to highlight a number of environmental

18 von 301 | www.bmu.de issues among the twenty most important industrialised countries and emerging economies. Protection of the environment and the associated issue of the living conditions of people in the G20 countries have thus finally become established as major global concerns within the G20 process.

The German government also provides funding for multilateral environmental cooperation and continues to support the Global Environment Facility. The German government is active in the Green Climate Fund as a board member and donor. The aim of the fund is to help developing countries achieve low-emission and – especially in poor and vulnerable countries – climate-resilient development.

The Adaptation Fund supports local measures that help to build the resilience of communities that are particularly affected by ongoing climate change. In 2018, Germany pledged a further contribution of 70 million euros to this fund. The environment and the public

[↗ chapter G]

Environmental policy involves making many decisions that touch on a wide range of interests and often have a significant impact on people’s lives. The German government’s many consultation processes have shown that public participation at federal level is viable. The right to information and the right to have a say are essential elements of a vibrant democracy.

The German government and its ministries offer modern and engaging educational materials relating to environmental and nature conservation issues. For example, the online portal of the Federal Environment Ministry’s education service provides fortnightly suggestions for teaching primary and secondary school pupils about environmental issues, enabling subjects of topical relevance to be addressed promptly in lessons.

The Voluntary Environmental Year’s successful learning and guidance service has now been in existence for 25 years. The number of volunteers has risen steadily during this time.

The German government and in particular the Federal Environment Ministry provide the public with up-to-date and topical information on environmental policy goals, tasks and projects and draw attention to what is happening. Social media provide an important means of involving members of the public and engaging in dialogue with them. The ministries’ communication with the public enhances the transparency of the German government’s work and its decision-making processes.

19 von 301 | www.bmu.de At the Federal Environment Ministry, for example, all members of the public can contact the Civic Communication Division about issues that interest or concern them and thus actively engage with the Ministry. Information events for national and international visitor groups are another important and popular element of public relations. Many research activities, carried out, for example, under the FONA3 framework programme funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, and the government-funded research conducted by the Federal Environment Ministry and other ministries clarify important scientific principles and yield insights that contribute to the achievement of environmental goals. Environment and nature – the basis of social cohesion

[↗ chapter H]

An intact natural environment and the general availability of natural resources for everyone are key aspects safeguarding social cohesion.

The international community’s agreement on the Sustainable Development Goals presents policy-makers, businesses and society with a specific transformative mandate. Change is already being initiated in many areas: science, technology and industry see sustainability- related innovation as a worthwhile activity; members of the public are getting together in initiatives, cooperatives and networks in order to try out sustainable ways of living and make them more popular; environmental policy’s integrative and transformative approach is giving rise to new forms of governance that are increasingly effective at tapping into the wealth of environmentally relevant potential in science, technology, industry and society and channelling it into implementation of the transformation mandate for a sustainable society.

But if socially disadvantaged people, such as those on low or very low incomes, are particularly hard hit by rapid environmental change [↗ chapter C.5] and lack the resources to adapt quickly to the new conditions and offset their adverse impacts, this also raises questions of justice, because these people’s opportunities in life worsen if not enough is done to counteract adverse changes.

20 von 301 | www.bmu.de A. Protecting the natural resources that sustain life

A.1 Water Water is the foundation of all life and a vital asset. Yet in everyday life the special value of water is often forgotten, despite the fact that we use it daily in connection with food and hygiene. An adequate supply of clean water is fundamental to our health and nutrition. We encounter water as a habitat for many plant and animal species – in seas, lakes, rivers and wetlands – and also in our leisure activities in and on the water. As a source of energy, a medium of transport and raw material, water is also a key economic factor.

Water is therefore one of our most important resources, and we must strive to protect not only water itself, but also the ecosystems that ensure that it is always available. This means that managing the risks of flooding and low water is one of the challenges of climate change that we must take seriously. The status of the Rhine in 2018,and the drought in the summer months with the attendant consequences for humans, nature and the economy are two recent examples that underline the importance of this task.

Water protection policy in Germany protects and safeguards endangered ecosystems such as marine and inland waters and groundwater. It aims to ensure that drinking and process water can be produced and used without elaborate, cost-intensive treatment. Treatment of wastewater in Germany must be state-of-the-art so that water bodies are not adversely affected. Water protection policy also protects habitats in and around water bodies. We want to make bathing possible in more and more water bodies and engage in precautionary water policy to counter the consequences of climate change.

To ensure sufficient supplies of clean water for people, industry and ecosystems both now and in the future, we must conserve water resources effectively and utilise them sustainably. Research can lay the foundations for this. This requires forward-looking water research in which stakeholders from science, industry, society and policy-making together develop the necessary technological and conceptual innovations. The German government has launched a new programme of research into the most pressing national and international challenges. Lead responsibility for the programme, which is entitled “Wasser: N” (Water Research and Water Innovations for Sustainability), has been assigned to the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).

A.1.1 Management of inland and coastal waters A sustainable water protection policy is not limited to avoiding impending adverse effects and remedying damage that has occurred; it is primarily intended to conserve natural

21 von 301 | www.bmu.de resources. This means that water bodies must be managed over the long term in such a way that:

• deterioration of the ecological status or potential of surface waters is prevented and a good ecological status or potential is achieved or maintained, • a good chemical status of surface waters is achieved, • good groundwater status – in terms of both quantity and quality – is achieved, • the necessary quantity and quality of public water supply are guaranteed,

• all other water uses for the benefit of the public are also ensured over the long

term.

Status of water bodies

Water bodies in Germany comprise 9,800 surface water bodies and 1,180 groundwater bodies. These water bodies include river sections, lakes, transitional waters and coastal waters. The status of surface waters is assessed on the basis of ecological and chemical parameters. In the case of groundwater bodies, the quantity and chemical quality are assessed.

The ecological status of surface water bodies is evaluated in terms of how “near-natural” they are. The assessment is based on defined reference conditions, specific to the particular type of water body, which cover the presence and frequency of plants and animals, physical and chemical conditions such as nutrients, oxygen, temperature and pH, and the near- natural structure of the water body.

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) Implementation Report 2015 states that in the WFD management period only 8.2 percent of the roughly 9,800 water bodies had “high” or “good” ecological status. Looking at rivers alone, only 6.7 fall into this category. As a result of high nutrient inputs, no coastal or transitional waters currently meet this target. However, the situation with regard to lakes is more positive: 26.3 percent are rated as having “high” or “good” ecological status. There is a particular need for action in connection with the structure of watercourses, which have often been straightened in the past.

Current findings show that for many surface waters, “high” or “good” chemical status has proved difficult to achieve for a number of reasons. This is often because of inputs of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from diffuse and point sources, flow regulation or morphological changes. The inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus pollute the water bodies and lead to eutrophication in many lakes and the majority of coastal waters. The chemical status of water bodies is defined in terms of compliance with environmental quality standards (EQS) for selected “priority” chemicals. The widespread presence of mercury from contaminated sites adversely affects the chemical status of Germany’s water bodies, as

22 von 301 | www.bmu.de does the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and tributyltin (TBT). According to the 2015 WFD report, excluding these four substances from consideration would result in the chemical status of 84 percent of surface waters being classed as good.

There is in principle no shortage of water in Germany, apart from regional or short-term bottlenecks. However, climate change could worsen the situation, as the dry summer of 2018 demonstrated [↗ chapter B.3].

Less than 17 percent of available water resources in Germany are currently being used. Half of the water that is abstracted from surface waters is used as cooling water, most of which is returned directly to the place from which it was taken. Groundwater is used mainly as a source of drinking water. The quantitative status of groundwater is classified as good in almost every case. However, only about 64 percent of groundwater meets that standard with regard to chemical status: the status of the remaining 36 percent is poor. Poor chemical status in groundwater bodies is primarily attributable to nitrate inputs originating from land used for agriculture and in urban areas to leaking sewage pipes. The amended law on fertilisers, which entered into force in 2017, aims to reduce nutrient inputs. www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/die-wasserrahmenrichtlinie-deutschlands- gewaesser

Measures and regulations to protect water bodies

Rivers, lakes and seas are important as areas for recreation and economic activity, in addition to their value as natural habitats. Statutory provisions at national and EU level are designed to reconcile conservation and use. Aspects that need to be considered include production of drinking water, agricultural and industrial use, shipping, fisheries, cooling of power plants, municipal use and the impacts of these activities on the water bodies as ecosystems.

The Federal Water Act (Gesetz zur Ordnung des Wasserhaushalts or Wasserhaushaltsgesetz – WHG) of 31 July 2009 reorganised German water legislation after the federalism reform. The Act contains basic provisions on the management of water bodies with regard to both quantity and quality. It states that water bodies must be safeguarded as an integral part of the ecosystem and as a habitat for flora and fauna. They must be managed for the benefit of both the general public and individuals, and their ecological functions must not be impaired. Under the precautionary principle, all avoidable adverse effects must be prevented irrespective of whether they involve an actual threat to the water body. Furthermore, there must be a high level of protection for the environment as a whole (integrated environmental protection). With

23 von 301 | www.bmu.de this in mind, the German government decided in the National Biodiversity Strategy that by the year 2020 watercourses and their water meadows will be protected in their role as habitats in a way that guarantees the typical diversity of the natural area in Germany. www.bmu.de/themen/wasser-abfall- boden/binnengewaesser/gewaesserschutzpolitik/deutschland/ www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/wasser

Implementation of the European Water Framework Directive

To transpose the EU Water Framework Directive, the Länder submitted management plans and programmes of measures for all German river basins; at the end of 2015 these were updated for a further six years until 2021. Germany has also successfully coordinated an international approach to the management of the six major transboundary river basins, including the Rhine and Danube, with the countries in the catchment area of these river basins. https://wasserblick.net/servlet/is/148547/

The objectives specified in the Water Framework Directive are ambitious. Further efforts are required if good water status is to be achieved, especially in the many German water bodies that are exposed to multiple pressures. Before measures can be implemented, time must be set aside for the necessary planning and the acquisition of funds and land. Well-planned measures can often address several problems simultaneously: for example, sufficiently wide buffer zones along water bodies or development corridors would create near-natural habitats for plants and animals, prevent nutrient inputs from surrounding areas and also reduce the risk of flooding.

In the set of measures identified by the Joint Federal-Länder Working Group on Water Issues (LAWA), the possible measures are assigned to the various key pressures upon surface waters. Figure A.1.1 illustrates this for the current management cycle (2016–2021). This shows that 41.5 percent of the planned measures address the pressure category “Flow regulation and morphological changes”. Within this, 19 percent involve morphology (such as the restoration of sections of water bodies to a more natural state), 16.9 percent involve restoration of continuity (such as building fish passes), and 5.6 percent involve the hydrological regime (such as ensuring a minimum outflow from water bodies). Thirty eight percent of the planned measures are designed to address diffuse sources. These primarily involve measures in the agricultural sector, such as steps to reduce soil erosion and leaching (alternative soil cultivation) and also advice to famers on managing their land in a more water-friendly way.

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Figure A.1.1: Proportion of planned measures for surface water bodies, broken down by key pressures, for the current management cycle (2016–2021). Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA) 2016 Abbildung auf Englisch hier: https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/waterresour cemanagement_germany_digital_aktualisiert.pdf

Wastewater management

Wastewater, whether from domestic, commercial or industrial sources, cannot be discharged into rivers and lakes in Germany unless certain wastewater treatment requirements are met. Under the Federal Water Act, wastewater may only be discharged if its quantity and noxiousness are kept as low as state-of-the-art techniques permit. The standards to be applied to municipal wastewater and wastewater from commercial and

25 von 301 | www.bmu.de industrial enterprises are set out in sector-specific annexes to the Waste Water Ordinance (Abwasserverordnung).

The Waste Water Ordinance is being constantly updated in line with requirements in European law arising from implementation of Directive 2010/75/EU (the Industrial Emissions Directive). In what is known as the “Sevilla process”, sector-specific Europe-wide standards are being drawn up for industrial activities, including wastewater treatment, and the best available techniques (BATs) for preventing and reducing emissions from industry into the environment are specified. The specifications are published in BAT conclusions and transposed into German law via amendments to the Waste Water Ordinance. The BAT conclusions include standards for state-of-the-art operation of wastewater treatment plants, the introduction of emissions limits for wastewater and monitoring requirements for individual wastewater parameters.

Wastewater from private households, agriculture and industry can be regarded as a valuable resource that can provide energy, nutrients and water for reuse [↗ chapter C.4]. In light of the scarcity of usable supplies of fresh water, especially in arid regions such as southern Europe, the reuse of water – provided that appropriate conditions are met – can go some way towards increasing water availability. These issues are being addressed in the WavE funding measure of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, which focuses on the reuse and desalination of water. The aim is to develop innovative technologies, processes and management strategies for reusing and desalinating water in resource- and energy-efficient ways.

Inland navigation

The use of inland waterways as transport routes reduces road traffic volumes, especially the volume of traffic for freight transport [↗ chapter D]. The Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV) is responsible for managing Germany’s inland waterways as transport routes. The WSV must take ecosystem concerns into account, prevent adverse impacts on flood protection and comply with the relevant management objectives of the European Water Framework Directive. On 1 February 2017 the German federal cabinet adopted the federal programme entitled “Germany’s Blue Belt”, under which the German government will invest more heavily in restoring German watercourses to a more natural state and will provide new impetus in the fields of nature conservation, protection of water bodies and flood prevention and also water-based tourism, leisure-time sporting activities and recreation. The WSV is also responsible for ensuring that any dam installations that it builds or operates on German inland waterways maintain continuity for fishes in accordance with ecological principles to the extent necessary to achieve the management objectives of the Water Framework Directive.

26 von 301 | www.bmu.de In addition, on 17 January 2017 the German government and the Länder adopted the Overall Strategy for the River Elbe (Gesamtkonzept Elbe – GKE). The strategy outlines a long-term development plan for the Elbe that aims to harmonise use of the inland Elbe for transport with the requirements of water management and conservation of the valuable natural environment. To this end, the overall strategy contains both new guidelines on the Elbe and proposals for specific localised implementation measures.

Inland navigation is an environmentally friendly mode of transport, but if it is to become even more environmentally sound, it must reduce its emissions of air pollutants. Reducing emissions in inland navigation and elsewhere is the aim of Regulation (EU) 2016/1628 on non-road mobile machinery (the NRMM Regulation), which entered into force on 1 January 2019 and sets strict emissions limits for new engines. www.umweltinnovationsprogramm.de/foerderschwerpunkte-und-foerderinitiativen

Trace substances

In the Federal Ministry of Education and Research funding measure “Risk Management of Emerging Compounds and Pathogens in the Water Cycle (RiSKWa)” (2012–2015), actors from science, industry and public bodies, in consultation with a host of relevant stakeholders from the water sector, the health sector and the general public, identified new approaches to evaluation, technology and management and tested them under real-life conditions. The funding measure supplied a wealth of new knowledge and advances in connection with the detection, management and communication of risk.

Ever-finer analysis methods enable old and new man-made substances in water to be detected at concentrations of nanograms or micrograms per litre. These trace substances come from sources such as drugs, laundry and cleaning products, pesticides and biocides (disinfectants, rat poison, wood preservatives, algicides etc.) and industrial chemicals. Although these substances occur only in low concentrations, they can have a detrimental effect on aquatic ecology and human health. Some of these substances are known to persist in the environment for a long time, to accumulate in tissues and/or to have toxic effects. To protect human health and aquatic flora and fauna, harmful substances should, wherever possible, be prevented from entering the water. This can be achieved mainly via preventive measures at source (manufacture, product development, preventing discharge into water) and through application-specific measures such as separate collection of urine containing X- ray contrast media in hospitals. Expanding processes at municipal wastewater treatment plants by incorporating additional treatment stages is not the blanket strategy of choice, but it can contribute to water pollution control in connection with key pressures. In a search for an

27 von 301 | www.bmu.de overarching approach to the discharge of trace substances, the Federal Environment Ministry conducted a stakeholder dialogue on dealing with trace substances in which measures relating to production, trade, use and extended wastewater treatment were discussed. The consultation ended in March 2019. The dialogue identified key components of a comprehensive strategy that will help to reduce the discharge of trace substances and hence improve the status of water bodies. Central measures from the stakeholder dialogue are being tested and evaluated in a pilot phase that will run until mid-2020.

The Ordinance on the Protection of Surface Waters (Oberflächengewässerverordnung – OGewV) sets out concentration limits for some of these trace substances and many other substances in the form of environmental quality standards (EQS). However, the majority of trace substances hitherto identified are not subject to any legal regulations; this is partly because in many cases no information on their environmental impacts is available. Nevertheless, a precautionary approach to water body protection dictates that, wherever possible, such substances should not enter our waters. In the course of the above-mentioned stakeholder dialogue, appropriate criteria to establish relevance for substance evaluation were therefore drawn up.

The pathways via which antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes enter the environment are the subject of a collaborative project entitled “Biological and hygienic- medical relevance and control of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in clinical, agricultural and municipal wastewater and their importance in raw waters” (HyReKA), which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The aim is to identify options for action. There is a need for further research, especially in the field of risk assessment.

Despite numerous activities and schemes, our knowledge of the overall extent of plastic pollution is still very limited. Since 2017 the Federal Ministry of Education and Research has been funding the research programme “Plastic in the environment – sources, sinks, solutions” in which various aspects of the plastic cycle are being studied. The aim is to analyse the extent of plastic in the environment together with the causes and distribution of the problem and also to explore the effects of these inputs on the environment and on living beings [↗ chapter A.1.4].

Reducing nutrient inputs

Nutrient inputs into water bodies are a particular problem. This is evident both in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea and in many lakes, slow-flowing rivers and groundwater bodies. Substances such as nitrogen and phosphorus enter the water primarily from agriculture, but

28 von 301 | www.bmu.de also from municipal wastewater treatment plants, industry, shipping and road traffic. These inputs lead to symptoms of eutrophication including blue algae blooms, a decline in the water’s oxygen content and the death of fish. Nitrates in groundwater directly impact on drinking water extraction. Because the precautionary value for nitrate in drinking water must be met, water suppliers are obliged to take remedial action if the nitrate content of the raw water is too high. Many of these problems cannot be solved by individual directives in the environmental sector and instead require a coordinated, multi-sectoral approach. An integrated approach is also advocated in the German government’s first Nitrogen Report, which was published in May 2017 and sets out the situation and the need for action with regard to the nitrogen problem. The Federal Environment Ministry is currently working on an action programme to reduce nitrogen emissions to an environmentally acceptable level across all originating sectors and environmental media. www.bmu.de/PU404

Future challenges

Considerable investments in wastewater treatment over the past 30 years have brought major improvements. Nevertheless, water protection remains an ongoing task. Germany is very densely populated and highly industrialised and most of its agricultural land is used intensively for agriculture, so balanced water body protection is required which takes due account of different protection and user interests.

Although fewer and fewer hazardous substances are being discharged directly into water bodies, some organic substances and heavy metals that are toxic or not readily biodegradable are still causing problems, especially where discharge occurred some time ago. Some of these substances, such as mercury and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which come primarily from combustion processes, can now be found in almost all water bodies. Some of them also disperse over long distances through the air and into soil; they then enter water bodies as a result of leaching and erosion.

A.1.2 Living by water – flood control From time immemorial, people have modified the courses of rivers and streams and built canals and dykes to create land for cultivation and settlements, make waterways navigable, intensify agriculture, take advantage of hydropower or protect against floods. But this has also changed the natural run-off behaviour of watercourses, and natural flood plains and alluvial lands have been lost. Floods are natural events, and the potential damage from flooding continues to increase. The reasons for this include the loss of natural flood plains

29 von 301 | www.bmu.de and water retention areas and increasingly dense development in areas at risk of flooding, combined with rising property values along rivers.

The EU Floods Directive created a Europe-wide framework for the assessment and management of flood risks, thereby reducing the long-term risk of flood damage in the EU (Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the assessment and management of flood risks).

In keeping with this, flood risk management plans for the whole of Germany were developed by the responsible Länder by the end of 2015; these define appropriate risk management objectives and the actions necessary for them to be reached. In a preceding risk analysis, flood hazard and risk maps were drawn up and made publicly available. The maps show areas that are inundated during flood events and describe the potential damage for affected residents, the economy and the environment. The maps, plans and risk analyses are reviewed and updated in a six-year cycle.

Priority transregional flood protection measures were selected for the national flood protection programme agreed jointly by the German government and the Länder after the flooding of June 2013. These measures include, for example, large controllable polders to retain flood waters, relocation of dykes and the elimination of weak spots in existing dykes. This means that for the first time a set of priority nationwide flood protection measures, which will apply to all Länder, has been put in place for the next 20 years. These measures also serve to implement the Floods Directive in Germany and, given their vital importance for flood prevention, they are to be pursued in an expedited process.

To support the Länder, the German government has since 2015 provided funds for the special framework plan for preventive flood protection measures. This forms part of the Joint Task (GAK) “Improvement of Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection”. On the basis of the available funds in the budget, the German government provides additional funding up to 100 million euros annually under the special framework plan for investment in space-creating supra-regional flood protection projects. The Länder received around 20 million euros in 2015, 40 million euros in 2016 and 2017 and around 60 million euros in 2018. The need reported by the Länder is increasing as the years go by because the large-scale supra- regional projects are moving from the planning stage to the construction stage. Under the coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period the national flood protection programme is due to be expanded and the special framework plan will be updated and adapted to the challenges of climate change.

The second Flood Control Act (Hochwasserschutzgesetz II), which entered into force in full in January 2018, aims to simplify the procedures for the planning, approval and construction of

30 von 301 | www.bmu.de flood control facilities and speed up court proceedings in the event of opposition to planned and approved flood protection measures. The legal measures introduced include, for example, removal of the court of first instance in disputes over the authorisation of flood protection measures, introduction of a pre-emptive right to buy for flood protection facilities and opportunities for legal action in the event of infringement of construction bans. To minimise flood damage, gaps in legislation have also been closed, for example by a ban on new oil-fired heating systems, mandatory retrofitting of existing facilities in areas at risk and opportunities for the Länder to designate flood areas. Municipalities have been assigned the task of specifying flood-adapted construction requirements in land-use plans in risk areas outside floodplains – such as behind dykes that are assumed to be safe and in areas covered by municipal land-use plans. The legal options open to the municipalities in the Federal Building Code (Baugesetzbuch – BauGB) have been expanded with this in mind. In areas beyond the confines of local land-use plans, flood-adapted construction means that the developer is required to comply with the recognised engineering rules, giving due consideration to the flood risk and the location of the site.

A.1.3 Fracking

The following legislation on fracking is in force in Germany:

1. Act to amend water and nature conservation law provisions to prohibit and minimise the risks of fracking technology (Gesetz zur Änderung wasser- und naturschutzrechtlicher Vorschriften zur Untersagung und zur Risikominimierung bei den Verfahren der Fracking- Technologie) (entered into force on 11 February 2017);

2. Act to extend liability for mining damage to drilling boreholes and to caverns (Gesetz zur Ausdehnung der Bergschadenshaftung auf den Bohrlochbergbau und Kavernen) (entered into force on 12/13 August 2016); and

3. Ordinance to introduce environmental impact assessments and mining requirements for the use of fracking technologies and for deep drilling (Verordnung zur Einführung von Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfungen und über bergbauliche Anforderungen beim Einsatz der Fracking-Technologie und Tiefbohrungen) (entered into force on 6 August 2016).

This legislation imposes wide-ranging bans and restrictions on the use of fracking technology in Germany. This specifically means that since 11 February 2017 and until further notice, unconventional fracking projects for commercial purposes are not permitted in Germany. The only schemes allowed anywhere in the country are four test drillings that are solely for scientific purposes, and these require the consent of the Land in which they take place. In

31 von 301 | www.bmu.de addition, the test drillings are subject to the scientific oversight of an independent expert commission that is not authorised to make decisions on its own. The commission reports to the German Bundestag on the projects. There are currently no known applications for permits for unconventional fracking.

Conventional fracking projects, which have been taking place in Germany since the 1960s, are not permitted in water conservation and mineral spring protection areas, in the catchment areas of lakes and reservoirs, springs and withdrawal points for public water supplies, or in national parks and nature reserves. The use of substances hazardous to water in the course of fracking is also prohibited. Projects require an environmental impact assessment. This ensures that the public will be involved. Information on the substances used must likewise be publicly available. In addition, the Länder can impose more extensive bans of their own. The German Bundestag has reserved the right to review the legislation on fracking published in the Federal Law Gazette on 11 August 2016; this review would take place in 2021.

This means that, in order to protect natural resources and human health, fracking in Germany is regulated to a greater extent than virtually any other technology.

A.1.4 Marine conservation and fisheries The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) aims to achieve “good environmental status” of the marine environment by 2020. Under the ecosystem-based approach, the marine environment must receive a high level of protection and any use must be sustainable. All political measures, agreements and legislation which have an impact on the marine environment must take this into account (integrative policy approach). For example, adverse effects of fisheries on the marine ecosystem must be minimised. This approach also supports implementation of the global sustainable development goal in relation to the seas (SDG 14: Life below water), which sets out important criteria for sustainable fisheries. For the fisheries sector, this means sustainable fishing through compliance with the principle of the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and avoidance of the adverse impacts of certain fishing techniques on sensitive habitats and protected species. In this context, adapted sustainability criteria should also be applied to small-scale fishing, and the interests of the least developed countries and small island states should also be considered.

The main threats to marine ecosystems include land-based pollutants discharged all over the world, for example excessive nutrient inputs and the release of solid wastes. Because of its semi-enclosed location, the Baltic Sea is particularly polluted. The discharge of nitrogen and phosphorus into the Baltic Sea – at least from German sources – has decreased in recent years, but the discharge of nutrients continues to lead to eutrophication, algae growth and

32 von 301 | www.bmu.de ultimately to a reduction in the oxygen content of the water. The nitrogen comes mainly from agriculture, land-based transport, maritime transport and industry.

Another urgent problem is that of litter in our oceans. Around eight million tonnes of plastic waste find their way into the world’s oceans each year. http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768.full

Marine litter

Experts assume that most global inputs come from land, particularly via rivers. Around 80 percent of marine litter is plastic waste. This includes packaging waste and inputs of microplastics from various sources such as tyre abrasion, textile fibres, discharges from construction sites and – as highlighted in the media although in practice only a small proportion of the total – from cosmetics; litter left on beaches by tourists is also a problem. In addition, litter enters the oceans from fisheries, shipping and tourism. Plastics are particularly dangerous because some products can take centuries to break down. The masses of waste in our oceans are harmful to marine ecosystems and their living resources, partly because marine animals confuse plastic with food or are strangled by plastic parts. Indirectly, this is detrimental to the economy, including fisheries and tourism.

There are still knowledge gaps with regard to the effects of microplastic and nanoplastic particles on marine organisms, but these particles have been unequivocally detected in the digestive tracts of mussels, crustaceans and fish. Possible effects on human health – since humans are at the end of the food chain – are currently being investigated in various research projects.

Marine litter remains an important issue at both regional and international level. Regional action plans on marine litter have been adopted under the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) and the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM). As President of the G7 and the G20, Germany was successful in getting the subject of marine litter onto the agenda of the heads of state. The G7 Action Plan to Combat Marine Litter was adopted at the G7 summit in June 2015, while the G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter, which is more specific with regard to measures and more application-oriented, was adopted at the G20 summit in June 2017. Both plans assume that marine litter comes mainly from land-based sources and focus on waste prevention, targeted sustainable waste management and awareness raising. The responsibilities of producers and consumers are also addressed, as is resource efficiency.

Deep-sea mining

33 von 301 | www.bmu.de In recent years there has been growing interest in mining mineral resources in the deep sea. It is essential that binding rules are established that guarantee effective protection of the marine environment against the consequences of future resource extraction in both national and international waters. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is charged with managing the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction as “a trustee on behalf of mankind as a whole”. This includes specifying rules, conditions and procedures for limiting the impacts of resource exploration and extraction and ensuring compliance with the provisions for “effective protection of the marine environment from the harmful effects which may arise” from such activities, as required under the international Law of the Sea.

To ensure this effective protection, there is a need for a complex regulatory framework that takes account of the precautionary principle and makes it possible to identify – independently and on the basis of the best available knowledge – whether there will be possible or probable environmental consequences in the long term and on either a large or small scale within a previously agreed target framework for environmental quality.

Fisheries and aquaculture

Overfishing is one of the most serious forms of intervention in marine ecosystems worldwide. During the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) of the European Union, Germany worked from the outset to make the sustainability principle a top priority. A reorientation of fisheries management began when the new EU Regulation on the Common Fisheries Policy took effect in January 2014. This includes basing catch quotas on scientific findings to ensure sustainable, productive populations and introducing discard bans and landing obligations in order to significantly reduce bycatch.

Multi-year management plans based on an ecosystem approach and the precautionary principle are now an important instrument in fisheries management and can help improve protection of threatened species and marine habitats.

Aquaculture can be a useful alternative to stagnating capture fishery as a means of helping to feed a growing world population. Like capture fishery, aquaculture operations must adhere to the principles of sustainability in order to avoid major adverse impacts on sensitive marine and coastal ecosystems and prevent other ecological, economic and social problems. The German government seeks to promote environmentally sustainable development of the aquaculture sector in Europe and the rest of the world.

Marine protected areas

Marine protected areas are an important instrument for safeguarding marine species and habitats.

34 von 301 | www.bmu.de Germany has designated more than 30 percent of the German exclusive economic zone ((EEZ) beyond the territorial 12-mile zone of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea) as Natura 2000 sites under the Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive; since September 2017 these areas have also been legally safeguarded. As much as 45 percent of the entire German maritime area (territorial sea and EEZ) has been designated as Natura 2000 sites.

However, the ordinances on special protected areas cannot specify the necessary restrictions on professional fishing: these can only be established at European level. The Regulation on the Common Fisheries Policy sets out a procedure under which a member state wishing to adopt measures submits a proposal to adjoining countries having a direct management interest and coordinates with them. If this has not been successful within six months, the Commission may submit a proposal.

The Federal Environment Ministry and the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture have drawn up joint proposals for limiting fishing in the Natura 2000 sites in the exclusive economic zone in the North Sea and Baltic over which the German government has jurisdiction. The joint recommendation for fisheries management in the marine protected areas was submitted to the European Commission in early February 2019; it applies to the Natura 2000 sites within the German exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The two ministries recommend restrictions on professional fishing where they are necessary to protect the species (such as porpoises and seabirds) and habitats (reefs and sandbanks) of these sites. The measures are also intended to help achieve the target of restoring the “good environmental status” of the marine environment by 2020.

The submitted recommendations have been agreed with all the affected EU member states that exercise fishing rights in the German EEZ under a non-German flag. The next step is now for the European Commission to issue a regulation that makes the recommendations mandatory.

The proposals for the Baltic Sea were finalised in December 2018, submitted to the coastal Länder and associations and discussed with them on 6 February 2019. The fishery management measures that are described need to be enforced with effective monitoring, inspection and sanction mechanisms.

In a multi-year process, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is elaborating the scientific basis for a representative network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Southern Ocean. A protected area in the Ross Sea was designated in 2016. A further proposal for a marine protected area in the Weddell Sea in Antarctica was then drawn up by Germany and submitted as an EU proposal. The EU proposal was discussed for the second time at the 37th annual CCAMLR conference in October 2018.

35 von 301 | www.bmu.de Because of strong opposition from some of the Commission’s member states, the proposal once again failed to achieve a majority. The German government is therefore continuing to press for adoption of this marine protected area and other MPAs as soon as possible. www.ccamlr.org/

Recent successes of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North- East Atlantic (OSPAR) and the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM) include the establishment of marine protected areas in areas beyond national jurisdiction (OSPAR) and concrete nutrient reduction targets (HELCOM). www.ospar.org/ www.helcom.fi/

Protecting biodiversity on the high seas

The biodiversity of the oceans – including the high seas – is under growing threat from the continuing increase in economic activities such as fisheries and shipping, from marine pollution and from technological progress, which is enabling increasingly intensive uses such as deep- sea mining, energy production and bioprospecting. After more than a decade of preliminary conceptual consultations and negotiations, delegates from many nations met at the United Nations in New York in September 2018 to work on a new implementing agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of “biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction” (BBNJ) under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Under the lead responsibility of the Federal Foreign Office, the Federal Environment Ministry is actively involved in the negotiations and is also supporting the participation of representatives of the least developed countries and small island states. The second round of government negotiations took place in March/April 2019. Two further rounds of negotiations are scheduled for the summers of 2019 and 2020.

Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation

At the 13th Trilateral Governmental Conference on the Protection of the Wadden Sea, which was held in Leeuwarden, the Netherlands, in May 2018, Germany commenced a four-year term as president of the Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation. The Cooperation between Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands was set up 40 years ago. At the 2018 conference the ministers signed the Leeuwarden Declaration, which sets out a joint strategy on protecting and conserving the Wadden Sea as a World Heritage Site and defines the priorities and tasks of cooperation up to 2022. Implementation of the trilaterally agreed objectives and priorities of Germany’s presidency involves established cooperation between the Länder of Lower Saxony,

36 von 301 | www.bmu.de Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg and the German government, represented by the Federal Environment Ministry. www.waddensea-worldheritage.org/de www.bmu.de/PU483 http://www.waddensea-secretariat.org/leeuwarden-declaration

The pressure on coastal areas continues to rise as a result of climate change and intensified use. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and marine spatial planning (MSP) are intended to safeguard and develop sensitive areas as ecologically intact but also economically prosperous places for people to live. The German government is contributing to this by means of numerous projects. ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform/index_de.htm www.asc-aqua.org/ www.ikzm-strategie.de www.helcom.fi/action-areas/maritime-spatial-planning/msp-roadmap/

A.1.5 International cooperation and global water protection policy International river commissions

Integrated management of transboundary surface waters and groundwater covering widespread areas is handled by international commissions for entire river basins or lakes, or bilaterally, for example for boundary waters.

Germany is a member of international commissions to protect the rivers Rhine (ICPR), Mosel and Saar (ICPMS), Elbe (ICPER), Danube (ICPDR), Oder (ICPO) and Maas (IMC). It further works with the Netherlands, Poland, the Czech Republic and Austria in bilateral commissions.

The international river commissions deal with all issues related to water body management, flood protection and flood prediction, as well as warnings and alerts in the event of accidents affecting water bodies. They coordinate implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive and Floods Directive at international level, where necessary by producing joint plans.

International cooperation has significantly reduced pollution in the rivers and re-enabled access to habitats used in the past, for example by migratory fish such as salmon. Spawning salmon have returned to some of the tributaries of the Rhine. The new master plan for migratory fish produced by the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) aims to achieve further progress on this issue.

37 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.iksr.org/de/dokumentearchiv/fachberichte/fachberichte- einzeldarstellung/news/detail/News/247-masterplan-wanderfische-rhein-2018-eine- aktualisierung-des-masterplans-2009/

Global water policy

The German government is committed to the sustainable use and conservation of water resources worldwide. In 2016, as part of the work of the UN General Assembly’s Open Working Group on the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the German government was particularly active in connection with three keys issues in the water sector: drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; water resources; and water quality and wastewater. Through this involvement, the German government made an important contribution to the formulation of the sustainability goal relating to water (SDG 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all), thus helping to ensure that the goal’s comprehensive approach acknowledges the basic challenges of water supplies and water use worldwide.

Through the Global Expanded Monitoring Initiative (GEMI, coordinated by UN Water), the German government supports the United Nations’ reporting on issues such as water resource management and water quality in the context of SDG 6, which involves new indicators on water resources and water quality for which a reporting system had first to be established.

The German government aims to contribute to the achievement of SDG 6 and, as a move towards resolution of the emerging conflicts over this “blue gold”, the German government has launched the funding measure “Global Resource Water (GRoW)”. At the heart of the measure is the linking of local and global action. In an era of worldwide economic exchange, it is essential to consider not only the needs of people locally, but also the needs of people on the other side of the world, the needs of future generations and the needs of ecosystems: the trade in virtual or embodied water now connects local and regional water resources all over the world. In consequence, various collaborative projects not only research local and regional solutions, but also produce improved global information and forecasts in relation to water resources and the demand for water.

The funding programme “CLIENT II – International Partnerships for Sustainable Innovation” also promotes international partnerships in the climate, environmental and energy sectors, thus for the first time bringing international private-sector-oriented sustainability research activities together under one umbrella.

In addition, the German government supports further development of water body monitoring and the strengthening of related international structures. As an expression of this commitment it finances the online global water database (GEMStat) of the Global Environmental Monitoring

38 von 301 | www.bmu.de System’s water programme (GEMS Water), which forms part of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Improving the availability and quality of water-related data facilitates both effective adaptation of water management to changing conditions and the conservation and sustainable management of water resources and ecosystems.

Achievement of SDG 6 requires more concerted activity by all member states of the United Nations and political mobilisation at the highest level. At the same time – and in contrast to almost all other subject areas – the United Nations fails to give regular and high-level attention to the subject of water. The German government and other countries including Finland, France and South Africa have repeatedly sought to change this situation. www.gemstat.org

In addition, the International Centre for Water Resources and Global Change (ICWRGC), which is under the auspices of UNESCO, documents and analyses changes in global water availability and quality. Both the Centre and GEMStat are hosted by the German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) in Koblenz. www.waterandchange.org/

There are two global conventions relating to water body protection. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, which was originally a regional agreement, was opened up internationally in 2013. Chad recently became the first country outside the UNECE region to join the Convention. The Convention is a lively communication platform in which many countries participate even if they have not yet ratified the Convention. The UN Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses is another agreement that regulates important principles of international law in transnational cooperation. Both agreements have been ratified by Germany and are compatible with and supplement each other. www.unece.org/env/water.html www.un.org/Depts/german/uebereinkommen/ar51229-dbgbl.pdf

At the end of 2013, the first binding regulation on marine geoengineering was adopted by consensus under the London Convention and Protocol; it regulates ocean fertilisation and other marine geoengineering measures. www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Pages/default.aspx

Development cooperation

39 von 301 | www.bmu.de Through its development cooperation, Germany supports extensive activities in the field of water resource management in numerous partner countries. Integrated water resource management (IWRM) is an important guiding principle. IWRM aims to promote socially and economically sustainable development without endangering ecosystems. The activities supported in partner countries are needs-based and wide-ranging: they may, for example, involve the construction and operation of sewage treatment plants or the development of policies, institutions, regulations and monitoring systems in the field of resource management.

Through its development cooperation, Germany supports a number of international water- related organisations, including organisations that focus on the Nile (NBO), the Mekong (MRC), the Niger Basin (ABN) and Lake Chad (CLBT) and on transboundary water management in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This involves, for example, promoting the establishment and harmonisation of the legal and political basis for international cooperation, including in the form of water agreements or charters, as well as dialogue and mediation processes and concrete collaboration with states adjoining the water body.

Especially in developing countries, the effects of climate change are manifested in changes in the hydrological cycle. Droughts often intensify in already arid regions. Heavy rainfall events increase in some places. In light of the threat that this poses, almost a quarter (23 percent) of German bilateral funding that helps developing countries adapt to the consequences of climate change was channelled into the water sector in 2017. German development cooperation in the field of water thus contributes significantly to fulfilment of Germany’s climate finance pledges. However, German development cooperation also helps to mitigate greenhouse gases, for example through the energy-efficient supply and treatment of water and sewage and the sustainable conservation of wetlands, which store considerable quantities of carbon.

40 von 301 | www.bmu.de A.2 Soil Soil is life

Soil is part of the very foundations of our existence. It forms the upper layer of the Earth’s crust and performs many functions. Because it stores water and carbon, it is indispensable for the Earth’s ecosystem, for mitigating climate change and for flood protection. The soil absorbs rainwater, purifies it and makes it available to us as a resource for the production of drinking water. Three-quarters of Germany’s drinking water comes from groundwater. By providing the farmland on which most of our food is grown, it safeguards our food supply. The soil is a habitat for countless plants, animals and microorganisms. Just one handful of soil often contains more living organisms than there are people on the planet. Protecting it thus also helps to conserve biodiversity and the soil’s physical and ecosystem-related functions.

Soils and humus layers form and regenerate only very slowly and are therefore a finite resource without which life on Earth as we know it would not be possible.

We must therefore ensure that the soil can continue to fulfil its functions and is protected and/or managed sustainably. Soil losses must be kept to a minimum.

A.2.1 Soil protection and contaminated sites So that soil can continue to fulfil its many diverse functions, its formation, structure and physical composition must be protected from adverse changes. Many everyday activities – including our eating habits and our choice of modes of transport – have a direct or indirect effect on the soil. The sources of soil pollution are correspondingly diverse.

Figure A.2.1: Many human influences have an adverse impact on our soils Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA)

41 von 301 | www.bmu.de Kontamination (Altlasten) Contamination (contaminated sites) Bebauung (Versiegelung) Building (sealing) Emission Emissions Stoffeintrag Substance inputs indirekt indirect direkt direct Temperatur Temperature Niederschlag Precipitation Stoffentzug Erntegut Substance removal – crop harvesting (Verlust organischer Bodensubstanz) (loss of organic soil substance) Düngung Fertilisation Bodendruck (Verdichtung) Soil pressure (compaction) Bodenabtrag (Erosion) Soil loss (erosion) Stoffumsetzung Substance conversion Verlagerung Displacement Grundwasser Groundwater Gewässer Water bodies www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/boden-landwirtschaft/bodenbelastungen

The aim is to maintain good soil status – that is, to prevent the accumulation of pollutants, prevent compaction and loss through overpaving and erosion and eliminate damaging changes to the soil. Because soil is both vital to survival and a limited resource, the

The United Nations’ global Sustainable Development Goals call not only for action on desertification and other forms of land degradation, but also for the restoration of degraded soils. The aim is a “land-degradation-neutral world” (SDG 15.3: land-degradation neutrality – LDN). This means that soil loss – as a result of sealing, erosion, other forms of degradation – must be balanced by equivalent soil restoration. Unavoidable deterioration of the soil and its functions must be offset through restoration and remediation measures.

Ausgangszustand Original state Verschlechterung, Degradierung Deterioration, degradation Wiederherstellung, Sanierung Restoration, remediation degradierter Zustand Degraded state

One hundred and twenty countries that are party to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) have defined national LDN targets. Germany has not yet

42 von 301 | www.bmu.de established an LDN target. Monitoring of SDG indicator 15.3.1, “Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area” involves three sub-indicators: land cover change, land productivity, and carbon stocks above and below ground. In keeping with the LDN agenda, the BMZ supports the spread of sustainable land management internationally.

Updating soil protection law

For the past 20 years, soils have been protected by the Federal Soil Protection Act (BBodSchG) and the associated Federal Ordinance on Soil Protection and Contaminated Sites (BBodSchV). In the last legislative period, within the framework of the Umbrella Ordinance on Substitute Building Materials and Soil Protection, the German government prepared the first amendment of the Soil Protection Ordinance.

The draft of the umbrella ordinance was adopted by the federal cabinet on 3 May 2017 and has passed through the Bundestag. It has now been submitted to the upper house, the Bundesrat, for consultation.

The amendment represents a revision of the entire Soil Protection Ordinance, adapting it to the current state of scientific knowledge and taking up lessons learned from almost twenty years of enforcement. The provisions on the application or incorporation of materials are to be extended and rewritten to include the area below or outside the rooting soil layer. Other improvements are the provision allowing public authorities to require soil-specific monitoring of construction projects, and the focus on aspects of physical soil protection. In addition, risk control in relation to soil erosion is being extended to include erosion by wind. The new rules are due to be adopted in the current legislative period.

Soil status

Measuring the status of the soil is not easy. Soil data is collected for a wide range of purposes (e.g. for agriculture, for engineering projects or in connection with soil protection issues) and from very different areas (e.g. a plot of land, a federal state, Germany). Data on soil is therefore often produced in many different places at different scale levels. In Germany the Länder are responsible for collecting data on soil protection; nationwide surveys and standardised datasets are therefore not the norm. In addition, changes in soil status are often only observable over long periods, and the complexity of the soils and the often very slow alteration in soil status make systematic soil monitoring a very elaborate task.

The national forest soil inventory conducted jointly by the German government and the Länder assesses the status of forest soils, vegetation, crown condition and forest nutrition and changes in them. The first inventory was conducted between 1987 and 1993 and the second between 2006 and 2008. In addition, the Thünen Institute coordinates continuous intensive forest monitoring (Level II) of the solid soil phase and soil solution at forest sites.

43 von 301 | www.bmu.de The results of the second inventory show that the forest soils and the trees growing on them are better supplied with basic nutrients than they were at the time of the first inventory, that acidification as a result of atmospheric pollution has decreased and that carbon stocks in the forest soils have increased. Airborne nitrogen inputs are still too high. Nitrogen stocks in the upper mineral soil layer and nitrogen concentrations in tree foliage have risen as a result and are sometimes in the luxury range, meaning that more more nitrogen is available than is actually needed. www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Broschueren/Waldboden- Bodenzustandserhebung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile

The Thünen Institute has conducted a soil inventory of agricultural soils. This was the first nationwide assessment of organic carbon stocks in agricultural soils. Samples were taken from more than 3,000 sites and the findings were published in December 2018. More than two billion tonnes of carbon are stored in Germany’s agricultural soils. Systematically building up humus and soil life increases soil fertility and at the same time enables more carbon to be stored. Forest and agricultural ecosystems together store a quantity of organic carbon equivalent to the amount of CO2 emitted by Germany over 23 years at current emission levels. The figures highlight the importance of safeguarding these organic carbon stocks through sustainable use and if possible increasing them. This involves adapting farming and management practices. According to the Thünen Institute’s model calculations, there is otherwise a risk that humus in the upper soil layer of farmland will decrease rather than increase over the next ten years. www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Broschueren/Bodenzustandserhebung.html;nn=3108 68

The German government will conduct an inventory of soils in forests and agricultural land from 2022 until 2024.

Germany is currently also developing a biodiversity monitoring strategy that includes soils.

To mark the International Year of Soils in 2015, the Federal Environment Agency published the booklet “Bodenzustand in Deutschland” [“Soil status in Germany”], which provides an overview of soil status on the basis of the available data. www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/378/publikationen/bodenzustand_in_de utschland_0.pdf

The status of the soil shows that inputs into the environment of well-known pollutants – such as heavy metals, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – have decreased significantly. However, this is not cause for

44 von 301 | www.bmu.de complacency, as many soils store the pollutants as a “memory” of how they have been used and of their industrial history.

At the same time, problems are arising increasingly often in connection with “modern” pollutants such as per- and polyfluorinated chemicals (PFCs), which are being found at more and more places in the soil, in groundwater, and in plants, animals and humans. The risks posed by some of the substances in this group are known, but there is an almost complete lack of knowledge of the effects of many others. These substances do not break down in the environment; because of their persistence and mobility, polyfluorinated chemicals are now being detected all over the world, including in the polar regions.

In addition, fertiliser use results in large inputs of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) into soils. In some parts of Germany, this leads to high concentrations of nitrates in groundwater, with the limit of 50 milligrams of nitrate per litre being exceeded at around 18 percent of groundwater measuring points.

Environmental problems are caused not only by extensive inputs of nutrients and pollutants but also by localised pollution in contaminated sites. www.bmu.bund.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Binnengewaesser/nitratbericht_20 16_bf.pdf

Areas of localised pollution – contaminated sites

Soil on land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes or on land where waste has been treated or stored can be so contaminated that it represents a threat to health and the environment. If investigation of these suspected contaminated sites shows that they are indeed hazardous, the sites must be remediated. When remediated sites of this kind are subsequently reused, this removes the need to utilise unused intact soils.

Contaminated sites are a serious economic burden. Many of the actions that must be taken to detect and eliminate possible hazards are complex and expensive. The public sector currently spends some 500 million euros annually on investigating and remediating contaminated sites. The Länder are responsible for taking the necessary action. But the German government is also responsible for remediation of the land that it owns.

The Institute for Federal Real Estate (Bundesanstalt für Immobilienaufgaben – BImA), which is the German government’s provider of property services and has the largest state-owned property holdings, has therefore launched a comprehensive programme of remediation of contaminated sites and explosive ordnance clearance. In particular, the programme is working with the responsible authorities in the Länder and municipalities to tackle the environmental risks that arise from a history of military use and the legacies of two world

45 von 301 | www.bmu.de wars. The aim is not only to remove the actual risks but also to enable these converted areas to be prepared for subsequent civil use. In normal military operations, the Federal Ministry of Defence, which is the largest user of BImA land, undertakes the recording and remediation of contaminated sites itself.

The Contaminated Sites Committee of the Joint Federal-Länder Working Group on Soil (Altlastenausschuss der Bund-Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft Boden) compiles key statistics on contaminated sites throughout Germany each year. The figures describe the progress that has been made in contaminated site management. Non-public land owners must also invest considerable sums in remediation so that their land can be used for housing, offices and commercial purposes.

To date the risks posed by around 120,000 suspect sites – nearly one-third of the total number of suspect sites – have been investigated and assessed. Thirty-five thousand contaminated sites have already been remediated. However, complete remediation of all contaminated sites is a task for the entire century and one that can only be carried out a step at a time. In spite of all the precautionary measures, new soil damage is constantly occurring, especially as a result of chemical leaks, which may be due to accidents or to criminal action. Crime statistics compiled by the Federal Criminal Police Office (Bundeskriminalamt – BKA) reveal nearly 1,000 cases of soil pollution each year that are classed as an environmental criminal offence under section 324a of the Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch) (2016: 909; 2017: 886).

Soil protection in the context of other strategies

Soil protection has an important role in many current challenges including climate change mitigation, food security and biodiversity conservation. The German government therefore also supports protection of the soil in other strategies, such as the National Biodiversity Strategy, the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and the National Policy Strategy on Bioeconomy. At the end of 2019, the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture will publish an arable farming strategy paper that will focus not only on food security, but also on the conservation of natural resources, including soil. The Federal Environment Ministry is currently preparing an action programme on nitrogen reduction which will also have a positive effect on soil protection since it will reduce eutrophication and acidification. The action programme builds on the German government’s First Nitrogen Report of May 2017. www.bmu.de/PU404

Global Soil Partnership and voluntary guidelines for sustainable soil management

The Global Soil Partnership (GSP) was established in 2012 under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in order to further international soil

46 von 301 | www.bmu.de protection and sustainable soil management. It promotes the exchange of scientific findings and public outreach activities in the field of sustainable soil protection. The GSP has produced voluntary guidelines for sustainable soil management that were adopted by the General Assembly of the FAO in 2016. Germany supports implementation of these guidelines in the context of international cooperation.

Information on soil

A number of measures with positive impacts on soil protection were pursued in the last legislative period. These are summarised in the German government’s 2017 soil protection report. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/vierter_bodenschutzbericht_bf.pdf

Activities to mark the International Year of Soils in 2015 were also important for public perception of soil as a valuable resource. Special events, photography and art exhibitions, training courses, exciting museum trips, new soil discovery trails, atlases and brochures in that year drew attention to this essential pillar of our existence.

Germany promotes better conditions for soil protection in developing countries. It does this through international conferences – most recently Global Soil Week 2019 – and through numerous implementation programmes such as the global soil protection programme.

A.2.2 Use of undeveloped land for settlement and transport – land take “Land take” refers to the use of undeveloped land (agricultural and natural) for human settlements and transport infrastructure. Put simply, it is about how broadly we humans spread ourselves through our settlement activities at the expense of nature and the landscape. One of the advantages of compact urban structures is that they make better use of technical infrastructure such as drains, pipes, cables and transport routes and keep maintenance costs down. Settled or fragmented natural areas destroy natural habitats for animals and plants and

47 von 301 | www.bmu.de valuable land that could be used for food production. The problem is not only that settlement activities that are often thoughtless and wasteful restrict the development opportunities open to future generations; upon restoration the soils that were destroyed regenerate only very slowly over a period of centuries. Between 2014 and 2017, land take in Germany averaged 58 hectares per day – equivalent to about 82 football pitches.

From 1993 to 2003, the take of undeveloped land averaged 120 hectares per day; from 2010 to 2013 it was still around 73 hectares per day. From 2008 to 2012, the total area of agricultural land shrank by an average of 180 hectares per day.

Land – like soil – is a finite resource that we should use sparingly because it sustains life itself. The spread of new housing and roads into undeveloped areas is an insidious phenomenon. The resulting urban sprawl and fragmentation of the landscape are visible evidence that land is a resource that is often used thoughtlessly.

Figure A.2.2: Increase in land used for settlements and transport (Source: StBA 2019) Anstieg der Siedlungs- und Verkehrsfläche Increase in land used for settlements and transport in Hektar pro tag Hectares per day Siedlungsfläche Land used for settlement Wohnbau, Industrie und Gewerbe (ohne Housing, industry and trade (excluding Abbauland), Öffentliche Einrichtungen mining areas), public institutions Sport-, Freizeit und Erholungsfläche, Land used for sport, leisure and recreation,

48 von 301 | www.bmu.de Friedhof cemeteries Verkehrsfläche Land used for transport Gleitender Vierjahresdurchschnitt Moving four-year average Datenumstellung Data switch Ziel: unter 30 Target: below 30 Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt, Januar Source: Federal Statistical Office, January 2019 2019 Die Datenbasis für Auswertungen der Calculation of the area used for settlement Siedlungs- und Verkehrsfläche ist die and transport is based on land surveys. Flächenerhebung. Mit Beginn des Jahres From January 2016 this statistic switched to 2016 wurde diese Statistik auf das Amtliche the Automated Real Estate Cadastre Liegenschaftskataster-Informationssystem Information System (ALKIS) and changes (ALKIS) umgestellt und es wurden were introduced. This affects comparisons Überarbeitungen eingeleitet. Dadurch ist over time and makes it more difficult to derzeit der Zeitvergleich beeinträchtigt und assess changes. The settlement and die Berechnung von Veränderungen wird transport area identified after the switch erschwert. Die nach der Umstellung includes largely the same types of use as ermittelte Siedlungs- und Verkehrsfläche previously. enthält weitgehend dieselben Nutzungsarten wie früher.

Weitere Erläuterungen Further explanations

Soil sealing should not be confused with land take. Sealing of the soil is the most environmentally harmful use of land, which – besides contaminating soil with pollutants – makes it impervious to precipitation and disrupts its natural functions. However, land used for settlement and transport also includes land that is not built on or sealed, for example green spaces and recreational areas such as urban parks, sports facilities, golf courses and cemeteries. Slightly less than half of the land used for settlement and transport is sealed.

Although the pace of land take for settlement and transport has slowed in recent years, there are no grounds for complacency. The stated objective of the German government in its National Sustainable Development Strategy of 2002 was to limit land take to 30 hectares per day by 2020 (the 30-hectare target). Since then it has published the revised strategy of 2016, in which the target is now a land take of less than 30 hectares per day by 2030. In the Integrated Environmental Programme 2030, the Federal Environment Ministry specifically advocates reducing land take to a maximum of 20 hectares per day in order to adhere to the trajectory set out in the Climate Action Plan 2050. This is because in the Climate Action Plan 2050 the German government has adopted a net zero land take target (circular flow land-use management), in line with the European Commission’s target. Continuing the average annual trend of the past few years will not be sufficient to reach the stated reduction targets.

49 von 301 | www.bmu.de One of the main challenges is to make better use of land already being used for settlement. An aspect of this is the fact that – because of immigration from other countries – there is considerable uncertainty about future population trends in Germany. More than ever before, this requires sustainable development of settlements in accordance with the principle of “infill before sprawl” and avoiding building on greenfield sites wherever possible. In the 2016 revision of its Sustainable Development Strategy the German government has therefore introduced a “settlement density” indicator that supplements the description of land take. The land-policy target is to keep settlement density at least constant. This is because – put simply – land take tends to result in lower settlement density in the area in question, while infill development measures help to keep settlement density at least constant.

Another supplementary indicator will in future depict “loss of open space” as an aspect of “land take”. All three of these land-related indicators are relevant to Sustainable Development Goal 11 of the 2030 Agenda (SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities – Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable).

Land is increasingly becoming a global commodity and an object of international investment that leads to the worldwide problem of “land grabbing”. In light of this, Sustainable Development Goal 15 deserves special mention (SDG 15: A land-degradation-neutral world) www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/_Anlagen/Nachhaltigkeit/2017-01-11- nachhaltigkeitsstrategie.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=22

Numerous initiatives to reduce land take were continued at the Federal, Länder, and municipality levels during the period covered by this report. These initiatives apply principles and instruments such as “infill before sprawl”; compact, urban, green cities; dual infill development (using urban land not only for building but also for urban greenery); brownfield vitalisation; calculation of consequential costs; registers of vacant plots, wasteland and vacant buildings and many more.

However, amendments to the Building Code in 2014/2015 altered planning law to make it easier to provide accommodation for refugees, and an amendment in 2017 made it easier to build housing by including outlying areas in the accelerated procedure. These new regulations have not taken account of the impacts on land take, but they apply only until the end of 2019. However, some policy-makers are calling for this deadline to be extended or removed entirely. By contrast, one of the principles laid down in the amendment of the Spatial Planning Act in 2017 is that steps should be taken in spatial planning to counteract land take, partly through quantified targets.

Under the new Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan (Bundesverkehrswegeplan – BVWP), existing main roads and motorways should be refurbished to modern standards and, if need

50 von 301 | www.bmu.de be, moderately expanded before more land is taken for new trunk roads. In its first environmental report, the BVWP 2030, which was adopted in 2016, addressed the 30-hectare target – something it had not done in the past. www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/DE/Anlage/VerkehrUndMobilitaet/BVWP/bvwp-2030- umweltbericht.pdf?__blob=publicationFile

The Federal Environment Agency has implemented a number of relevant research projects in the period covered by this report. A research project on efficient organisational and administrative structures in connection with the management of urban land yielded guidelines, intended primarily for municipal authorities, entitled “Innenentwicklung organisieren” [“Organising infill development”]. In another project, the German Institute of Urban Affairs (DIfU) summarised its findings in a brief “space-saving action plan”, which focused on three key areas for action: introducing an allocation system, encouraging infill development and removing false incentives.

The national Conference of Environment Ministers (UMK) commissioned the establishment of a nationwide information and communication platform on the subject of land-saving where relevant information and recommendations for stakeholders at municipal, Land and federal level can be entered and consulted.

The pilot project trading in land planning permits that had been discussed for some time was successfully implemented as a simulation exercise with 87 municipalities nationwide; the German government’s evaluation has not yet been published. www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/innenentwicklung-organisieren-kommunale www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/instrumente-zur-reduzierung-der Flaecheninanspruchnahme www.flaechenhandel.de www.aktion-flaeche.de The Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the federal-Länder working groups on soil protection and sustainable development have drawn up joint recommendations on curbing land take in rural areas. The recommendations include assessing the potential for infill development and producing strategies for activating this potential. Efforts will continue to be made to strengthen inter-municipal cooperation with regard to reducing land take. One recommendation is that land managers be appointed as contact persons, and that the relevant processes be initiated and supported. Land-development instruments are also to be strategically geared to infill development and linked to land management instruments and intervention compensation systems.

Research funding from the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) contributes to

51 von 301 | www.bmu.de sustainable land use and regional development. From 2009 until 2017, the BMBF Sustainable Land Management funding programme developed knowledge bases and future-oriented concepts for Germany, Europe, and selected emerging economies and developing countries. Researchers worked with users to explore the interactions between land management, climate change and ecosystem services (Module A) and innovative systemic solutions for sustainable land management (Module B). For example, the potential of paludiculture on fens was explored and planning tools were developed that can be used at an early stage in the planning process to assess the impacts of settlement development on transport, land resources and the environment.

As part of the BMBF funding programme “Innovation groups for sustainable land management”, which runs until 2019, practical solutions are being developed to help regions implement the energy transition and to promote integrated land use and the management of cultural landscapes. The environmentally friendly usage options that have been explored include agrophotovoltaics and agroforestry.

In addition to research and development work, the funding programme “Transdisciplinary innovation groups for sustainable land management” (2012 to 2019) will investigate innovation processes and conditions for the implementation of research results.

The BMBF “Innovative communities” funding programme, which addresses issues of land use and regional development in connection with demographic trends in Germany, was published in 2014.

For example, the CoProGrün project addresses the concept of urban agriculture and investigates how green belts can be safeguarded for the long term and made sustainable and attractive by involving stakeholders from agriculture, business and civil society.

Sustainable land management: www.fona.de/de/service/mediathek/2014/04/nachhaltiges- landmanagement.php Sustainable land management Module A: www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/archiv/nachhaltiges-landmanagement- modul-a.php Project check – checking site plans: www.projekt-check.de Innovation groups for sustainable land management: www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/innovationsgruppen-fuer-ein- nachhaltiges-landmanagement.php Innovative Communities: www.fona.de/de/aktuelles/presse/elektronische-pressemappen/kommunen-innovativ.php

52 von 301 | www.bmu.de A.3 Air Clean air is essential for all life, both to maintain human health and to preserve the natural environment. Improving the quality of the air has therefore been a major concern of the German government for many years. A great deal of progress has already been made in this area and total emissions of air pollutants have been significantly reduced. For example, environmental policy measures in recent years have led to the introduction of regulated catalytic converters or particle filters in cars and commercial vehicles. The reduction in emissions of sulphur dioxide from coal- fired power plants is another successful outcome of environmental policy.

The World Health Organization (WHO) states that air pollution is still the primary environment-related health threat in the world. The Global Burden of Disease Study (2015) estimated that around 6.5 million people around the world died of causes related to air pollution, with 4.2 million of these deaths being attributed to particulate matter and 0.3 million to ozone in outdoor air. The sixth Global Environment Outlook (GEO-6) of the United Nations Environment Programme even cites a figure of seven million premature deaths per year as a result of air pollution.

Emissions of air pollutants from industry, transport, agriculture and private households in Germany and Europe have decreased in recent decades but they still cause significant damage to health, the environment and the economy. Particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, ozone and other nitrogen compounds (such as ammonia) are the most common air pollutants. Some other pollutants such as benzol, heavy metals and dioxins can cause cancer or other serious diseases even at low concentrations. www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/479/publikationen/uba_factsheet_krank heitslasten_no2.pdf

Figure A.3.1 shows the trend of emissions of the most important air pollutants. While emissions of most substances have fallen sharply over recent years, ammonia emissions have remained almost constant and have in fact been rising for the past ten years or so.

53 von 301 | www.bmu.de Figure A.3.1: Trend of air pollutant emissions in Germany 1990–2016. Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA)

The EU’s air quality directives, implemented in Germany via the Ordinance on Air Quality Standards and Emissions Ceilings (39th Federal Immission Control Ordinance

– 39th BImSchV), impose limits on concentrations of particulate matter (PM10 and

PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and other air pollutants.

Within the EU, further air pollution control measures have now been adopted:

1. The EU and many of its member states are now parties to the revised protocols of the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

2. A directive on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from medium combustion plants was adopted in 2015.

3. The directive on national emission ceilings was adopted in 2016.

Re 2. Directive (EU) 2015/2193 on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants

54 von 301 | www.bmu.de into the air from medium combustion plants covers medium combustion plants, combustion engines and gas turbines with a rated thermal input of between one megawatt and 50 megawatts that use solid, liquid or gaseous fuels (including biofuels). The Directive specifies different emission limit values for nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and dust depending on the type, age and size of the plant.

The Directive was transposed into German law in the summer of 2019 as the 44th Federal Immission Control Ordinance (44. BImSchV). As well as specifying limit values, the Ordinance also sets out requirements relating to the registration of plants not subject to licensing under the Ordinance, the monitoring of emissions from the plants and the reports on emissions trends in regulated plants that need to be sent to the EU Commission every five years.

Re 3. The new National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive (2016/2284/EU) specifies different national emission reduction commitments for sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), ammonia (NH3) and particulate matter (PM2.5). The limits, which apply to all member states, must be achieved either by 2020 or by 2030. The Directive’s most important quantitative target is a reduction in premature deaths in the EU as a result of air pollution, especially particulate matter: the aim is to halve such deaths by 2030 in comparison with the base year of 2005.

As well as specifying actual national emission reduction commitments, the Directive also covers reporting on emissions and the effects of air pollution and requires member states to produce and update national air pollution control programmes detailing measures that will contribute effectively to the achievement of the air quality objectives. The Directive was transposed into German law in 2018 as the 43rd Federal Immission Control Ordinance (43. BImSchV)

The relevant air pollutants are described individually below:

Particulate matter: The effects of particulate matter on health vary depending on the size of the particles. Particles with a diameter of <10 µm (PM10) or <2.5 µm (PM2.5) can enter deep into the bronchial tubes or bronchioles; ultrafine particles with a diameter of <0.1 µm can penetrate as far as the lungs and blood stream. Particulate matter is the air pollutant with the greatest impact on human health. Quantitatively it plays a bigger part in cardiovascular diseases than in respiratory

55 von 301 | www.bmu.de tract diseases.

The annual average limit value for particulate matter is 40 µg/m3. Figure A.3.2 shows the development of PM10 annual average limit values in Germany from 2000 to 2016. The annual average limit value is met everywhere in Germany.

Figure A.3.2: Trend of PM10 annual average values in Germany from 2000 to 2016. Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA) Trend der PM10-Jahresmittelwerte Trend of PM10 annual average value Mittlere PM10-Konzentration Average PM10 concentration ländlicher Hintergrund rural background Städtischer Hintergrund urban background Verkehrsnah close to traffic Quelle: Umweltbundesamt 2017 Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA) 2015

The 24-hour average limit value for PM10 particles is 50 µg/m³; that level may be exceeded 35 times per year. The limit is now being exceeded at only one monitoring

56 von 301 | www.bmu.de point in Germany. This success has been achieved through emission reduction measures, including measures in the transport sector (particle filters). However, emissions of particulate matter also come from small combustion appliances such as solid-fuel stoves in private homes. These appliances, like traffic, give off emissions low to the ground, thereby polluting the air in the immediate vicinity. It is therefore very important that these appliances are operated properly.

Even in inner city areas, a significant proportion of particulate matter pollution arises from gaseous emissions that are converted into particles in the atmosphere and transported over long distances in the air (secondary particulate matter). Ammonia emissions from agriculture are a significant contributor (see also the section on nitrogen inputs). Reducing particulate matter pollution must therefore also involve cutting emissions of gaseous air pollutants.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) damages the mucosal tissue throughout the respiratory tract and irritates the eyes. The resulting inflammation amplifies the irritant effect of other air pollutants. Epidemiological studies have found a temporal link between nitrogen dioxide pollution and an increase in cardiovascular disease and mortality in the population.

Annual average values for nitrogen dioxide may not exceed 40 μg/m3 of air, and hourly average values may not rise above 200 μg/m3 more than eighteen times in a single calendar year. Figure A.3.3 shows the trend of annual average values of nitrogen dioxide in Germany from 2000 to 2016. Although concentrations are declining, annual average values are still being exceeded at a number of monitoring stations close to traffic. The high pollution levels at these stations are caused mainly by NO2 emissions from diesel cars [↗ chapter D].

57 von 301 | www.bmu.de

Figure A.3.3: Development of NO2 annual average limit values in Germany from 2000 to 2016. Source: UBA Trend der PM10-Jahresmittelwerts Trend of PM10 annual average value Mittlere PM10-Konzentration Average PM10 concentration ländlicher Hintergrund rural background Städtischer Hintergrund urban background Verkehrsnah close to traffic Quelle: Umweltbundesamt 2017 Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA) 2017

Ground-level ozone and its accompanying substances irritate the eyes and mucous membranes of many people and can cause headaches. The severity of symptoms depends mainly on the length of exposure. Ozone can have short-term adverse effects on health at peak levels and can also be harmful to health over the long term. The airways are particularly susceptible to the effects of ozone. As well as having direct effects, ozone can also increase the likelihood that allergic symptoms will be triggered. People vary widely in their sensitivity to ozone and a risk group cannot be precisely

58 von 301 | www.bmu.de delineated. It is assumed that 10 to 15 percent of the population are particularly sensitive to ozone.

Ozone is highly detrimental to ecosystems. It impairs plant growth and reproduction, which can seriously reduce crop yields. Ozone also has a negative impact on the physiology and ecology of forests and other semi-natural plant communities.

To protect human health, the Air Quality Directive includes a target value for ozone. The eight-hour average value of 120 μg/m³ of air must not be exceeded on more than 25 days per calendar year averaged over three years. The Federal Environment Agency’s annual assessments of the trend in air quality show that peak ozone concentrations have decreased considerably in recent years but that long-term pollution has not.

Figure A.3.4: Number of days on which the average ozone value (120 µg/m3) was exceeded in Germany, 2000–2016. Source: Federal Environment Agency (UBA) Zahl der Tage mit Überschreitung des Number of days on which the ozone Ozon-Zielwertes (120 μg/m³) zum target value for the protection of human Schutz der menschlichen Gesundheit health (120 μg/m³) was exceeded

59 von 301 | www.bmu.de Zahl der Tage gemittelt über drei Jahre Number of days averaged over three und den jeweiligen Stationstyp years and the relevant station type 120 μg/m³ als 8-Stunden-Mittelwert The 8-hour average value of 120 μg/m³ dürfen an höchstens 25 Tagen pro must not be exceeded on more than 25 Kalenderjahr überschritten werden, days per calendar year averaged over gemittelt über 3 Jahre three years ländlich, Hintergrund rural, background vorstädtisch, Hintergrund suburban, background städtisch, Hintergrund urban, background Quelle: Umweltbundesamt, eigene Source: Federal Environment Agency Zusammenstellung anhand der Daten (UBA), author’s compilation from data der Länder und des Umweltbundesamts provided by the Länder and the Federal 2017 Environment Agency 2017

Nitrogen inputs: Emissions of nitrogen compounds into the air in the form of ammonia (from agriculture) or oxidised nitrogen (from combustion processes in transport, industry, households and so on) damage natural and semi-natural ecosystems both physiologically and ecologically. Much of Central Europe’s biodiversity is being lost as a result. For example, nitrogen pollution affects the biodiversity of insects and vascular plants. www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/luft/daten-karten/eintraege-von-schadstoffen www.bmu.de/insektenschutz/ There are no legally binding limits on nitrogen inputs: critical loads define the thresholds below which, according to present knowledge, adverse effects on ecosystems do not occur. Numerous actions by the German government and the Länder in recent decades have considerably reduced pollutant emissions, thereby improving air quality. This has been evidenced by, among other things, data from Level II monitoring (forests).

60 von 301 | www.bmu.de A.4 Biodiversity The concept of biological diversity (biodiversity) embraces more than just the diversity of species of animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms; it also includes the diversity of habitats and genetic diversity within species.

Human activity has caused an enormous downturn in biodiversity over past decades. It is estimated that 60 percent of the world’s ecosystems have suffered dramatic degradation over the past 50 years. The most endangered habitats in Germany include, in particular, extensively used grassland biotopes and other semi-natural open landscape biotopes such as mires and wetlands.

Despite the wide-ranging countermeasures that have been put in place, the decline in biodiversity on our planet is still alarming. This is the conclusion reached in the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services produced by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) in May 2019. According to the Global Assessment, the rate of species extinction is now “at least tens to hundreds of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years”. www.ipbes.net/news/ipbes-global-assessment-summary-policymakers-pdf

It is not only on account of the intrinsic value of nature that this situation is alarming. Nature and its biodiversity also contribute to our health and wellbeing by providing a host of services that are termed “ecosystem services”. Thus, nature provides us with food and renewable resources, and it constitutes a reservoir of natural substances that can be used in all sorts of products. Forests and peatlands regulate the water balance, store large quantities of carbon and hence help to mitigate climate change. In addition, diverse landscapes provide varied settings in which to experience nature: they re-energise us and meet our recreational needs. The species within an ecosystem are interdependent. The decline or loss of individual species can therefore have far-reaching consequences for the functioning of the ecosystem. Species loss makes ecosystems more vulnerable to disruption, for example by extreme weather events, and hence also restricts their capacity to adapt to climate change. The underlying mechanisms are not yet sufficiently understood. To safeguard nature’s wealth and ensure that ecosystems remain fully functional, it is therefore important to halt not only the decline of particular species but also the loss of biodiversity overall.

61 von 301 | www.bmu.de The international basis for this is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Its objective is the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources (access and benefit-sharing – ABS). The CBD also requires member states to draw up national strategies.

The National Biodiversity Strategy (NBS) produced by the German government in 2007 views biodiversity conservation as a major challenge that calls for concerted action by state and non-state actors. It contains some 330 targets and 430 measures in all sectors relevant to biodiversity, as well as a set of indicators for monitoring and refining the targets and measures. The strategy is implemented via specific national strategies in individual sectors. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/nationale_strategie_biologische_vielf alt_2015_bf.pdf

In 2015, the Federal Environment Ministry launched the Nature Conservation Campaign 2020. The campaign maps out the urgent need for action on the basis of nature conservation policy; it triggered intensive discussion within the German government and with many stakeholder groups. www.bmu.de/naturschutz-offensive_2020/

Information on the achievement of targets and realisation of measures is contained in the German government’s 2017 report on progress in implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy, which was approved by the German government on 2 August 2017. The report covers implementation activities in ten action areas (I. farmland, II. coasts and seas, III. floodplains, IV. forests, V. wilderness, VI. protected areas, Natura 2000 and biotope network, VII. urban green areas, VIII, international responsibility, IX. knowing and understanding and X. finance) and identifies the action needed to reverse the downward trend in biodiversity. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/biologische_vielfalt_bf.pdf

The coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period envisages the conservation of biodiversity as a cross-cutting task and an important strand of environmental policy. Work on implementing the National Biodiversity Strategy is therefore to be stepped up.

During the period covered by this report, nine national forums were organised at

62 von 301 | www.bmu.de which priority topics relating to further implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy were discussed with the relevant stakeholders.

The Enterprise Biological Diversity 2020 platform, which was launched by the Federal Environment Ministry in 2013, has resulted in an ongoing and very constructive dialogue between business federations and nature conservation organisations about the various opportunities for incorporating biodiversity aspects into corporate management. By the end of 2018 the associated action platform already comprised more than 20 concrete implementation examples and activities.

The dialogue on religion and nature conservation coordinated by the Abrahamic Forum, which has been taking place since 2014, has also evolved into an intercultural and interreligious action alliance for the conservation of biodiversity. Practical examples of the nature conservation activities of religious communities were presented at the last dialogue forum in November 2017, and a religious nature conservation week was carried out in three German cities in the autumn of 2018. It is clear from this that the starting points highlighted in the joint declaration of the religious communities in February 2015 are being pursued energetically.

Further information about all activities relating to the implementation and dialogue process of the National Biodiversity Strategy is available on the website, which is the central information platform. www.biologischevielfalt.de

The Federal Biological Diversity Programme is a funding programme that has been supporting implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy since early 2011.

It covers four priority areas:

1. species that Germany has a particular responsibility to conserve

2. biodiversity hotspots

3. maintaining ecosystem services

4. other measures of particular significance for the strategy

For 2017, funding for the Federal Biological Diversity Programme was stepped up from the original 15 million euros to 20 million euros. Funding was increased in 2018 to 25 million euros and in 2019 to 32.1 million euros.

63 von 301 | www.bmu.de A total of 72 projects (187 sub-projects) with a volume of 117 million euros had been approved by December 2018. In the “biodiversity hotspots” priority area of the Federal Biological Diversity Programme, regions with a particularly high density and variety of characteristic species, populations and habitats can request funding from the German government. Five projects had been approved by July 2018.

Via the joint funding initiative “Research to implement the National Biodiversity Strategy” (Forschung zur Umsetzung der Nationalen Biodiversitätsstrategie), the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Federal Environment Ministry have since November 2013 funded consortiums of partners from research and industry to do application-oriented research in the above priority areas. Over a period of ten years the Federal Ministry of Education and Research is providing 28 million euros in funding for sub-projects that cover research questions from the projects, and for the implementing partners of four projects. The Federal Environment Ministry is providing funding of around 9 million euros for implementation measures in the remaining projects. www.nbs-forschung-umsetzung.de

Within the FONA³ framework programme, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research funds a variety of initiatives and consortium projects that aim to make scientific data on biodiversity publicly available. The types of data include species- specific DNA barcode sequences, data from natural history research collections and other information on biodiversity. For example, the consortium project “GBOL- German Barcode of Life” (funding of 11.6 million euros) is building a comprehensive reference database of all living organisms in Germany based on species-specific DNA barcode sequencing. In addition, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 24.6 million euros) provides a web portal via which it makes more than 1.3 billion scientific datasets permanently available free of charge anywhere in the world. Other projects such as the consortium project “Bridging in Biodiversity Science” (BIBS, 10.6 million euros) contribute to the systemic understanding of the complex environmental conditions that affect biodiversity.

In addition, in February 2019 the Federal Ministry of Education and Research launched a long-term research initiative on the conservation of species diversity. This will significantly advance biodiversity research, consolidate research activities and help tackle the progressive loss of biodiversity. The aim of the research initiative is to

64 von 301 | www.bmu.de close gaps in our knowledge of systemic connections that affect species loss and develop methods of conserving and improving biodiversity and using it sustainably. The research initiative has three strategic areas, via which it aims to:

1. develop innovative technologies and methods to improve and boost the efficiency of biodiversity monitoring

2. enhance our systemic understanding of the causes, dynamics and consequences of biodiversity changes, and

3. generate systemic solutions and a “repertoire of measures” in cooperation with prospective users

The initiative will receive funding of 200 million euros over the next five years. www.fona.de/de/german-barcode-of-life-gbol-19615.html www.fona.de/de/global-biodiversity-information-facility-gbif-10101.html www.fona.de/de/bridging-in-biodiversity-science-bibs-20894.html www.fona.de/de/forschungsinitiative-zum-erhalt-der-artenvielfalt-eine-fona-leitinitiative- 24079.html

In December 2010 the United Nations declared the period 2011 to 2020 to be the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity. The aim is to halt the global decline in biodiversity and make as many people as possible aware of the need to conserve it. Activities in Germany centre on two project competitions. The “Biological Diversity” project competition, which has been running since 2012, singles out projects that promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in Germany in a particularly exemplary manner. By the end of 2018 the independent jury of experts judging the competition had awarded around 500 projects the title of “Official project of the UN Decade on Biodiversity”. An additional special competition entitled “Social nature – Nature for all” was launched in 2017. It awards accolades to projects that demonstrate in particularly impressive ways how the diversity of nature and positive community experiences in and with nature can promote cohesion in our society. By the end of 2018 the competition had awarded the “UN Decade” designation to some 60 projects. www.undekade-biologischevielfalt.de/

Diverse, intact ecosystems are also of great economic value to Germany. Impairment

65 von 301 | www.bmu.de of them causes enormous economic damage, because the loss of ecosystem services can be offset only with difficulty and usually at considerable expense, which must be borne by the general public. Protecting nature is therefore worthwhile for the economy as a whole. These are the core statements of the closing report of “Natural Capital Germany – TEEB DE”, which was published in September 2018. “Natural Capital Germany”, which is funded by the Federal Environment Ministry, is the German follow-on project to the international study “The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity – TEEB”. The report describes ten examples of economic services provided by nature and sets out additional economic arguments for conserving biodiversity and restoring degraded ecosystems. www.bmu.de/PM8104

A.4.1 Protecting species, habitats and genetic resources During the reporting period the Länder continued to implement programmes in support of a number of species requiring protection. Some of these were funded via the funding priority area “Species that Germany has a particular responsibility to conserve” of the Federal Biological Diversity Programme. The list of species eligible for funding was extended in the amended funding directive of 23 February 2018 to all species for which Germany is largely or to a particularly large extent responsible.

The migration of wolves to Germany represents the first ever return to Germany of a species that was once extinct. In the 2017/2018 monitoring year, 73 packs (as at November 2018) were recorded in Germany. There were packs with young in seven Länder.

In light of the loss of species diversity across the globe and throughout Germany, the return of the wolf can be chalked up as a success of international, European and national species protection policy and appropriate conservation measures. However, the further spread of the wolf has now become a major challenge for the German government and almost all the Länder on account of growing concerns among the public about attacks by wolves. The increasing number of such attacks on livestock has affected the owners of grazing animals in some regions, especially in places where insufficient action has been taken to protect herds. The Federal Environment Ministry has therefore set up a Documentation and Advice Centre on Wolves (Dokumentations- und Beratungsstelle der Bundes für den Wolf – DBBW) to provide the Länder with specialist support.

66 von 301 | www.bmu.de Pre-emptive protective measures can reduce wolf attacks on livestock but cannot prevent them entirely. The wolf’s ability to learn and adapt must be taken into account when considering protective measures. The Länder assist livestock farmers with funding and advice when putting protective measures in place and provide compensation for attacks that take place despite appropriate protective practices. As part of the plan for managing wolves, the herd protection costs incurred by livestock farmers will in future be met by the Joint Task for the Improvement of Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection (GAK). On 30 July 2019, the planning committee (PLANAK) of the GAK adopted a rule on funding investors to protect against damage by wolves. This can be applied in 2019, following successful notification. In addition, a funding rule on ongoing operating expenses to protect against damage by wolves is currently being drawn up by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture in close collaboration with the Federal Environment Ministry and the Länder. This will involve reimbursement of the costs of maintaining herd protection fences and keeping livestock guardian dogs. This funding rule is due to enter into force with the Framework Plan 2020. The 2019 budget includes 1.05 million euros for measures to protect against wolves (Federal Wolf Programme). The Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture has now published funding guidelines under which shepherds who move their flocks from pasture to pasture (Wanderschäfer) receive a premium for flock protection measures based on the number of animals. In July, the DBBW published a strategy on wolves that pose a risk to humans. Wolves that become dangerous to humans can be killed.

In May 2019, the federal cabinet adopted draft legislation supplementing Article 45 of the Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz – BNatSchG) which is designed to improve legal certainty with regard to the granting of exemptions to the ban on killing wolves when the wolves cause serious damage to livestock. Further rules on the treatment of wolves include a ban on feeding wolves, a requirement for the authorities responsible for nature conservation and landscape maintenance to remove wolf hybrids, and rules on the voluntary cooperation of people entitled to hunt in connection with the removal of wolves on the basis of exemptions granted under species protection law. The final decision on the draft legislation is now with the Bundestag.

Under the Alpine Convention, Germany collaborates with the other Alpine countries

67 von 301 | www.bmu.de on the management of the wolf and lynx. It is discussing joint and cross-border monitoring and management of wolves with Poland.

The decline in insects received widespread public attention as a result of the publication in 2017 of the Krefeld Study – a study of insects produced by the Krefeld Entomological Association (EVK). The study, which was based on long-term monitoring in 63 nature reserves, revealed that insect biomass had decreased by an average of 76 percent over a period of 27 years. Other scientific studies in Germany have shown that insects have also declined outside nature reserves and that there has been a sharp decrease in both the mass and the diversity of insect species. According to the current Red List of invertebrates, 42 percent of the insect species that have been assessed are classed as endangered, extremely rare, extinct in the wild or extinct.

The observed decline in insects is alarming, because many insect species provide basic ecosystem services – for example by pollinating plants, serving as food for other insects and other animal groups, breaking down organic mass, providing the basis for biological pest control or controlling water pollution. These services are crucial not only for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning but also for us humans. While it is undeniable that certain insect species – and other animal groups too – can pose a risk to the health of humans, animals and plants, so that measures to control these insect species will continue to be needed, that does not absolve us of the responsibility to take action to prevent insect decline.

On the basis of the coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period, the German government has therefore declared its intention to improve conditions for insects by launching an Action Programme for Insect Protection. It agreed the key points of the programme in June 2018. Discussion of the programme’s specific measures with all relevant stakeholders commenced at the ninth National Forum on Biological Diversity on 10 October 2018. The general public was also involved in the discussion via a four-week online dialogue in October/November, and a two-day simulation game was organised for young people. The Action Programme for Insect Protection is due to be approved by the German government in 2019. www.bmu.de/download/aktionsprogramm-insektenschutz/

Research into insect protection is also a component of the research initiative on the

68 von 301 | www.bmu.de conservation of species diversity promoted by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). From May 2019, BMBF is providing funding of around 4.2 million euros for a comprehensive programme of detailed research into the causes of insect decline. The aim is to investigate the impacts of agricultural land use and the fragmentation of habitats on insect diversity. The project will include aspects of ecotoxicology and social scientific issues. www.fona.de/de/biodiversitaet-forschung-fuer-biologische-vielfalt-19759.html

The situation with regard to our bird species is closely linked to the issue of insect populations, because 80 percent of our breeding birds depend mainly on animal- based food during the breeding season, and about half of that food consists of small insects and arachnids. Information on the population development of 51 bird species in the most important landscape and habitat types in Germany is provided regularly by the National Biodiversity Strategy indicator “Species diversity and landscape quality”. The most recent indicator figures, which were produced in 2017, show that the trend over the last ten report years (2005 to 2015) has neither improved nor deteriorated. The various sub-indicators yield a more nuanced picture. For example, the sub-indicator for farmland has declined and is at only 59 percent of the target value. Forest birds, on the other hand, have fared significantly better. Here the trend has again been upwards, as it was in the period from 1997 to 2007, and has reached 90 percent of the target value.

The target value for 2030 is due to be reviewed by 2020.

69 von 301 | www.bmu.de Figure A.4.1: Development of species diversity and landscape quality. Source: StBA (2018)

Englische Fassung der Abbildung ist hier auf Seite 106: https://www.destatis.de/EN/Themes/Society-Environment/Sustainable-Development- Indicators/Publications/Downloads/indicator-report-2018.pdf?__blob=publicationFile

Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas for Europe’s most valuable species and habitats. In Germany, over 5,500 special areas of conservation (SAC) and special protection areas (SPA) have been designated under the EU Habitats Directive and Birds Directive respectively, covering over 15 percent of German territory. Work on the appropriate legal structure and the necessary safeguarding measures is well under way; by the end of 2018, around 97 percent of the special areas of conservation had been placed under protection and safeguarding measures had been defined for more than 73 percent of the areas. This will enable the network of Natura 2000 sites to be even more effective in future.

The number of protected areas continues to grow. By the end of 2017 Germany had 8,833 designated nature conservation areas making up about 3.9 percent of national territory (not including the waters of the North and Baltic Seas). The 16 national parks make up about 0.6 percent of the total land area of Germany, while the terrestrial areas of the 17 biosphere reserves cover 3.7 percent. Sixteen areas are also recognised as UNESCO biosphere reserves under the international Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme. The latest newcomer is the Black Forest biosphere reserve, which was added to the UNESCO list in 2017. The South Harz Karst Landscape biosphere reserve is still seeking UNESCO recognition. Germany further has 105 nature parks covering about 28.4 percent of the country. The 75-hectare area of the Ivenack Oaks in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, an ancient oak woodland originally used for grazing, was placed under protection in 2016, thus becoming Germany’s first National Nature Monument. In 2017 the Stones of Bruchhausen in North-Rhine/Westphalia were declared the country’s second National Nature Monument. This group of volcanic rocks up to 92 metres in height towers over woodland; the 24-hectare site contains rare plant relics from the Ice Age and evidence of prehistoric ramparts. In 2018 the Thuringian part of the Green Belt, covering around 6,500 hectares, was designated Germany’s first large-scale National

70 von 301 | www.bmu.de Nature Monument. This means that this section of the former border strip between East and West Germany is now uniformly protected as a memorial landscape and biotope network.

On the basis of the coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period, the German government has undertaken to draw up an action plan for protected areas that will have the joint backing of the federal government and the Länder. The aim is to improve the contribution of protected areas to the maintenance and improvement of the conservation status of species and habitats in Germany. The action plan also fulfils international agreements under the Convention on Biological Diversity. During the reporting period the Federal Environment Ministry has been proactive in drawing up the action plan with the Länder and has obtained the support of the German Conference of Environment Ministers.

Safeguarding the national natural heritage, which involves transferring federally owned nature conservation areas of national significance to the Länder and nature conservation organisations and foundations free of charge, began with the coalition agreement for the 16th legislative period. Under the coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period, a fourth tranche of an additional 30,000 hectares is to be added. The national natural heritage will then encompass 186,000 hectares. This land makes in important contribution to species protection, preserves valuable habitats and networks them into a system of interlinked biotopes.

Because most of the natural heritage land is forested, it also helps to meet the National Biodiversity Strategy goal of increasing the area of forests with natural forest development to five percent of total forest cover or ten percent of publicly owned forest cover by 2020. National natural heritage land can also help towards achievement of the NBS target of safeguarding two percent of national territory as wilderness areas.

At present, permanently protected wilderness areas as defined in the NBS exist mainly in the core zones of the national parks and some large statutory nature conservation areas. Initial estimates indicate that about 0.6 percent of Germany’s surface area is currently secured for large-scale wilderness development. A resolution of the German Conference of Environment Ministers in November 2015 has confirmed that the German government and the Länder will collaborate closely on implementation of the two-percent wilderness target in Germany. The coalition

71 von 301 | www.bmu.de agreement has proposed the prospect of a wilderness fund that would help the Länder work towards this target. Work on setting up the wilderness fund is under way. It has been allocated a budget of ten million euros per year, starting in 2019.

Two “wilderness communication” projects involving multiple partners have produced or will produce materials and guidance for everyone working for wilderness on a salaried or voluntary basis. www.wildnis-in-deutschland.de

The “chance.natur” support programme launched in 1979 promotes the permanent conservation of nationally significant natural and cultural landscapes with animal and plant species of high conservation value. The German government provided some 42 million euros for a total of 21 projects during the period covered by this report.

All over the world, poaching and illegal trading contribute to the dramatic decline in many animal and plant species. The illegal trade in products of protected species – such as ivory, rhino horn, pangolin scales, live parrots and rosewoods – has increased sharply in recent years and remains at a high level. It has significant adverse impacts on social and economic stability in many parts of the world and can sometimes contribute to deterioration of the (trans-)regional security situation.

Internationally, Germany is one of the largest donors in the fight against poaching and the illegal trade in products of protected species. The projects supported by the German government include a long-term project to tackle the illegal trade in ivory and rhino horn in Africa and Asia. The project, which involves multiple ministries, is being implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).

Positive signals for the combating of poaching emerged from the seventeenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which was held in Johannesburg, South Africa, from 24 September to 5 October 2016. Requests to ease the trade in ivory were rejected by a large majority. Instead, countries including Tanzania, Kenya, Vietnam and China, in which it is particularly important to tackle elephant poaching and the illegal ivory trade, undertook to produce and implement national ivory action plans. A sanctions mechanism – which includes possible trade sanctions – will come into force if these plans are not implemented or adhered to.

Another important success of the conference was the awarding of the highest CITES

72 von 301 | www.bmu.de protection status (Appendix I) to all pangolins that are endangered by poaching. More than 60 reptile species and six amphibian species that are endangered as a result of demand from reptile and amphibian enthusiasts have been included in CITES for the first time. The listing of three reptile species was due to action by Germany.

The conference also imposed significantly more stringent trade conditions or bans on a number of other endangered species such as certain sharks (silky shark, thresher shark) and rays and on tropical wood types, including 300 rosewood species.

Under Germany’s presidency of the G20, the heads of state and government undertook for the first time within the G20 to work together to tackle rampant poaching and the illegal trade in protected species worldwide. At Germany’s initiative, the G20 summit in Hamburg in June 2017 adopted the High Level Principles on Combating Corruption Related to Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Wildlife Products.

Further concrete agreements on tackling the wildlife trade were reached at various international conferences (Botswana 2015, Vietnam 2016 and most recently London 2018). The conference in London on 11 and 12 October 2018, which was held at the invitation of the UK government and the royal family, was attended by government representatives from 80 countries and representatives of the private sector, civil society and the scientific sector. Around 30 institutions from the financial sector came together to establish a financial task force that aims to increase the extent to which revenue from poaching is treated as a form of economic crime.

The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) was held in Manila, the Philippines, from 22 to 28 October 2017. A number of species were included in the Convention at the conference: well-known species such as the lion, leopard, giraffe and chimpanzee and lesser-known ones such as several species of vulture, shark and ray. The inclusion of threatened migratory species in Appendix I of the Convention means that special protective measures are agreed for these species. Germany campaigned successfully and in close collaboration with Ethiopia and Eritrea for the inclusion of the African wild ass and an action plan to protect this highly endangered animal from extinction.

A further threat to biodiversity is posed by various invasive species that may, for example, spread to other countries in the course of the growing international goods

73 von 301 | www.bmu.de trade. The Act of 8 September 2017 implementing Regulation (EU) no. 1143/2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species established the required national rules for intervention in the event of infringement of the bans laid down in the EU Regulation. The activities prohibited by the EU Regulation include the importing, keeping, selling, exchanging or releasing of the invasive species listed by the EU. The implementing act defines in particular the necessary official regulatory powers and the responsible authorities. A supplementary provision was also introduced into hunting law. With the exception of the new Article 28a of the Federal Hunting Act (BJagdG), which entered into force on 15 March 2018, the new provisions entered into force on 16 September 2017. As with other aspects of nature conservation law, enforcement of the regulations is mainly the responsibility of the relevant Länder authorities. Among other things, the Länder are now required to specify management measures to mitigate the adverse impacts of widespread invasive species on the EU list; if listed species are found at an early stage of invasion, immediate action must be taken to eradicate them. In addition, the Federal Environment Ministry is required to produce a national action plan that addresses the primary pathways via which invasive species are introduced and spread.

A.4.2 Sustainable use Sustainable use in harmony with nature preserves and promotes biological diversity. This is particularly true for forestry and agriculture, which use the most land in Germany. To conserve or restore the critically endangered marine ecosystems, fisheries must become sustainable and compatible with the ecosystem [↗ chapter A.1.4].

Forests and forestry

Forests are important habitats for many rare, threatened and protected animal and plant species. They are also valuable carbon sinks, play a major role in soil, water and air quality, offer a place for recreation, and supply many raw materials. Around one-third of German territory (32 percent of the total, or 11.4 million hectares) is forested today. Most of those forests are used for forestry. www.bmel.de/DE/Wald-Fischerei/Forst- Holzwirtschaft/_texte/Waldbericht2017.html;nn=1890222 The Forest Report published by the German government in September 2017

74 von 301 | www.bmu.de provides information on the state of forests in Germany and worldwide and on forest policy at national and international level during the period 2009 to2017. Forests in Germany are sustainably managed. According to the vast majority of the parameters used to assess their status, the forests are in good condition and have a wide range of productive, protective and recreational functions. Overall, the ecological status of Germany’s forests has improved significantly in recent decades. In the “Species diversity and landscape quality” indicator of the National Biodiversity Strategy, the sub-indicator for forests is at 90 percent of the target value – the highest value of all sub-indicators. This has been achieved primarily through semi-natural forest management, increased conversion of purely coniferous plantations into mixed deciduous forest and the deliberate conservation of specific forest structures. The proportion of deciduous trees in German forests has risen to 43 percent, while the proportion of coniferous trees has fallen to 57 percent. Seventy-six percent of the country’s forests now consist of mixed stands. The proportion of old biotope trees and dead wood has also increased. These specific microhabitats make a particularly important contribution to biodiversity. Almost a quarter of stands (24 percent of the total area) are over 100 years old (an increase of 18 percent since 2002). Eighty-five percent of the young stock is the result of natural regeneration.

Areas of forest that are left to develop naturally are essential as places of refuge for many plants and animals and as reference areas. Under the National Biodiversity Strategy, five percent of the total forested area (ten percent of publicly owned forests) should be developing naturally by 2020. Research has shown that at the start of 2019, 2.8 percent of the country’s forested area was under permanent legal protection for natural forest development; for the post-2020 period, it is anticipated that around four percent of forests will be legally secured in this way. This means that the area under permanent legal protection for natural forest development has increased faster than was initially forecast.

Other unused forest areas without permanent legal protection can also make a useful contribution to the conservation of biodiversity in forests. On the basis of the National Forest Inventory 2012, the Thünen Institute estimates that, when inaccessible areas are included, up to 5.6 percent of Germany’s forests are unused. In addition, there are small unused areas that are distributed in patches throughout the forest and are difficult to record. The German government has already made an exemplary

75 von 301 | www.bmu.de contribution to the natural forest development target in the NBS by making some of its own land available as national natural heritage and will continue this with the fourth tranche of 30,000 hectares pledged in the coalition agreement [↗ chapter A.4.1].

One of the documents in which the German government’s policy guidelines are set out is the Forest Strategy 2020, which was approved in September 2011. As a cross- sectoral strategy for forests as natural and economic areas, the Forest Strategy 2020 aims to strike a viable balance, adapted to future requirements, between the growing demands on forests and their sustainable performance. Equal consideration is given to the three dimensions of sustainability – environmental, economic and social – because sustainable forest use requires economic performance, environmental responsibility and social justice to be combined in equal measure. The overarching vision of the German government in its Forest Strategy is, through sustainable management, to maintain and develop site-appropriate, vigorous forests that are able to adapt to climate change and contain predominantly native tree species. The forests should provide the necessary raw materials, offer diverse habitats for flora and fauna, perform their protective functions and be inviting locations for recreation. A significant increase in the naturalness, stability and diversity of Germany’s forests is envisaged.

In addition to monitoring and implementation of laws on forestry and nature conservation, certification systems provide a means of supporting legal and sustainable forest management practices and promoting demand for legally and sustainably produced wood. The percentage of forest areas in Germany certified in accordance with high-quality environmental standards (PEFC, FSC) is therefore due to increase further by 2020.

In terms of area covered, the most important certification systems in Germany are PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes) and FSC (Forest Stewardship Council).

The sustainable forestry indicator of the National Biodiversity Strategy tracks forests certified under PEFC or FSC as a proportion of the German forest area (“timberland” as recorded in the National Forest Inventories of 2002 and 2012). In 2018, 68.6 percent of forest in Germany was certified under PEFC and 12.3 was certified under

76 von 301 | www.bmu.de FSC. www.umweltbundesamt.de/indikator-nachhaltige-forstwirtschaft Because forests can be certified under both systems simultaneously and the extent to which the areas covered by the two certification systems overlap is not known, it must be assumed that the total in 2018 was somewhere between 68.6 percent and 80.9 percent. This means that it is without doubt close to the National Biodiversity Strategy’s target value of 80 percent – which, however, was supposed to be reached by 2010.

Figure A.4.2: Forests certified under PEFC and FSC. Source: BWI 2002/2012, PEFC 2018, FSC 2018 (data), UBA 2018 (diagram)

Englische Fassung der Abbildung ist hier: https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/indicator-sustainable-forestry#at-a-glance

Based on a joint decree, the federal administration purchases only wood products

77 von 301 | www.bmu.de that come from forests that are legally and sustainably managed and are certified under PEFC, FSC or equivalent certification systems. Joint guidelines on this decree entered into force in October 2017, providing public bodies issuing invitations to tender and tendering organisations with guidance on interpretation and action in connection with the possible methods of demonstrating sustainability. www.verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de/bsvwvbund_06102017_534625050005.htm The funding guidelines of the Forest Climate Fund (Waldklimafonds) entered into force in June 2013. The Forest Climate Fund is managed jointly by the Federal Environment Ministry and the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture. In recent years, the Fund has become well established as the German government’s funding programme at the interface between climate action/climate change and sustainable forest management/forest conservation. By the end of 2018, 199 projects had been initiated with a total funding of nearly 65 million euros. Some of the projects involved consortiums of up to 11 partners. The Fund supports projects that help to safeguard and increase the CO2 mitigation potential of forests and timber and promote the adaptation of forests to climate change. www.waldklimafonds.de At European level and worldwide, the German government espouses the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of degraded and destroyed forests. Germany is among the largest donors worldwide for forest-related projects.

With the support of the German government, the process of extending the trilateral World Natural Heritage site “Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and the Ancient Beech Forests of Germany”, which was added to the UNESCO list in 2011, was successfully concluded. On 7 July 2017, during its 41st session in Krakow, the World Heritage Committee decided to also inscribe new beech forest areas in Ukraine and beech forests in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Italy, Romania, Slovenia and Spain in the UNESCO World Heritage list. This adds 63 areas covering a total of around 61,000 hectares to the site. The expanded World Natural Heritage site now bears the name “Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe”. www.weltnaturerbe-buchenwaelder.de/de/europaeisches-unesco-weltnaturerbe.html The degradation and deforestation that are continuing in many parts of the world are significant drivers of climate change. Unlike local or regional environmental problems,

78 von 301 | www.bmu.de reductions in greenhouse gas emissions have an impact globally and irrespective of the sector or part of the world in which they are achieved. According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2014), 24 percent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions come from the AFOLU sector (Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land-Use), with agriculture, deforestation and forest degradation contributing in equal measure. The IPCC identifies afforestation, sustainable forest management and reduced deforestation as the most cost-effective climate change mitigation measures. www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full_wcover.pdf Following the entry into force of the Paris Agreement, the 24th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP24) in Katowice established a common transparency system for all states that includes specific land-use elements for reporting on natural damage events, harvested wood products and the age class structure of forests. The rules enable the Parties to conserve and enhance the positive climate impacts of forests in their role as carbon sinks and reservoirs as required under Article 5 of the Paris Agreement. The realisation of REDD+ measures (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) is vital for many emerging economies and developing countries. Thirty- four countries have already submitted their REDD+ reference level to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Via the funding area “Conserving natural carbon sinks”/REDD+, which is part of the International Climate Initiative (IKI), the German government helps developing countries and emerging economies produce strategies for reducing their emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. The funding of climate change mitigation activities by the Federal Environment Ministry (BMU) and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) in 2017 encompassed 114 projects (BMU – 46, BMZ – 68) in the category REDD/REDD+ and restoration of forests, with total funding of 896 million euros. Of this, the BMU contributed 87 million euros and the BMZ 809 million euros. These figures relate only to the budget funds. Since 2009 the financial cooperation pledges have also included market funds (as at 31 December 2017, 65 million euros to fund the restoration of forests). In future, significantly more use will be made of market funds, especially in emerging economies. Mitigating climate change is one of the priority areas of the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture’s innovation funding programme. As a contribution to

79 von 301 | www.bmu.de the Paris Agreement (COP21) the Ministry is supporting 33 collaborative projects with an anticipated funding volume of 28.5 million euros that are being funded under the three announcements on climate change mitigation and on the adaptation of agriculture to the consequences of global warming in animal and plant production and on soil management.

The measures also contribute to implementation of the Bonn Challenge. This initiative, launched by the German government and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2011, aims to bring 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land all over the world into restoration by 2020. In terms of pledges by participating countries, this target has already been exceeded. By December 2018, 57 pledges from countries, provinces and organisations covered the restoration of more than 170 million hectares. Further global efforts are needed to secure actual implementation and achievement of the target on the ground. The target for 2030 involves restoring 350 million hectares of forest by that date. To help achieve this, the German government is providing financial and logistical support for regional processes worldwide. https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/resources/warsaw-framework-for-redd-plus https://redd.unfccc.int/info-hub.html www.bonnchallenge.org The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) was established in 2000 as a subsidiary body of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Following a successful evaluation, the international community of states decided in 2015 to continue and strengthen the Forum’s work. In January 2017, all 197 member states then agreed the first United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests, which was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in April 2017. For the first time, the entire United Nations and all other international stakeholders now have a common reference framework for the sustainable management and long-term conservation of the Earth’s forests. At UNFF the German government was among those that pressed strongly for a global forest strategy. The Strategic Plan lays the basis for closer links between the various international forest-related activities.

Illegal logging is a major cause of deforestation and forest degradation, particularly in the tropics. Germany and the EU are important sales markets for wood products and have introduced a variety of measures to combat illegal logging. Improvements have

80 von 301 | www.bmu.de been achieved in many regions in recent years, partly through European initiatives such as the EU FLEGT action plan (Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade). The action plan comprises a wide range of forest conservation measures on both the supply and demand side. Its key instruments are the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR) and voluntary partnership agreements (VPAs) between the EU and individual tropical timber-producing countries to improve framework conditions in the forestry sector and ensure legal timber production in the partner countries. In autumn 2016, following many years of negotiations and time spent putting the necessary conditions in place in the producing country, a VPA was concluded with Indonesia, serving as an example for other countries to follow.

Agriculture and genetic engineering

More than half of Germany’s territory – 51.1 percent, or 18.3 million hectares – is used for agricultural purposes. Many of the species-rich habitats and cultural landscapes that now merit protection were created by agriculture. Agricultural use has steadily intensified since about the 1950s and production has become ever more efficient. Farmers have shortened crop rotations and have often concentrated large- scale cultivation on a few highly productive crops. This has destroyed vital habitats for wild plants and animals, such as the wildflower meadows that were widespread until the 1980s. At the same time, extensively used species-rich habitats of the past – such as nutrient-poor grassland – are becoming overgrown because it is no longer economical to use them for traditional purposes such as sheep grazing and they have therefore been abandoned. The sub-indicator for farmland that falls under the “Species diversity and landscape quality” indicator of the National Biodiversity Strategy shows that species diversity on farmland declined during the period 2005– 2015 [↗ chapter A.4.1].

Nitrogen emissions, which come mainly from agriculture, are leading to the acidification and eutrophication of water bodies and other ecosystems and are contributing to the loss of biodiversity.

The 2016 revision of the German National Sustainable Development Strategy sets a target for the period 2028 to2032 to reduce average nitrogen surpluses in agriculture to 70 kg/ha of utilised agricultural area per year. Between 1992 and 2014 the nitrogen balance (moving five-year average) fell from 121 to 97 kilos per hectare.

81 von 301 | www.bmu.de Specific nitrogen reduction measures are needed if the planned target is to be achieved.

Figure A.4.3: Development of nitrogen surpluses in agriculture. Source: StBA (2018)

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The revision of German fertiliser law in 2017 will make an important contribution to reducing nutrient inputs from agriculture. However, it will be some time before the effect of the new measures on groundwater becomes apparent, because groundwater is a system that is very slow to respond. On 22 May 2019, the federal cabinet agreed a national air pollution control programme to implement EU Directive 2016/2284 on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants (new NEC Directive). Among other things, the programme defines suitable measures for reducing ammonia emissions – the majority of which come from agriculture – by 29 percent by 2030, compared to the reference year 2005. In addition, the Federal Environment Ministry is currently preparing an action programme on integrated nitrogen reduction that will contain proposals for measures that will apply across all originating sectors. Sixty-three percent of annual nitrogen emissions come from the

82 von 301 | www.bmu.de agricultural sector. The action programme is due to be approved in the current legislative period.

The use of agricultural chemicals can impact both directly and indirectly on biodiversity. Depending on their purpose, plant protection products may destroy segetal plants or decimate insect pests that are harmful to crops – and other insects too (direct effects). This reduces the supply of feed for bird species such as grey partridges and skylarks that are typically found on farmland. The effects on biodiversity go hand in hand with the proper use of the chemicals. To limit these impacts, greater consideration must in future be given to biodiversity – partly through licensing law – in connection with the use of herbicides and pesticides.

The German government has agreed to support an EU-wide ban on certain neonicotinoids. This prohibits all outdoor use of these neonicotinoids. It was specified in the coalition agreement that a systematic reduction strategy will be introduced to restrict the use of plant protection products containing glyphosate, with the aim of phasing out glyphosate use entirely as soon as possible. The government will work with the agricultural sector to develop an arable farming strategy that will identify alternatives and ensure that plant protection products are used in ways that minimise damage to nature and the environment. The legal measures that this requires will be anchored in a framework that complies with EU requirements.

The insect protection action programme agreed in the coalition agreement aims, among other things, to significantly reduce the adverse impacts of plant protection products and biocides on insects.

By avoiding the use of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, organic agriculture plays an important part in promoting biodiversity. As the “organic farming” indicator shows, the total area of organically farmed land has increased continually since 1999.

According to figures from Germany’s Federal Statistical Office, the proportion of agricultural land that is managed organically has increased from 2.9 percent in 1999 to 6.8 percent – or 1.14 million hectares – in 2017. Due to the methods used, the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture’s figures show the proportion of organically managed land to be slightly higher: the Ministry’s figure for 2017 is 8.2 percent or 1.37 million hectares.

Conversion to and maintenance of organic farming are funded through agri-

83 von 301 | www.bmu.de environment-climate measures (AECM) of the second pillar of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Joint Task for the Improvement of Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection (GAK). The Federal Scheme for Organic Farming and Other Forms of Sustainable Agriculture (BÖLN) supports model projects and research into organic farming. Under the coalition agreement and on the basis of the “Organic Farming – Looking Forwards” strategy put forward by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture in 2017, the aim is for 20 percent of the total land used for agriculture to be farmed organically by 2030. The revision of the German National Sustainable Development Strategy approved by the German government in November 2018 contains a similar target. The current rate of increase is not sufficient for this target to be achieved. This will require increased funding for organic funding from GAK and CAP.

Figure A.4.4: Development of organic farming. Source: StBA 2018

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Conventional agriculture must also contribute more to the protection of nature, the environment and the climate. Corresponding measures are presented in the German government’s arable farming strategy and livestock husbandry strategy and in the

84 von 301 | www.bmu.de Climate Action Programme 2030.

How the agricultural landscape develops depends to a significant extent on the future form of the CAP. Standardised EU safeguards are required for key environmental requirements. Farmers should also be better rewarded for voluntary measures relating to environmental protection, climate change mitigation, nature conservation and water body protection that go beyond what is legally required. The second pillar of the CAP uses funds from the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) to support, among other things, agri-environment-climate measures. These measures are implemented in Germany partly through the Joint Task for the Improvement of Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection (GAK) with national co-financing by the German government and the Länder. Measures involving investment in nature conservation were included in the GAK framework plan in 2017; contract-based nature conservation in arable farming was added in 2018 and contract-based nature conservation in forestry in 2019.

The impacts of genetically modified plants (GMPs) on the environment have been a controversial topic of public debate for years. Genetic engineering enables genes to be changed and transferred from one organism to another practically irrespective of natural species’ boundaries. In principle, crops on and near farmland can interact with wild plants and animals. Cultivating GMPs could give rise to specific risks due to the GMPs' new properties; these risks are tested in the EU authorisation procedure. Authorisation for cultivation is only granted in the EU if the genetically modified plant does not constitute a greater environmental risk than the equivalent conventionally grown plant.

Directive (EU) 2015/412 of 2 April 2015 (the Opt-Out Directive) enables EU member states to restrict or prohibit the cultivation of genetically modified organisms in their territory on compelling grounds that must not contradict the environmental impact assessment conducted as part of the authorisation process. Implementation of the Opt-Out Directive is voluntary. At the end of 2015, the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture used a transitional measure provided for in the Directive. All organisations that had applied to the EU for authorisation to grow GMPs accepted Germany’s request not to grow their GMPs (of which there were six in all) on German territory. This means that commercial growing of GMPs in Germany will continue to be ruled out even if the EU grants authorisation for these six GMPs. Since then no other

85 von 301 | www.bmu.de applications to grow GMPs have been submitted and none are currently expected. No GMPs have been grown in Germany since 2012.

The Opt-Out Directive has not yet been transposed into German national law. In the coalition agreement for the current legislative period it is agreed that a standardised ban on growing GMPs will be introduced across Germany.

Another topical issue is that of new molecular biology techniques, including genome editing with CRISPR/Cas. CRISPR/Cas and related techniques enable the targeted alteration of genes. This can include the editing of individual base pairs, known as directed mutagenesis, but entire genes can also be rewritten. On 25 July 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled that organisms obtained by directed mutagenesis are to be regarded as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) within the meaning of the Deliberate Release Directive 2001/18/EC. They are therefore subject to the requirements of risk assessment and authorisation and must be properly labelled.

Gene drive systems are also controversial. Gene drives are genetic elements or gene constructs that increase the likelihood that a gene will be inherited. This means that genes become dominant in a population much faster than when passed on according to Mendelian rules.

Genes inserted by means of a gene drive can be passed on to significantly more than 50 percent of the offspring, enabling them to spread throughout the entire population within a few generations. There have not yet been any applications in Germany to release organisms that contain a gene drive and are subject to genetic engineering law. The law requires authorisation of organisms containing a gene drive to observe the precautionary principle, among other things. Because of the characteristics of such organisms, considerable research is needed.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) highlights the numerous opportunities and risks of new molecular biology techniques in general and gene drive systems in particular in its report “Frontiers 2018/19: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern”, published on 4 March 2019.

The research funded by ministries explores the potential of conventional breeding methods and new molecular biology techniques in light of global challenges (such as climate change) and possible environmental impacts.

86 von 301 | www.bmu.de A.4.3 International biodiversity policy Germany has in recent years also played a leading role internationally in global biodiversity policy.

At the twelfth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD in Pyeongchang, South Korea, in the autumn of 2014, the parties agreed that by 2015 they would double the average international funding provided in the period 2006–2010 and maintain this level until 2020.

Germany is fulfilling this commitment and, as pledged by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel, has since 2013 provided 500 million euros annually for the protection of biodiversity worldwide. About 80 percent of the funds are made available through the bilateral and multilateral cooperation of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development; the Federal Environment Ministry supplements this with targeted funding provided through its International Climate Initiative (IKI). The IKI is thus a complementary component of the German government’s heightened commitment: between 2008 and 2017 more than 849 million euros has been pledged from IKI funds for projects that either directly conserve biodiversity or are relevant to it.

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity agreed at the tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD in 2010 contains the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which aim to halt worldwide biodiversity loss by 2020.

In view of the continuing decline in biodiversity, delegates at the fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD, which was held in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, from 17 to 29 November 2018, agreed that efforts to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets by 2020 would be significantly stepped up. Decisions were also taken on how the post-2020 global biodiversity framework should be developed. A working group was set up to address this and will draw up its proposals over the next two years. In addition to the parties to the CBD, other stakeholders such as business and environmental organisations will be involved in the preparation process. The new framework, which is intended to bring about further progress in biodiversity conservation worldwide, will be approved at the fifteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CBD in Kunming, China, in 2020. Germany will be heavily involved as it will hold the EU Council Presidency at that time and will be coordinating the negotiations for the EU.

87 von 301 | www.bmu.de At the Conference of the Parties in Sharm el-Sheikh in 2018 the parties agreed an action plan to halt the sharp decline in pollinators worldwide. Funds will be made available and support will be provided to enable the parties to set up pollinator protection programmes. Agreement was also reached on declaring certain parts of the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea as ecologically or biologically significant marine areas (EBSAs). This constitutes a first step towards the establishment of new marine protected areas.

Another important step in Germany’s international biodiversity policy was the ratification of the Nagoya Protocol under the CBD.

The Nagoya Protocol allows member states to make access to their genetic resources contingent on their prior consent and contractually oblige users of these genetic resources to ensure fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from their utilisation. States on whose territory utilisation takes place must ensure that access to the resources in question occurs with the consent of the country of origin – where that country’s national law so requires – and that a corresponding utilisation agreement is drawn up. The Protocol entered into force on 12 October 2014. By July 2018, it had been ratified by 107 states (including 17 EU member states) and the EU. Germany signed the Protocol in June 2011, ratified it in April 2016 and has been a Party since 20 July 2016.

The Protocol affects both the competences of the EU and competences of member states. It must therefore be implemented collaboratively and in a coordinated manner. The EU ABS (Access and Benefit-Sharing) Regulation, which entered into force in autumn 2014, implements the Protocol uniformly at EU level. This was supplemented in the autumn of 2015 by Implementing Regulation of the European Commission, which contains more extensive provisions on implementation. A national enforcement act entered into force on 1 July 2016; this act lays down sanctions and powers of intervention and defines national responsibilities for enforcement. In a further step, a guidance document on the scope of application and core obligations of the ABS Regulation were drawn up jointly with the other member states and the European Commission and published in the autumn of 2016. This is due to be followed shortly by another guidance document which will deal in more detail with individual issues identified as being of particular practical relevance.

During the period covered by this report, the German government was also involved

88 von 301 | www.bmu.de in numerous activities in connection with the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), the secretariat of which is hosted by the city of Bonn, Germany. For example, to prepare national negotiating positions, the German IPBES coordination office set up by the Federal Environment Ministry and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research organised several national IPBES forums in which a number of German experts took part. Four regional assessments of biodiversity and ecosystem services (including one for Europe and Central Asia) and a land degradation and restoration assessment report were adopted at the sixth plenary session of IPBES, which was held in Medellín, Colombia, in March 2018. The IPBES reports provide not only the member states, but in particular the bodies of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) with information and a basis for decision-making.

89 von 301 | www.bmu.de B. Climate change, climate action and the energy transition

B.1 Climate change B.1.1 Climate – a life-sustaining natural resource Climate change is not a distant future threat – global warming has been happening for some time. The five hottest summers since records began some 140 years ago have all occurred since 2010. Anthropogenic global climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of extreme weather events – heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall, hail and storms. These extreme weather events are already causing growing problems here in Germany; in other parts of the world, they put lives and livelihoods at risk and are a major driver of migration and displacement.

“Climate” refers to the average weather conditions for a particular location or region over a long period of time. The timescale for study of the climate recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a minimum of 30 years. The variables measured in order to characterise the climate in statistical terms include temperature and precipitation (frequency, duration, averages and extreme levels).

The Earth’s atmosphere contains naturally occurring gases – known as greenhouse gases – which absorb heat. These gases allow sunlight (solar radiation) to pass through the atmosphere but retain some of the infrared radiation (heat) from the surface of the Earth. The gases thus decrease the amount of heat emitted back to space.

For about 10,000 years – until the start of industrialisation – our climate on Earth was generally stable, providing natural conditions conducive to the development of human civilisation. Reducing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions is essential in order to safeguard the survival of our species on Earth.

B.1.2 The current status of global climate change Since the start of industrialisation, the composition of the atmosphere has changed as a consequence of human activity, and the proportion of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), has increased. During this period, the average global temperature has risen by about 1°C. Globally, 16 of the 17 hottest years on record have occurred since 2000. In its Fifth Assessment Report, the latest in its series of reports, published in 2013/2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) notes: “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal”. It backs up this statement with scientific evidence and states that human influence, particularly burning of fossil fuel, caused much of the observed increase in global average surface temperature since the mid-20th century.

90 von 301 | www.bmu.de According to the German Climate Consortium (Deutsches Klima-Konsortium – DKK), whose members include the German Meteorological Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst – DWD), the temperature of the upper ocean increased by approximately 0.5°C between 1980 and 2015. NASA satellite measurements show that global average sea levels rose by around 85 millimetres between 1993 and 2017; the rate of increase is currently 3.4 mm per year (± 0.4 mm). Levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are steadily increasing. Observations at the

Mauna Loa reference station in Hawaii showed that the annual average CO2 concentration in 2017 was already around 405 ppm. At roughly 41 percent above the pre-industrial level, this is the highest concentration of CO2 for at least 800,000 years. www.deutsches-klima- konsortium.de/fileadmin/user_upload/pdfs/Veranstaltungen/Climate20/DE/Climate20_Pressei nformation.pdf The oceans are severely affected by climate change. Global mean surface ocean pH is currently around 8.1, a decline of approximately 0.1 compared with the pre-industrial level. This poses a threat to numerous marine organisms because lower pH values disrupt calcification, affecting shell formation in bivalve and gastropod molluscs. The rate of land and sea ice loss has increased in recent years. Greenland ice sheets are declining at a rate of 250 to 300 billion tonnes a year, causing global sea levels to rise by approximately 0.6 mm annually. Ice mass is also being lost by 80 percent of mountain glaciers observed by researchers. The total mass of glaciers around the world has fallen sharply since 1980 – an ice sheet with a thickness of around 20 metres has disappeared on average. No such development has ever previously been observed since records began. In winter 2016/17, the extent of global sea ice (North Pole and South Pole combined) reached a record low.

The impacts of climate change in Germany and the adaptation measures adopted by the German government are described in detail elsewhere in this report [↗ chapter B.3].

B.2 Climate action The agreement reached in December 2015 at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris is the first climate accord to be applicable to all countries. It entered into force in 2016. Under the Paris Agreement, the international community has made a binding commitment under international law to keep global warming well below 2°C above pre- industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C.

The German government is mindful of Germany’s role and responsibility. Protecting the climate has therefore been a key priority of German policy-making for more than two decades.

91 von 301 | www.bmu.de B.2.1 Emissions trends in Germany Germany has set itself the target of cutting its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 percent by 2020 compared with 1990 levels. This equates to a total reduction of around 500 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent, taking emissions down to 750 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. Germany succeeded in reducing its greenhouse gas emissions to 909 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2016, which is 27 percent lower than 1990 levels. The latest estimates from the Federal Environment Agency (UBA) indicate a reduction in 2018 to 865.6 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. However, Germany’s national target for 2020, i.e. a 40 percent reduction, is very likely to be missed [↗ chapter B.2.2].

A comparison of the individual greenhouse gases shows that CO2 is the predominant gas, largely resulting from burning of fossil fuels. The share of methane emissions (CH4) was 6 percent in 2016; the figure for nitrous oxide (N2O) was 4.2 percent. Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) accounted for approximately 1.7 percent. This distribution range for greenhouse gas emissions is typical for a highly industrialised country. Figure B.2.1 shows emissions trends in Germany since 1990.

92 von 301 | www.bmu.de Jährliche Treibhausgas-Emissionen in Deutschland

nach Substanz

1.400

1.251

1.154 1.200 1.126 1.141 1.081 1.045 1.039 1.019 1.001 976 943 1.000 908 920 925 942 903 907 911 907 866

800

600

400 Emissionen CO2-äqu.) t Emissionen Mio. (in

200

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018**

CO2* CH4* N2O* HFC PFC SF6

*Ohne LULUCF ** Schätzung für 2018, F-Gase Quelle/Source: Umweltbundesamt: Nationales Treibhausgasinventar 2019, 11/2018 (v 1.0), Schätzung: nur als Summe Presse-Information 09/2019

Figure B.2.1: Emissions trends in Germany since 1990, by greenhouse gas. Source: Federal Environment Agency, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2018 Eine einfachere englische Version ist auf Seite 12 hier: https://www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/klimaschutzbericht_2017_akti onsprogramm_en_bf.pdf

Jährliche Treibhausgas-Emissionen in Annual greenhouse gas emissions in Deutschland nach Substanz Germany, by substance Emissionen (in Mio. t CO2-äqu.) Emissions in million tonnes of CO2 equivalent *Ohne LULUCF *Without land use, land-use change and ** Schätzung für 2018, F-Gase nur als forestry (LULUCF), Summe ** Estimate for 2018, F-gases as total only Quelle/Source Source Umweltbundesamt: Nationales Federal Environment Agency: National Treibhausgasinventar 2019 Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2019 Schätzung: Presse-Information 09/2019 Estimate: press information 09/2019

93 von 301 | www.bmu.de Vermerk: Bei Zahlenangaben (z.B. 1.400, 1.251) Punkte bitte mit Kommata ersetzen.

As the breakdown by sector shows, the energy industry still produces the largest proportion of greenhouse gas emissions, but most of these GHG emissions have decreased since 1990. Industry continues to be the second largest producer of emissions, followed by the transport sector. Figure B.1.1 shows emissions trends since 1990 by sector.

Figure B.2.2: Emissions trends in Germany since 1990, by sector (without land use, land-use change and forestry). Source: Federal Environment Agency 2019

Entwicklung der Treibhausemissionen in Trends in greenhouse gas emissions in Deutschland Germany by sector as defined in the in der Abgrenzung der Sektoren des Climate Action Plan 2050 Klimaschutzplans 2050

94 von 301 | www.bmu.de Reduktion ggü. 1990 um 80% bis 95% 80-95% reduction compared with 1990 level Emissionen (in Mio. t CO2-äqu.) Emissions in million tonnes of CO2 equivalent Energiewirtschaft Energy industry Verkehr Transport Ziele min. Minimum targets Industrie Industry Landwirtschaft Agriculture Gebäude Households Abfallwirtschaft und Sonstiges Waste and other emissions Die Aufteilung der Emissionen weicht … Breakdown of emissions differs from UN identisch reporting categories but emissions totals are identical Schätzung Estimate Quelle: Umweltbundesamt Source: Federal Environment Agency Vermerk: Bei Zahlenangaben (z.B. 1.400, 1.251) Punkte bitte mit Kommata ersetzen.

B.2.2 Measures implemented at federal level The German government has implemented a wide range of climate policy measures in recent years. The Seventh National Communication on Climate Change – a report under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – provides a detailed overview of German climate policy to 2017. The following description is therefore confined to key policy processes. Further information about climate-related measures adopted by the German government can be found in the various thematic sections of this report [↗ chapters C and D].

Implementing the Climate Action Programme 2020

In December 2014, the German government adopted the Climate Action Programme 2020. It also adopted the National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE), which makes a significant contribution to implementing the Climate Action Programme. The German government thus recognised that the national 40 percent emissions reduction target for 2020 was unlikely to be reached with the measures adopted and implemented to date.

A climate mitigation gap of between 5 and 8 percentage points was identified, indicating that additional efforts were required to reach the 40 percent target. The German government has initiated these measures under the Climate Action Programme since 2014. The Climate Action Programme 2020 is intended to contribute a reduction of between 62 and 78 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent to close this gap. This estimated total is made up of mitigation contributions from more than 110 individual measures.

The German government continuously monitors implementation of the measures listed in the Climate Action Programme and, to that end, publishes an annual Climate Action Report detailing current emissions trends in the various fields of action, the implementation status of

95 von 301 | www.bmu.de the measures adopted under the Action Programme and their anticipated mitigation outcomes to 2020.

The 2018 Climate Action Report shows that the measures adopted under the Action Programme are having an effect. Based on current estimates, however, the Action Programme’s anticipated contribution does not yet appear to have been achieved in full.

A study commissioned by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) and released in October 2017 indicates that all the measures implemented so far will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 32.2 percent by 2020 compared with 1990. There is thus a predicted mitigation gap of almost 8 percentage points. www.oeko.de/fileadmin/oekodoc/Memo-Ueberpruefung-Emissionsminderung-2020.pdf

The German government will continue its efforts to ensure that the Climate Action Programme 2020 and all the associated measures are fully implemented.

Implementing the National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE)

The National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE), adopted by the German government in 2014, comprises more than 30 measures, including the following: introduction of a competitive tendering system for energy efficiency, formation of 500 corporate energy efficiency networks, increase in funding levels, improved provision of advice and energy- saving measures in the buildings sector. Between 2016 and 2018, funding amounting to 1.19 billion euros from the Investing in the Future Programme was provided to implement the various measures.

NAPE is supplemented by measures to increase energy efficiency, based on the coalition committee’s decisions of 1 July 2015 on the key parameters for successful implementation of

Germany’s energy transition. The aim is to cut emissions by 5.5 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2020 through a package of measures to boost energy efficiency in the buildings sector, in local authorities, industry and rail transport. In order to achieve this target, additional financial resources will be provided for the Energy and Climate Fund: up to 5.8 billion euros will be made available for additional measures to 2020. In the transport sector, funding from Investing for the Future will be deployed to implement measures under the Climate Action Programme.

Based on the findings of the Green Paper on Energy Efficiency, the German government will continue to develop NAPE and implement it as swiftly as possible.

96 von 301 | www.bmu.de Climate Action Plan 2050

In November 2016, the German government adopted the Climate Action Plan 2050, making Germany one of the first countries to submit the long-term strategy required under the Paris Agreement. In a dialogue process which began in summer 2015, the federal states (Länder), municipalities, associations and members of the public developed joint proposals for strategic climate measures to be effective by 2030, resulting in a catalogue of 97 proposed measures. In drafting the Climate Action Plan 2050 in 2016, the German government considered these proposals from the broad dialogue in light of the Paris Agreement, alongside the findings of scientific reports and scenarios.

In the Climate Action Plan 2050, the German government confirms and elaborates its ambitious climate targets. Germany’s long-term goal is to become extensively greenhouse gas-neutral by 2050. This is based on the goal set out in the Paris Agreement of achieving global greenhouse gas neutrality in the second half of the century. Germany’s target also takes account of its particular responsibility as a leading industrialised nation and one of the EU’s strongest economies.

The medium-term target is to reduce Germany’s greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55 percent compared with the 1990 level by 2030. The Climate Action Plan 2050 maps out the process for achieving the national climate targets in line with the Paris Agreement for all areas of action: energy, buildings, transport, trade and industry, agriculture and forestry. The Climate Action Plan also sets emission reduction targets for individual sectors for 2030 for the first time, describes the necessary development pathways in the various sectors, lists initial measures for implementation and thus provides guidance for strategic decisions over the coming years. In addition, the Action Plan makes provision for monitoring and public participation. Germany will thus make its contribution to achieving the goal set in the Paris Agreement, namely to keep global warming well below 2˚C and to pursue efforts to limit it to a maximum of 1.5˚C. Table B.2.1 provides an overview of emissions and sector targets to 2030.

Table B.2.1: Emissions and 2030 sector targets. Source: Climate Action Plan 2050

97 von 301 | www.bmu.de

Englisch auf Seite 8 hier: https://www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/klimaschutzplan_2050_en_bf. pdf

In 2019, the Climate Action Plan 2050 will be underpinned with an initial programme of measures with quantifiable mitigation impacts. The purpose of the programme is to ensure that the 2030 reduction targets are achieved. Evaluations will be carried out to assess the potential environmental, social and economic impacts of the proposed measures. An impact assessment was previously conducted for the development pathways underlying each sector target, in order to identify their specific opportunities and risks and enable flanking measures to be adopted if necessary.

The key role played by research in achieving the emission reduction targets is also underlined in the Climate Action Plan 2050. A scientific platform will therefore advise the federal ministries on implementation, goal attainment and the impact of the measures defined in the Action Plan as part of a broad science-based support process.

The programme of measures mentioned above will be developed in consultation with the German Bundestag and with the participation of civil society groups. On 20 March 2019, the German government agreed to set up a Climate Cabinet Committee to coordinate efforts to meet the legally binding commitments made in the Climate Action Plan and prepare the way for fulfilment of Germany’s mandatory climate targets for 2030. All the relevant decisions should be adopted before the end of 2019.

When adopting the Climate Action Programme 2020, the German government set up a Climate Action Alliance. The Alliance is tasked with supporting implementation of the

98 von 301 | www.bmu.de measures adopted in the Climate Action Programme, with making it easier to activate potential that is currently rated as not yet quantifiable and with identifying further options for action. In particular, members of the Climate Action Alliance are called upon to develop their own initiatives to harness additional potential to reach the German government’s climate targets.

When adopting the Climate Action Plan 2050 in November 2016, the German government resolved to continue the Alliance beyond 2020. Among other things, the Climate Action Alliance will support the preparation, revision and implementation of the programmes of measures relating to the Action Plan. The Alliance’s members include associations from all climate policy fields, environmental and development organisations, academia, local authorities and federal states (Länder), as well as trade unions and social welfare organisations, whose task is to support the German government’s endeavours to ensure that its climate policies are compatible with society’s needs.

The Climate Action Plan itself will be reviewed and updated as part of a social dialogue with broad participation by the Länder, local authorities, the private sector, civil society and the public. The consultation processes associated with the Climate Action Plan 2050 are regularly evaluated and improved.

The German government will continue to develop a culture of participation, thereby initiating and strengthening learning and innovation processes. It is guided in particular by the Sustainable Development Goals on gender equality (SDG 5), reducing inequality (SDG 10) and inclusive societies/good governance (SDG 16).

The Climate Action Plan 2050 and the packages of measures and targets agreed for all sectors will be implemented in full. The 2030 climate target is definitely to be reached.

Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment

On 31 January 2019, the Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment, established by the German government in summer 2018, presented its final report to the German Chancellor. The German government thanked the Commission for its work. It is now assessing the Commission’s proposals and developing a practical strategy for their implementation.

The Commission’s mandate and objectives included the submission of proposals for the gradual phasing out of coal-fired power generation in Germany, along with recommendations on sustainable, future-focused structural development in the regions most affected by the exit from coal.

99 von 301 | www.bmu.de The Commission’s final report sets out specific proposals on the gradual reduction of coal- fired power generation in Germany. Milestone years are 2022, 2030 and 2038. Germany’s installed coal power capacity is to decrease from 42.5 GW (2017) to 30 GW (2022), with a further reduction to 17 GW by 2030. 2038 is set as the end date for coal-fired power generation. The exit from coal will be flanked by other energy sector measures.

The report also includes proposals on sustainable, future-focused structural development policies for the regions most affected by these changes.

From the German government’s perspective, the compromise – reached through broad social consensus – represents major progress towards more climate action and sustainable development. The German government is therefore investing considerable effort in implementing the Commission’s recommendations. On 22 May 2019, the German government adopted a paper which defines key principles for implementing the Commission’s consensus-based structural policy recommendations via a coherent economic development strategy. The key principles stipulate that the federal government will provide up to 40 billion euros by 2038 at the latest for the continued development of previous lignite mining sites in Lusatia (Brandenburg/Saxony), in North Rhine-Westphalia west of Cologne and in Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt in the area near Leipzig and Halle. Hard coal-fired power plant sites that are particularly affected and the former lignite mine in Helmstedt will also receive support.

The Commission consisted of 28 members with voting rights. They included representatives of environmental organisations, trade unions, business and energy associations, the regions affected by the exit from coal, and the scientific community. The composition of the Commission shows that the German government is serious in its intention to bring key stakeholders together and reach a consensus-based agreement on the phase-out of coal- fired power generation.

The energy transition

According to provisional estimates by the Working Group on Energy Balances (AGEB), gross electricity generation in Germany amounted to approximately 650 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018, with 35 percent coming from coal, a further 35 percent from renewable energy sources, 13 percent from natural gas and 12 percent from nuclear (approximate figures).

These estimated figures indicate that a further increase in the renewables share in Germany’s energy mix can be expected. The share of renewable energies in primary energy consumption exceeded the 13 percent mark in 2018. The renewables share in gross electricity generation also increased significantly, reaching 35 percent, while the renewables

100 von 301 | www.bmu.de share in gross electricity consumption rose to approximately 38 percent. By using renewables, 184 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent were avoided in 2018.

According to the latest progress report on the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG- Erfahrungsbericht), the 4.2 GW (net) of onshore wind capacity added in 2016 was exceeded in 2017, with approximately 5 GW newly installed (net). As in 2016, this exceeded the statutory expansion path by a substantial margin. Net expansion of onshore wind capacity in 2018 amounted to 2.3 GW (gross: approximately 2.5 GW) – the lowest figure since 2013. At the end of 2018, Germany thus had a total of 53 GW of installed wind capacity (net).

In parallel to the accelerated expansion of wind energy at suitable onshore sites and the replacement of older, smaller installations with modern turbines with a greater energy output (repowering), the expansion of offshore wind energy is gaining in significance.

At the end of 2018, a total of 6.5 GW of offshore wind capacity was online, including 300 MW of non-grid capacity. Here too, preliminary estimates indicate that expansion is on a continuous upward trajectory, with 7.7 GW of additional installed capacity projected for 2020.

Turning to electricity generation from photovoltaics (PV), the Working Group on Renewable Energy Statistics (AGEE-Stat) notes that with 1.5 GW of newly installed capacity, 2016 saw a slight shift in the trend after several years of low PV expansion. According to the latest progress report on the Renewable Energy Sources Act, this upward trend continued and increased slightly in 2017, with approximately 1.7 GW of newly installed capacity. With just under 3 GW added in 2018, the 2.5 GW expansion path set out in the Renewable Energy Sources Act was exceeded for the first time in years. At the end of 2018, Germany had a healthy 45 GW of installed photovoltaics capacity.

Total biomass accounted for approximately 51 TWh of gross electricity generation from renewables in 2018. This is broadly in line with the 2016 and 2017 figures. The main feedstocks for biomass power generation are biogas (30 TWh), solid biomass (11 TWh), and the biogenic fraction of waste (6 TWh) (approximate figures).

According to preliminary calculations made by AGEB, the renewables contribution to the primary energy balance rose from 1,676 petajoules (PJ) in 2016 to 1,790 petajoules in 2017 – an increase of well over 7 percent. In gross electricity production, as mentioned above, renewable energies accounted for a strong plus of 4 percent compared with the 2016 and 2017 levels. Wind power performed particularly well, with an increase of approximately 30 percent in generated terawatt hours (TWh) for onshore and 45 percent for offshore. By contrast, hydropower (excluding pumped storage) remained largely unchanged, while the solar energy share increased by a good 3 percent.

101 von 301 | www.bmu.de Figure B.2.3 shows the energy mix in gross energy generation in Germany in 2018, including a breakdown of the 35 percent renewables share.

Figure B.2.3: Energy sources in gross electricity generation in Germany in 2018. Source: Working Group on Energy Balances (AGEB) (last updated March 2019)

Bruttostromerzeugung in Deutschland 2018 Gross electricity generation in Germany in 2018 Mineralöl Mineral oil Erdgas Natural gas Steinkohle Hard coal Kernenergie Nuclear energy Braunkohle Lignite Erneuerbare Renewables Insgesamt Total

Sonstige Others Wasserkraft Hydropower

Biomass Biomass PV/Geothermie Photovoltaics/Geothermal Hausmüll Municipal waste Windkraft Wind energy Quelle: AG Energiebilanzen, Stand März Source: Working Group on Energy 2019 Balances (AGEB), last updated March 2019 Geothermie aufgrund der deringen Menge The share of geothermal is very low and in Photovoltaik (PV) therefore included in the share of PV Vorläufig Preliminary figures regenerativer Anteil Regenerative part

102 von 301 | www.bmu.de Bei Prozentzahlen Kommata bitte mit Punkt ersetzen.

Sharing the costs and benefits of energy and climate policy measures as equitably as possible is a key prerequisite for the acceptance and success of the transition to a decarbonised energy supply, which is essential to protect the climate. Social justice in the energy transition does not just mean fair burden-sharing; it also means ensuring an inclusive approach to shaping the energy transition and benefit-sharing. In making efforts to achieve the reduction targets for energy consumption and CO2 emissions, it is therefore essential to give particular consideration to the social dimension.

The expansion of renewable energies

The 2017 Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG 2017) introduced a paradigm shift. As of January 2017, the tariffs for renewables-generated electricity are no longer set by the government but are determined through calls for bids. Any entity that submits a successful bid for cost-effective operation of a renewable energy installation is awarded a contract. The level of public-sector support for renewable energies is thus decided through competition. This is intended to support further cost-effective expansion of renewables while ensuring that the expansion path set out for renewable energies is adhered to. The competition is open to as many different operators as possible – from large firms to citizens’ energy companies. Installations below 750 KW continue to receive fixed tariffs.

The 2017 Renewable Energy Sources Act also temporarily restricts the expansion of onshore wind power in certain areas of northern Germany in an effort to reduce grid congestion. In addition, in 2017, a new “utilisation, not limitation” provision was introduced in the Energy Industry Act (Energiewirtschaftsgesetz – EnWG), which stipulates that during periods of grid congestion, combined heat and power (CHP) plants should operate more flexibly to ease this congestion by limiting their own electricity production and instead using renewable electricity – which would otherwise have had to be ramped down – to generate heat.

Furthermore, the Landlord-to-Tenant Electricity Act (Mieterstromgesetz) came into force in summer 2017. Landlord-to-tenant electricity is power generated in a roof-mounted PV system and supplied to tenants living in the building. Neighbourhood supply schemes based on a customer system connected to its own electricity grid are also eligible for support under the Act. The Act provides direct support for landlord-to-tenant electricity via a special premium. The statutory promotion of landlord-to-tenant models is intended to provide impetus for the continued expansion of roof-mounted photovoltaics. Further optimisation of the rules on landlord-to-tenant electricity is envisaged in the coalition agreement.

103 von 301 | www.bmu.de The Omnibus Energy Act (Energiesammelgesetz), in force since late 2018, operationalises special auctions for onshore wind and solar installations. From 2019–2021, the volumes currently scheduled for auction will be topped up by 4 GW for both onshore wind and solar; this is intended to cut 8-10 million tonnes of CO2 as a contribution to the 2020 climate target. As an initial measure aimed at boosting public acceptance of onshore wind energy expansion, the Omnibus Energy Act introduced needs-based night-time warning lighting of wind turbines. In future, the red warning lights on wind turbines will flash at night only when an aircraft is in the vicinity.

A targeted, efficient, grid-synchronised and increasingly market-driven expansion of renewable energies is a prerequisite for successful energy transition and climate policies, according to the coalition agreement. The German government aims to increase the renewables share in the electricity sector – especially in light of the challenges of improved synchronisation of renewable energies and grid capacity – in order to reach the target set by the coalition agreement of approximately 65 percent by 2030. Adequate power grid capacity has a key role to play here. A higher rate of renewable energy expansion is ultimately necessary to cover the additional demand for electricity, so that climate goals in transport, in buildings and in industry can be achieved. In a working group set up to develop strategies to increase the level of public acceptance of the energy transition, the coalition parliamentary groups are discussing practical measures to promote the renewable energy expansion, including improved benefit-sharing for the municipalities where installations are located and better regional governance of renewables expansion. The results of these deliberations will serve, for example, as a basis for decision-making in autumn 2019 on the expansion paths for the various technologies towards the 65 percent target.

Accordingly, and in line with Germany’s ambition to achieve a 65 percent renewables share in electricity generation by 2030, there will be an upward revision of the expansion paths for renewable energies.

All scenarios described in the Scenario Framework 2030 approved by the Federal Network Agency on 15 June 2018 therefore envisage a substantial increase in the renewables share to 65 percent by 2030. The transmission system operators’ first two drafts of the 2019–2030 grid development plan also include a 65 percent renewables target for 2030.

Research for the energy transition

The German government supports research, development and demonstration of future- focused, efficient and environmentally friendly energy technologies through its Energy Research Programme. Support is provided for companies and institutions engaged in research and development of innovative technologies for the energy supply of tomorrow.

104 von 301 | www.bmu.de Innovations and modern energy technologies are a prerequisite for the successful realisation of the energy transition. The Energy Research Programme is therefore a strategic element of the German government’s energy policy.

The new 7th Energy Research Programme, themed “Innovations for the Energy Transition”, was adopted by the federal cabinet in September 2018. It defines the current principles and priorities for federal government funding for innovative energy technologies for the coming years. Funding policy is aimed primarily at technologies that meet the requirements of the energy transition. As regards the thematic priorities of energy efficiency and renewable energies, the focus is on funding measures for technologies in the wind and solar power generation segments, a higher proportion of renewables in the heating sector through solar thermal, biomass and geothermal, energy-optimised buildings and neighbourhoods, and highly efficient, low-carbon industrial processes. Programme priorities include the integration of renewables into the energy system – particularly through grid development, energy storage technologies and sector coupling – and cross-sector issues such as digitalisation of the energy transition. The programme also focuses on the accelerated transfer of technology and innovations, e.g. through the “living labs” format as a new pillar of energy research. www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Artikel/Energie/Energieforschung/energieforschung-7- energieforschungsprogramm.html www.energieforschung.de

The BMBF’s Copernicus Projects are the largest research initiative on the energy transition. Four consortia from science, business and civil society are conducting research on core areas of the future energy system: viable energy network structures that are responsive to present and future challenges (ENSURE), conversion of electricity into valuable raw materials for energy storage (P2X), flexibility in industrial processes (SynErgie) and systemic research on sector coupling (ENavi). The Copernicus projects apply a holistic and technology-neutral approach to energy transition research and address the social dimension of technological development from the outset. www.kopernikus-projekte.de

With the BMWi’s Smart Energy Showcases – Digital Agenda for the Energy Transition (SINTEG) funding programme, solutions to technical, economic and regulatory challenges associated with the energy transition are being developed and demonstrated in five large model regions – known as showcases – in collaboration with more than 300 companies and other stakeholders. The focus is on secure, efficient and mass market-enabled processes,

105 von 301 | www.bmu.de innovative technologies and market mechanisms for flexible, smart grids and markets. Digitalisation of the energy sector is a programme priority. www.sinteg.de

Climate action and energy efficiency in buildings

The buildings sector has a key role to play in reaching Germany’s energy and climate goals. Buildings are responsible for around 35 percent of final energy consumption in Germany and emit around 120 million tonnes of CO2. In the Climate Action Plan 2050, the target set by the German government is to reduce direct emissions from the buildings sector by 66-67 percent by 2030 compared with the 1990 level, with a view to achieving a virtually climate-neutral building stock by 2050. This means reducing non-renewable primary energy demand in the buildings sector by around 80 percent from 2008 levels by 2050.

Energy-consuming applications that are directly related to the use of buildings include space heating (heating systems), the provision of hot water, cooling (air conditioning) and interior lighting. The buildings-related final energy consumption by these applications totalled 853 TWh in 2015. This means that final energy consumption in the buildings sector was 106 TWh (11 percent) lower than in 2008.

With the Energy Efficiency Strategy for Buildings (Energieeffizienzstrategie Gebäude – ESG), adopted in 2015, the German government has set out a comprehensive strategy for this sector. It brings together the three aspects of power, heat and energy efficiency to form a clear policy framework for the energy transition in the buildings sector. The principles set out in the ESG are part of the National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE). The outcomes of the ESG are taken into account in the government’s Climate- Friendly Building and Housing Strategy within the framework of the Climate Action Plan 2050.

Climate action in transport

Emissions in the transport sector are generated by fuel combustion in road and rail transport, domestic aviation and maritime transport. In comparison to 1990, transport- related emissions need to be cut by 40–42 percent by 2030. During the reporting period, there was no significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from this sector [↗ chapter D].

106 von 301 | www.bmu.de Climate action in industry

The industrial sector includes emissions from combustion processes and from the manufacturing sector generating its own power, as well as emissions from commercial and industrial processes and product use. Industry is the second-highest emitter after the energy sector. Its emissions remained almost unchanged during the reporting period. In comparison to 1990, this sector’s emissions need to be cut by 49–51 percent by 2030.

The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the principal mechanism for climate action in the industrial sector. Following the reforms to the EU ETS adopted at the end of 2017 for Phase 4 (2021–2030), significant price increases have been observed since the start of 2018. Alongside emissions trading, the most important mitigation measures in this sector are incentives to boost energy productivity, increased use of renewable energy, and schemes to reduce emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases). Industry plays a key role in the ambitious implementation of the National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency and the EU Energy Efficiency Directive.

Climate action in agriculture

Most farming-related greenhouse gas emissions consist of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock raising and fertiliser management, as well as carbon dioxide emissions from agricultural fuel consumption. Emissions from agriculture need to be cut by 31–34 percent by 2030 from the 1990 baseline.

One of the targets set in the German Sustainable Development Strategy is for overall nitrogen surpluses for Germany to be reduced to 70 kilograms per hectare of utilised agricultural land in the annual average from 2028 to 2032.

The use of nitrogen-containing fertilisers produces both direct and indirect emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrous oxide is released directly from fertilised soil and indirectly as a result of reactive nitrogen compounds (gaseous ammonia losses and nitrate leaching in water bodies) from agricultural sources. The production of mineral fertilisers is also energy- intensive and causes high levels of greenhouse gases emissions.

The fertiliser legislation (the Fertiliser Act (Düngegesetz) and Fertiliser Application Ordinance (Düngeverordnung)) amended in 2017 and the Nutrient Flow Balance Ordinance (Stoffstrombilanzverordnung), in force since 2018, aim to reinforce appropriate use of fertiliser and resource-efficient use of nutrients, primarily nitrogen. In developing the integrated nitrogen strategy, a cross-sector and cross-media approach is therefore pursued, the aim being to reduce all relevant nitrogen compounds, including nitrous oxide emissions, to an environmentally compatible level.

107 von 301 | www.bmu.de The coalition agreement states that the proportion of agricultural land being farmed organically should increase to 20 percent by 2030. The “Organic Farming – Looking Forwards” strategy is intended to strengthen this sector and support the further expansion of organic farming. www.bmel.de/DE/Landwirtschaft/Nachhaltige- Landnutzung/Oekolandbau/_Texte/VeroeffentlichungZukunftsstrategieOekologischerLandba u.html

Climate action in the land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector

Emissions from agricultural soils and carbon release and sequestration in forestry do not currently form part of national greenhouse gas emissions accounting. Nevertheless, the potential for additional mitigation measures in this sector should be explored in the medium term. The LULUCF sector is currently a net sink, which should be safeguarded with further measures. Mitigation potential is to be found in preserving and improving the sink performance of forests and reducing the release of greenhouse gases from organic soils

(peatlands), in harnessing CO2 reduction potential, in sustainable forest management and, closely associated with it, the use of wood. Wood is a renewable raw material that can store carbon over the long term when it is used as a material, for example in the building sector, and it can also replace minerals with more adverse greenhouse gas or environmental footprints, as well as fossil fuels. If wood is used as a source of energy, it is essential to ensure that it comes from legal, sustainable forestry and that the sink function of forests is not impaired. The cascade use of wood should take priority whenever possible and appropriate. When accounting for forestry’s contribution to climate change mitigation, it must be kept in mind that emissions avoided by producing materials and energy from wood that are directly related to the provision of raw material by the forestry sector are not classified under this source group. Instead, the reduced emissions are reflected in the energy sector, construction and housing, transport, and industry and business sectors or source groups.

In July 2016, the European Commission proposed that a separate legal text be drawn up to include the land use, land-use change and forestry sector (LULUCF) in the EU climate and energy framework (LULUCF Regulation). This will apply from 2021 under Regulation (EU) 2018/841 of 30 May 2018.

Within the current negotiations on the future of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and its further development after 2020, too, the German government is supporting the European Commission in working towards strengthening the CAP’s contribution to climate and environmental targets. At the same time, it is important to ensure that the agricultural sector’s contributions to climate change mitigation and the conservation of the environment,

108 von 301 | www.bmu.de biodiversity and natural resources receive greater recognition. Conserving permanent grassland will play a key role in this context.

In addition, the German government is currently working with the Länder to reach an agreement on peatland conservation.

National Climate Initiative (NKI)

Since 2008, the National Climate Initiative (NKI) has initiated and supported numerous climate projects in municipalities, in the education sector, in industry and in private households. The projects help to reduce Germany’s greenhouse gas emissions and thus support the attainment of climate targets. By the end of 2017, funding of around 790 million euros had been provided for more than 25,000 projects, which in turn leveraged total investment in excess of 2.5 billion euros. This means that for every euro of funding provided, more than three times that amount was mobilised for action to mitigate climate change. With the investment project funding provided by the NKI, additional greenhouse gas emission reductions of around 600,000 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year have been achieved.

Additional greenhouse gas reductions amounting to approximately 550,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year have been initiated via non-investment projects. www.klimaschutz.de/

Sustainability Action Programme – towards a climate-neutral federal administration

The German government’s Sustainability Action Programme aims to make the authorities and institutions which directly constitute the federal administration more sustainable. At its meeting in March 2015, the State Secretaries’ Committee on Sustainable Development (Staatssekretärsausschuss für nachhaltige Entwicklung) adopted a package of 12 measures as part of its review of the Action Programme. Climate-related aspects were embedded more firmly in the Action Programme, and the German government’s ambition to achieve a climate-neutral federal administration was reaffirmed. With that aim in mind, the measures include energy-efficient retrofitting of federally owned buildings, the introduction of energy and environmental management systems, and a stronger focus on sustainable public procurement and sustainable mobility.

Some progress has already been achieved on some of the measures. Overall, however, implementation of the Action Programme must be improved if a climate-neutral federal administration is to lead by example. More intensive efforts will therefore be made by the German government.

109 von 301 | www.bmu.de Phasing out the use of nuclear energy for commercial electricity generation

With the adoption of the Thirteenth Act Amending the Atomic Energy Act in mid-2011 in the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi reactor disaster in Japan, legislators voted by a large cross-party majority to accelerate the phase-out of the use of nuclear energy for commercial electricity generation in Germany. An earlier decision to extend the nuclear power plants’ operating lifetimes was reversed and, instead, it was agreed that Germany should implement a planned phase-out of nuclear energy by 31 December 2022.

In December 2016, the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that the Thirteenth Act Amending the Atomic Energy Act was for the most part compatible with the German constitution, the Basic Law. Remediation by the legislature was required solely in marginal elements of the Act.

Legislators then adopted the Sixteenth Act Amending the Atomic Energy Act, which corrects the constitutional deficiencies of the existing Act by making provision for adequate monetary compensation. The Act entered into force on 4 July 2018. The statutory shutdown dates for Germany’s nuclear power plants thus remain valid. The use of nuclear energy for commercial electricity generation in Germany will end no later than 31 December 2022. On 31 December 2017, the Gundremmingen B nuclear power plant was shut down permanently, leaving just seven nuclear power plants in operation in commercial electricity generation in Germany.

Nuclear waste disposal

The Konrad repository – the first repository in Germany to be licensed under nuclear law – is currently being constructed in Salzgitter (Lower Saxony). Up to 303,000 m3 of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste will be permanently disposed of here from 2027.

After almost two years of work, the German Commission on the Storage of High-Level Radioactive Waste presented its final report in July 2016. In the report, the Commission makes recommendations on the selection of a site for a repository for high-level radioactive waste, including the individual steps in the procedure and the decision-making criteria to be applied. The Commission recommends geological exclusion criteria, minimum specifications and assessment criteria as factors that are material to decision-making on this issue. Key recommendations made by the Commission were incorporated into the 2017 amendment of the Repository Site Selection Act (Standortauswahlgesetz – StandAG).

On the basis of this Act, and with a “blank map” of Germany, a fresh start was made, in a transparent, science-based process, to identify a site for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste in Germany. The selected site should guarantee the highest possible level of safety

110 von 301 | www.bmu.de over a period of one million years. The site selection procedure should be concluded by 2031.

In December 2016, the National Support Body (NSB) began its work. The NSB is tasked with providing mediating and independent support for the site selection procedure, particularly in ensuring adequate public participation.

The Act on the Reform of Organisational Structures in the Field of Nuclear Waste Disposal (Gesetz zur Neuordnung der Organisationsstruktur im Bereich der Endlagerung), which entered into force on 30 July 2016, resulted in a reallocation of responsibilities for radiation protection and radioactive waste disposal. In the area of final storage, a more efficient organisational structure was created, thus ensuring more effective fulfilment of mandates. Statutory tasks relating to supervision and licensing (transports, interim storage and repositories) and the regulation of the site selection procedure for a repository for high-level radioactive wastes were transferred to the Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management (BfE). The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) retains its responsibility for radiation protection, including radiological emergency preparedness. Responsibility for establishing and operating repositories and implementing the site selection procedure (project management) was transferred to BGE, the federal company for radioactive waste disposal.

The Act on the Reorganisation of Responsibility in Nuclear Waste Management (Gesetz zur Neuordnung der Verantwortung in der kerntechnischen Entsorgung) entered into force on 16 June 2017, following its approval by the European Commission under state-aid rules. The Act implements the recommendations made by the Commission to Review the Financing for the Phase-out of Nuclear Energy (KFK) and redefines some of the responsibilities for nuclear waste disposal.

The implementation and financing of interim storage and disposal are the responsibility of the federal government. On 3 July 2017, the nuclear power plant operators transferred approximately 24 billion euros into the Nuclear Waste Management Fund (KENFO), which, with the Act’s entry into force, was established as a foundation under public law. KENFO’s statutory objective is to secure the necessary funds for the safe disposal of radioactive waste produced now and in future by the nuclear power plants covered by the Act on the Nuclear Waste Disposal Fund (Entsorgungsfondsgesetz). Responsibility for interim storage of radioactive waste and irradiated fuel elements from the energy supply companies lies with BGZ Gesellschaft für Zwischenlagerung mbH. In addition to the interim storage facilities for fuel elements in Ahaus and Gorleben, BGZ has been operating the decentralised interim storage facilities for irradiated fuel elements at the German nuclear power plant sites since

111 von 301 | www.bmu.de 2019. On 1 January 2020, 12 further storage facilities for low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste will be transferred to BGZ.

The nuclear power plant operators continue to be responsible for the implementation and financing of decommissioning and dismantling, as well as for the proper packaging of radioactive waste.

112 von 301 | www.bmu.de B.2.3 European and international climate policy

EU Emissions Trading System reform

In November 2017, the European Commission, Council and European Parliament reached agreement on a reform of the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) for Phase 4 (2021– 2030). The German government succeeded in including its key objectives in the reform: price signals are to be strengthened in order to create incentives for climate-neutral technologies.

In addition, energy- and emission-intensive industries in which there is a risk of carbon leakage will continue to receive allocations free of charge so that they are protected against unfair competition. The ETS covers both industrial and energy-sector production processes.

CO2 emissions from European aviation have been included in the EU ETS since 2012.

Effort Sharing Regulation

The EU is committed to reducing its CO2 emissions by at least 40 percent by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. The first stage of implementation involved reforming the Emissions Trading System (ETS) for industry and the energy sector. These sectors are to achieve a 43 percent reduction by 2030, compared with 2005 levels. The second stage is the distribution of the target across the individual member states for the buildings, transport and agriculture sectors, which are not covered by the ETS. The Effort Sharing Regulation was approved in January 2018.

For Germany, the Regulation lays down a target of a 38 percent reduction in CO2 emissions in the buildings, transport and agriculture sectors by 2030 compared to 2005. This target is not directly comparable with the overall European target of 40 percent compared to 1990 as the reference years are different and these sectors only account for around half of Germany’s emissions. The German target is broadly in line with the objectives of the Climate Action Plan 2050, which establishes a reduction target of at least 55 percent by 2030 compared to 1990.

The Paris Agreement and the 2018 Katowice Climate Change Conference

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 as the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, is a universal, dynamic, fair and legally binding climate accord. It aims to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, to boost adaptive capacity and foster climate resilience, and to make finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low emissions and climate-resilient development.

The Paris Agreement clearly mandates all Parties to take the bold action necessary to protect the climate. As stated in the latest conclusions of the Council of the European Union

113 von 301 | www.bmu.de on 18 February 2019, we intend to work with our European partners to move forward in light of the inadequacy of national climate targets worldwide to date. As part of the EU, we are ready to communicate or update our Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by 2020, as agreed in Paris, taking into account the collective further efforts needed and actions undertaken by all Parties.

In order to support swift and effective implementation of the NDCs in developing countries and emerging economies and to help raise global climate ambition, the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), together with the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU), Morocco, other developed and developing countries and various international organisations, notably the UNFCCC Secretariat, initiated the global NDC Partnership in late 2016. The aim of the Partnership is to assist developing countries in aligning their national climate and development goals (NDCs and SDGs) and optimise the delivery of relevant bilateral and multilateral donor programmes. The NDC Partnership is open to all countries and international organisations that endorse its principles and objectives.

Germany and Morocco co-chaired the NDC Partnership from its formation in 2016 until the 24th Conference of the Parties (COP 24) in December 2018. During this period, the Partnership experienced highly dynamic growth: its membership now includes 93 countries and 23 international organisations and development banks; it also has 10 associate members. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Klimaschutz/klimaschutzplan_2050_bf.p df

The 24th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 24) took place in Katowice from 2 to 15 December 2018. The conference had a very positive outcome: under the Polish presidency, after three years of negotiations, all Parties agreed on a comprehensive rulebook to operationalise the Paris Agreement. From 2024, mitigation efforts worldwide will be reported to the United Nations using comparable standards. Based on the rules agreed in Katowice, it will in future be possible to track the emissions trajectory of each Party to the Paris Agreement, analyse the details of the targets countries have set themselves and identify the measures being implemented. In addition to enhancing transparency across countries, this will establish a firmer basis for planning national climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. A global stocktake on the progress made in climate action – measured against the mitigation, adaptation and financing targets set in the Paris Agreement – will be carried out every five years. At the end of the

114 von 301 | www.bmu.de conference, it was agreed that work on finalising the details for market mechanisms would continue the following year.

The Polish presidency of the COP was successful in reconciling sometimes highly divergent positions. The issue of transparency is a good example: the rulebook adopted remains faithful to the Paris Agreement, in that the provisions apply to all countries while granting some flexibility to countries facing particular challenges. The use of these clearly defined flexibilities must be justified.

Germany made a significant contribution to the success of the negotiations. With its announcement early on that it would commit 1.5 billion euros in new funding for the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and make an additional 70 million euros available to the Adaptation Fund, Germany helped to establish a basis of trust for constructive negotiations. In addition, Germany was again part of the High Ambition Coalition convened by the Marshall Islands and, with the Coalition, advocated a robust rulebook and a higher level of ambition. As a member of the EU, Germany played an important mediating role in the negotiations in the interests of a successful conference outcome.

During the Katowice conference, the most senior body of the InsuResilience Global Partnership – the High-Level Consultative Group (HLCG) – held its first meeting. The aim of the Partnership is to build the resilience of poor and vulnerable groups through climate and disaster risk finance and insurance solutions.

At the conference, 19 high-ranking representatives of the various stakeholder groups within the InsuResilience Global Partnership agreed that a Vision 2025 should be drafted, including a work plan, to generate significant momentum at the UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019 for the expansion of finance and insurance mechanisms that support global adaptation efforts.

Talanoa Dialogue

The Talanoa Dialogue (also known as the facilitative dialogue) was established as a process for 2018. It aims to help countries enhance their Nationally Determined Contributions by 2020. This is based on the recognition that without a higher level of ambition, the climate targets submitted are inadequate to avoid global warming far above the maximums agreed in Paris, namely 2°C or 1.5°C. More ambitious NDCs are therefore urgently needed to align emissions, over the next decade, with a pathway that is compatible with the Paris Agreement. Under the Paris Agreement, countries must review and, if necessary, increase the ambition of their Nationally Determined Contributions for the first time by the end of 2020. It was decided that this process of raising the NDCs should be prepared through a dialogue, commencing in 2018. At COP 24, the Talanoa Dialogue was conducted at ministerial level.

115 von 301 | www.bmu.de The gap between necessary and planned measures became particularly apparent in 2018 with the publication of the IPCC 1.5°C Special Report and was recognised by all groups of countries. As one outcome of the Talanoa Dialogue in Katowice, Parties reaffirmed the Paris provisions on raising the ambition of the NDCs and formulating long-term strategies by 2020.

International climate finance

The main topic in the climate finance negotiations in 2018 was (and remains) the further implementation of the developed countries’ joint commitment to provide an annual 100 billion US dollars from various sources, both public and private, for climate action by 2020.

In this context, the German government aims to double its annual climate finance from the public purse by 2020 compared to 2014 levels from 2 billion euros to 4 billion euros (budget funds and grant equivalents of development loans). This increase is in line with the announcement made by Chancellor Angela Merkel in 2015. In 2017, the German government committed 3.65 billion euros from the federal budget for international climate finance. These resources are operationalised via the BMZ’s development programmes, the BMU’s International Climate Initiative (IKI) and multilateral mechanisms, including the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF). Figure B.2.4 shows the trajectory of German climate finance during the period 2005–2017 [↗ chapters C.1 and F.2].

A further 3.08 billion euros of mobilised public climate finance from capital resources was pledged via KfW and DEG (Deutsche Investitions- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH). Germany’s public climate finance thus amounted to 6.73 billion euros.

116 von 301 | www.bmu.de Figure B.2.4: German climate finance from budgetary funds, 2005–2017. Source: BMU 2019

Deutsche Klimafinanzierung … 2005–2017 German climate finance from budgetary funds, 2005–2017 Ist-Werte Current figures Ziele 2014 und 2020 2014 and 2020 targets Klimafinanzierung in Millionen € Climate finance (in million euros)

Informal forums at the international level complement and support the UNFCCC negotiations. These forums include the Cartagena Dialogue for Progressive Action, the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate (MEF), the Global Climate Action Summit, the International Conference on Climate Action (ICCA), which will take place in May 2019, and the G7 and G20. For example, at the G20 summit in Hamburg in July 2017 under the German presidency, the heads of state and government of the G20 countries – with the exception of the US – adopted a Climate and Energy Action Plan for Growth. Germany also initiated the Petersberg Climate Dialogue – an annual ministerial meeting first held in 2010 – which has evolved into an important forum for political exchange and better communication.

Petersberg Climate Dialogue

The 9th Petersberg Climate Dialogue, themed “Changing Together for a Just Transition” and held on 18-19 June 2018, focused on the social dimension of climate action for the first time. The concept of a just transition refers to the equitable transformation of a fossil fuel-based economy into a sustainable, climate-neutral economy. People who are most affected by structural changes are the focal point of a just transition. Trade unions, workers and employers are key stakeholders who must be involved in the debate about the creation of green jobs and the new skills required to fulfil them. At the Petersberg Climate Dialogue, many ministers highlighted that ensuring economic stability and social cohesion in regions affected by structural change would require special efforts and investment. At the same time, they emphasised that a high level of international cooperation and more shared learning would be essential in managing a just transition. It was also reiterated that in many regions, climate change itself posed by far the greatest threat to social cohesion. The discussions further confirmed that achieving the goals set in the Paris Agreement and effective implementation of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) would require cooperation across all sectoral ministries. The 10th Petersberg Climate Dialogue, themed “Fulfilling the Promise of Paris”, was held in Berlin from 12 to 14 May 2019.

117 von 301 | www.bmu.de The UN Secretary-General’s Climate Action Summit / the way ahead

UN Secretary-General António Guterres is hosting a Climate Action Summit in New York in September 2019. The timing – with the Climate Action Summit taking place on 23 September, followed by the UN’s SDG Summit in New York on 24-25 September 2019 – is intended to send a strong political signal from the United Nations in support of coherent implementation of the SDGs and ambitious climate targets. In the German government’s view, the Summits should focus on fast and fair transformative action towards equitable and sustainable development. This should centre on low-carbon, resource-efficient patterns of production and consumption that will establish the basis for prosperity for future generations in a liveable world.

Limiting climate change requires collaborative action at all levels. For that reason, the German government is engaged in international cooperation in a variety of ways. In terms of the Climate Action Summit, the following initiatives should be mentioned in particular: the NDC Partnership, which now has a new support mechanism, the Climate Action Enhancement Package (CAEP), which will assist approximately 50 developing countries in raising the ambition of their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). At the sub-national level, cities in particular will benefit from improved access to climate finance for low-carbon urban infrastructure via the Leadership for Urban Climate Investment (LUCI) initiative. In addition, the Climate Action Summit in New York will make financial commitments for the protection of ecosystems, primarily tropical forest conservation. Germany’s new commitments to the Green Climate Fund, mentioned above, are intended to motivate other countries to pledge towards the GCF’s replenishment at the Summit. Also at the Summit, and in the context of climate change adaptation, the InsuResilience Global Partnership – which was launched on the basis of decisions adopted at the G7’s Elmau Summit – will outline its recently agreed contributions to 2025 (Vision 2025) towards building the resilience of poor and vulnerable groups. The Global Commission on Adaptation (GCA) will present its flagship report, which seeks to mobilise additional contributions for adaptation to climate change, mainly in developing countries.

The next Climate Change Conference – COP 25 – is scheduled to take place in Santiago, Chile, from 2 to 13 December 2019. A global stocktake (GST) – a review of the international community’s progress on implementing climate commitments – will take place every five years from 2023. In Katowice, agreement was reached on the information that should be included in the stocktake to ensure that the review is as detailed and accurate as possible. Progress will be tracked against the mitigation, adaptation and financing goals set out in the Paris Agreement.

118 von 301 | www.bmu.de

119 von 301 | www.bmu.de B.3 Climate change adaptation

Climatic changes affect nature and the environment. Climate change and the necessary adaptation to its impacts are one of the greatest political challenges of the 21st century. In Germany, as elsewhere, timely adaptation to climate change is becoming increasingly important to minimise climate-related damage, mitigate risks and avoid higher remediation and adaptation costs in future.

B.3.1 Climatic changes and impacts Climate change in Germany

Germany has adequate records dating back to 1881 for the two key meteorological variables – temperature and precipitation – that allow us to track climatic changes. There is solid evidence that: www.umweltbundesamt.de/monitoringbericht-2015-das-handlungsfelder

• The annual average air temperature in Germany rose by 1.4°C between 1881 and 2013 (area average). Since the 1950s, the number of hot days (maximum daily air temperature ≥ 30°C) in Germany has increased from about three per year to a current average of about nine per year. With an annually-averaged temperature of 9.6°C, 2017 ranked among Germany’s eight warmest years since 1881.

Figure B.3.1: DAS indicator – heat stress; number of heat alerts and heat stress days, 1970-2012. Source: Monitoring Report 2015 Tage [Anzahl] Number of days Mittlere Anzahl von Hitzewarnungen in den Average number of heat alerts in the DWD DWD-Warnkreisen warning zones

120 von 301 | www.bmu.de Gebietsmittel von Heissen Tagen (Tmax Number of hot days (area average) mind. 30 ˚C) (maximum at least 30 ˚C) Gebietsmittel von Tropennächten (Tmin Number of tropical nights (area average) mind. 20 ˚C) (minimum at least 20 ˚C) Datenquelle: DWD (Hitzewarnungen, Data source: DWD (heat alerts, German Deutcher Klimaatlas) Climate Atlas)

• In terms of precipitation, winters have become significantly wetter since 1881 (10.6 percent rise in the amount of precipitation), while summers have remained virtually unchanged. • Sea levels along the German coast have risen by 10-20 cm over the last 100 years. Climate models also give us a glimpse into the future: they provide projections on future climate trends. Regional climate models with a resolution of approximately 25 x 25 kilometres have been developed and linked to global models to enable projections to be made at regional level.

• A further temperature rise of 0.5°C is considered probable for the near future (to 2050), while for the subsequent period up until 2100, projections point to an increase of 1.5°C.

• Precipitation analysis indicates a trend towards less precipitation in summer (minus 10-20 percent), and more precipitation in winter, which is expected to rise by 10 percent in the near future and 15 percent in subsequent periods. • Climate change is causing medium- to long-term sea-level rise. From around 2050, the faster melting of the world’s major ice sheets observed over the past 20 years is likely to accelerate global sea-level rise. Scientists’ latest projections for future sea- level rise are higher than those made in 2013. The latest data on sea-level rise can be found in the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, published in September 2019. Global warming is also changing the frequency, duration, intensity and geographical range of extreme weather and climate events in Germany, although the causal links are not yet fully understood. In light of this, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) is launching a new research project on climate change and extreme events (ClimXtreme) in 2019. ClimXtreme will improve the availability of climate information as a basis for adaptation policies in Germany.

Impacts of climate change in Germany

Climate change is accelerating, thereby increasing the potential for damage to the natural environment, society and the economy. Even with a low level of global warming, adverse impacts can be expected by mid-century. If climate change is severe, this is likely to pose

121 von 301 | www.bmu.de risks to human health, mobility and property and cause damage to infrastructure and the environment in the near future.

Figure B.3.2: Impacts of climate change in Germany. Source: Brochure – Initial Progress Report by the Federal Government on Germany’s Adaptation Strategy, BMU 2016 Englische Abbildung ist auf Seite 12 hier: https://www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/fortschrittsbericht_anpassung _klimawandel_en_bf.pdf

• The increase in the number of hot days is the strongest and most obvious climate signal in climate models. Heatwaves are increasingly affecting human health, especially in conurbations, where high-density construction causes an urban heat island effect, with cities being up to 10 ˚C hotter than the surrounding countryside. Urban areas are also particularly vulnerable due to their high population density. In South East Germany and the Rhine Valley, climate change could well make itself felt in the form of a marked increase in hot days from the current figure of 8-12 per year to 15-25 by mid-century. Due to the higher proportion of older persons, this would pose particular health challenges in

122 von 301 | www.bmu.de Berlin and Munich and in the Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-Main metropolitan regions. By the end of the century, the Upper Rhine Rift may be experiencing as many as 40-50 hot days per year. There may also be an increase in the incidence of respiratory complaints caused by ozone air pollution at ground level during heatwaves. • Extreme weather events such as the Elbe flood in 2013 can devastate high-value infrastructure. If severe climate change occurs in the near future, more frequent heavy rainfall may cause flooding and localised flash floods. These events could cause widespread damage in conurbations with high-density infrastructure and many vulnerable systems, particularly in flood-risk areas such as Hamburg, Bremen and the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region. Storm surges are expected to occur more frequently towards the end of the century due to sea-level rise, and could wreak havoc on coastal towns and cities and particularly the North Sea islands. Storms like “Niklas” in early 2015 could cause considerable damage to infrastructures and forestry and are some of the costliest extreme events for Germany’s financial sector. However, it is not yet possible to extrapolate a clear future trajectory for storms from climate models – there are merely indications that the frequency of winter storms will increase. • In the second half of the century, spring and summer droughts are likely to occur more often, accompanied by a decrease in soil moisture content. This may well reduce yields and lead to more crop failures in agriculture, so selecting suitable and resilient crop varieties will become more important. At the same time, German agriculture might benefit from the longer vegetation period associated with climate change. However, climate warming also favours the spread of native and non-native pathogens and pests such as insects, viruses and fungi. Climate change is currently one of the most significant challenges facing the forestry sector. Due to their longevity and site dependency, trees are particularly vulnerable to climatic changes, which may exceed their own adaptive capacities and those of forest ecosystems. In future, this may adversely affect forest structure and tree species composition, forestry enterprises’ timber harvests and the performance of woodlands as carbon sinks. Conversion into climate-tolerant mixed forests with a high proportion of native tree species is a key strategy for stabilising and revitalising woodland. • Climate change “by stealth”, caused by gradual temperature rise, is slowly but surely impacting on living conditions in Germany. Climate change will also alter species composition. For example, non-native invasive species, such as toxic blue-green algae (Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii) in lakes, may become established or proliferate. The same applies to pests and disease vectors, such as mosquitos, ticks and rodents.

123 von 301 | www.bmu.de B.3.2 The German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (DAS) The long-term objective of the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (DAS) is to reduce the vulnerability of natural, social and economic systems to the impacts of climate change, to improve their adaptive capacities and to utilise potential synergies. The aim is to facilitate the achievement of existing objectives in the various sectoral policy fields under the new conditions created by climate change. The German Adaptation Strategy thus provides a framework for Germany’s adaptation to climate change. The federal government is integrating the work on national adaptation, already in progress in various ministries, into a common strategic framework. A coordinated approach by the federal government is a key factor for the successful management of these challenges. In terms of format, the Inter- Ministerial Working Group, which steers the climate change adaptation process at the federal level, has proved its worth. The same applies to the Standing Committee on Adaptation to Climate Change Impacts (StA AFK), established as part of the Federation-Länder Working Group on Climate, Energy, Mobility and Sustainability (BLAG KliNa) to facilitate cooperation with the federal states.

The federal government adopted the Strategy in 2008. It defined the main targets and identified options for action, which were then translated into specific activities in the Adaptation Action Plan (APA I), adopted in 2011. The Initial Progress Report by the federal government on Germany's Adaptation Strategy was published in December 2015. With the Progress Report, the Strategy was updated and around 140 mandatory adaptation actions were agreed.

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Figure B.3.3: DAS – History of the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. Source: Brochure – Initial Progress Report by the Federal Government on Germany’s Adaptation Strategy, BMU 2016 Englische Abbildung ist auf Seite 16 hier: https://www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Pools/Broschueren/fortschrittsbericht_anpassung _klimawandel_en_bf.pdf

The German government is working to continuously improve weather data and data on climate impacts and adaptation, both with regard to the status quo and looking ahead to the future. The Progress Report therefore includes a commitment to regular reporting on climate change and its impacts:

• The Monitoring Report provides an overview of the observed impacts of climate change and the adaptation measures already introduced in Germany. It is updated every four years. The second Monitoring Report will be published in 2019. • The Vulnerability Analysis identifies regions and fields of action that are particularly at risk from climate change. The assessments are carried out every seven years and are based on various reference periods: the present, near future and distant future. The next assessment is scheduled for 2021.

125 von 301 | www.bmu.de • The evaluation of the German Adaptation Strategy reviews the implementation of the measures to date and identifies key findings for the Strategy’s further development. The first Evaluation Report will be published in 2019. • The German Adaptation Strategy is updated every five years in the form of progress reports and adopted by the Cabinet. Measures to be included in the Adaptation Action Plans are agreed at the same time. The Cabinet is expected to adopt the Second Progress Report on Germany’s Adaptation Strategy in 2020.

Over the past 10 to 15 years, strategy development and the closing of knowledge gaps were Germany’s main priorities in relation to climate change adaptation. However, in recent years, the focus of work has increasingly shifted towards initiating implementation of the Strategy at practitioner level, with adaptation becoming more firmly established as an ongoing task.

B.3.3 From research to implementation – the German government’s measures for adaptation to the impacts of climate change As the work undertaken within the framework of the German Adaptation Strategy clearly shows, the impacts of climate change are mounting and are making themselves felt in all the fields of action identified in the Strategy.

As a glance at the current raft of measures in Adaptation Action Plan II (APA II) shows, the German government is further differentiating its activities to provide optimum support for this task. The greatest challenge will lie in transforming Germany’s infrastructures into resilient systems. This requires further technical regulations, training and upskilling across a wide range of professions, and the development of suitable funding and incentive mechanisms. www.bmu.de/themen/klima-energie/klimaschutz/anpassung-an-den-klimawandel/

There is also a need for tailored research and monitoring, coupled with support for networks and cooperation arrangements. Last but not least, support is provided for campaigns and projects aimed at raising public awareness and sharing information and lessons learned. The German government’s Adaptation Action Plan II consists of around 70 pages of tables defining 146 measures in total. The following examples show how qualitative levers can be applied at federal level to support consistent climate change mitigation.

Cross-sectoral activities

In autumn 2018, the German government launched the new German Climate Preparedness Portal (KLiVO) as a source of verified, quality-assured and up-to-date climate data, provided free of charge. Whether heat-related health risks, flood damage to buildings or harvest losses caused by summer drought, the impacts of climate change are already being felt in every sector of society and in every region. The services provided by the new Portal aim to

126 von 301 | www.bmu.de assist the municipal authorities, the federal states (Länder), businesses and civil society to identify preparedness needs within their own field of activity and region as a basis for planning and implementing appropriate precautionary measures. KliVO acts as a “one stop shop”, providing data, information, guidance, webtools and federal and state maps from one source.

The Portal supports two networks that underpin additional service provision. The German Climate Service (Deutscher Klimadienst – DKD), hosted by the German Meteorological Service (DWD), produces data and information about climate change, while the KlimAdapt network, based at the Federal Environment Agency’s KomPass Competence Centre on Climate Impacts and Adaptation, works with users on developing a wide range of climate change adaptation services. www.KLiVO-Portal.de www.umweltbundesamt.de/tags/klimadapt

Adaptation of infrastructures

Whether on the water, on the roads or on the rails, the key word for infrastructure adaptation is “climate-robust”. Research is ongoing to ascertain which measures must be taken to keep the federal waterways navigable even in the event of (extreme) flooding and low water levels. There are also plans to progress the renaturation of watercourses and floodplains (riverbank restoration, reconnection of backwaters) by creating additional (natural) floodplains. Other research aims to identify which railway lines in the vicinity of rivers and water bodies, and possibly in coastal locations as well, could become non-operational for long periods if large- scale flooding were to occur. Based on a hazard analysis, work being undertaken with the infrastructure operator (DB Netz AG) aims to identify which diversion routes must be retained in the long term. A study into road transport is investigating the effects of increased temperatures on the service life of various types of asphalt, including determining the maximum annual average temperature at which standard asphalt construction techniques may be used.

Adaptation of legal instruments, recommendations, regulations and technical standards

Due to the likelihood of more frequent heatwaves in future, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the introduction of heat-health action plans. In Germany, policy advice has therefore been issued for the municipal and Länder authorities on devising local/regional heat-health action plans in order to prevent heat- and UV-related diseases and deaths. The relevant authorities are encouraged to press ahead with developing heat-health action plans in preparation for future summer heatwaves.

127 von 301 | www.bmu.de Mandatory risk and hazard maps for heavy rainfall and storm surges are also being considered. In relation to heavy rainfall, one issue being explored is how to ensure an appropriate level of capacity in road drainage systems. With more frequent heavy rainfall, the risk of overloading the drainage system increases; conversely, long spells of dry weather may also lead to operational problems. Adequate sizing of infrastructure is key here.

Education, training

In practice, planning and implementing adaptation measures is a complex task which involves major challenges for all sectors of society. Appropriate training and upskilling for stakeholders across all education sectors is therefore a matter of priority.

For example, target group-specific training should be available for health sector experts with a view to closing knowledge gaps on the health impacts of climate change. Multiplier training courses can help raise awareness of preventive and health-promoting measures. Educational modules on adaptation are provided for the agricultural sector, which is adversely affected by extreme weather events such as prolonged periods of drought. In the building industry, climate-robust planning and construction are essential; relevant training must therefore be provided for employees in this sector.

The findings of climate research also have a role to play in civil protection. The impacts of climate change are now being integrated as a cross-sectoral issue into the content of training events at the Academy for Crisis Management, Emergency Planning and Civil Protection (AKNZ) of the Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance (BBK). In the operational context, climate change may have implications for deployment and emergency planning in various utility and service sectors, including food, energy and industry.

Funding and incentives

The adaptation funding programme established under the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change aims to build regional and local stakeholder capacities to adapt to the impacts of climate change. The funding programme is currently being evaluated and, based on the findings, will be modified and expanded as appropriate and necessary.

The Forest Climate Fund aims to tap into and optimise the carbon storage and mitigation potential of forests and timber, while also assisting Germany’s forests to adapt to climate change.

Research and monitoring

New research funding programmes are improving the foundations for climate adaptation and eliminating barriers to implementation. Building on the experience gained with KLIMZUG (the BMBF’s Making Climate Change Sustainable in Regions funding programme), support is

128 von 301 | www.bmu.de being provided for joint projects that link theory and practice in the thematic area of climate- resilient cities and regions. The aim is to develop innovative approaches and build on knowledge and lessons learned.

Another funding scheme supports urban climate modelling. The aim is to build the capacity to monitor all relevant climatological processes in a city. This will provide a sound basis for sustainable urban planning.

The BMBF is launching a new funding scheme, entitled Regional Information on Climate Action (RegIKlim), in order to further improve the reliability and practical relevance of climate data. Comprehensive information and assessment tools will be developed in model regions to support local and regional planning and policy-making. www.fona.de/de/23323

A trend analysis of imported, vector-borne infectious diseases (transmitted by ticks, mosquitos and other insects) in Germany addresses a completely different aspect of climate change. The Robert Koch Institute continuously evaluates relevant data (for example on the chikungunya virus, dengue virus and malaria) at national level and publishes the results. It focuses in particular on the analysis of time trends, changes in the principal countries of infection, and investigations into cases that may have been imported from or are native to southern European countries.

Other research projects and studies address the impacts of climate change on wind-based soil erosion, the sustainable use of peatlands, and the salt and heat content of the North Sea. The latter supplies core knowledge for assessing the physical status of the North Sea, including temperature-related changes in its ecosystem and its development.

Networks and cooperation

There is no uniform, collated data available on soil status in Germany [↗ chapter A.2.1]. Nor is there guaranteed access to data in the various systems. The aim is therefore to establish and expand soil monitoring networks, and improve soil monitoring from a climate change perspective, in order to track the success of adaptation measures. This will require more networking and collaboration on data evaluation, which in turn will serve as an important basis for other tasks, such as national reporting on climate-related issues.

The Strategic Governmental Agencies Alliance on Adaptation to Climate Change, established in 2007 and involving various federal authorities, will continue to improve how society deals with the impacts of climate change, particularly extreme weather events. The focus is on long-term strategic planning and short-term operational measures.

Public relations, communication and information

129 von 301 | www.bmu.de In future, a new geo-information system will allow home-owners to assess the climate change-related risks to their homes more effectively. The research project “Risk assessment of future climate change effects in the real estate and housing industry” will be used to develop and implement a corresponding tool to help home-owners across Germany to identify and assess the risks (extreme weather events) associated with climate change impacts.

Since September 2010, the Climate Portal www.klimawandel-und-klimaschutz.de has been supplying information on every aspect of climate change, with particular reference to progress made in the agriculture and forestry sectors. It incorporates the FISA research database to encourage the translation of research results into practical solutions. The German states (Länder) have opportunities to showcase their own projects on this platform. www.klimawandel-und-klimaschutz.de www.fisaonline.de www.klimastadtraum.de With the impacts of climate change already being felt, implementing the German Adaptation Strategy is becoming increasingly important. Through regular reporting, the German government will ensure transparency in relation to the risks associated with climate change. The implementation of measures and actions will be evaluated in order to monitor progress on climate change adaptation in Germany and introduce any modifications that may be necessary. The need for adaptation to climate change is to be clearly identified in the update of the Adaptation Strategy, due to be presented to the Cabinet in 2020.

130 von 301 | www.bmu.de C. The environment and the economy

C.1 The green economy – towards a sustainable financial and economic system The international community has acknowledged, by adopting the 2030 Agenda in which the SDGs are defined [↗ chapter F.2] and the Paris Agreement on climate change [↗ chapter B.2], that politics, business and society must operate within a framework negotiated with all social stakeholders.

These agreements underline the complexity of environmental policy challenges, which are more intertwined than ever with social, economic and fiscal policies and which cannot be overcome without transforming our societies and decarbonising our economies.

Promoting environmental innovations and environmental technologies

Environmental innovations – meaning innovations that result in substantial and demonstrable advances towards the goal of sustainable development by reducing environmental pressures, enhancing resilience to such pressures or making more efficient and responsible use of natural resources – contribute to a better quality of life.

Environmental technology and resource efficiency are becoming ever-stronger drivers of sustainable development worldwide. On the basis of environmental technology and resource efficiency, the economy can be modernised comprehensively. To accomplish this, however, it is necessary to give business sufficient monetary incentives to invest in this area. The recovery of environmental costs from polluters is one important aspect of this, although the impact on competitiveness needs to be taken into account. Another is the dismantling of environmentally harmful subsidies, since this eliminates distortions of competition that are unfavourable to environmentally sound products and technologies.

The new Environmental Technology Atlas for Germany forecasts dynamic growth averaging 6.9 percent per year for the global greentech market. www.bmu.de/PU139

Currently greentech is already highly relevant to the German economy – and is set to continue to grow: the greentech sector’s share of gross domestic product (GDP) reached 15 percent in 2016 and is forecast to rise to 19 percent by 2025.

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Figure C.1.1: Driving force for sustainable development. Source: Roland Berger, BMU (2018)

Globale Wachstumsprognose… Global growth forecast for the greentech sector and its six lead markets 2016 3.215 Mrd Euro 2016 3,214 bn euros [bitte Punkt => Komma in allen Tausenderzahlen] +6,9% pro Jahr +6.9% per year [bitte Komma => Dezimalpunkt in allen Prozentzahlen] 2025 5.902 Mrd Euro 2025 5,902 bn euros Umweltfreundliche Erzeugung… Green energy generation, storage and distribution Energieeffizienz Energy efficiency Rohstoff- und Materialeffizienz Resource and material efficiency Nachhaltige Mobilität Sustainable mobility Kreislaufwirtschaft Circular economy Nachhaltige Wasserwirtschaft Sustainable water management

132 von 301 | www.bmu.de in Milliarden Euro… In billions of euros, average annual change 2016–2025 as percentage

Germany’s greentech sector currently provides skilled employment for 1.5 million people. The overall employment effects of environmental protection are even wider. In total around 2.8 million people in Germany have jobs with some bearing on environmental protection: these extend beyond the production of environmental technologies to such fields as energy upgrades for buildings, environmental education, research, journalism and consultancy or environment-focused financial services.

Figure C.1.2: Number of people employed in environmental protection. Source: UBA

Englische Fassung ist hier: https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/indicator-employment-in-environmental-protection#at- a-glance

133 von 301 | www.bmu.de Germany’s greentech sector plays a special role because environmental technology and resource efficiency modernise the entire economy (“green” transformation). The sector is delivering increasingly integrated environmental protection technologies as well as sustainable products and value-creation schemes covering all parts of the supply chain.

Figure C.1.3: Green growth. Source: Roland Berger (2018), StBA (2017) Green growth Greentech accounts for a growing share of Germany’s gross domestic product

134 von 301 | www.bmu.de Thanks in good part to its innovativeness, German environmental and climate policy has made a substantial contribution to the strength of demand in global markets for products and services from Germany.

Nevertheless, global competition in the greentech sector will certainly keep increasing because other countries have also recognised how attractive the market is and how dynamically it is growing. State-of-the-art solutions are now also being offered by companies from emerging economies. For Germany, this means that it must keep developing its competence to offer innovative solutions to environmental problems. Above all, it is essential to help innovations achieve market breakthrough. In this regard, one lever in particular is crucial: the state must set the legal and economic framework conditions in such a way that companies invest in sustainable technologies, products and services.

Furthermore, with funding programmes such as the BMU’s Environmental Technologies Export Initiative (Exportinitiative Umwelttechnologien) the German government supplements tried-and-tested instruments for the promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), particularly in the fields of waste management, water and wastewater management, recycling and resource management and sustainable mobility.

The initiative also targets the framework conditions in emerging economies and developing countries, especially the aspects that matter for services of general public interest: regulatory issues, financing models, administrative know-how and skilled staff. All these conditions can determine the success or failure of projects and business deals. www.bmu.de/themen/wirtschaft-produkte-ressourcen-tourismus/wirtschaft-und- umwelt/umwelttechnologien/exportinitiative/

Sustainable finance for a sustainable economy

The German government understands sustainable finance to mean that financial market actors will take sustainability aspects into account when making decisions.

Today banks, insurance companies, investment funds and other financial market actors are already incorporating sustainability criteria into their decision-making processes. In particular, climate change and any ensuing economic changes (for example, the consequences of floods, storms and droughts, or the transformation towards a more sustainable economy) pose new challenges for the financial markets. Primarily to safeguard their own financial interests, financial market actors are having to come to grips with the substantial risks and opportunities arising for them directly. Furthermore, the German government has encouraged financial market actors to

135 von 301 | www.bmu.de make an appropriate assessment of the consequences of their practices for humankind and the environment.

The EU Action Plan on sustainable finance, “Financing Sustainable Growth” published on 8 March 2018, was based on analysis from an extensive evidence- based report entitled “Financing a sustainable European economy” by the High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) on Sustainable Finance. In releasing this Action Plan the EU Commission launched a process which will systematically integrate sustainability aspects into EU financial market regulation. Incentives are to be set in line with the objective of financial market stability and with global sustainability objectives (such as the Paris climate goals and the 2030 Agenda) so that capital for sustainable investment can be mobilised robustly and effectively.

The debates now initiated by the EU Commission are an important step towards integrating sustainability criteria into risk management and fostering more transparency and long-term thinking in the financial system. The German government supports the Commission in the appropriate, effective and practicable implementation of the Action Plan. At the same time, this opens up value-creation potential for sustainable economic activities in a dynamic and forward-looking European innovation market.

On the initiative of the Federal Ministry of Finance (Bundesministerium der Finanzen – BMF) and the BMU and in close consultation with the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie – BMWi), on 25 February 2019 the State Secretaries’ Committee on Sustainable Development (Staatssekretärsausschuss für nachhaltige Entwicklung) resolved to develop a Sustainable Finance Strategy on behalf of the German government. This will aim to develop Germany into a leading centre for sustainable finance.

Further resolutions adopted on 25 February 2019 include the following:

• to set up a sustainable finance advisory committee to support the dialogue between the German government and the financial sector, the real economy, civil society and academia;

• to continue the exchange of experience on sustainable finance concerning facilities in which the German government holds interests;

• to develop a communications strategy to enhance awareness of sustainable

136 von 301 | www.bmu.de finance among consumers and in the finance industry;

• to review whether it is economically viable to issue green or sustainable government bonds in Germany as part of the various proposed refinancing processes.

Figure C.1.4: A sustainable financial sector. Source: European Commission 2018 Englische Fassung ist hier unter Annex IV – Visualisation of the actions: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0097&from=EN

Figure C.1.5: A sustainable financial sector. Source: European Commission 2018 Englische Fassung ist hier unter Annex II – Implementation timeline:

137 von 301 | www.bmu.de https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0097&from=EN

Fair and rules-based trade policy

To ensure that sustainability criteria and standards are observed internationally, it is also becoming increasingly important to have a fair and rules-based trade policy. As a fundamental principle, the realisation of international environmental, social and governance objectives (climate change mitigation, environmental protection, human rights, occupational health and safety, wage equity and gender equality) is inconceivable unless the condition of a fair and rules-based trade policy is met. In that respect the debate initiated by the EU Commission about more robust and effective implementation and enforcement of sustainability requirements in free trade agreements is an important further step in this direction. The German government will engage proactively in this debate and thereby promote the objectives of values-based European economic policy.

The sustainable economy and individual businesses: sustainability reporting and environmental management Each and every company plays a significant role in the transition to a green economy. Ultimately that transition is about how companies and businesses modernise their business models and production processes with the environment in mind (“greening” of the economy). At the level of companies and businesses, doing business sustainably means acknowledging and taking on their environmental, social and economic responsibilities towards society (corporate social responsibility – CSR).

The DIN ISO 26000: 2011 guidance on social responsibility published by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales – BMAS) makes recommendations on seven areas of business practice: organisational governance, the environment, human rights, labour practices, fair operating and business practices, consumer issues, and community involvement and development. The brochure published in 2014 by the BMU entitled “Gesellschaftliche Verantwortung von Unternehmen” (social responsibility of businesses) provides guidance on the use of ISO 26000, a comparison with other instruments for sustainable business, and a description of legal requirements. www.bmas.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/PDF-Publikationen/a395-csr-din- 26000.pdf?__blob=publicationFile www.bmu.de/PU111 Many German companies regularly report on their specific CSR activities. For example, an EMAS environmental statement covers the environmental element of non-financial reporting. The Act to strengthen non-financial reporting by companies in their management reports and

138 von 301 | www.bmu.de group management reports (Gesetz zur Stärkung der nichtfinanziellen Berichterstattung der Unternehmen in ihren Lage- und Konzernlageberichten) or CSR Directive Implementation Act (CSR-RUG) of 11 April 2017 (Federal Law Gazette, Part 1, p. 802) introduced new non- financial reporting obligations under commercial accounting law for large publicly traded companies, financial institutions and insurance companies with over 500 employees. The approximately 500 companies concerned must include material information on employee, social and environmental issues, respect for human rights, and anticorruption measures either in their management or group management reports or in a separate non-financial report. The new disclosure requirements apply to the business year commencing after 31 December 2016.

Corporate environmental management systems are another central component supporting sustainable business activity. The European environmental management system EMAS is very ambitious and demanding.

www.emas.de

Participation has been open to every organisation in the world since 2010. So far, locations in China, South Africa, Korea and Belarus have also been registered in Germany. As of 1 June 2018, there were EMAS-certified companies at 2,241 locations accounting for more than 800,000 employees in Germany and more than 9,000 locations across the EU as a whole. A comprehensive survey of German EMAS-certified companies in 2012 shows how useful the system is and how many opportunities for savings it offers. Key indicators on emissions, water, waste, energy and material efficiency, and biodiversity (in the 2009 revision of EMAS) allow comparison of the environmental performance of similar businesses. Publicly accessible environmental declarations can motivate businesses in other locations with business activities of a similar nature to identify potential savings. At the same time, a range of companies and public institutions are using EMAS as an instrument for achieving climate neutrality in their operations.

Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/1505 of 28 August 2017 (OJ EU L 222/1 of 29 August 2017) amended Annexes I to III of the EMAS Regulation; Annex II was adapted to the revised ISO 14001 standard, and Annexes I and III (Environmental review; Internal environmental audit)

139 von 301 | www.bmu.de now allow cultural and social aspects to be addressed in addition to environmental criteria. With these amendments and with the publication of the amended Annex IV (Environmental reporting) on 19 December 2018 (Regulation 2018/2026), EMAS is cautiously opening up in the direction of sustainability management and sustainability reporting.

Finally, EMAS has been included in the German National Sustainable Development Strategy as an indicator for sustainable production. Five thousand organisations based in Germany are to have introduced EMAS by the year 2030. The multi-site registration option, which has now been taken up in the EMAS User’s Guide published by the EU Commission, for comparable sites belonging to the same company could act as an incentive. The aim of this is to prevent unnecessary bureaucratic effort for business constellations which are unproblematic. A German multi-site registration involving 35 locations in the food retail sector has already been completed.

A dedicated BMU funding programme within the framework of the European Social Fund and various projects in the context of the National Climate Initiative are raising awareness and building competence for sustainable action in everyday working life [↗ chapter G.2.1].

140 von 301 | www.bmu.de C.2 Resource-efficient business practices Efficient and sustainable management of natural resources is an essential component of sustainable development. It is fundamental to the effective protection and maintenance of the natural basis of human lives and livelihoods and an area of great opportunity for business and the labour market. In order to realise this, cooperation between environmental policy and other relevant policy areas needs to be enhanced. Efforts to make economic activity more resource efficient must encompass all stages in the life cycle of products. These comprise the production or extraction of raw materials for subsequent processing into products and all the resources necessary for doing so, the consumption and use of the products, and finally the recycling or the return of resources to the circular economy. The objective is to establish a system of production and consumption that conserves resources as far as possible, and to practise closed-cycle management (i.e. circular economy) of the necessary resources. Consumption and product policy [↗ chapter C.3] and freight transport [↗ chapter D] also play a role in this. This chapter C.2 puts the spotlight on trends in resource and material efficiency. Chapter C.4 covers the circular economy.

Extracting and using raw materials, especially non-renewable ones, normally involves the release of greenhouse gases, the emission of pollutants and the consumption of land, materials and energy. In some cases deposits of raw materials can only be exploited by severely encroaching on nature. This poses particular problems in sensitive ecosystems such as mountain forests, Arctic regions or highly biodiverse areas like tropical rainforests. These kinds of human encroachment on nature threaten species and habitats and damage vital ecosystem functions. If the legal basis is uncertain and if environmental and social standards are not in place or not adequately enforced, as is the case in some developing countries and emerging economies, the extraction of raw materials leads repeatedly to human rights violations, environmental degradation and a loss of biodiversity. It can also provoke, exacerbate or prolong armed conflicts.

To counteract these impacts caused by the extraction of raw materials and to make the supply of raw materials for German industry more sustainable throughout supply chains, the German government has adopted several initiatives including the National Action Plan “Implementation of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights”.

141 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/297434/8d6ab29982767d5a31d2e85464461565/nap- wirtschaft-menschenrechte-data.pdf The BMU also finances several UBA research projects on environmental standards in mining and on the inclusion of environmental impacts in the concept of criticality for raw materials, which has so far been geared mainly towards raw-material availability.

Growing populations and economies continue to increase the demand for raw materials, primarily in emerging economies and developing countries. The United Nations estimates that the current world population of seven billion will increase to more than nine billion people by 2050. If everyone alive at that time were to consume as much material per capita as people in industrialised countries do today, it would mean a two- to fivefold increase in the global consumption of raw materials. The right of all people worldwide to development and relative prosperity can only be fulfilled if industrialised countries in particular reduce their use of resources, and if developing countries and emerging economies manage resources more efficiently in future. For example, decisions being taken today on the expansion of infrastructure in the megacities will have enormous consequences for raw-material consumption for decades to come. For that reason, it is especially important to base these plans on resource-efficient systems.

To enhance resource efficiency at the international level, the German government used its most recent presidencies of the G7 and the G20 to initiate and establish the G7 Alliance for Resource Efficiency and the G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue. At the same time, the BMU supports the International Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme, since this acts as an interface between research and politics to build the necessary knowledge base. The BMZ supports sustainable economic development in countries with abundant raw materials by means of measures aimed at promoting economic activity and diversification of their economies. This lays essential foundations for reducing the dependency of resource- rich developing countries on the sale of their raw materials and for enabling them to embark on more sustainable use of their natural resources.

Situation during the period covered by this report

In 2012 the German government published the German Resource Efficiency Programme (ProgRess) which sets out principles for putting conservation and sustainable use of natural resources into practice in Germany along the entire value chain. Its objectives are to ensure

142 von 301 | www.bmu.de a more sustainable supply of raw materials, to increase resource efficiency in production and consumption, and to develop a resource-efficient circular economy which gradually becomes less and less dependent on primary raw materials. Environmental exigencies are to be combined with economic opportunities. This is expressed, for example, in the objective that growth in the use of resources should be slower than economic growth, meaning a relative decoupling of these factors. The indicator used to gauge how far the objectives have been achieved is raw material productivity. This shows how much value added in euros has been obtained per unit of raw material. It is calculated by setting gross domestic product (GDP) in relation to Germany’s direct material input of abiotic, i.e. non-renewable raw materials

(DMIabiot). Both raw materials from domestic sources and imported materials are counted as abiotic materials.

The German Sustainable Development Strategy of 2002 specifies the target – based on data from the environmental economic accounts of the statistical offices of the federal government and the Länder – of doubling raw material productivity by the year 2020 (as compared with the year 1994). By 2015 it had increased by 56 percent. Therefore, in order to achieve the stipulated target, an increase roughly matching that achieved over the last 20 years would have to be achieved between 2015 and 2020.

A key shortcoming of raw material productivity as an indicator is that it does not include the indirect material flows of imports, i.e. raw materials that are necessary in production chains and are used abroad but not imported. In 2014 the sum of direct and indirect raw material imports amounted to 1,540 million tonnes in comparison to the 621 million tonnes of direct imports. It was thus higher than the direct imports alone by a factor of 2.5.

In the context of the German Resource Efficiency Programme II (ProgRess II) and the revised German Sustainable Development Strategy of 2016, a new indicator – total raw material productivity – was introduced, which takes account of these indirect imports. This calculates the total value added (as the sum of GDP and the value of imports, IMP) generated from all raw materials extracted in Germany as well as those directly or indirectly imported (RMI). For the indicator of total raw material productivity, the target stipulated was an average annual increase of 1.5 percent for the period 2010 to 2030. Up to 2014, the recorded increase was 1.9 percent per year.

Hence, the target of relative decoupling of economic growth and raw material consumption has been achieved so far, but not that of absolute decoupling, which is when economic growth continues while resource inputs diminish. It is true that abiotic direct material inputs

(DMIabiot) decreased by 14 percent during the period from 1994 to 2014. However, when total quantities of abiotic and biotic raw materials are considered, and both direct and indirect

143 von 301 | www.bmu.de consumption are counted – to arrive at primary raw material inputs (RMI) in raw material equivalents – then an increase of 4 percent is registered for the period from 2000 to 2014.

Figure C.2.1: Trend in raw material productivity and total raw material productivity in Germany. Source: Federal Statistical Office 2017, 2018

Trend in raw material productivity 1994–2014 (left) and total raw material productivity 2000– 2014 (right) in Germany

Rohstoffproduktivität Raw material productivity Index = 1994 Index = 1994 Ziel 2020 200% 2020 target 200% BIP/DMIabiot GDP/DMIabiot BIP GDP DMIabiot DMIabiot Rohstoffproduktivität – BIP/DMIabiot Raw material productivity – GDP/DMIabiot Abiotischer direkter Materialeinsatz – DMIabiot Abiotic direct material input – DMIabiot preisbereinigtes (2014) Bruttoinlandsprodukt Real (inflation-corrected) (2014) gross – BIP domestic product – GDP

[Grafik rechts] Gesamtrohstoffproduktivität Total raw material productivity Index = 2000 Index = 2000 jährliche Zunahme 2010 – 2014: +1,9%1 Annual increase 2010–2014: +1.9% (BIP+IMP)/RMI (GDP+IMP)/RMI BIP+IMP GDP + IMP RMI RMI

144 von 301 | www.bmu.de Gesetzliche Vorgabe: jährliche Zunahme Statutory target: annual increase 2010– 2010–2030: +1,5% 2030: +1.5% Gesamtrohstoffproduktivität – (BIP+IMP)/RMI Total raw material productivity – (GDP+IMP)/RMI Rohstoffeinsatz – RMI Raw material input – RMI preisbereinigtes (2014) Bruttoinlandsprodukt Inflation-corrected (2014) gross domestic + preisbereinigtes (2014) Importe – BIP + product + inflation-corrected (2014) IMP imports – GDP + IMP Quellen: Destatis, 2017b, 2018b Sources: Destatis, 2017b, 2018b

The German government’s approaches to action

The German government has launched various initiatives to increase resource efficiency. The German Resource Efficiency Programme (ProgRess) sets out the framework for this. The initiatives are targeted at various levels and aim to anchor resource efficiency along the full length of the value chain and to underpin it with research and education.

The National Resource Efficiency Platform (NaRess) launched in September 2013 facilitates an exchange of information on resource efficiency activities between the German government and German business and industry. In 2015, the circle of participants was extended beyond industry associations to include organisations such as environmental and consumer protection associations as well as trade unions and top-level local authority organisations. Since then the circle of participants in NaRess has consisted of some 40 institutions. NaRess meets twice a year and supports the implementation and further development of ProgRess. The existing Round Table on Resource Efficiency in Building coordinated by the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community (Bundesministerium des Innern, für Bau und Heimat – BMI) continues to operate in parallel. This is a forum in which measures to increase resource efficiency in construction are discussed with actors from the construction industry. Furthermore, a documentation system specific to the construction sector is being set up with the involvement of round-table members.

At the level of individual buildings, resource-efficient construction criteria are being developed successively in the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (BNB) [↗ chapter C.5].

The recycling guidelines (Arbeitshilfen Recycling) were updated in 2016 and renamed as the BFR Recycling (Baufachliche Richtlinien Recycling, construction sector recycling guidelines). These contribute to supporting the circular economy, conserving natural resources and ensuring the proper and harmless processing or environmentally sound disposal of waste materials. The BFR recycling guidelines are addressed to building authorities and to

145 von 301 | www.bmu.de professionals in the field, such as architects, consulting engineers and the construction industry.

The “Future building” (ZukunftBau) innovation programme has its own thematic area of “Building quality, sustainable construction, circular economy and resource efficiency” to support research projects in this area. Through the BMI’s departmental research, the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development (Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung – BBSR) has produced studies on selective demolition, on standards for processing technologies, and on fully exploiting all potential for resource efficiency in the circular economy of the construction sector. www.plattform-ressourceneffizienz.de www.fib-bund.de/Inhalt/Richtlinien/BFRRecycling/BFR_Recycling_2018.pdf www.zukunftsbau.de www.bbsr.bund.de/BBSR/DE/Veroeffentlichungen/veroeffentlichungen_node.html

In cooperation with the Association of German Engineers (VDI), the Centre for Resource Efficiency (VDI ZRE) was established with a view to further improving the efficiency of resource use in as many production processes as possible. The VDI ZRE provides a digital information platform, organises nationwide events and provides practical help, particularly to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), with the implementation of resource-efficient practices. SMEs regularly take advantage of training offered by the VDI ZRE, which complements other German government programmes. www.resource-germany.com

During the period covered by the report, one objective pursued by the alliance for sustainable procurement (Allianz für eine nachhaltige Beschaffung) set up by the federal government, Länder and local authorities has been more sparing use of resources in public procurement. The alliance’s expert group on resource efficiency has drawn up guidelines on resource-efficient procurement (Leitfaden ressourceneffiziente Beschaffung). This document includes minimum environmental standards for the use of recycled building materials in construction and civil engineering. More detailed information on sustainable procurement can be found in [↗ chapter C.3]. www.nachhaltige- beschaffung.info/SharedDocs/DokumenteNB/LF_Ressourceneffizienz_02_2014.html?nn=37

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Research is an essential foundation for achieving a substantial increase in resource efficiency by means of technological innovations. In the Research for Sustainable Development (Forschung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung – FONA³) framework programme of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), with its three flagship initiatives of the Green Economy, City of the Future and The Energiewende – Germany’s Transformation of its energy system, research on intelligent and sparing use of resources is a priority. The main objectives of the support provided by the BMBF are to increase raw material productivity, safeguard the resource base for economically strategic raw materials, and broaden the resource base by using CO2 as a material resource. The R&D programme “Raw materials of strategic economic importance for high-tech made in Germany” aims to ensure an efficient supply of economically strategic raw materials such as electronic metals, steel alloying elements and rare earths. To this end, 40 cooperative projects from business and research received support under the BMBF funding measure “r4 Innovative technologies for resource efficiency – Research for the provision of raw materials of strategic economic importance” in the period from 2015 to 2019. The measure focuses on the exploration and efficient extraction of economically strategic resources from primary deposits and the recycling of processing and production residues and end-of-life products. The BMBF’s ongoing “SME Innovative” funding initiative in the technology field of “Resource efficiency and climate protection” supports small and medium-sized enterprises with the development of resource efficiency technologies, for example innovative recycling processes and the reduction of raw material inputs in production processes. Other BMBF funding measures support the development of technologies for the use of CO2 as a material resource (for example “CO2Plus – Utilisation of CO2 to broaden the raw material base” and “CO2-WIN – CO2 as a sustainable source of carbon – ways towards industrial use”). This involves substituting some of the fossil raw materials used as inputs, for example in the chemical or construction industries, with CO2 as a raw material, thereby moving towards a circular carbon economy. Finally, the funding measure “r+Impulse – Impulses for industrial resource efficiency” (2016 to 2022) is aimed at accelerating the transfer of promising research results from the laboratory or pilot plant into industrial practice. It serves to buffer the risks of industrial up-scaling, facilitate viable approaches for proceeding through to the stage of demonstration facilities and enable in-process industrial research.

147 von 301 | www.bmu.de The BMBF funding measure RePhoR develops regional approaches for phosphorus recycling and sewage sludge reuse [↗ chapter C.4]. Through innovative business solutions its aim is to contribute to the implementation of the new Sewage Sludge Ordinance (Klärschlammverordnung). Various technologies for phosphorus recovery from wastewater, sewage sludge or sewage sludge incineration ash are to be implemented on an industrial scale with a view to returning the recovered phosphorus into the food cycle via agriculture or supplying it to industry as a raw material. The resultant increase in the use of secondary phosphorus from the circular economy is expected to substantially reduce phosphorus loss and Germany’s dependence on phosphorus imports.

Research for a climate-friendly steel industry

In the Carbon2Chem project, a strong consortium of industry and research is working on transforming the metallurgical gases released by steel production into marketable base chemicals for fuels, plastics or fertilisers. A pilot plant at the Duisburg steelworks permits operational testing of the approach under industrial conditions. In this way, it is envisaged that 20 million tonnes of the German steel sector’s annual

CO2 emissions, equating to 10 percent of annual CO2 emissions from German industrial processes and manufacturing, will be made commercially recoverable in future. This amounts to a relevant savings effect with regard to climate targets and is a good example of how new business models can emerge from climate action. For the first phase of funding up to 2020, the BMBF is making 60 million euros available. If the technology works, it could be deployed at 50 additional steel plants worldwide and also at other CO2 point sources such as cement factories and waste incineration plants.

Via the BMU’s Environmental Innovation Programme (Umweltinnovationsprogramm), innovative industrial-scale demonstration and pilot projects are being supported under the funding priority “Material efficiency in production”. For the first time, these focus on the value chain as a whole – from raw material through transport and processing to the finished product. At European level, too, the German government is increasingly advocating appropriate indicators and targets for resource efficiency. In the international context, the German government particularly supports the International Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). This is a panel of international experts from industrialised and developing

148 von 301 | www.bmu.de countries who work on analyses and recommendations for more sustainable management of natural resources. www.fona.de/en/measures/funding-measures/ www.umweltinnovationsprogramm.de/foerderschwerpunkte/materialeffizienz-in-der- produktion www.matressource.de In order to anchor the principle of resource efficiency at all levels in the long term, all the actors involved in the manufacturing of a product, such as engineers, product designers and skilled workers, must be sensitised to the issue and trained accordingly. The German government is therefore striving to integrate the theme of resource efficiency, which is a key sustainability factor, into all educational contexts and particularly those segments of education providing training for jobs which affect the use of natural resources. To this end, the BMU has established the Education for Resource Conservation and Resource Efficiency network (Bildung für Ressourcenschonung und Ressourceneffizienz – BilRess). www.bilress.de/ Conflicting goals and current challenges

In order to achieve the stipulated targets, the German Resource Efficiency Programme must be systematically implemented and further refined. Like its predecessor ProgRess I, the ProgRess II programme looks at the increase in resource efficiency along the entire value chain and focuses on the material use of abiotic and biotic raw materials. A new aspect considered under ProgRess II is the interrelationship between material efficiency and energy efficiency. In some cases, measures to increase resource efficiency could simultaneously result in substantial energy savings and hence synergy effects. For example, material-saving processes in the metal processing industry also reduce energy consumption. However, a reduction in energy demand can also correlate with higher demand for the material, giving rise to conflicting goals. One example is the reduction in heating energy demand thanks to the use of insulation materials in buildings. For a comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts, the costs of materials and energy for building insulation must be set in relation to the energy savings for heating, taking the complete material cycles and all energy footprints into consideration. Efficient use of material and energy is not only environmentally necessary but also makes economic

149 von 301 | www.bmu.de sense for businesses and the national economy. More resource-efficient technologies can open up export opportunities and create new jobs. Accurate assessment and consideration of any synergies and conflicting goals that may result from material- and energy-efficiency measures is thus of growing importance. In the future, better use must also be made of resource efficiency’s potential to mitigate climate change. A study to identify and assess the potential of resource efficiency policy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is expected to indicate these possibilities. To achieve further advances in technologies for the efficient use and broad-scale conservation of resources, the German government will work jointly with business and industry to develop a “National research and innovation strategy for resource conservation technology”.

Digitalisation is a megatrend in social and economic development which presents enormous opportunities as well as challenges for resource-efficiency policy. In the future, ever-greater use can be made of the potential for saving energy and resources, for example by means of intelligent buildings and networks, traffic optimisation methods or intelligent production systems (Production 4.0). At the same time, the rising use of information and communications technologies is increasing the consumption of energy and resources such as rare metals. We therefore need solutions and standards for resource-efficient data centres or efficient software to reduce the use of energy and materials. To this end, the German government will continue to advance the implementation of green IT in Germany. Due recognition should also be given to the possibilities that digitalisation affords for enhancing resource efficiency.

In ProgRess III, due in the first quarter of 2020, the German government will again report on the German Resource Efficiency Programme and its updated targets and measures for enhancing resource efficiency.

150 von 301 | www.bmu.de C.3 Sustainable production and consumption The consumption of products and services has a considerable impact on the state of the environment. Mobility, food, housing and households, office and work, clothing, and leisure and tourism are the areas of consumption in which there is the greatest potential for reducing environmental pressures. How environmentally sound consumption is depends substantially on how products are manufactured and on consumer behaviour. When assessing whether a product is sustainable, the entire life cycle of the product is relevant: this includes how the raw materials used to make it were obtained, how it was manufactured, how far it has been transported, how it is packaged, how it is operated, whether it can be repaired, how it can be disposed of and whether the raw materials used are recyclable. Such an appraisal involves a life-cycle assessment of the complete value chain. An economic and consumer culture that wastes natural resources and does not return them to the circular economy after using them is not sustainable.

Figure C.3.1: Consumer spending of private households 2017. Source: StBA 2018

Konsumausgaben der privaten Haushalte Consumer spending of private households in im Inland nach Verwendungszwecken Germany, by purposes, 2017 2017

Prozent Percent

Nahrungsmittel, Getränke, Tabakwaren Food, drinks, tobacco products 13.9 13,9

Bekleidung und Schuhe 4,6 Clothing and shoes 4.6

151 von 301 | www.bmu.de Wohnung, Wasser, Strom, Gas u.a. Housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels Brennstoffe 23,6 23.6

Einrichtungsgegenstände, Geräte für den Furnishings and household appliances 6.7 Haushalt 6,7

Verkehr, Nachrichtenübermittlung 17,7 Transport, communications 17.7

Freizeit, Unterhaltung und Kultur 9,1 Leisure, entertainment and culture 9.1

Beherbergungs- und Hotel and catering services 5.4 Gaststättendienstleistungen 5,4

Übrige Verwendungszwecke 19,0 Other purposes 19.0

* Gesundheitspflege ... sonstige * Health care, education, personal care, personal Dienstleistungen. items of daily use, social services, insurance and financial services, other services.

Quelle: .... (Zugriff am 12.02.18) Source: Federal Statistical Office 2018, Inlandsproduktionsberechnung – Erste Jahresergebnisse (Domestic product accounting – Preliminary annual results),Thematic Series 18 Row 1.1, as of 01/2018 https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationene/The matisch/VolkswirtschaftlicheGesamtrechnungen /Inlandsprodukt/InlandsproduktsberechnungErst eErgebnisse.html (accessed 12 February 2018)

Many “green” products have made it onto the mass market over the past few decades. Consumers are increasingly being informed, for example by means of seals and labelling schemes, about the available opportunities for purchasing sustainable products. Overall, this makes it easier for all societal groups to play their part in sustainable consumption. The option of purchasing an affordable, energy-efficient electrical appliance has been greatly simplified by the EU Ecodesign Directive and by energy consumption labelling. Energy consumption costs and savings throughout the useful lives of appliances are being made transparent and comparable. At the same time, a rapid change in consumer behaviour is evident as a result of online shopping. This trend requires a different approach to communicating with consumers about sustainable shopping, and poses new challenges when it comes to monitoring newly

152 von 301 | www.bmu.de marketed products for compliance with environmental standards. The consumer spending of private households in Germany has been rising continuously for decades and has doubled since German reunification.

Food can make an important contribution to sustainable consumption overall. Around 13 percent of the CO2 emissions of individuals due to consumption can be attributed to the production, processing and transportation of foodstuffs or to food waste. www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten/private-haushalte-konsum/strukturdaten-privater- haushalte/einkommen-konsum-energienutzung-emissionen-privater#textpart-3 www.bmu.de/publikation/nationales-programm-fuer-nachhaltigen-Konsum/

It is striking that while a growing number of people know about healthy and sustainable food choices, this knowledge is not being put into practice in everyday life. According to the publication Fleischatlas 2018 (Meat atlas 2018), for instance, there has been no noticeable change in the level of meat consumption in Germany between 2005 (59.6 kilograms per person per year) and 2016 (59 kilograms), although plant-based foods generally take a substantially lower toll on the environment (in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption and soil and groundwater pollution) than foods of animal origin.

Messages that go further than the recommendations of the German Nutrition Society (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung – DGE) and that urge people to adopt a low meat, vegetarian or completely vegan diet are being communicated in the traditional media (television, newspapers, magazines) and via social-media influencers. In combination with health aspects, ethical motives, growing environmental awareness and increasing prosperity, this seems to be causing changes in eating habits in Germany, although only to a limited extent so far. From a low baseline within the total population, the number of vegetarians (6 percent) and vegans (1 percent) is on the increase, especially among younger age groups, according to the BMEL-Ernährungsreport 2019 (BMEL Nutrition report 2019). A notable trend, according to the Robert Koch Institute, is that the higher the educational level, the higher the proportion of people eating a meat-free diet. More people are also stating in survey responses that they intend to restrict their meat consumption. www.fleischwirtschaft.de/wirtschaft/nachrichten/Verzehrgewohnheiten-Bundesbuerger- wollen-weniger-Fleisch-essen-38273?crefresh=1 www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Broschueren/Ernaehrungsreport2019.pdf?__blob=pu blicationFile National Programme on Sustainable Consumption and competence centre for sustainable consumption

In February 2016, the German government adopted the National Programme on Sustainable

153 von 301 | www.bmu.de Consumption (Nationales Programm für nachhaltigen Konsum), in which it sets out how sustainable consumption will be systematically strengthened and expanded in various areas. The programme, which is also viewed as an important step towards implementation of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development and particularly the global Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns), is intended to advance sustainable consumption from niche to mainstream and to boost consumer competence accordingly. It thus aims to secure the participation of all sections of the population in sustainable consumption.

The National Programme on Sustainable Consumption addresses the six areas of consumption with the greatest potential for reducing environmental pressures, namely mobility, food, housing and households, work and office, clothing, and leisure and tourism. Beyond this, it also addresses cross-cutting fields of action such as education, consumer information and research. For example, the BMBF’s FONA³ programme explores, within the field of socio- ecological research, the theme of sustainable consumption with support measures such as “Sustainable Economy” (2014 to 2020), “Rebound Effects from a Social-Ecological Perspective” (2016 to 2020) or “Plastics in the Environment” (2016 to 2020). The programme also provides a platform to facilitate the participation of all relevant groups in society. Only by involving all societal groups will it be possible to change consumption patterns within our society and make them more sustainable. www.bmu.de/publikation/nationales-programm-fuer-nachhaltigen-konsum/ www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/index.php?tlvCategoryids=24

To support the implementation of the programme, a competence centre for sustainable consumption (Kompetenzzentrum Nachhaltiger Konsum) was set up at the Federal Environment Agency in March 2017. The purpose of the competence centre is to advance sustainable consumption as a joint activity across the whole of the German government and to establish an institutional foundation for it. Its main tasks include substantive and organisational support for the implementation of the programme, providing information services for sustainable consumption, and coordinating specialist scientific support services for sustainable consumption with regard to programme implementation in consultation with the departments responsible for the respective matters.

In addition, to secure greater involvement from different societal groups in the implementation of the programme, a national network on sustainable consumption (Netzwerk Nachhaltiger Konsum) was founded in January 2017. The network promotes the intensification of interdisciplinary and practice-oriented dialogue as well as cooperation between stakeholders from research, politics, business and civil society. Among other functions, it serves to

154 von 301 | www.bmu.de disseminate best practices and promote stakeholder cooperation in and between the different activity areas. Currently around 200 stakeholders from research, politics, business and civil society participate in the network. https://k-n-k.de/netzwerk

Instruments for improving the environmental features of products

Efforts to prevent adverse environmental impacts due to consumption must begin with product development. Up to 80 percent of all environmental impacts of a product depend on its design. Product innovations thus offer great potential for reducing environmental pressures.

Figure C.3.2: The life cycle of a product. Source: UBA

Lebenszyklus eines Produktes The life cycle of a product along the value entlang der Wertschöpfungskette chain Rohstoffgewinnung Raw-material extraction Produktion Production Distribution Distribution Konsum Consumption Entsorgung/Verwertung Disposal/recycling Quelle: ... eingesehen am 26.05.2016. Source: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB), http://www.bmub.bund.de/themen/wirtschaft- produkte-ressourcen/produkte-und- umselt/produktbereiche/nachhaltiger- konsum/#c28261, accessed 26 May 2016.

Numerous measures initiated by the EU have created incentives that will increasingly shift demand in the internal market towards high-efficiency, environmentally friendly products. These include the EU Ecodesign Directive, the EU Energy Labelling Framework Regulation and the voluntary EU Ecolabel. Provisions on sustainable public procurement in public

155 von 301 | www.bmu.de procurement law also stimulate demand for sustainable products.

The EU Ecodesign Directive

The Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/EC) establishes the European framework for specifying environmentally sound design requirements for products with significant energy consumption. The directive also imposes minimum requirements for energy and resource efficiency. These requirements are defined specifically for individual product groups in EU implementing regulations. These are directly applicable and need not be transposed into German law. As a result, only products that meet the specified requirements may be placed on the EU internal market. This will also gradually eliminate “power guzzlers” from the market. Eleven of these product groups were revised or newly issued as part of the 2018/2019 winter package and will now also be subject to resource efficiency requirements, especially in relation to the availability of certain replacement parts. Alternatively, the EU Commission can also recognise voluntary commitments from industry. In November 2017, the European Commission introduced a new work programme for the years ahead, which includes plans to pass regulations on new product groups. Currently, 28 regulations under the Ecodesign Directive are in force and three voluntary commitments from industry have been recognised.

Together, the Ecodesign Directive and the EU Energy Labelling Framework Regulation (see below) help to achieve roughly half of the EU’s energy-saving targets for 2020. According to the European Commission’s calculations, the existing regulations save 175 million tonnes of crude oil equivalents, which amounts to more than the annual primary energy consumption of Italy. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/Ecodesign%20Impacts%20Accountin g%20%20-%20status%20January%202016%20-%20Final-20160607%20-%20N....pdf https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/ecodesign_factsheet.pdf https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52016DC0773&from=EN EU Energy Labelling Framework Regulation

Household electricity consumption in Germany amounted to around 129 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) or 129 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2016. A very sizeable share of this is still attributable to large appliances like refrigerators and freezers, dishwashers and washing machines, and to electricity consumed for space heating and hot water. EU Regulation 2017/1369 setting a framework for energy labelling requires certain products to be labelled to show their energy consumption and energy efficiency. Using a scale from class A+++ (green – “very efficient”) to class G (red – “least efficient”), efficiency labels display important data relevant to energy consumption on energy-consuming products such as refrigerators, washing machines, heaters and televisions, and support consumers in their purchasing decisions. Since the 1990s, the

156 von 301 | www.bmu.de label has proven to be an effective instrument for providing information to consumers. In 2017 it was adapted in line with major progress on efficiency that had been made in some product groups with the introduction of the new Energy Labelling Framework Regulation. The new product regulations covering energy labelling for washing machines, dishwashers, refrigeration appliances, televisions and displays, and refrigerators with a sales function envisage a changeover from the old A*** to the new A to G label from March 2021. For lighting, the new A to G label will be launched in September 2021. With classes ranging from A to G, consumers will again have a choice between products with different degrees of efficiency. When the new label is launched, efficiency class A or, for especially dynamic products, classes A and B are to be kept free to begin with so that there is once again leeway for progress. Accordingly, the most energy-efficient appliances will be awarded no higher than a B rating.

Voluntary environmental labelling

There is still considerable scope to increase environmentally friendly consumption. Credible eco-labels can provide simple, transparent and comprehensible information that helps consumers find the most environmentally friendly products in a given category. However, the maze of labels is becoming increasingly difficult to negotiate, which leads to confusion. To protect consumers, the German government is continuing with its Siegelklarheit (Seal clarity) project. The project’s objective is to make credible, ambitious “trustworthy” labels more visible and easier to differentiate from untrustworthy, misleading labels, both for consumers and for public procurement. www.siegelklarheit.de

The world’s first, best-known and most successful environmental label, the Blue Angel, is already being used on some 12,000 products made by about 1,500 manufacturers. The BMU is the owner of the label. It has set the standards for environmentally friendly products (including services) since 1978 and is awarded by an independent jury on the basis of defined criteria which are developed for each product group. This process considers the entire life cycle of a product and addresses the aspects relevant to environmental protection, health protection and serviceability. To reflect technical improvements, the Federal Environment Agency reviews the criteria on a regular basis. They are specified in such a way that they can only be fulfilled by about 20 percent of products on the market. Currently the Blue Angel is available for around 120 product groups. To mark the 40th anniversary of the environmental label, the logo was given a fresh and eye-catching new look at the beginning of 2018.

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www.blauer-engel.de/en

The German government has supported the EU Ecolabel since it was introduced in 1992. Currently it has been obtained by around 30 product groups and services which are less harmful to health and the environment than comparable offerings. The European Commission fitness check confirmed in 2016 that Regulation (EC) No 66/2010 on the EU Ecolabel is fundamentally appropriate to reduce the environmental impacts of consumption and production. www.eu-ecolabel.de Sustainable public procurement

Public procurement in Germany is estimated at a volume of 150 to 400 billion euros, representing a large share of all purchasing of products and services. www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/long/3666.pdf www.nachhaltige-beschaffung.info/DE/DokumentAnzeigen/dokument- anzeigen.html?idDocument=1786&view=knbdownload Sustainable procurement can therefore make a substantial impact on the market for environmentally friendly products, and hence for innovation. At the same time, it offers procuring authorities the opportunity to achieve financial savings for public budgets with energy-efficient and durable products, and to fulfill their role in setting a good example for consumers.

Since the reform of public procurement law in 2016, greater attention has been paid to sustainability aspects in the awarding of public contracts. The German government is already setting its own procurement targets in a few selected product groups (energy-efficient products, wood, textiles, paper and vehicles) within its programme of sustainability measures, the Joint Decree on the Procurement of Wood Products (Gemeinsamer Erlass zur Beschaffung von Holzprodukten) and the General Administrative Regulation on the Procurement of Energy- efficient Products and Services (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zur Beschaffung

158 von 301 | www.bmu.de energieeffizienter Produkte und Dienstleistungen).

In addition, the German government provides a wealth of background information and assistance to procuring bodies via the UBA information portal on green public procurement, the Competence Centre for Sustainable Procurement (KNB) and the Competence Centre for Innovative Procurement (KOINNO). The German government's "Sustainability Compass" offers procuring officials online support in the selection of sustainability criteria and labels. Life- cycle information relating to building products is listed on the WECOBIS website. Planning and public tendering approaches are currently being updated.

Despite new possibilities offered by under reformed public procurement law, there is still a need to improve the implementation of sustainable procurement in practice. In addition, there is not yet an adequate data basis to give a clear understanding of whether and how sustainable procurement is becoming established in Germany. www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/_Anlagen/2015/03/2015-03-30- massnahmenprogramm-nachhaltigkeit.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3 www.bmel.de/DE/Wald-Fischerei/Waldpolitik/_texte/HolzbeschaffungErlass.html www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/A/avv-eneff.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=6 www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/wirtschaft-konsum/umweltfreundliche-beschaffung www.wecobis.de www.kompass-nachhaltigkeit.de www.nachhaltige-beschaffung.info/DE/Home/home_node.html www.koinno-bmwi.de/ Green IT as an example of resource and energy efficiency

Green information technology (green IT) involves more than just improving the energy efficiency of individual devices, such as laptops and tablets, or of whole data centres. Green IT is used as a collective heading for all activities concerned with environmentally benign manufacturing and environmentally benign use of information and communication technologies (ICT). This includes the entire life cycle of ICT products, their energy consumption and all their other environmental impacts, such as degradation caused by the extraction of raw materials. In this context, there are several areas of action associated with green IT. www.cio.bund.de/Web/DE/Innovative-Vorhaben/Green-IT/green_it_node.html www.bmu.de/themen/wirtschaft-produkte-ressourcen-tourismus/produkte-und- konsum/produktbereiche/green-it/green-it-initiative-des-bundes/ Energy consumed by IT

In 2008 the electricity consumed by IT in Germany (that is, the use of all information technologies in Germany) accounted for around 10.5 percent of the country’s total electricity

159 von 301 | www.bmu.de consumption. In response to that finding, in the same year the council of the Federal Government Commissioner for Information Technology (CIO Council) laid the foundation for the green IT initiative (Green IT-Initiative des Bundes). The initiative defines a primary target of reducing the energy consumption of all federal authorities’ IT operations by 40 percent, from 650 GWh to 390 GWh, in the period from 2009 to 2013. This target was not just achieved but exceeded. By 2018 the energy consumption of IT in the federal administration was reduced to 337 GWh (-48.2 percent). If the calculation takes account of a performance increase – as envisaged in decision no. 66/2011 of the CIO Council – the reduction amounts to as much as 58.5 percent.

Sustainable IT procurement

Up to 2017 the CIO Council was specifying the targets for sustainable IT procurement for the federal administration. In cooperation with the BMI Procurement Office, various parts of the groundwork for sustainable IT procurement have now been completed. For example, forward- looking standards were anchored in the architecture guidelines for the IT of the federal administration, in the target concept for the consolidation of IT procurement and in the IT procurement strategy. In addition, the General Administrative Regulation on the Procurement of Energy-efficient Products and Services (Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zur Beschaffung energieeffizienter Produkte und Dienstleistungen – AVV-EnEff) was updated in 2017. www.bmu.de/gesetz/allgemeine-verwaltungsvorschrift-zur-beschaffung-energieeffizienter- produkte-und-dienstleistungen/ The ICT procurement website developed by the German government will help public contracting authorities at national, Land and municipal levels to consider sustainability, among other aspects, when issuing invitations to tender in relation to ICT procurement. www.itk-beschaffung.de

Energy efficient data-centre operations

In 2013 the CIO Council had made the decision that when assessing energy and resource efficiency in government data centres, the Blue Angel criteria for energy-efficient data-centre operations were to be applied. In 2017 this instruction was amended in respect of the two newly established central IT-services providers, requiring them to align themselves to these criteria when expanding their service centres and to make annual reports on progress achieved.

Regarding the comprehensive measurement of the energy and resource efficiency of entire data centres, a UBA research report was published in 2018 in which the existing indicators were elaborated to arrive at a new calculation method (KPI4DCE).

160 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/kennzahlen-indikatoren-fuer-die-beurteilung-der

161 von 301 | www.bmu.de C.4 The circular economy Awareness of the need for more sparing use of natural raw materials and energy sources coupled with the shortage of landfill capacity in the 1980s prompted the development of a modern waste management system. Since the beginning of the 1990s, this has been evolving into a circular economy, which is a top priority of German environmental policy. This development proceeding from the end-point of the value chain is complemented by the establishment of the closed-loop approach to production and consumption, which begins with prudent use of resources. The fact is that resource scarcity is an increasingly an issue for the continually growing global population. Germany, with its export-oriented industry but, by global standards, above-average national per capita consumption of resources and materials, has a special responsibility here. Members of the public are called upon to play an active part in waste prevention and waste separation, so that waste is preferably not generated in the first place and more recyclable material can be recovered. Everyone can make an important contribution to this, for example by reducing food waste or by taking action to stop littering in public places. This is supported by modern sorting, treatment and recycling technologies.

Having already attained this high standard based on the provisions of the Circular Economy Act (Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz – KrWG), the German circular economy creates a crucial foundation to enable the country to meet the ever-growing challenges of obtaining sustainable supplies of raw materials. According to the latest statistics, 14 percent of the non-energy raw materials used in the German economy were recovered from waste. One challenge is to tap the as-yet unutilised potential for reducing the use of primary raw materials and the environmental impacts often entailed. Biomass as a substitute for fossil fuels will contribute to mitigating climate change, conserving resources and protecting biodiversity. It will be channelled primarily into high-grade material recovery, considering use for energy generation only as the final stage of a cascade of uses. The circular economy is an important instrument for relieving pressure on the environment – soil, water, the air and the climate. In the international arena, too, German companies, research institutions and municipal practitioners are particularly well equipped to support environmental protection with their know-how, their services and the modern technologies of the circular economy.

162 von 301 | www.bmu.de Abfallaufkommen in Deutschland 2006 - 2016 einschließlich gefährlicher Abfälle [in Mio. Tonnen] 400

350

Bau- und 300 Abbruchabfälle

250 222,8 209,0 209,5

199,3 Abfälle aus Produktion 199,4 202,7 197,7 195,0 und Gewerbe 200

150 Abfälle aus Gewinnung und Behandlung von Bodenschätzen 59,2 54,8 58,4 59,5 55,9 54,2

100 57,1 51,3 Siedlungsabfälle 34,7 42,0 31,4 30,2 28,1 30,3 29,2 50 27,5 52,1 51,6 51,1 50,2 49,7 49,5 48,4 46,4 0 2006 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure C.4.1: Volumes of waste in Germany 2006–2016. Source: StBA (2019)

Abfallaufkommen in Deutschland 2006–2016 Volumes of waste in Germany 2006–2016 einschließlich gefährlicher Abfälle [in Mio. including hazardous waste [in millions of tonnes] tonnen] Bau- und Abbruchabfälle Construction and demolition waste Abfälle aus Produktion und Gewerbe Waste from production and industry Abfälle aus Gewinnung und Behandlung von Mineral extraction and treatment waste Bodenschätzen Siedlungsabfälle Municipal waste

The circular economy as an element of the green economy

Based on the provisions of the Circular Economy Act, Germany’s circular economy follows various principles and methods which have made it so successful: the “polluter pays” principle means that those who generate waste are called on to finance the cost of its disposal; thanks to the interlocking of private and public responsibilities for waste disposal, there is crossover between responsibility for the general public and competence in recycling; the five-tier waste hierarchy stipulates how waste that could not be prevented will be

163 von 301 | www.bmu.de disposed of in order to make better and more sustainable use of the recyclable resources it contains; the ban on landfilling waste that has not been pre-treated protects the environment and makes it more lucrative to use such waste than to consign it to landfill.

The circular economy has developed into an important economic sector with market- economic structures. With an annual turnover of almost 70 billion euros, and employing around 270,000 people in 15,500 facilities, waste management is classified as a major sector of the German economy. It is composed of both medium-sized enterprises and numerous large companies.

Zusammensetzung der Haushaltsabfälle 2016 [in Mio. Tonnen]

Gesamt: 46,6 Mio. Tonnen, davon:

Hausmüll, hausmüllähnliche 7,8 Gewerbeabfälle Sperrmüll 14,6 0,6 Abfälle aus der Biotonne

Garten- und Parkabfälle 5,8 biologisch abbaubar Kunststoff/Leichtverpackungen

2,5 Elektroaltgeräte 5,9 4,4 Papier

Figure C.4.2: Composition of household waste 2016. Source: StBA (2019)

Zusammensetzung der Haushaltsabfälle Composition of household waste 2016. 2016. [in Mio. tonnen] [in millions of tonnes] Gesamt: 46,6 Mio. Tonnen, davon: Total: 46.6 million tonnes, of which: Hausmüll, hausmüllähnliche Gewerbeabfälle Household waste and household-like commercial waste Sperrmüll Bulky waste

164 von 301 | www.bmu.de Abfälle aus der Biotonne Waste from the organic waste collection bin Garten und Parkabfälle biologisch abbaubar Garden and park waste, biodegradable Kunststoff/Leichtverpackungen Plastic/light packaging Elektroaltgeräte Used electrical equipment Papier Paper

Since economic interests are combined with protection of the environment, health and resources, this can be seen as a successful example of a green economy. However, there are still plenty of ways in which the system can be further optimised:

Impacts of demographic change on waste management

Climate change and demographic change are two challenges to be addressed in the development of human settlements, particularly in the areas of housing, industry and infrastructure. This is especially relevant to waste management measures. The BMU commissioned research into the impacts of demographic change on municipal waste management and disposal and presented the results in a guide to good practice, which was published in 2017. The guide analyses the challenges identified for different types of settlement structure and makes recommendations for adaptation measures under the headings of waste volume/material streams, disposal logistics, plant installations, human resources management and finances. All in all, it is evident that demographic change and the changes anticipated within society in years to come affect the municipal waste management and disposal sector. Even today, this requires many regions to take steps to adapt their waste management, and this need will become even more pressing in future. Especially in the fast-growing self-governing cities, where more than 17 million residents will be affected (forecast for 2030), and the shrinking rural regions, detailed attention to these processes of change is recommended. www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/421/publikationen/171211_uba_fb_dem ografie_abfall_bf_small.pdf

A modern circular economy for environmental protection and climate change mitigation

A modern circular economy diverts pollutants and contaminants from the economic cycle and preferably directs recyclable materials to high-grade recycling, and to reuse wherever possible. Since 1 June 2005, biodegradable organic wastes must undergo thermal or mechanical-biological treatment before being disposed of. Treatment of non-recyclable residual waste ensures that the environment and human health are protected from hazards. Following treatment, the residues rendered harmless by inerting are deposited on sealed-off

165 von 301 | www.bmu.de landfill sites; leachates are collected and purified; and landfill gas containing methane is likewise captured and used as a source of energy.

The 2018 climate action report (Klimaschutzbericht 2018) states that, thanks to these measures, the waste management sector’s emissions fell by almost 73 percent from around

38 million tonnes CO2-equivalents in the year 1990 to 10 million tonnes CO2-equivalents in 2016. With a share of total emissions of about one percent, the waste management sector is now only responsible for a very small proportion of Germany’s greenhouse gas emissions. The far higher than average reductions result principally from the ban on sending biodegradable municipal wastes to landfill, but also in part from increased recycling, particularly of metals, glass and paper, and the use of waste as an energy source. The circular economy accounted for a 20 percent share of Germany’s total energy savings under the Kyoto Protocol. Although any further potential for climate change mitigation is declining overall, in the next few years the circular economy and the resource management sector will still play a part in achieving the German climate targets, for example by means of measures for the ventilation and degassing of decommissioned municipal waste landfill sites under the National Climate Initiative. In recent years, the German government has also stepped up its international engagement so that it can support emerging economies and developing countries in establishing their own functioning waste management sectors.

Leitbild der Kreislaufwirtschaft Model of the circular economy Primäre Ressourcen Primary resources

166 von 301 | www.bmu.de Produktion Production interne Kreisläufe Internal closed loops Handel Trade Rücknahmesysteme Take-back systems Konsum Consumption Wiederverwendung Reuse Abfallvermeidung Waste prevention Vorbereitung zur Wiederwendung Preparation for reuse Recycling Recycling Andere Verwertung Other utilisation Beseitigung Disposal Sekundäre Ressourcen Secondary resources Stand: August 2018 As at: August 2018

Waste prevention

Beside waste management, the circular economy encompasses the upstream extraction, production and consumption phases of raw materials and products insofar as these have consequences for waste disposal. Waste prevention aims to reduce both the volume of waste and its contaminant content in the interests of conserving resources. The German government and the Länder addressed this in 2013 by adopting a waste prevention programme, which contains a programme of public sector measures designed to help reduce waste volumes. The German government will revise and update the programme in 2019.

Waste prevention targets both production and consumption in equal measure: production processes need to be organised resource-efficiently; repair-friendly product design is essential for sustainable consumption; rules on product design rely on uniform standards at European level. Reference points for these are found in the Ecodesign Directive, which the EU has used with success, for example to reduce the energy consumption of electrical appliances.

There are also various ways in which each and every individual can reduce waste: by buying durable or repairable products, by refraining from purchasing unnecessary or short-lived items, and by using services rather than owning goods. Using items for longer also helps to prevent waste: for example, this type of solution is offered by sewing and repair cafés, where people can repair everyday items under expert instruction.

Raising awareness and sensitising the general public and industry to effective waste prevention are therefore of crucial importance. To this end, in November each year Germany participates in the European Week for Waste Reduction by staging numerous events

167 von 301 | www.bmu.de involving a highly diverse range of stakeholders. The events highlight what can be achieved in practice on the strength of particular activities, ideas and commitment.

Research for a resource-efficient circular economy

A fundamental transformation of our previously largely linear model of production and consumption (production – use – disposal) into a resource-efficient circular economy has implications far beyond waste management and recycling. Rather, across the entire lifespan of products, the value and resources they contain should be kept within the circular economy for as long as possible in order to minimise the depletion of primary raw materials and the generation of waste and emissions. This requires not only research and innovation but also, and above all, new business models and the involvement of producers, trade and consumers.

As part of the German government’s High-Tech Strategy 2025, a series of missions have been defined for science, business and society to work towards jointly. A foremost priority is the transfer of research findings into industry and society. One of the missions is dedicated to “Creating sustainable circular economies”.

The BMBF research concept “Resource-efficient closed-loop economy” was developed for this purpose. By stimulating research and development, it aims to provide impulses for transitioning to a resource-efficient circular economy, including new strategies, technologies and business models. Implementation is going ahead under several funding measures with a total BMBF funding allocation of around 150 million euros for the period from 2018 to 2023. It is part of the BMBF’s framework programme “Research for Sustainable Development – FONA³”. The research priorities are:

• design of recyclable and resource-conserving products,

• digital technologies for the circular and resource-optimised economy,

• innovative product cycles and business models,

• optimised material and resource cycles (plastics, mineral substances, economically strategic raw materials).

The first funding measures within this framework are “Resource-efficient closed-loop economy – Innovative production cycles” and “Resource-efficient circular economy – Building and mineral cycles (ReMin)”. In addition, joint transnational projects with European partners on the resource-efficient circular economy are being funded under the ERA-Net ERA-MIN 2 initiative.

Littering

168 von 301 | www.bmu.de Over the past few years, factors such as growing mobility, increasing use of public space and altered consumer behaviour among the general public have caused changes to working and living conditions and a concomitant rise in the littering of public places. Littering has adverse environmental consequences because many substances and materials take years, if not decades, to decompose. Harmful chemicals from discarded litter can find their way into the environment. For instance, litter poses a hazard to animals if ingested and to the environment due to the leaching of chemicals, and may even enter the human organism via the food chain. Vermin attracted by the litter can likewise present hazards to health and hygiene. Added to that, litter can be blown by the wind into water bodies such as lakes, and ultimately into the ocean, which is especially problematic in the case of plastic litter. Furthermore, when glass is discarded elsewhere than in the designated collection bins, it can cause injuries to people or animals and even lead to fires. The German government carries out research into how citizens habitually discard their rubbish and is developing measures to combat littering. In emerging economies and developing countries the German government – in some instances with international partners such as the World Bank and the European Commission – is supporting projects to reduce the contamination of water bodies and the oceans with waste and to improve the collection and recycling of waste (for example, in Southeast Europe and Southeast Asia).

Recycling as practical resource conservation

Apart from preventing waste from occurring, recycling and other methods of using wastes sustainably are also essential. Recycling rates of 60 to 90 percent are currently being achieved, and secondary raw materials already make up around 14 percent of the non- energy raw materials needed by German industry. In future it will be increasingly vital to recover recyclable materials that are either very scarce or leave a particularly large environmental footprint: this includes materials that cannot be produced or supplied without high levels of energy or water consumption, or the “critical raw materials” that are irreplaceable in a modern manufacturing industry, such as certain metals used in high-tech, like copper, silver, gold or palladium (for electronics, mobility and generating renewable energy) and phosphorus for agriculture (phosphate fertilisers). There is still great potential for recycling in both areas. By issuing a treatment ordinance pursuant to the Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act (Elektro- und Elektronikgerätegesetz – ElektroG), the German government plans to boost the recycling of “resource-relevant” metals and high-grade technical plastics from old electrical appliances. Beyond this, the German government provides supports for research projects on tapping additional potential and also wants to

169 von 301 | www.bmu.de raise awareness at European level of the need for systematic ongoing development of these themes.

Product responsibility

Legislation on product responsibility as part of waste management, such as the Packaging Act (Verpackungsgesetz), the Batteries Act (Batteriegesetz), the Waste Oil Ordinance (Altölverordnung), the End-of-Life Vehicles Ordinance (Altfahrzeugverordnung) or the Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act (ElektroG), imposes specific requirements on manufacturers and sellers to take back and subsequently recycle products they have placed on the market. Some of the legislation also contains requirements on product design, to make products easier to reuse or recycle. All of the legislation incorporates economic incentives for manufacturers and marketers to boost recycling levels. As a result, the packaging sector in particular makes a substantial contribution to the recovery of secondary raw materials.

The new Packaging Act raises the resource recovery requirements, and especially the target recycling rates, to even higher levels. To promote recycling even more effectively, the dual systems must take greater account of the recyclability of packaging in their licence-fee structures and reward the use of recyclates, i.e. previously recycled plastics of a certain quality. In addition, recycling bins will be introduced for the collection and recycling of packaging waste along with non-packaging waste of similar material, the bulk of which was previously consigned to residual waste. The Packaging Act also intensifies competition in the area of packaging disposal and lays down new regulations on cooperation between dual systems and municipalities. Establishment of the trade’s take-back obligation under the amended ElektroG has increased the density of the collection network accepting used electrical appliances from consumers. The aim is to make it easier for consumers to dispose of old electrical and electronic equipment and thereby to collect even more used appliances separately from the unsorted municipal waste and send them for high-grade recycling. An amendment to the Batteries Act in this legislative period will contribute to upholding the existing comprehensive system of high-quality battery disposal and sharing the associated burdens more equitably. More efficient control systems will also be installed. In the long term, the aim is to achieve an increase in collection volumes in the battery sector.

Food waste

In Germany and worldwide, food loss and particularly food waste is considered a grave problem: such loss and waste not only reduces the global availability of food but also – especially in developing countries – means that more resources than necessary must be

170 von 301 | www.bmu.de used for food production. From an ethical, environmental and economic point of view, the volumes of food loss and waste must therefore be reduced. The German government aims to achieve this objective in Germany, given that it was adopted as SDG Target 12.3 under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In this way, Germany honours its global responsibility and contributes towards achieving central goals of the 2030 Agenda through efficient use of natural resources.

On 20 February 2019, the federal cabinet adopted the National Strategy for Food Waste Reduction put forward by the Federal Minister of Food, Julia Klöckner. The reduction of food waste is a society-wide task. All stakeholders in civil society, business and research will therefore be included in the national process to develop measures and targets to combat food waste. The current strategy describes the status quo and possible causes as well as the challenges and fields of action arising for the reduction of food waste along the food supply chain. It sets out the structure for the participation process, also included in the Coalition Agreement, for the drafting of measures and targets, and specifies some initial concrete measures.

An important structural element in the implementation process is the joint committee of the federal government and the Länder, which commences its work in October 2019 and assumes the tasks of cross-departmental and cross-state steering. The committee’s role is to create a coherent political framework and identify any conflicting goals. It is responsible for evaluation of the implementation process and can set new priorities if need be. In dialogue forums for each sector, specific measures for reducing food waste will be developed jointly with food companies, civil society organisations, representatives of the responsible central and Länder government departments and the scientific community, and the implementation of these measures on a voluntary basis will be made transparent. Furthermore, for each sector targets will be defined and appropriate formats agreed for monitoring implementation and success, giving due regard to the interests of small and medium-sized enterprises.

Currently, the data available on food waste along the food supply chain is not sufficient to enable each sector’s share of the total volume of waste to be quantified. For the purposes of data collection and evaluation and so that the success of reduction measures can be evaluated, cross-departmental work is currently in progress – based partly on the revised EU Waste Framework Directive and the delegated act adopted in May 2019 laying down a common food waste measurement methodology – on an indicator and a methods paper. A status quo analysis based on available data from the year 2015 will be carried out using this method, and the data obtained used as a baseline for the strategy and for the data that has to be submitted to the EU annually from 2020. Publication of the baseline data is scheduled for autumn 2019. Once food waste volumes are being measured and monitored, it will then

171 von 301 | www.bmu.de be possible to quantify food waste and the potential for reducing it, review existing measures and identify additional reduction potential.

Non-preventable food waste must be recycled properly, without causing harm, and preferably for high-grade use. In this respect, the recycling of packaged foods represents a particular challenge. According to the relevant requirements of the laws on waste management and fertilisers, packaging materials must be separated as extraneous substances and the material pre-treated accordingly. This has been reiterated by the German government and the Länder once again for clarity following the recent incident on the Schlei Estuary. The relevant limit values for extraneous substances, specified in fertiliser law, will be made stricter by the revision of the Fertiliser Ordinance (Düngemittelverordnung) that is currently in progress. Furthermore, a joint federal government and Länder working group is developing a concept for the disposal of packaged foods.

Plastics and plastic waste

The sustainable management of plastics, a group of important and indispensable materials, presents a challenge that we must address on the national, European and international levels. This must be done from a life-cycle perspective, meaning from production via consumption through to high-grade recycling of any resultant waste.

Germany played a constructive part in the development of the European Plastics Strategy that was presented by the European Commission in January 2018 as an ambitious vision for the future management of plastics in the EU.

In that document the European Commission emphasises, on the one hand, the importance of the plastics industry and the significance of plastics for sustainable production and consumption. On the other hand, it clearly states that much remains to be done to bring about a genuine circular economy for plastics by means of reuse and recycling, and to stop plastics from getting into the environment. This will be achieved by means of measures along the entire value chain, designed essentially to support the quality of recycling, reduce plastic waste volumes, prevent littering of the environment and improve the economic framework conditions, for example by mobilising innovations as well as investment in closed-loop solutions. The European Plastics Strategy is also the context for the Single-Use Plastics Directive, which aims to curb the use of certain single-use plastic items throughout Europe and thus reduce the quantities of such plastics reaching the environment, and particularly the oceans. Germany welcomes the directive and provided constructive input to the relevant legislative process.

172 von 301 | www.bmu.de Beyond this, measures will also be initiated at international level. In this context, for example, the European Commission has announced that it will make active representations at the United Nations for international measures to reduce marine litter and will introduce an extensive project to reduce marine littering in East and Southeast Asia.

The strategy calls upon EU member states, when awarding public contracts, to give greater weight to the use of products with a proportion of recyclates, that is reused plastics of a certain quality, to stipulate that products should be designed for recyclability, and to promote ways of increasing the use of recyclates in plastic products.

Much of what is specified in the Plastics Strategy has already been implemented in Germany. This applies most notably to the existing instruments to boost the supply of secondary plastics, for example in the form of recycling quotas for plastic packaging, which are raised stepwise in the Packaging Act from 36 percent previously to 63 percent in future. The more stringent requirements on separate collection of commercial plastic wastes in the amended Commercial Wastes Ordinance (Gewerbeabfallverordnung) will similarly contribute to increasing the market supply of recycled plastics.

With its new requirements to take account of environmental criteria in the structure of licence fees, the Packaging Act contains incentives to strengthen demand for recyclates and to enhance recyclability at the design stage. These are flanked by industry dialogues which are being held from 2019 onwards by the BMU together with the plastics industry, product manufacturers, the trade and environmental and consumer protection organisations. The objectives of these dialogue processes include the prevention and improved recyclability of plastic packaging as well as greater use of plastic recyclates in production.

On the international level, too, Germany engages in efforts to achieve sustainable and resource-efficient management of plastics, to improve resource conservation and to curb the problem of marine littering. The German government has made the topics of resource efficiency and littering of the oceans the theme of international summits for the first time: in 2015 when Germany held the G7 Presidency and in 2017 during its G20 Presidency, it gained the backing of the major emerging economies for a G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter and established a G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue. At the level of the Basel Convention, the German government made successful representations to secure an ambitious package of measures for the prevention and environmentally sound disposal of plastic waste. In the course of international cooperation, it also supports partner countries to set up and develop waste management and circular economy systems and to prevent marine littering.

Biowaste

173 von 301 | www.bmu.de The composting and soil-related utilisation of separately collected biowaste has long been practised successfully in Germany. High-quality composts can be used as fertilisers and for soil improvement. In 2016 around 14.1 million tonnes of biodegradable wastes listed as biowastes in Annex 1, No. 1 of the Ordinance on Biowastes (Bioabfallverordnung – BioAbfV) were collected separately from other waste and, for the most part, composted or fermented. Of this biowaste from private households, industry and commerce and the public sector, 10.2 million tonnes was collected via green bins and as garden and park waste. The 2012 revision of the Ordinance on Biowastes tightened the strict standards already in force. According to the 2012 Circular Economy Act, separate collection of biowastes subject to a transfer obligation has been mandatory since 1 January 2015. These include garden and park waste as well as food waste and kitchen waste from private households. It provides for the separate collection of biowastes for the purpose of high-grade recycling, if this is technically feasible and economically reasonable. According to the statutory recycling criteria, the Commercial Wastes Ordinance now also brings commercial and industrial biowastes (from the trade and from food processing, for example) into the system of separate collection and high-grade recycling. As a result, up to four million additional tonnes of biowastes per year are likely to be collected separately. During the next revision of the Ordinance on Biowastes, amendments will be made principally to reflect changes to the Waste Framework Directive, and secondly due to the revision of the EU Fertilisers Regulation. The new EU Fertilisers Regulation will make it possible, among other things, to use fermented and composted biowastes as freely tradable products on the internal market, as fertilisers for example. This means that for the first time legally binding criteria for the end-of-waste status of biowaste are specified in the context of European fertiliser law. Moreover, the revision of the Ordinance on Biowastes will also take into account the results of an ongoing research programme on high- grade soil-related biowaste recycling processes in existing facilities (fermentation, composting) and of a research project on other high-grade biowaste recycling options (biochar for various uses and biofuel, for example).

Sewage sludge

Public acceptance of the use of sewage sludge as fertiliser is steadily declining. Landfill disposal of sewage sludge has already been prohibited since 1 June 2005. In 2017, barely one-third of the approximately 1.7 million tonnes of municipal sewage sludge (dry matter) was put to use in agriculture and landscaping. The remaining volume is incinerated in mono- incineration plants or as a secondary fuel in power stations and cement works. Reuse of sewage sludge in agriculture takes place on the basis of the Sewage Sludge Ordinance which supplements the requirements of fertiliser law and, in particular, contains limit values

174 von 301 | www.bmu.de for contamination with heavy metals and other pollutants in both the sewage sludge and the soil envisaged for sludge treatment. The Sewage Sludge Ordinance of 1992 was revised in 2017 and entered into force on 3 October 2017. The aim of the revised legislation was to return valuable elements of sewage sludge (phosphorus) to the economic cycle more fully than was practised in the past, and at the same time to restrict the soil-related reuse of sewage sludge considerably. The revised provisions on sewage sludge utilisation tighten the previously applicable standards for soil-related utilisation and extend the scope of the ordinance to landscaping measures. As a central element, for the first time the ordinance lays down comprehensive requirements on the recovery of phosphorus from sewage sludge and sewage sludge incineration ash, which operators of wastewater treatment plants and sewage sludge incineration plants must comply with from no later than 1 January 2029, when the transitional period comes to an end. The obligation to recover phosphorus applies to sewage sludge with a phosphorus content of 20 grams or more per kilogram of dry matter. As an alternative to direct recovery of phosphorus from the sewage sludge, it is permissible to thermally pre-treat the sewage sludge in a sewage sludge incineration or co-incineration plant and subsequently recover the phosphorus from the sewage sludge incineration ash. Before the phosphorus recovery process, it is permissible to store the incineration ash in a long-term storage facility provided that this does not preclude subsequent phosphorus recovery from the ash. As an alternative to phosphorus recovery, as from 1 January 2029 soil-related utilisation will only be permitted for sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants with a capacity of less than 100,000 population equivalents (p.e.). From 1 January 2032, this will only be allowed for sewage sludge from plants with a capacity of less than 50,000 p.e., taking account of the updated provisions of the Sewage Sludge Ordinance and in accordance with the requirements of fertiliser law.

Commercial waste

The legal framework for the disposal of commercial waste has changed almost completely since the entry into force of the Commercial Wastes Ordinance in 2003. For one thing, the disposal of untreated waste containing organic material in landfills has been banned since 1 June 2005. For another, the original Commercial Wastes Ordinance did not sufficiently reflect the new five-tier waste hierarchy of the Circular Economy Act. Against that background, the Commercial Wastes Ordinance was amended in 2017. The aim was to reinforce the separation and recycling of both commercial waste and certain construction and demolition waste, and to make the ordinance stricter and more enforceable. The ordinance is addressed to all waste producers and holders of municipal waste of commercial origin and certain construction and demolition waste, as well as operators of pre-treatment and processing

175 von 301 | www.bmu.de facilities. The revised ordinance specifies in detail that these waste streams are to be collected separately in future and preferably sent to be prepared for reuse and recycling. In the event that a producer collects 90 percent of its commercial waste separately and sends it for recycling, the remaining 10 percent may be thermally treated or disposed of without further pre-treatment. Otherwise, mixes of waste which have not been kept separate must be sent to pre-treatment, which must achieve a sorting rate of 85 percent and a recycling rate of 30 percent. To this end, sorting facilities must be equipped with prescribed plant components or operated in combination with other sorting facilities. Mineral wastes are also to be sent for processing in order to ensure high-grade use of this waste as far as possible. The relevant sections of the revised Ordinance on the Management of Municipal Wastes of Commercial Origin and Certain Construction and Demolition Wastes (Gewerbeabfallverordnung) of 18 April 2017 entered into force on 1 August 2017. The requirements for the treatment facilities entered into force on 1 January 2019. In the meantime, a new version of the corresponding enforcement guidance has been issued by the federal government and Länder working group on waste (LAGA).

Mineral waste

Mineral waste is the largest waste stream in Germany. With an annual volume of more than 275 million tonnes, it makes up more than half of the total waste generated in Germany. It includes construction and demolition waste and excavated soil as well as cinders and ashes resulting from incineration processes in the energy and metal industries.

The bulk of mineral waste is used as substitute building materials in the construction sector; for example, as recycled aggregate, as a substitute material for landfill construction, or as a backfill material in opencast mining. The utilisation of recycled material conserves natural resources since less primary raw material must then be extracted. This not only conserves natural deposits; it also means that less land is dedicated to primary raw material extraction and less water and energy is consumed in order to extract and produce these raw materials, thus minimising CO2 emissions. Furthermore, it preserves landfill capacities and promotes the circular economy.

At present, Germany has not yet passed national legislation governing the use of mineral waste as substitute building material. The introduction of the Substitute Building Materials Ordinance (Ersatzbaustoffverordnung) will change this. National regulation of the production and use of mineral substitute building materials will promote the use of secondary raw materials and hence reinforce the circular economy. At the same time, high environmental standards for mineral substitute building materials will ensure protection of soil and groundwater resources and the exclusion of environmentally hazardous substances.

176 von 301 | www.bmu.de The development of innovative technologies to provide high-quality loop-closure solutions for mineral residues is the subject of the current BMBF funding measure “Resource efficient circular economy – building and mineral cycles (ReMin)” (2019 to 2023).

Landfilling

The last place in the waste hierarchy is occupied by waste disposal, which includes the depositing of waste at landfill sites. The landfilling of untreated waste has been prohibited in Germany since 2005. In the pre-treatment process, recyclables such as glass and metal are separated out. Biodegradable waste or waste containing organic material is treated in mechanical-biological plants or in municipal waste incineration facilities. This prevents the production and emission of landfill gas, which is composed of about 50 percent methane (a greenhouse gas), whilst largely utilising the energy content of the residual waste. In this way, the law on landfills makes an important contribution to climate action and resource conservation. Landfills also serve as pollutant sinks for heavily contaminated wastes such as those resulting from environmental protection measures like waste gas purification (filter dusts). Should high contaminant levels make it impossible to recycle these wastes properly and without causing harm, as stipulated by waste management law, then they must be disposed of in a manner compatible with the public good, which means excluded from the material cycle. The purpose of this is to prevent an accumulation of pollutants in the material cycle. Landfill sites are also necessary for the disposal of non-combustible waste for which proper recovery without causing harm is neither technically feasible nor economically reasonable. Out of approximately 409 million tonnes of total waste generated in Germany in 2016, current figures from the Federal Statistical Office indicate that only around 11 percent was deposited in landfills, of which there are more than 1,100. This shows the effectiveness of German waste management law. Nevertheless, there is a shortage of regional landfill sites for construction and demolition waste (mineral waste). That is the case in almost all of the German Länder, and they will have to solve this problem as part of their waste management planning.

The international dimension

Within the scope of its activities, the German government also endeavours to advance waste management policy internationally. Progress has been made in this area by engaging in bilateral and multilateral cooperation under the Basel Convention, among other approaches. At the thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention in April/May 2017, a process was initiated to review Annexes I and III of the Convention, which concern hazardous characteristics, and Annex IV, which covers disposal operations.

177 von 301 | www.bmu.de Definitions of important terms for distinguishing between waste and non-waste, including explanatory notes, were adopted in the form of a glossary. The Conference of the Parties also passed a series of guidelines for practice on environmentally sound waste management and a guidance document on the development of waste prevention strategies. Finally, amended or new technical guidelines were adopted on waste containing POPs, concerning three chemicals that had been classified as persistent organic pollutants by the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention.

At the fourteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention in April/May 2019, it was agreed to tighten the convention’s regulations concerning the shipment of plastic waste. In future it may only be traded freely if it is almost contaminant- free and is intended for recycling. Secondly, a decision called upon the parties to the convention to substantially strengthen national efforts for the prevention and environmentally sound treatment of plastic wastes. In addition, a Partnership on Plastic Waste was established between the contracting parties and non-governmental organisations, which will carry out pilot projects, for example on collection and on recycling. These are also important contributions towards reducing and preventing marine litter. Another significant step was the adoption of improved guidelines on the distinction between waste electrical equipment (e- waste) and used equipment, by means of which illegal shipments can better be combated worldwide. Furthermore, documents were adopted which deal generally with environmentally sound management of waste, namely manuals on producer responsibility and financing systems, and guidance on the development of strategies for waste recovery and on how environmentally sound waste treatment can be addressed in the informal sector. Finally, five amended or new technical guidelines were adopted on waste containing POPs, concerning three chemicals that had been classified as persistent organic pollutants by the eighth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention.

In May 2019, the German government, represented by the BMZ and the BMU, along with organisations from industry, research, civil society and state institutions, presented a new alliance which will contribute to minimising waste worldwide, eliminating pollutants and managing resources in closed-loop systems. To reduce the amount of waste deposited in the environments of emerging economies and developing countries, members promote the expansion of a functioning waste management system and circular economy. They collectively pursue waste prevention, collection, recycling and the utilisation of secondary raw materials, focusing initially on plastic wastes and on end-of-life electrical and electronic devices. The alliance endeavours to build stakeholder networks along the value chain, to promote knowledge sharing and to implement demonstration projects with partners in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Southeast Europe.

178 von 301 | www.bmu.de The German government also supports partner governments in establishing regulations and implementing measures to extend waste management and the circular economy. Projects are currently being implemented in more than 20 countries (for example Egypt, Kosovo, Ghana and Indonesia). These are promoting institutional development on the national and municipal levels, the establishment of laws, strategies and financing mechanisms (on product responsibility, for example), awareness raising, improving waste collection and recycling practices, and the development of infrastructure.

179 von 301 | www.bmu.de C.5 Sustainable urban development Sustainable and liveable cities

Cities are key players in and arenas for sustainable development. They play a pivotal role in reducing the consumption of energy and other natural resources, protecting and easing the pressures on ecosystems, preventing environment-related health issues and expanding renewable energy.

The relationship between towns and cities and the environment is ambivalent: most greenhouse gases – which need to be reduced – are produced in urban areas. Large cities, metropolitan regions and conurbations also consume many resources, placing a considerable burden on nature and the environment far beyond the city limits. The problems are concentrated in cities; that is where the greatest potential for savings and for action lies, although consumption and emissions per person are actually lower than in suburban and rural areas. City dwellers suffer more frequently as a result of adverse environmental impacts such as noise and air pollution, as well as water pollution. At the same time, urban infrastructure in many places needs to be adapted to the impacts of climate change.

However, cities have always been cradles of new ideas and centres of economic development. Thanks to the density and structure of their population, as well as their high building density, they offer many possibilities for developing, testing and using technical and social innovations to save natural resources and promote more efficient use of energy. These opportunities can succeed if cities tap into their creative, social and cultural potential for these purposes and ensure that the transition to an environmentally sensitive way of living and working benefits all societal groups. The extent of the potential here is shown, for example, by a research project which identified synergies between environmental protection and social cohesion at neighbourhood level, based on the example of the “Social City” programme areas. www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/moeglichkeiten-der-verstaerkten-nutzung-von

The challenge consists in developing integrated, sustainable cities and in doing so reducing consumption of land, resources and energy and fostering biodiversity. The slogan “develop inside before outside” refers to the requirement to minimise new development of land outside the city. The guiding principle of “dual-system urban development” is central to preserving the quality of life in towns and residential areas: increasing building density goes hand in hand with targeted upgrading of existing green spaces in city centres.

Attractive and functional green and open spaces in the immediate vicinity contribute to a good quality of life and a pleasant living environment. It is important that everyone in cities can benefit from these.

180 von 301 | www.bmu.de The aim of sustainable urban development is to develop and preserve a green urban infrastructure that provides a broad spectrum of ecosystem services. Urban green infrastructure refers to a network of semi-natural and created areas planned and managed in such a way that together they are extremely valuable in terms of usefulness, biodiversity and aesthetic appeal, and are available to everyone in the city. Numerous scientific studies have documented the many benefits of urban green spaces for health and quality of life. They also show that urban biotopes promote biodiversity, improve the micro-climate and reduce particulate pollution. Green spaces in cities can mitigate the effects of climate change, such as heavy rains and heatwaves. Furthermore, public green spaces are places where people of all ages and backgrounds go to relax and meet others, and where there is also space for exercise and sport.

At city level the key players are joining forces to implement measures to mitigate climate change and protect nature and the environment – citizens, businesses, educational establishments and local authorities are getting involved. The protection of nature and the environment is a component of many of the municipalities’ strategic activities: urban and district development, building stock and infrastructure, private and public transport, education and business, and tourism and inter-municipal cooperation.

Environmental and urban development policy are major drivers of civil society participation. More and more local initiatives (such as urban gardening projects), referendums and grassroots movements (for example, the Transition Network) centre on environmental and sustainability issues. Environmental policy itself provides a wealth of resources, structures and mechanisms for civic action and access to information, in order to create and extend opportunities for involvement.

It is important that all affected citizens are given equal opportunities to participate (actively) in information, planning, consultation and decision-making processes. This procedural fairness, together with distributive justice and equal access, is a key component of environmental justice.

Health issues caused by environmental problems are not equally distributed in Germany. Social and environmental epidemiological studies in recent years suggest that social status in Germany is one of the factors determining whether and to what extent children, young people and adults are affected by environmental pollutants. Socioeconomic factors such as education and income, as well as migrant background and social sphere, have an influence on people’s living conditions, lifestyle, available resources and the associated health risks. In most of the studies a tendency towards poorer health caused by adverse environmental influences is apparent in people of lower social status. In particular, they suffer more often

181 von 301 | www.bmu.de from the effects of traffic, such as noise and air pollution, and have less access to urban green spaces, meaning that they have fewer opportunities for exercise and recreation. However, there are also pollutants which affect people of higher social status to a greater degree. There is proof of both findings, for example in data from the German Environmental Surveys on Health (GerES).

Environmental justice aims to prevent and reduce the concentration of health-related environmental problems such as noise and air pollution in socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods and residential areas, and to provide people living there with access to health-promoting environmental resources – including green and open spaces. This will combine the goal of health-related environmental protection – to prevent or eliminate environmental pollutants – with the goal of socially equitable access to a living environment that is as healthy as possible. Until now only a small minority of municipalities have pursued an integrated approach to health, social situation and the environment, and this concept rarely exists as a municipal policy.

To support the local authorities, the Länder and the German government, together with other stakeholders, have produced recommendations for guidelines for greater environmental justice. On behalf of the Federal Environment Ministry and the Federal Environment Agency, the German Institute of Urban Affairs (DIfU) has created a web-based environmental justice toolbox. It provides stakeholders in local government administration and politics with practical information about environmental justice. www.toolbox-umweltgerechtigkeit.de Sustainable and affordable mobility in cities

Mobility and easy accessibility are important factors when today’s households and companies choose cities and regions in which to settle and locate. Economic growth, employment and individual participation in community life are all based on mobility. It is the role of modern transport policy to enable mobility and make it sustainable [↗ chapter D].

Urban development and mobility need to be considered in tandem, because integrating urban and transport planning can bring benefits for both sectors. Mobility in our cities and towns is changing rapidly. For example, everyone has experienced how profoundly our communication is being changed by new technical and especially digital advances. We have experienced how drive technologies and infrastructures are changing, along with the mobility behaviour of the public. Sustainable urban development policy must therefore be prepared for this and be proactive in taking advantage of it.

Much of the travel is not a matter of choice; many journeys are longer than desired. This is the case if the nearest supermarket or childcare facility is a long way from home or there is

182 von 301 | www.bmu.de no affordable housing available where people work. Therefore, to achieve sustainable development of housing and transport, we should strive for compact, multi-use towns, in which people do not have to travel far. Its various functions are all within easy reach: not only living and working, but shopping and recreation as well. High-quality spaces for public use are of paramount importance, transport is integrated, with smart connections, and functions effectively. Sites for housing, jobs, communication and leisure can be created in places where the transport infrastructure is redesigned or removed.

All of us need an efficient yet environmentally friendly transport system in which the individual modes of transport are interconnected as efficiently as possible on the basis of smart mobility concepts. All forms of mobility should be considered. Integrated planning can also help to ensure that the quality of life in the city suffers less from traffic pollution and that compact and mixed developments are supported by coordinated urban, spatial and transport planning. The German government is assisting towns and communities with integrated planning and with recovering land to build more housing and provide a better quality of life in the compact city.

Action taken by the German government

IMA Stadt

The United Nations 2030 Agenda [↗ chapter F.2] emphasises the importance of urban spaces for sustainable development in SDG 11: “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable”. The German Sustainable Development Strategy calls for an urban development policy that combines social, economic and environmental goals and promotes cross-sector action.

The implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the German Sustainable Development Strategy is promoted by the inter-ministerial task force Sustainable Urban Development from a National and International Perspective, or IMA Stadt, which was set up in 2015. This group brings together representatives of all departments to identify how the global sustainability goals that the United Nations have set themselves for 2030 can be understood and implemented at local level, and how the German government can help, both nationally and internationally [↗ chapter F.2]. The active cooperation of local authority organisations, and of representatives of the Länder, municipalities and the scientific community is extremely important and is a feature of IMA Stadt. As instructed by the State Secretaries’ Committee on Sustainable Development (Staatssekretärsausschuss für nachhaltige Entwicklung), the four IMA Stadt working groups have each produced reports and specific recommendations for action. In April 2017 the IMA Stadt was named flagship project of the German Sustainable Development Strategy for 2017.

183 von 301 | www.bmu.de Federal Biological Diversity Programme

As part of the Federal Biological Diversity Programme [↗ chapter A.4], several projects to develop and upgrade urban green infrastructure are being implemented. In 2017, for example, projects to create nature-friendly business premises and nursery schools were completed. The “Städte wagen Wildnis” (“Cities venturing into wilderness”) project has been promoted since 2016. This project is trialling the management of urban wilderness in the participating municipalities of Frankfurt/Main, Hanover and Dessau-Rosslau and is receiving 4.5 million euros in funding from the German government. The project “Stadtgrün – Artenreich und Vielfältig” (Urban green – for a rich variety of wildlife) aims to raise awareness among the public and decision-makers. As part of the project, incentives for natural management of public green spaces are being created and implemented, with the aid of a label, a nationwide campaign and practical leaflets. Funding of around 2.1 million euros for the project is being provided under the government scheme between 2016 and 2021. www.staedte-wagen-wildnis.de www.kommbio.de/stadtgruen/ Germany’s natural capital – ecosystem services in the city

Urban green spaces add social, economic, environmental and aesthetic value. A panel of experts commissioned by the BMU investigated the extent of the economic benefit of nature in cities. The report entitled “Natural Capital Germany (TEEB DE) – Ecosystem Services in the City – Protecting Health and Enhancing Quality of Life” was published in 2017. The Federal Biological Diversity Programme has already funded three separate projects to protect and communicate the ecosystem services of urban green spaces. www.bmu.de/themen/natur-biologische-vielfalt-arten/naturschutz-biologische- vielfalt/allgemeines-strategien/naturkapital-deutschland/ Support for municipal administrations

The German government is providing support for various projects to research and trial new approaches that ensure the need for green spaces is reflected in urban development activities.

Local authorities are faced with the problem that the slogan “develop inside before outside” increases the pressure on city centre open spaces and on urban wildlife. At the same time, urban green areas have for years been considered extremely important in view of climate change and as a factor determining the quality of life in cities. The strategy of “dual-system urban development” seeks to resolve this conflict by means of an integrated approach. This requires land reserves in built-up areas to be used sensibly for building, while at the same time city-centre open spaces should be developed, linked together, and improved in quality.

184 von 301 | www.bmu.de The research project “Urbanes Grün in der doppelten Innenentwicklung” (Urban green spaces in dual-system urban development) has produced recommendations for local authorities on integrating the guiding principle of dual-system urban development into urban development strategies, informal plans and formal planning instruments, and then putting them into practice. www.bfn.de/fileadmin/BfN/planung/siedlung/Dokumente/DOPI_Brosch.pdf www.bfn.de/fileadmin/BfN/service/Dokumente/skripten/Skript444.pdf The idea of urban green infrastructure supports urban green spaces as essential in contributing to the public services that are just as important for a good life in the city as the technical or social infrastructure. In 2017 a practical manual on this subject was developed jointly by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, the conference of German heads of park agencies, the alliance of municipalities for biodiversity, Friends of the Earth Germany, the Federation of German Landscape Architects (BDLA), and the federal association of nature conservation professionals (Bundesverband Beruflicher Naturschutz, BBN). It sets out step-by-step strategies for safeguarding, planning and developing green infrastructure in cities and for carrying out the associated maintenance and management tasks. www.bfn.de/fileadmin/BfN/planung/siedlung/Dokumente/UGI_Broschuere.pdf Furthermore, there have been a number of implementation projects which demonstrate and communicate the added value of green spaces and wildlife areas in the city for sustainable, integrated urban development, for example, as urban woodland, or nature discovery areas, or for social participation in the shape of urban gardens. www.urbane-waelder.de/ The conceptual foundations for the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation’s pilot and development projects for nature discovery areas had already been developed by the end of the 1990s. The aim is to give children and adolescents the opportunity to experience nature for themselves. Nature discovery areas are natural (naturally determined) green spaces in built-up areas where children and young people can relax and enjoy themselves. Options for experiencing nature in these areas include all forms of play, physical activity and peace and quiet that do not require either infrastructure or equipment. In recent years three such areas have been developed in Berlin as part of this project and given over to the public. The project also aims to ensure that the importance of such spaces for biodiversity in residential areas and their function in cities as a buffer against extremes of climate is taken into account at the planning stage and investigated. The lessons learnt from this process are being documented, analysed and collated. Initial results in terms of transferability nationwide are expected to be published in 2020.

185 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.bfn.de/foerderung/e-e-vorhaben/liste-aktueller-vorhaben/e-e-lauf-steckbriefe- landschaftsplanung/naturerfahrungsraeume.html www.stiftung-naturschutz.de/unsere-projekte/naturerfahrungs-raeume/ In a large-scale nature conservation project called “Natürlich Hamburg” (Natural Hamburg), launched in 2017 and intended to run long-term, the focus is on the development of transferable environmental management plans that contribute to the conservation and ongoing development of urban biodiversity. As well as carrying out public relations work and encouraging the participation of residents, it is also creating networks of stakeholders in urban green infrastructure. The project has a planned area of around 6,200 hectares and will encompass more than 90 measures in nature reserves, parks and green spaces. The project will be funded until 2030 with around 22 million euros from the German government. www.bfn.de/foerderung/naturschutzgrossprojekt/liste-laufender-vorhaben/ngp-laufend- steckbriefe-landschaftsplanung-ngp-lfd/hamburg-naturnah.html Green and white papers on “Urban green”

The German government has prepared a green paper entitled “Grün in der Stadt” (Urban green) in collaboration with the Länder, municipalities and associations. The green paper and a national conference with the same name began the public discourse on the white paper process in June 2015. The “Grün in der Stadt” white paper was presented in the spring of 2017. This also emphasised the importance of green spaces in cities in the context of urban development assistance.

Contribution of urban development assistance to sustainable urban development

Merging the goals of urban development assistance and those of nature conservation and landscape management for built-up areas represents an important aim of the “Naturschutz- Offensive 2020” (2020 Nature conservation campaign) published in October 2016. Selected targets for action from the 2007 National Biodiversity Strategy, some of them relating to urban areas, have been fleshed out in the Federal Environment Ministry’s “conservation campaign”. www.bmu.de/naturschutz-offensive-2020/ Urban development assistance is financial assistance granted as part of time-limited programmes under Article 104b of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) to support general urban development measures. Länder and municipalities that receive the funding also make a financial contribution. Funded projects include additional development of city centres, refurbishing of buildings, upgrading of public space, the neighbourhood environment and private open spaces, and improvements to social infrastructure. This has led to

186 von 301 | www.bmu.de improvements in life in cities and towns. It has also led to less land take in surrounding areas.

In the administrative agreements for urban assistance the German government and Länder emphasise the “importance of green spaces and open spaces in towns and cities and their role in environmental protection, climate change mitigation, resource conservation, biodiversity, health and social cohesion in urban neighbourhoods”. Since 2015 projects to create green spaces and open spaces have also been eligible for funding under all assistance programmes.

Since 2017, the development of urban green infrastructure has been explicitly supported with a budget of 50 million euros a year through the funding programme “Zukunft Stadtgrün” (Future green cities). Thus the urban development assistance schemes run by the German government and the Länder also provide a specific incentive for strategic city centre development to include the planning and creation of high-quality green spaces and natural areas.

Building refurbishment and species protection

Various bird species such as swifts and house sparrows, as well as rare bat species such as the pipistrelle and serotine, require diverse building structures in the urban environment in which to roost and nest. They primarily use roof trusses, crevices and openings in roofs, windows and walls (joints). Under species protection law, those habitats are protected against any interference. Building developers are required to preserve these habitats for the creatures living there. To reconcile species protection with the insulation of buildings, which is important for mitigating climate change, the nature conservation officials responsible generally grant exemptions from protection requirements if an alternative solution that fulfils the same function is created. This often requires little effort and is also cost-effective; it can include providing nest boxes, installing nesting bricks in the external walls or heat insulation, and fitting bird/bat boxes under the eaves, on roof slopes, or on gable ends of buildings.

Nevertheless, it seems that at present species conservation laws are only to a limited extent being observed in practice. To address this problem, a variety of activities have been undertaken since 2015 by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) in collaboration with the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development (BBSR) to improve practice; the measures range from workshops to specific research and implementation procedures.

Research programme for urban environmental protection and (environmentally relevant) technical infrastructures

187 von 301 | www.bmu.de In the “Urban environmental protection” research agenda of April 2018, the Federal Environment Agency lists the integrative, transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary issues relating to urban environmental protection on which it will be concentrating its efforts over the next five to ten years. The focus here will be on implementation at the interface of urban development and environmental conservation.

The research agenda encompasses the topic clusters of “Environmentally benign, socially acceptable and health promoting urban development”, “Environmentally benign use of urban resources and regional circular economy” and “Environmental protection by harmonised urban and infrastructure development”, as well as the cross-sectional topics “Smart cities and urban digitalisation”, “Governance, participation and financing” and “Urban-rural relationships”. www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/urbaner-umweltschutz-fuer-eine-umweltorientierte

The expansion and transformation of public infrastructure is a key strategy for a sustainable economy and an environmental policy which protects public health. The objective is to reduce the use of energy, land and resources, for example by developing a sustainable infrastructure that takes account of environmental criteria. The BMU’s Integrated Environmental Programme 2030 (IUP) describes the expansion of this type of environmental infrastructure as one of the main challenges to be addressed. www.bmu.de/publikation/den-oekologischen-wandel-gestalten/

In this context, urban and infrastructure development have a close reciprocal relationship. Infrastructure should be expanded through functional coupling to a flexible and adaptable overall system that uses the environmental, economic and social synergies. The new information and communication technologies enable smart management of this system.

In research projects commissioned by the German Environment Ministry, options for coupled, interconnected, integrated infrastructures controlled by information and communication technology are highlighted in individual and case studies as “the system of systems”, among them “Smart City Schwerin and surroundings”, “West Eifel community networks” and “Wolfenbüttel rural district 4.0.”.

Innovation Platform for the City of the Future (IPZ)

Cities have a crucial role at both national and international level as actors for innovation and as partners in sustainable development, and for this they need the help of the scientific community.

188 von 301 | www.bmu.de The IMA Stadt has already reached the conclusion that there is no shortage of good ideas, but that the difficulties lie principally in the implementation and delivery of research findings in municipalities’ activities. The Federal Ministry of Education and the Federal Environment Ministry have been jointly responsible for setting up the Innovation Platform City of the Future (IPZ) to implement the Research and Innovation Agenda for the City of the Future (FINA). The aim of the IPZ is to boost the transfer of research and innovations and thus introduce good ideas more quickly into municipalities’ routine activity by means of “urban real-world laboratories”.

The urban real-world laboratories are being launched in 2019 in eight selected municipalities. As spaces for testing new approaches, innovations and ideas in municipal practice, they aim to show how the transformation into a sustainable municipality can be achieved by implementing tangible measures in the city itself.

The IPZ is supported by the ministries of research, the environment, economic affairs and the interior. An office acts as initiator and contact point and monitors the entire IPZ process. The German association of cities, the German association of towns and municipalities and the German district authority association are all IPZ partners.

Research for sustainable urban development: City of the Future flagship initiative

Climate change, local environmental pollution and the sustainable development goals in general are presenting challenges for towns and cities. In order to overcome these challenges, we need technological innovations, together with a variety of changes in social behaviour and in the organisation of our life and economic practices. The Federal Ministry of Education’s flagship initiative City of the Future helps municipalities to identify locally appropriate solutions by means of research and innovation.

The funding programme “Implementation of the Flagship Initiative City of the Future” focuses on proactive management of the impacts of climate change, environmentally friendly transport, and migration and integration. Research institutions, municipalities and other stakeholders in urban development are collaborating on 27 projects to produce practicable, innovative solutions. www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/leitinitiative-zukunftsstadt.php

The “Sustainable transformation of urban areas” programme is funding 23 collaborative transdisciplinary projects to research topics including how cities can promote the transformation to sustainable economic structures and how climate change mitigation can be strengthened through participative and motivational processes.

189 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/nachhaltige-transformation-urbaner- raeume-sozial-oekologische-forschung.php

In the funding programme “Urban climate under change [UC]2”, a computer model is being developed that enables cities to study urban climatological relationships and apply the results to sustainable urban planning. The model is a building-resolving one that will record all processes relevant to urban climate and air quality, and so can be used as a basis for practical sustainable urban planning. www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/stadtklima-im-wandel.php

The interdepartmental programme “Solar construction/energy-efficient towns” announced by the Federal Ministry of Education and the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs is financing six systemic lighthouse projects in neighbourhoods. In Heide (Holstein), Oldenburg, Zwickau, Stuttgart, Esslingen and Kaiserslautern innovative, energy-optimising, sustainable neighbourhoods are being established which, owing to improved energy efficiency and the use of renewables, will use almost no fossil fuels. The neighbourhoods are being promoted as “living labs” that are involving all relevant stakeholders in tackling an overall energy concept from research to implementation. www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/foerderinitiative-solares-bauen.php

The “Resource-efficient urban districts for the future” (RES:Z) programme is funding a study of sustainable dual-system urban development in growing cities. Working with the municipalities, it is developing and testing integrated solutions for the thematic areas of land, water and material flow management, using examples from actual urban development projects. www.fona.de/de/massnahmen/foerdermassnahmen/ressourceneffiziente-stadtquartiere-fuer- die-zukunft.php

Sustainable urban development cannot be achieved exclusively within the city limits: urban, peri-urban and rural areas must be considered together. In many growing regions the competition for land as a resource is intensifying, whereas regions in decline are suffering increasing inequalities in living conditions. That is why the “City-countryside-plus” programme is funding partnerships of planners and researchers to devise innovative solutions for the joint sustainable development of urban, peri-urban and rural areas. This includes setting up a sustainable regional circular economy or improving the common criteria, based on information and experience, used by the stakeholders concerned to make decisions on sustainable regional land management.

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Sustainable, energy-efficient building

The buildings sector has a key role to play in meeting the German government’s energy and climate policy targets. The sector is responsible for around 35 percent of Germany’s final energy consumption and approximately one-third of its greenhouse gas emissions. The government has set a target of achieving a virtually climate-neutral building stock by 2050 [↗ chapter B.2].

This means that, by 2050, primary energy demand needs to be cut to approximately 80 percent of 2008 levels through a combination of energy-saving measures and the use of renewable energy. The Energy Efficiency Strategy for Buildings (Energieeffizienzstrategie Gebäude – ESG) sets out the government’s framework for action to achieve the energy transition in the buildings sector.

The work must focus on modernising and upgrading the energy performance of the over 20 million buildings already in existence. However, when considering the building stock up to 2050, the new building that takes place before then must be taken into account. New properties must not become the refurbishment projects of tomorrow, which is why, as far as possible, these should now be built to the target standard.

An important tool in this regard is the Federal Ministry of the Interior’s Guideline for Sustainable Building (Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen), aimed at building authorities working for the federal government in the Länder and at the Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning (BBR); the guidance, which has been declared compulsory, covers new public buildings. Implementation of the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (BNB) referred to in the guideline is obligatory to at least “BNB Silver” standard for public offices and local government buildings, schools and colleges, and laboratories, and covers the construction of outdoor facilities. In the case of building measures that do not fall directly into a BNB category, the regulations and methods in the assessment system should be applied analogously. There is an encouraging trend for Länder and local authorities to be increasingly persuaded of the benefits of the BNB and to apply it to their own building projects. According to figures from February 2019 for the building authorities working for the federal government in the Länder and for the Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning, the system is currently being used in 485 government building projects, either as Silver or Gold standard certification or as analogous application of the BNB. In addition, the Sustainable Building Office at the Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development has received notification from regional planning departments of more than 80 projects aiming to achieve BNB certification. This is partly due to the

191 von 301 | www.bmu.de mandatory BNB Silver sustainability requirement for regional development projects in Baden- Württemberg and Berlin and partly because of voluntary pilot projects in other federal Länder.

Tools and databases supporting the BNB

Considerable improvements have been made to the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (BNB) in recent years, especially in terms of quality and ease of use.

The BNB criteria used to assess building materials are regularly updated in accordance with the latest state of knowledge.

From an environmental perspective, there are many different aspects to be considered when choosing building materials. An introduction to and help with this complex task is afforded by the WECOBIS web portal. More and more aids for planning and tendering are being developed on the site to improve material-specific risk management in planning and construction [↗ chapter C.3).

Eco-balancing (life-cycle assessment – LCA) also looks at the global environmental impacts of building products and the buildings themselves: global warming, ozone pollution, acid rain and over-fertilisation.

ÖKOBAU.DAT provides the necessary basic data for this. Appropriate average values or product specific values (Environmental Product Declarations, EPDs) are given for all key building materials. ÖKOBAU.DAT 2013 has now been aligned with the European standard for Environmental Product Declarations for construction products (DIN EN 15804) and is the first environmental database in the world to comply with this standard.

The eLCA calculation tool, which has been available in the BNB for producing life-cycle assessments (eco-balances) since 2015, simplifies the work required and creates maximum transparency. Based on the ÖKOBAU.DAT building materials database, the environmental impacts of the building design can be easily calculated and optimised. eLCA has gained acceptance and become widely used owing to its integration into the digital workflow of buildings planning. The unique transparency and clarity of the results of calculations qualify eLCA for future use as a reference in the LCA calculation for buildings.

More work is to be done in the BNB to improve information on the potential of urban mining and thus optimise the planning, use and re-use of resource-efficient buildings.

The Guideline for Sustainable Building, the BNB and all tools are available to the general public on the Internet and can be downloaded free of charge. www.nachhaltigesbauen.de www.bnb-nachhaltigesbauen.de

192 von 301 | www.bmu.de http://www.oekobaudat.de www.WECOBIS.de http://Zukunftsbau.de

KfW energy-efficient urban redevelopment and CO2 building modernisation programmes

The CO2 building modernisation programme, for which the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) is responsible and which has annual funding of two billion euros for new commitments, is essential to realising the energy transition in the construction sector and is the keystone of the National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE). The KfW programmes for energy-efficient building and refurbishment, funded via the CO2 building modernisation programme, finance new building projects achieving a high level of energy efficiency as well as particularly energy-efficient refurbishment projects through low-interest loans combined with repayment bonuses and investment grants. Both residential and commercial properties can benefit from the assistance programmes, as can buildings forming part of the municipal and social infrastructure. The common funding requirement is that the construction or refurbishment of the building concerned meets higher energy efficiency standards than those laid down by the Energy Saving Ordinance (Energieeinsparverordnung – EnEV).

Between 2006 and the end of 2018 the funding has supported energy efficiency measures in the refurbishment or construction of around 5.4 million homes; since 2007 funding for energy-saving measures has also been provided for more than 3,300 buildings within the social and municipal infrastructure. The number of commercial buildings receiving support since July 2015 is in excess of 4,700. In total, since 2006, the assistance programmes have prevented CO2 emissions in the region of almost 10 million tonnes. At the same time, investments funded from the CO2 building modernisation programme secure or create much- needed jobs in small businesses and manual trades. In this way the programme is driving the energy transition and represents a success story for Germany’s climate and economic policies.

193 von 301 | www.bmu.de C.6 Leisure, tourism and sport Travel is one of life’s pleasures; sport is fun and keeps us fit. But these two activities are not always compatible with protecting our environment, even though tourism and sporting activity in the countryside are dependent on an intact environment. The positive trend that more and more people are choosing to spend their holidays, free time and sporting activities in nature highlights more than ever the importance of conserving nature, the environment and natural resources. From sea level to the mountain tops – everywhere there is evidence of changes to the environment. Leisure facilities and hotels encroach on the landscape and so threaten biodiversity. Climate change is pushing the snow line higher and bringing extreme weather events. Even if environmental degradation can only rarely be attributed solely to tourism and sporting activities, the locational and seasonal concentration of leisure activities and tourism in Germany often plays a crucial role in adverse impacts on precious habitats, increased demands on resources and energy, and rising emissions. Depending on the calculation method used, tourism is responsible for between 4 and 8 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. With approximately three-quarters of all tourism’s CO2 emissions being generated by transport, this highlights the importance of the choice of transport when travelling. The accommodation sector accounts for around 20 percent of emissions. Many tourist regions are facing the challenge of necessary adaptations to their tourism provision because of the impacts of climate change.

Sustainable tourism in harmony with nature and the countryside, managed with sustainability in mind and therefore based on resource efficiency and climate change mitigation, offers the best conditions for making a long-term contribution to aspects that include regional value creation. Guidance on how tourist destinations can be organised more sustainably can be found in the German Tourism Association’s (DTV) practical handbook “Nachhaltigkeit im Deutschlandtourismus: Anforderungen, Empfehlungen, Umsetzungshilfen” (Sustainability in tourism in Germany: Requirements, recommendations, implementation aids), which was produced as part of a research project funded by the Federal Environment Ministry. It presents 40 criteria that address environmental, economic and social aspects. Within these areas the handbook provides recommendations for implementation as well as checklists with suggestions for ways in which those involved in tourism can contribute to the protection of nature and the countryside, the economic development of the region, and the quality of life and equitable participation of the people living there. www.deutschertourismusverband.de/fileadmin/Mediendatenbank/Dateien/leitfaden_nachhalti gkeit_160308.pdf On the initiative of the Tourism Committee of the German Bundestag, the Federal Environment Ministry, together with the German Tourism Association, ran a second national

194 von 301 | www.bmu.de competition, “Nachhaltige Tourismusdestinationen in Deutschland” (Sustainable tourist destinations in Germany), in 2016/2017, based on these criteria. This recognised and rewarded particularly active regions, towns and villages for their commitment to sustainable tourism. The competition created an incentive for further improvements to the quality of domestic tourism. The winning destination, the Swabian Alb biosphere reserve, is an excellent example of how a fully sustainable approach can boost local people’s sense of ownership. Tourism and conservation organisations, communities, businesses and citizens all work towards the same goal. The commitment is infectious and generates high-quality regional products and facilities for visitors. The resulting sustainability report showcased 15 German holiday destinations – entries as well as winners – that are addressing the issue of sustainability in an especially exemplary fashion. The award-winning destinations are prime examples of how high-quality environmentally and socially responsible tourism can be implemented in Germany. The publication provides ideas for travellers about greater awareness when planning holidays, and encourages them to take these holidays in Germany. www.bundeswettbewerb-tourismusdestinationen.de/ www.bmu.de/DL1913 A prerequisite for successful sustainable tourism in the National Natural Landscapes is close cooperation between representatives of the nature reserves and their partners in tourism. The association of German nature parks (Verband Deutscher Naturparke – VDN), in collaboration with EUROPARC Germany, has published a guide to the conception and implementation of nature discovery offerings in the National Natural Landscapes. A key aim of the document was to boost the large-scale conservation areas in local (tourism) networks, so that the development of activities for tourists increasingly takes place with a view to protecting nature and the landscape and with biodiversity and the work of nature reserves in mind. The holidays and activities developed were collated nationally by the VDN and EUROPARC and included in the German National Tourist Board’s 2016 publicity campaign “Faszination Natur”. www.naturparke.de/service/infothek.html?tx_fedownloads_pi3%5B%40widget_0%5D%5Bcur rentPage%5D=2&cHash=b2bd717b1d900ad879f7e539039e60ce Many people who depend on tourism for their livelihood, particularly in the Alpine and lower mountain regions of Germany, are working to address the problem of the impact of climate change on tourism in the winter months. Global warming, which is happening even more quickly in the Alps than in the lowlands, is already having a visible impact on the winter tourism that relies on snowfall in the mountain regions. The brochure entitled “Wintertourismus im Klimawandel” (Winter tourism in a changing climate) produced by

195 von 301 | www.bmu.de Munich University of Applied Sciences summarises current climatic and tourist trends in winter tourism and shows how German holiday-makers’ expectations of a holiday during the winter months have changed in recent years. It describes how winter holidays in the Alps can be structured in future, despite stiff competition from other destinations at home and abroad, and sets out adaptation strategies for Alpine winter holiday resorts and relevant examples that consider all aspects of sustainable development. https://w3- mediapool.hm.edu/mediapool/media/fk14/fk14_lokal/diefakultt_1/forschungundprojekte/publi kation/Wintertourismus_im_Klimawandel.pdf Sport is not only fun, but also fulfils important social functions: it promotes inclusion, education and health, teaches values such as tolerance, fairness and team spirit, and generally improves our quality of life. The relationship between sport and the environment has changed radically in recent years: from being an area of conflict it has in many places become a partnership with good cooperation between the two sectors. More than 15 million people in Germany engage weekly in outdoor activities. Experiencing nature is an important part of walking, climbing, canoeing, sailing, diving, horse riding and many other sporting activities. Furthermore, it is in the interest of people who engage in these activities, as well as of environmental protection and nature conservation – and also part of their social responsibility – to ensure that sport is enjoyed in a way that does not have an adverse impact on nature, in order to preserve the natural environment, and thus also the places available for sport, for future generations. With regard to the sustainable development of sport, we must also ensure that young people in particular also have access to physical activity, games and sport and the associated benefits for their health and education.

How we can successfully mine the potential of sport to establish the principle of sustainability in society and to bring environment and sports policies closer together was the subject for discussion by experts at the 2017 forum for dialogue “Sport – Impulsgeber für eine nachhaltige Gesellschaft” (Sport – catalyst for a sustainable society). The symposium was an initiative of the Environment and Sports Advisory Council based at the Federal Environment Ministry. At the end of the 18th legislative period the council published a position paper summarising the results of the discussions. The paper, “Sport 2020 – Impulsgeber für eine nachhaltige Gesellschaft”, sets out the guidelines for sustainable sport and the five priority fields of action. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Tourismus_Sport/sport_2020_positions papier_bf.pdf Major sporting events give pleasure to millions of people and are important occasions for the host cities, spectators and participating sportspeople. At the same time, they present a challenge for environmental policy, including in terms of the climate goals established in the

196 von 301 | www.bmu.de Paris Agreement. In 2013, at the 5th World Sports Ministers Conference (MINEPS V), the German government, along with more than 120 UNESCO countries, committed itself to the sustainability of major sporting events. Against this backdrop, the Environment and Sports Advisory Council called, in its position statement and recommendations for action for all stakeholders, to pursue a common objective of planning and running sporting events such that they contribute to an economically, ecologically and socially sustainable development across generations, both in urban and rural areas. Thus not only major, but also smaller competitive or recreational sporting events can be catalysts for sustainable urban development and the development of sport, and at the same time establish environmental principles in wider society. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Tourismus_Sport/beirat_umwelt_sport_ stellungnahmen_handlungsempfehlungen_bf.pdf The Internet portal “Green Champions 2.0 – für nachhaltige Sportveranstaltungen” (Green Champions 2.0 for Sustainable Sports Events), developed by the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB) in collaboration with the German Sport University Cologne (DSHS Köln) and the Oeko-Institut with funding from the Federal Environment Ministry, provides organisers of sporting events of all sizes with practical guidelines, including checklists and practical examples. It offers useful help with the customised planning of the organiser’s sustainable event. www.green-champions.de

197 von 301 | www.bmu.de D. The environment and transport Mobility is a basic human need and a prerequisite for a modern society based on a division of labour in a globalised world. It makes social participation possible, lays the foundation for production and export and thus safeguards employment and prosperity.

At the same time, though, many people and businesses are noticing on a daily basis that the transport system is being stretched to its limits. Traffic jams, pollution and noise impose stress not only on the environment but also on transport users, on business and industry and on local residents.

Sustainable mobility therefore benefits everyone. It improves people’s quality of life and safeguards economic opportunities while also reducing the strain on people and the environment. Considerable progress towards sustainable mobility has been made in recent years. European fleet limit values for CO2 have improved the energy efficiency of vehicles; on average, new cars now use less fuel per kilometre than before. In addition, further tightening of the legislation on vehicle emissions and further fuel improvements have ensured that significantly fewer pollutants are emitted.

However, despite positive developments at individual vehicle level, overall energy consumption has risen as a result of growth in traffic volumes. The sector’s greenhouse gas emissions are currently at the same level as in 1990. Boosting the environmental performance of the transport sector remains a major challenge. Further improvements are needed if climate change mitigation and air pollution control targets are to be met.

Significant progress has been made in reducing particle emissions from road transport, and this has also impacted positively on levels of particulate matter in urban areas. 2018 was the first year in which limits for particulate matter were not exceeded at any German monitoring stations close to traffic. On the other hand, the reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions from petrol cars that have been achieved in inner cities have been largely cancelled out by the high nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel cars in real driving conditions. In consequence, nitrogen dioxide pollution is still too high in many urban areas and the mean annual limit value for nitrogen dioxide in outdoor air is being exceeded at many monitoring stations close to traffic.

198 von 301 | www.bmu.de The discrepancy between the values measured in a laboratory and what vehicles actually emit on the road is therefore a key issue in current and future emissions legislation for vehicles.

To permanently improve air quality, the German government emphasises strategies and packages of measures that have sustained and long-term effects. These strategies must always consider not only road transport but also other relevant sources of pollution and the interactions between reductions of different pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, other harmful substances and also greenhouse gases.

Low-income households report strong or very strong adverse impacts of air pollution in their residential environment more frequently than more affluent households. This suggests that residential areas with high traffic density and higher air pollution tend to be home to socially disadvantaged population groups. Improvements in sustainable mobility would therefore have a wide range of positive effects.

A policy that takes account of mobility needs and environmental issues must enable mobility for everyone and make it significantly more environmentally sound. The challenges involved in combining these two goals have not diminished: the strong growth in traffic volumes is forecast to continue and reducing air and noise pollution remains a demanding task. However, many systemic innovations and new technologies – and conventional approaches too – have moved from their niche role into the mainstream and are offering the prospect of a more climate-friendly future for road transport, which is responsible for more than 90 percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector. Good examples of this are digitalisation and sharing, the rediscovery of the bicycle and the extension of its use to freight transport, and new easy-to-use schemes for combining journeys by bus, rail, bicycle and car. Electromobility is also developing rapidly and is involving not only cars but also buses, two-wheelers, and transport and delivery vehicles – and of course rail transport, more than 90 percent of which is already powered by electricity.

The German government aims to decarbonise the country’s transport almost entirely by 2050 at the latest, phasing out the use of fossil fuels and thus making the transport system largely greenhouse gas-neutral. As an intermediate goal, it plans to reduce CO2 emissions by 40–42 percent by 2030. Its vision for the transport system also includes significantly reducing air and noise pollution and cutting land take. This

199 von 301 | www.bmu.de means a better quality of life and more space for recreation. Such a largely greenhouse gas-neutral transport system shall continue to provide a high level of affordable mobility for the general public, a reliable means of moving goods, and efficient logistics. The potential for modal shift will be utilised by expanding the transport infrastructure appropriately, ensuring a level playing field for competition between transport modes and developing smart networking of various passenger and freight transport options. A transport system designed along these lines makes a major contribution to maintaining and enhancing quality of life – both in conurbations and in rural areas – and protecting natural resources.

The German government has set up the National Platform Future of Mobility (Nationale Plattform Zukunft der Mobilität) in order to involve key stakeholders from business and society in drawing up proposals for a sustainable mobility system.

Working Group 1, which is looking at climate change mitigation in the transport sector, submitted an interim report in March 2019. The report describes a number of measures which, if used in combination, would enable the 2030 climate target to be met.

Research and innovation are also important in achieving this target. In 2018, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) published a research agenda entitled “Sustainable Urban Mobility”, which adopts a systemic approach. By bringing together technology, urban and infrastructure planning, social behaviour and societal and individual needs, starting points and measures for more sustainable mobility will be identified and acted on. Two new funding measures are being launched for this purpose in 2019. www.fona.de/de/24127

200 von 301 | www.bmu.de D.1 Rethinking and reorganising mobility The innovation and development of low-consumption vehicles and alternative drives and fuels are crucial to making transport sustainable and reducing its climate impact. Sustainable mobility also requires optimisation of traffic flows, better interlinking of different modes of transport such as rail, road and waterways, and more support for environmentally friendly forms of mobility, such as cycling. Changing lifestyles, preferences and consumption patterns also play a part. Where we live, how we travel, what we buy – all these things influence the extent to which the transport system can be made environmentally friendly.

New strategies and technological innovations enable spatial, social and demographic developments to be taken into account, for instance in connection with the mobility of older people and the provision of mobility in sparsely populated districts as well as in urban areas. The key concept here is the compact city or “city of short distances” in which people can get to work, to the supermarket and to childcare facilities by bicycle or even on foot. In addition, more must be done to exploit the potential of “ecomobility” – the coupling of bus and rail transport, cycling and walking. At present, only about one-fifth of all passenger transport and just over a quarter of all freight transport involves the most environmentally friendly forms of transport.

It is in this context that air pollution control measures are being promoted in the five model cities of Bonn, Essen, Herrenberg, Mannheim and Reutlingen. The German government is providing funding of 130 million euros until 2020 for innovative transport projects in these five cities. The money is being spent mainly on more frequent services and tariff adjustments in the local public transport sector, supplemented by improved traffic control, new cycle paths and workplace mobility schemes. The aim is to trial the measures, evaluate their effectiveness and assess the potential for replicating them in other cities.

Public transport, walking and cycling

In conurbations in particular, where 60 percent of all car journeys are less than five kilometres and where there is usually good local public transport provision, it is important to provide more practical alternatives to using the car for every journey. Being actively mobile as a pedestrian or cyclist provides freedom, independence and participation and has positive impacts on health.

201 von 301 | www.bmu.de At least 22 percent of all journeys in Germany are currently undertaken on foot. The actual number of pedestrian journeys is frequently underestimated: stretches covered on foot are often ignored in surveys if they are combined with other forms of transport. The collection of data is therefore an important step towards appropriate consideration of walking in urban and transport planning.

Encouraging walking involves revitalising public spaces by paying attention to short routes, safety, and varied and multi-purpose design, and reducing noise and air pollution. The German government is looking at ways of encouraging walking, partly through the Federal Environment Agency and in the context of urban development research and funding; promising approaches are trialled in model projects on active mobility and on traffic calming and sustainable urban mobility. The Federal Environment Agency presented the basic elements of the first national walking strategy in 2018.

Cycling is another component of active, environmentally friendly mobility. The National Cycling Plan (Nationaler Radverkehrsplan – NRVP) 2020 sets out the strategic guidelines for promoting cycling to 2020. The aim of the plan is to make cycling safer and more attractive and to promote cycling, together with local public transport and walking, as part of ecomobility. To address transport policy challenges in urban and rural areas and the growth of electromobility in the cycling sector, the German government is providing funding of five million euros per year for model non- investment projects, with 20 million euros earmarked for model investment projects from 2019. The focus is on particularly innovative projects with good potential replicability in other cities and regions. The voluntary fitting and retrofitting of turning assistance systems in goods vehicles and buses are also being encouraged, with 10 million euros allocated for this purpose in 2019. This improves road safety for pedestrians and cyclists and promotes both these forms of mobility. www.nationaler-radverkehrsplan.de/ The National Climate Initiative (NKI) also supports projects and measures in this field so that more people have better conditions for cycling. The NKI’s guidelines for local authorities enable municipalities to extend and improve cycle paths and set up intermodal mobility stations to link walking, cycling, carsharing and local public transport. In addition, the national “Climate action through cycling” competition supports investment in model cycling projects that have particular upscaling potential

202 von 301 | www.bmu.de and encourage others to follow their example. www.klimaschutz.de/projekte/radverkehrsprojekte www.klimaschutz.de/kommunalrichtlinie Although responsibility for the planning, design, organisation and financing of local public transport, including local rail transport, lies with the Länder and municipalities, the German government supports them with annual payments. For example, it provides funding for local passenger rail transport services under the Local Public Transport (Regionalisation) Act (Regionalisierungsgesetz) – which the Länder use primarily for regional and suburban (S-Bahn) transport operations – and for the federal government programme under Section 6(1) of the Local Authority Transport Infrastructure Financing Act (Gemeindeverkehrsfinanzierungsgesetz – GVFG) which, among other things, enables local tram and underground rail systems to be expanded. As stated in the coalition agreement, government funding under the GVFG will be increased to one billion euros per year by 2021. According to the German government’s report on the development of cost recovery in local public transport (BT Printed Paper 18/8180), the total amount contributed by all local authorities in this area in 2012 was around 16 billion euros. At least two-thirds of this – 10.8 billion euros – was provided by the federal government. To further expand the environmental benefits of local public transport, the German government is also promoting various research and development projects on technological advancements and procurement, such as electric buses, which reduce air and noise pollution and contribute to climate change mitigation.

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Figure D.1.1: Share of pedestrian, cycling, railway and public road passenger transport services in the total passenger transport volume. Source: UBA 2018, based on data from the BMVI *in person-kilometres (measure of transport volume) Abbildung auf Englisch hier verfügbar: https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/indicator- environmentally-friendly-passenger

Urban commercial transport

Delivery traffic in cities is steadily increasing – partly as a result of the growth in online trade – and contributing to higher environmental pollution. Increasingly, therefore, policy-makers are focusing on urban logistics. Towns and cities need to find solutions and to make commercial transport compatible with the needs of cities and the environment without limiting its effectiveness.

An innovative way of reducing noise, pollution and congestion is to set up decentralised, supplier-independent mini-hubs, from which parcels are delivered using cargo bicycles or electric bicycles that produce no emissions locally. This is just one example that shows that logistics can contribute to enhanced protection of the environment and climate change mitigation in cities. In 2018, the German

204 von 301 | www.bmu.de government launched the national Sustainable Urban Logistics competition to raise awareness of such examples and encourage innovative ideas. The competition, which forms part of the government’s efforts to implement the Climate Action Programme 2020, drew attention to the issue and awarded prizes to innovative projects. In addition, in the winter of 2019, the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) will publish a study containing examples of best practice for the final mile.

The German government also operates various funding programmes, including the National Climate Initiative (NKI), the National Cycling Plan (NRVP), and the urban logistics and electromobility funding guidelines. The activities supported by these funding programmes include model projects for urban logistics strategies, feasibility studies, and the implementation of individual projects of a practical nature, such as the procurement of heavy-duty cargo bikes or the establishment of supplier- independent micro-hubs.

Freight transport

It is particularly important to identify effective environment- and climate-friendly options to address the issue of the unabated growth in freight transport – partly with a view to strengthening Germany’s competitive position in the logistics business. Goods and commodities need to reach their destination quickly and cost-effectively using clean, quiet transport.

Key elements in achieving these targets are the master plans for rail freight transport and inland waterway transport, which are coordinated by the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI), and the Logistics 2030 Innovation Programme. The Rail Freight Master Plan is already being implemented. The Inland Waterway Transport Masterplan was published on 14 May 2019; the Logistics 2030 Innovation Programme is expected to be published in September 2019. Many aspects of the three strategy papers also deal with environmental and climate issues.

Multimodal transport also plays an important part in shifting freight transport onto the rails and waterways. Since 1998, the German government has therefore, via BMVI funding guidelines, supported the construction of new multimodal transport interchange facilities belonging to non-federally-owned companies and the upgrading of existing ones. Deutsche Bahn terminals are funded via the Federal Rail

205 von 301 | www.bmu.de Infrastructure Extension Act (BSWAG).

Figure D.1.2: Share of rail freight and inland waterways transport in overall freight transport volume. Source: UBA 2018, based on data from the BMVI Abbildung auf Englisch hier verfügbar: https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/indicator- environmentally-friendly-freight

Rail freight transport

Rail transport has considerable advantages: most of it is already electrified and the electricity from renewable sources can be used directly. It is therefore clear that more action should be taken to electrify routes, increase the proportion of renewable energy in the electricity used by the railways, and introduce alternative propulsion systems on lines without overhead cables. The German government plans to increase the level of electrification from 60 to 70 percent by 2025. Electrification gaps in the regional transport system can be closed using technologies that are already market-ready, such as hybrid locomotives or fuel cell trains.

In the Climate Action Plan 2050, the German government has declared its intention to develop a strategy for rail transport in order to utilise the potential for shifting road

206 von 301 | www.bmu.de transport onto the rails and further increase the share of rail freight transport, public transport and inland waterway transport from that predicted in the transport interconnectivity forecast for 2030. A study conducted on behalf of the German government (INFRAS and Fraunhofer ISI (2016)) concludes that it is possible to increase the share of rail in freight transport from its current level of 18 percent to 23 percent – a further five percentage points – by 2030 and to 30 percent by 2050. However, ambitious action is required in order to achieve these targets.

The example of freight transport illustrates the enormous challenge involved in managing the predicted growth in traffic and boosting the modal share of rail by each percentage point. Policy-makers must create an enabling environment, while the rail freight transport companies must take the initiative and focus on innovation and service provision in order to become more competitive. This will enable them to make rail transport attractive at a time when freight transport is operating in a competitive environment in which fast transport times, adherence to deadlines and high levels of flexibility are all-important.

A key element in the further management of rail freight transport is the Rail Freight Master Plan with its 66 measures and five immediate actions. Implementation of the master plan, as set out in the coalition agreement, is intended to make rail transport more competitive and shift more traffic onto the rails. The train path price subsidy boosts competitiveness, while the government programme entitled “The future of rail freight” will enable innovations to be brought to market more quickly and become established as standard. In addition, network capacity will be expanded, partly through automation and digitalisation of both the network and rolling stock. If more traffic is to use the railways, more rail connections and terminals must also be built. Other measures support activities in the field of electromobility. The new European standard DIN EN 16258 was produced to improve transport companies’ carbon footprint and improve their comparability. Businesses can now calculate the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of transport services using a standardised European method. This makes it possible to align economic and environmental objectives.

Freight transport, inland waterways

A key aim of the German government’s transport policy is to build the capacities of the railways and inland waterways – which are environmentally friendly modes of

207 von 301 | www.bmu.de transport – and to increase or at least stabilise their share in the modal split. Implementation of the 2018–2022 report on transport infrastructure costs resulted in an increase in the HGV toll from 1 January 2019. The Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure’s Inland Waterway Transport Masterplan of 14 May 2019 identifies potential for making the fleet more environmentally friendly and for doing more to take traffic off the roads by shifting it to waterways. A key element in this plan is the abolition of all shipping tolls on inland waterways (with the exception of the River Mosel and the Kiel Canal), which came into effect on 1 January 2019.

Environmental issues and the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 2030 (FTIP 2030)

The extent to which everyday mobility is environmentally sustainable and conducive to a thriving economy is not determined solely by prices and personal preferences: the availability and condition of the transport infrastructure are also important. The transport infrastructure for which the German government is responsible comprises 51,100 kilometres of federal trunk roads, 33,332 kilometres of railway and around 7,350 kilometres of federal waterways.

The most important instrument for the government’s transport infrastructure planning is the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 2030 (FTIP 2030), which maps out the course of transport policy for the next 10 to 15 years. It covers priority maintenance and replacement investment, upgrading and new-build projects in the road, rail and waterway transport networks for which the federal government is responsible.

The main aim of the FTIP 2030 is to create an appropriate and secure transport network. At the same time, investment in infrastructure is to lay the basis for a transport system that is environmentally sustainable.

For the first time, a strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in accordance with the Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts (Gesetz über die Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung – UVPG) was performed for the FTIP 2030. The SEA ensures an effective precautionary approach to the environment as required by the applicable legislation. The purpose of SEA is to ensure that the environmental impacts of a plan are identified, described and assessed at an early stage so that the findings can be taken into account when a decision on the plan is taken.

Although the FTIP 2030 aims to achieve a significant reduction in the growth in land take – 16,299 hectares as against the figure of 37,110 hectares stated in the FTIP 2003 – the upgrading and new-build projects for all the modes of transport covered by the FTIP (first priority and first priority with elimination of bottlenecks) will nevertheless entail additional land

208 von 301 | www.bmu.de take of about 2.98 hectares per day. The need to upgrade and extend the national transport infrastructure on this scale has been confirmed by the German Bundestag in the requirement plans included in each of the three network development acts for the rail, road and waterway transport modes, which are based on the FTIP 2030. It is equivalent to about 10 percent of the German National Sustainable Development Strategy’s binding target of limiting new land take of green areas for settlement and transport to 30 hectares per day by 2020 [↗ chapter A.2.2]. The strategy does not specify a target for federal transport infrastructure derived from the 30-hectare goal. The Federal Environment Agency calculates that this would amount to 1.9 hectares per day, which the projects in the FTIP 2030 would exceed by about 50 percent.

The priorities identified in the FTIP 2030 are maintenance of the existing networks and elimination of bottlenecks on major routes and in important transport nodes. The FTIP 2030 reinforces the principle of prioritising maintenance over upgrading and new building: of the plan’s total budget of around 269.6 billion euros, around 141.6 billion euros is allocated to the maintenance of the existing road, rail and waterway networks from 2016 to 2030 (FTIP 2003: approx. 83 billion euros). This is approximately 69 percent of the FTIP planning framework for the period 2016–2030. The FTIP 2030 provides for investment of around 98.3 billion euros in upgrading and new-build projects. If the total funding in the FTIP 2030 of 269.6 billion euros is broken down by transport mode, 49.3 percent is allocated to roads, 41.6 percent to rail and 9.1 percent to waterways.

Figure D.1.3: Distribution of funds under the German government’s FTIP 2030

Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030 Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 2030

Wir stärken das Gesamtnetz mit 270 We are spending €270 billion on improving Milliarden Euro the network

209 von 301 | www.bmu.de Straße Road

Schiene Rail

Wasserstraße Waterways

132,8 132.8

112,3 112.3

24,5 24.5

Milliarden Euro billion euros

The FTIP specifically targets improvements to major routes and nodes. This will improve efficiency throughout the network. Projects designed to improve access and transport within the regions will also be funded.

The upgrading and expansion of the rail network detailed in the FTIP 2030 are based for the first time on the introduction of an integrated regular-interval timetable for passenger transport on the German rail network (Deutschland-Takt). The aim is to make rail travel more attractive to passengers (shorter journey times with fast routes and optimised connections at many stations).

When it approved the FTIP 2030 on 3 August 2016, the German cabinet also endorsed the three drafts of the network development acts (including the requirement plans) for rail, road and – for the first time – waterways. These acts build on the FTIP; the requirement plan in each act specifies what upgrading and new-build projects with what level of urgency are being planned and funded from the federal budget.

The projects described in the FTIP 2030 are to be implemented in as environmentally sustainable a way as possible. At the subsequent planning stages, the individual projects in the FTIP and the requirement plans will be elaborated in more detail by the developers of each project. They will pass through regional planning procedures, line or train path determination procedures and planning approval procedures as necessary. An environmental impact assessment (EIA) in accordance with the Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts is usually required at this stage. The EIA identifies and describes the specific project’s significant environmental impacts on protected assets and assesses them with a view to ensuring effective environmental stewardship. In essence, therefore, it is not just about promoting environmentally friendly mobility but also about building and operating the necessary transport infrastructure in ways that minimise the impacts – such as noise or pollution – on nature and the landscape, people and the environment.

210 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.bmvi.de/DE/Themen/Mobilitaet/Infrastrukturplanung- Investitionen/Bundesverkehrswegeplan-2030/bundesverkehrswegeplan-2030.html Connected and shared mobility

Digitalisation opens up opportunities for changes in mobility – using a smartphone to pay for a bus fare or for parking or to book bike hire or a carshare, or using mobile communications to connect vehicles with each other and with the transport infrastructure to improve traffic management. Via improved information, greater efficiency in the transport system and easier access to alternatives to the private car, the environment, too, can benefit from digitalisation. However, less beneficial effects can also occur – for example, if the changes make motor vehicle transport cheaper or more attractive for passengers or freight. Digitalisation processes outside the transport sector (related, for example, to e-commerce or working from home) can also have more far-reaching impacts on the environment and on everyday life than changes in the mobility sector itself. Traffic prevention may be one such effect; another is the creation of new transport flows.

Smart transport systems and improved transport information can improve the flow of traffic and shorten or prevent journeys (such as the traffic caused by searching for a parking space). For individuals, the range of mobility options becomes broader and provides greater flexibility. Sharing services (for cars, but also for bicycles and scooters) have become a fixed component of the mobility options available in many places. To promote these services, an act on the preferential treatment of carsharing has been approved; municipalities can use this to award benefits.

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Figure D.1.4: Development of carsharing, broken down by variant. Source: Bundesverband Carsharing

Fahrberechtigte Customers

Carsharing-Fahrzeuge Carsharing vehicles

CS-Fahrzeuge stationsbasiert Carsharing vehicles, station-based

Fahrzeuge stationsunabhängige Vehicles in free-floating schemes Angebote

Fahrberechtigte der stationsbasierten Customers of station-based schemes Angebote

Fahrberechtigte stationsunabhängige Customers of free-floating schemes Angebote

jeweils zum 01.01. des Jahres as at 1 January each year

Entwicklung des Carsharing differenziert Development of carsharing, broken

212 von 301 | www.bmu.de nach Varianten, Stand 01.01.2018 down by variant. As at 1.1.2018 (Grafik:bcs) (diagram: bcs)

“Mobility as a service” has a key part to play in reducing the burden on the environment and enabling more mobility for everyone. It is based on access to mobility via information and communication technologies (mainly via smartphone), irrespective of the means of transport. This makes it easy to link different modes of transport on the basis of their specific strengths. Often, this not only relieves the pressure on the environment but also saves the individual money. Combining different modes of transport in accordance with one’s particular destination and purpose can also help alleviate social disadvantage: “a car for everything” can be fairly expensive, especially in cities (for example, because of the cost of a parking space in an underground car park). If good networks, good facilities for cycling and attractive local public transport and sharing schemes enable people to do without a car of their own, then good mobility is possible regardless of income.

With digitalisation increasing in all areas of life, the German government will produce a digitalisation strategy for the transport sector – partly with the aim of reducing greenhouse gases and other emissions as much as possible. It is being examined how this can be done alongside the further elaboration of the German government’s digital agenda. In addition, standards for smart roads are to be trialled and the implications for effective and future-oriented design of the road infrastructure considered.

213 von 301 | www.bmu.de D.2 Reducing energy consumption and emissions More cycling, carsharing, smart roads and smartphones are the entry point to a new and different form of mobility. All are components of a mobility transition towards greater sustainability and improved quality of life. But what about traffic that cannot be prevented or shifted? What kind of approach is required for vehicles and fuels that will continue to be needed in future? What is being done, for example, at the level of exhaust systems and the petrol pump (or electric socket) to ensure that we have clean air and stabilise the climate?

Transport accounts for almost one-third of final energy consumption in Germany and almost one-fifth of greenhouse gas emissions. The German government has adopted specific targets in both areas. Under the German government’s Energy Concept and the German Sustainable Development Strategy, final energy consumption (referred to as “energy consumption” below) is to be cut by 15–20 percent by 2030 and by 40 percent by 2050.

According to the Climate Action Plan 2050, CO2 emissions from transport are to be reduced by 40–42 percent by 2030 compared to 1990 levels and largely eliminated by 2050. The trend of recent years shows that transport is not yet on course to meet these targets.

CO2 emissions Energy consumption (in million tonnes) (indexed: 2005=100)

1990 163 94

2018 162 107 (2017 value)

Target 2030 95 to 98 80 to 85 (minus 40-42 percent by (minus 15-20 percent by comparison with 1990) comparison with 2005)

Target 2050 none 60 (minus 40 percent by (GHG-neutral) comparison with 2005)

Table D.2.1: Development of greenhouse gas emissions and final energy consumption in the transport sector, and agreed reduction targets. Data source: UBA (2018)

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Figure D.2.1: Final energy consumption in transport. Source: UBA (2019) Endenergieverbrauch des Verkehrs Final energy consumption in transport

Endenergieverbrauch gesamt Total final energy consumption

Endenergieverbrauch Güterverkehr Final energy consumption in freight transport

Endenergieverbrauch Personenverkehr Final energy consumption in passenger transport

Ziel Target

Energy efficiency in road transport

The energy efficiency of the various transport modes must increase significantly if energy consumption and hence greenhouse gas emissions are to be reduced. In practical terms, this means less fuel consumption per kilometre travelled. The largest contribution to this is currently being made by the recently revised EU fleet-wide CO2 targets for new passenger cars and light commercial vehicles (Regulation (EU) 2019/631). As of 2015, a target of 130 grams of CO2 per kilometre applies to the average EU fleet-wide emissions of new passenger cars. From 2021, the limit will be 95 g CO2/km. This target will be reduced by a further 15 percent in 2025 and by 37.5 percent in 2030. Since 2017, the limit for light commercial vehicles has been 175 g CO2/km; from 2020, it will be 147 g CO2/km. Further reductions of

15 and 31 percent are scheduled for 2025 and 2030 respectively. In addition, fleet-wide CO2

215 von 301 | www.bmu.de emission targets for heavy-duty vehicles will be introduced in 2025. They will apply initially to articulated lorries and lorries with a maximum permissible weight exceeding 16 tonnes: the required reduction for these vehicles, compared to the 2019 reference year, will be 15 percent from 2025 onwards and 30 percent from 2030 onwards. The Council of Ministers of the European Union formally approved the corresponding EU regulation in June 2019.

Reducing emissions of atmospheric pollutants in road transport

The German government supports the efforts of the Länder and municipalities, as the competent levels of government, to reduce nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions through a range of actions and targeted funding programmes. It provides a total of around two billion euros for cities and municipalities that are failing to meet the mean annual limit value for NO2.

The Federal Environment Ministry is currently drawing up a comprehensive action programme to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. This takes the form of an integrated nitrogen emissions reduction strategy that involves all emitters in accordance with their reduction potential; it thus includes nitrogen oxide emissions in the transport sector, which produces about 13 percent of total annual nitrogen emissions in Germany.

National Diesel Forum

NO2 pollution is still too high in many German cities. In light of the need for clean air and the threat of driving bans, the National Diesel Forum was held on 2 August 2017 to speed up action on these issues. The forum aims to promote sustainable mobility, prevent blanket driving bans and safeguard jobs and consumer rights.

The German government, the Länder and the automotive industry have therefore agreed the following measures:

• By means of software updates, the German automotive industry will reduce the NOx emissions of around 5.3 million Euro 5 and Euro 6 diesel vehicles by an average of 25 to 30 percent by the end of 2018. A further one million vehicles have been registered for software updates at a later date. The software updates are being released by the Federal Motor Transport Authority (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt – KBA), while the costs are being borne in full by the manufacturers. Of the 5.3 million vehicles that were originally registered, 85 percent have already had the updates installed. The remaining updates are due to be performed in the second half of 2019. • The German government and the automotive industry are putting 500 million euros into the “Sustainable mobility for the city” fund, with each contributing half of this amount. • The German government is widening the scope of assistance for further direct

216 von 301 | www.bmu.de measures to reduce emissions in urban transport.

The agreed measures will help to reduce NOx emissions in road transport. Other measures have been discussed by four panels of experts, who have provided the German government with practical policy recommendations, in their respective areas of expertise, for reducing pollution in inner cities. The panels involved not only experts from the relevant ministries and official government and Land authorities but also representatives of environmental organisations and consumer associations.

The Immediate Clean Air Programme

At the Second Municipal Summit held on 28 November 2017, the German government, the Länder and municipalities with high levels of nitrogen oxide pollution reaffirmed their shared goal of achieving the fastest possible reduction in emissions in all municipalities where nitrogen oxide limits were being exceeded. They therefore agreed a programme of immediate action, presented by the government, focusing on the following measures:

• electrification of transport, • retrofitting diesel buses used for public passenger transport with exhaust gas cleaning systems, • digitalisation of transport. Following a subsequent increase in funding, a total of 1.5 billion euros is now available for measures adopted under the programme to reduce nitrogen dioxide pollution in cities. The automotive industry has contributed 250 million euros towards this total.

Affected municipalities can obtain support and advice from the sustainability mobility fund guidance office (Lotsenstelle Fonds Nachhaltige Mobilität) which the German government has set up at the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure.

In addition to the Immediate Clean Air Programme, other measures that are being implemented include:

• improving logistics strategies and combining traffic flows, • cycling-related measures that can be introduced quickly under existing funding guidelines, • the “environment bonus” for the purchase of electric cars, • the funding guidelines on hardware retrofitting of heavy municipal vehicles, • the funding guidelines on hardware retrofitting of light and heavy tradespersons’ vehicles and delivery vehicles. Concept for clean air and safeguarding individual mobility in our cities

217 von 301 | www.bmu.de As well as initiating the Immediate Clean Air Programme, the German government has also launched a “Concept for clean air and safeguarding individual mobility in our cities”; this was introduced on 2 October 2018 with the aim of avoiding driving bans. The concept includes the funding guidelines on hardware retrofitting, which have allocated 432 million euros for the (hardware) retrofitting of heavy municipal vehicles and heavy and light tradespersons’ vehicles and delivery vehicles. In addition, assistance in the form of trade-in incentives is to be provided to people living in particularly polluted municipalities and the costs of hardware retrofitting for private cars are to be borne by the manufacturers.

Rules on vehicle emissions of atmospheric pollutants

The European vehicle emission regulations have been progressively tightened in recent years in order to reduce emissions in road transport. Under Regulation (EC) No. 715/2007, all newly registered EU type-approved cars and light commercial vehicles have since 1 September 2015 been required to meet Euro 6 emissions standards. The Euro VI standard (Roman numerals are used for the standards that apply to heavy-duty commercial vehicles) has applied to all heavy goods vehicles, buses and all other commercial vehicles since 31 December 2013 (Regulation (EC) No. 595/2009).

For heavy-duty commercial vehicles and buses, the introduction of tests of real-driving emissions (RDE) as part of the type-approval process means that the Euro VI emissions standard has already brought about significant improvement in emissions performance on the road. For cars and light commercial vehicles, these tests came in only with the Euro 6d- TEMP standard; in consequence, some diesel cars and light commercial vehicles up to and including Euro 6c still have significantly high nitrogen oxide emissions in real driving conditions. The new test of real emissions will now effectively limit the pollutant emissions

(especially NOx and particle emissions) of cars and light commercial vehicles not only in the laboratory but also in real driving conditions on the road. The technical legislation on the RDE process has been drawn up at EU level in four packages. It has applied to new type- approvals of Euro 6d-TEMP cars since 1 September 2017. The first RDE package (Regulation (EU) No. 2016/427) defines the procedure for testing using portable emissions measuring systems (PEMS). The most important aspect of the second RDE package (Regulation (EU) No. 206/646)) is the definition of introduction dates. The third RDE package (Regulation (EU) No. 2017/1154) extends the scope of the RDE test to include particle number emissions of diesel vehicles and direct-injection petrol vehicles. Finally, the fourth RDE package sets out the requirements for in-service conformity testing of vehicles already in circulation.

In addition, Regulation (EU) No. 168/2013 tightens the emissions standards for class L

218 von 301 | www.bmu.de vehicles (mopeds, scooters and light vehicles) and defines the Euro 4 and Euro 5 emission levels. More stringent emission levels apply to the various class L vehicle categories from 1 January 2016; a second stage comes into effect on 1 January 2020.

With all these measures, the aim is to make individual mobility possible while limiting adverse impacts on the environment and health.

Maritime transport

A wide variety of goods for business or personal use come from outside Europe: they include fruit and vegetables, clothing and industrial products. All around the world, maritime transport has grown steadily in recent decades. Around 90 percent of world trade currently involves transport by sea, and about one-third of ship movements start or finish at a port in the EU. The North Sea and the Baltic Sea are among the busiest seaways in the world.

Ships are still the most efficient mode of transport; however, shipping has impacts on the environment, climate and health. Numerous efforts are therefore being made, especially at European and international level, to limit these impacts, and initial results can already be observed. In addition, the 2016 Paris Agreement has increased the pressure on maritime transport to make an appropriate contribution to the achievement of global climate targets.

Reducing emissions of atmospheric pollutants from seagoing vessels

In connection with improving maritime environmental protection [↗ chapter A.1], it should be borne in mind that internationally applicable rules are most effective for global shipping operations. The German government was therefore quick to campaign within the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for such regulations, and it has been successful in its efforts. The German government supports corresponding measures to improve maritime emissions both in relation to fuels and through other measures such as exhaust gas treatment for ships. One such measure involves the designation of Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) in which particularly strict limits apply to the sulphur content of ships’ fuels and nitrogen oxide emissions.

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78), which was adopted in 1973, provides for a progressive reduction in the sulphur content of marine fuels from 3.5 percent (applicable since 2012) to 0.5 percent from 1 January 2020. Stricter limits apply in the Sulphur Emission Control Areas in the Baltic Sea and North Sea, along the North American coast and in the US Caribbean area: the strictest limit in the world, namely 0.10 percent, has applied there since 2015. This is necessary because ships make a major contribution to pollution by particulate matter, sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides

(NOx), especially in and around ports. Directive (EU) 2016/802 – the Sulphur Directive – is

219 von 301 | www.bmu.de aligned with the IMO regulations and imposes limits at EU level on the sulphur content of ships’ fuels, among other things; more extensive restrictions are imposed in ports.

As mentioned above, MARPOL Annex VI stipulates a progressive reduction in emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Ships’ diesel engines built in or after 2011 must meet the Tier II emission limits, which are 20 percent lower than the initial limits imposed in Tier I. It is also possible to designate NOx Emission Control Areas (NECAs) in which particularly stringent

Tier III emission limits apply to new ships. In these areas, the NOx emissions of new ships will in future need to be 80 percent less than the emissions permitted under Tier I. This has applied to the existing NECAs off the coast of North America and in the US Caribbean since 2016; the IMO agreed in 2016 that it would also apply to the North and Baltic Seas from 2021.

The resulting reduction in emissions of atmospheric pollutants from shipping, especially in the SECAs and NECAs, significantly improves the protection of health and the environment.

Climate change mitigation

World trade and tourism are both on a largely uninterrupted growth course. Calculations carried out for the EU indicate that unless more is done, there could be further significant increases in the CO2 emissions of international aviation and shipping, so that by 2050 they could comprise almost 40 percent of global CO2 emissions. This growth jeopardises efforts to achieve the binding international climate targets agreed in Paris.

The German government fully supports the development and systematic, harmonised implementation of international standards for the protection of nature and the environment and for the stabilisation of the climate under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). An important milestone was the adoption in April 2018 of an initial strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping.

In spring 2018, the IMO agreed to reduce GHG emissions of shipping by at least 50 percent by 2050 compared to 2008 and in addition to pursue a mitigation pathway consistent with the temperature targets set out in the Paris Agreement. Within the IMO, the German government is pressing for specific internationally binding measures to reduce the GHG emissions of international shipping to be agreed and implemented soon. The German government’s aim is for shipping to be GHG-neutral by 2050; it will propose further medium- to long-term measures in order to achieve this to the IMO.

The German government is of the view that meeting environmental and climate change mitigation requirements in shipping calls for a technology mix that takes account of the efficiency of the propulsion system and reduces the emissions of the fuel used. One component is the introduction of alternative marine fuels and the fitting and retrofitting of

220 von 301 | www.bmu.de ships with the necessary engine technology. What propulsion systems and fuels will best enable shipping to become completely GHG-neutral depends partly on further technological developments.

Aviation

Aviation, too, must play its part in reducing CO2 emissions. The German government works at national, European and international level to achieve ambitious climate change mitigation measures and instruments. In 2016, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (which had 191 member states at the time; there are now 193) agreed on a global market- based measure to limit the CO2 emissions of international aviation to the 2020 level. Under the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), which is due to start in early 2021, CO2 emissions from international civil aviation in excess of 2020 levels will be offset by the aircraft operators. The airlines will do this by buying emission certificates, such as credits from projects that cut CO2 emissions elsewhere. The scheme will run until 2035, although there is an option to extend it. CORSIA is currently being integrated into European and national law for aviation via the EU Emissions Trading Directive. The decision to introduce CORSIA is endorsed in the current coalition agreement.

In addition, a CO2 standard that sets limits on an aircraft’s fuel consumption was agreed by ICAO in 2016 and will enter into force in 2020. The production of aircraft that do not meet the

CO2 standard will be banned from 2028.

Further measures are necessary if the targets set in the Paris Agreement and an actual reduction in aviation emissions are to be achieved. Among other things, aviation fuels must as far as possible be GHG-neutral and produced from renewable sources. Fuels that meet these requirements include power-to-liquid fuels: these are electricity-based fuels produced using solar or wind energy. Research and development in the field of carbon-neutral alternative aviation fuels are also addressed in the coalition agreement and the Climate Action Plan 2050. The German government is already piloting the production of synthetic kerosene from renewables.

To achieve the ICAO target of carbon-neutral growth from 2020, it will be necessary not only to implement CORSIA but also to use alternative aviation fuels and introduce other technical and operational measures. As part of this approach, ICAO has introduced an efficiency target which calls for a two percent increase in fuel efficiency annually. ICAO has not yet been able to define a quantitative target for the replacement of conventional aviation fuels by alternative ones.

In addition, the German government is supporting the adoption by ICAO of a long-term climate target: this, too, has not yet been defined and approved.

221 von 301 | www.bmu.de Germany introduced a distance-dependent ticket tax (aviation tax) in 2011. The German government is currently discussing the issue of carbon pricing.

Rail transport

The benefits of rail as a relatively environmentally friendly mode of transport should continue to be utilised and expanded long-term under the changing climatic, demographic, social and technological conditions that we face, and will remain an important pillar of mobility. This requires further efforts in relation to energy saving, the use of renewable energies, reducing the environmental impacts for local residents, and protection of the environment. The government’s rail research programme provides an important basis for the investigation of issues relating to the environment and sustainable mobility. The German government has set up the German Centre for Rail Traffic Research (Deutsches Zentrum für Schienenverkehrsforschung – DZSF), thus creating the structures for research on these issues. Strategies for decarbonising rail transport will be devised, and work on developing new propulsion technologies will be initiated and supported. For rail transport that runs on overhead cables, renewable energies can be used without any need for system conversion. Electric rolling stock is already leading the way in e- mobility here; the focus is therefore not on radical technological change but on efficiency increases. It is also important to save energy by automating rail transport, using digital operational control systems, recovering braking energy and developing new materials and new vehicle contours. Energy is consumed in the railway system not only in propulsion but also in construction, other operations and maintenance, for which energy-efficient procedures must be developed. Railway premises also offer significant potential as sites for renewable energy generation, especially from solar power.

The German government is investigating the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events on the rail transport infrastructure. Suitable strategies and measures are being drawn up by an expert network involving the Federal Railway Authority (Eisenbahn-Bundesamt – EBA) and other partners.

222 von 301 | www.bmu.de D.3 Renewable energies in transport and alternative drives Some mobility needs cannot be met without modes of transport such as cars or goods vehicles. Using alternative drives and fuels based on renewable energy sources can significantly mitigate transport-related impacts on the environment and climate and reduce dependence on fossil energy sources. Electric drives, for example, produce no exhaust emissions locally and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from traffic. This is particularly important so that motor vehicles, which are responsible for the major share of transport emissions, with more than 90 percent of the fleet dependent on petroleum, can also be made sustainable.

Alternative drives often combine greater efficiency – i.e. lower energy consumption – with increased use of energy from renewable sources. Battery electric vehicles are an example of this. They are highly efficient, using less energy per kilometre, and because of the growing share of renewables in electricity generation, they also boost the use of non-fossil energy sources in transport. They utilise the progressive transition to sustainable energy to deliver a “green dividend” in the transport sector. Alternative fuels such as power-to-liquid (a fuel produced synthetically from electricity, water and CO2) are less efficient by comparison, because large quantities of energy are required to make them, but they offer scope for the use of renewables in parts of the transport sector where liquid or gaseous fuels are likely to remain indispensable in the longer term. This is likely to be the case in aviation, shipping and possibly long-distance heavy freight transport. Both approaches are therefore important if motor vehicles are to become more environmentally friendly and less harmful to the climate.

The ultimate goal of the research, which is technology-neutral and explores all the options in detail, is carbon-free mobility. These options include not only e-mobility and hydrogen/fuel cells but also synthetic fuels. If produced from renewable energies, water and atmospheric CO2, these fuels are almost entirely climate-neutral. An example of the numerous projects in this field is Namosyn, which aims to lay the foundations for initial production of synthetic fuels in Germany on a multi-tonne scale. The project, which began in early April 2019, is closely coordinated with the e-fuels initiative launched by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi).

Individual transport is responsible for around two-thirds of transport-related CO2 emissions in Germany, while freight transport is responsible for one-third.

223 von 301 | www.bmu.de Alternative drives

The German government is doing more and more to get electric mobility going. An environmental bonus of 4,000 euros is paid for the purchase of a purely electric vehicle or fuel cell vehicle; for a plug-in hybrid, the bonus is 3,000 euros. The German government and the automotive industry are sharing the overall cost of the subsidy, which could amount to 1.2 billion euros by 2020. The government is also providing 300 million euros for the expansion of the publicly accessible charging infrastructure. With this programme, the German government aims to initiate the development of a comprehensive network of normal and fast charging stations. The aim is to install at least 15,000 charging points by 2020. The support is available both to private investors and to cities and municipalities. The government also aims to ensure that in future at least 20 percent of its own vehicles are electric.

In addition, tax incentives have been introduced. Under the Motor Vehicle Tax Act (Kraftfahrzeugsteuergesetz), the existing exemption from vehicle tax for purely electric vehicles has been extended to 10 years. An amendment to the Income Tax Act (Einkommensteuergesetz) means that the charging of an electric vehicle at a charging point provided by an employer, offered as a benefit in kind, is exempt from income tax. Special rules on the taxing of company cars have applied to electric and externally chargeable hybrid electric vehicles since 2013. They provide “compensation for disadvantage”: the basis on which the tax payable on company cars that are used privately, namely the gross list price, is reduced by a lump sum to reflect the costs of the battery system. As a further measure, the basis on which the private-use benefit is calculated has been halved from 2019. This applies to electric vehicles and, if certain criteria are met, also to externally chargeable hybrid electric vehicles purchased or first registered for use between 1 January 2019 and 31 December 2021. A draft law that would introduce further tax incentives for electric mobility and amend other tax rules aims to extend this measure until 31 December 2030.

The German government is encouraging the procurement of electric buses, since 2019 by covering 80 percent of the additional investment costs. It also continues to promote comprehensive research and development in the field of electric mobility and to support the market introduction of fuel cell vehicles, in particular via the National Innovation Programme for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology.

224 von 301 | www.bmu.de Other measures are set out in the coalition agreement. For example, a non-priority measure aims to install at least 100,000 charging points – of which at least one in three will be fast charging stations (DC) – by 2020. Another non-priority measure in the coalition agreement is the promotion of private charging points. Rental and property law is to be adapted to facilitate and speed up the construction of charging infrastructure. A special write-down for electric vehicles used for commercial purposes is also to be introduced.

Renewable energies for motor vehicles

Achievement of the German government’s climate targets in the transport sector requires not only incentives to improve vehicle efficiency but also an increase in the share of renewable energies in the supply of energy for transport. Improvements need to be made not only to the vehicles themselves but also to the fuels used.

National law

In 2015, the biofuel quota based on energy content was replaced by a greenhouse gas reduction quota. This means that anyone placing fuels on the market must reduce their GHG emissions by an average percentage that is stipulated by law (GHG quota).

The EU Fuel Quality Directive includes provisions allowing the counting of greenhouse gas reductions not only from the use of biofuels but also from the extraction of crude oil (upstream emissions reductions), the introduction of electricity- based fuel (hydrogen and synthetic methane) and electricity used in electric vehicles. Secondary legislation has been passed to implement them.

EU law

The Renewable Energy Directive (RED) states that all EU countries must ensure that at least 10 percent of their transport fuels come from renewable sources by 2020. Currently, it can be assumed that most of this will come from biofuels. The recently amended directive capped the share of biofuels produced from cultivated biomass (particularly starch-rich crops, sugars and oil crops). That means that these biofuels can count towards the 10 percent target but only up to a limit of seven percent (Directive 2009/28/EC). When the RED is amended, the rules will be updated for the period from 2021 to 2030, bringing the target set for the share of renewable energy in transport in the member states to 14 percent in 2030. The share of biofuels from

225 von 301 | www.bmu.de cultivated biomass must not be more than one percentage point higher than the reference level in 2020.

Figure D.3.1: Share of renewable energy in final energy consumption in transport. Source: UBA (2018) Anteil erneuerbarer Energien am Share of renewable energy in final energy Endenergieverbrauch für Verkehr consumption in transport Anteile in Prozent Percentage shares vorläufige Daten Provisional data Quelle: Umweltbundesamt (UBA) auf Basis Source: Federal Environment Agency AGEE-Stat, Stand 02/2018 (UBA) on the basis of AGEE-Stat, as at February 2018

The Fuel Quality Directive requires a reduction in the greenhouse gas intensity of the fuels used in vehicles by 6 per cent by 2020. This requirement is implemented in Germany via the greenhouse gas reduction quota, which has been in force since 2015 (Directive 98/70/EC).

Market shares in the petrol and diesel fuel sector, natural gas vehicle fuel

At European level, annual reports summarise information provided by the member states on the quality of petrol and diesel fuels and on quantities sold. The last report published gives details for 2016 (COM (2018) 56 final). http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/fuel/documentation_en.htm www.bafa.de/DE/Energie/Rohstoffe/Mineraloelstatistik/mineraloel_node.html This report indicates that E10 fuel (petrol containing up to 10 percent ethanol) had

226 von 301 | www.bmu.de low market penetration in Europe. It was sold in only a few countries: Bulgaria, Finland, France, Germany, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal and Slovenia. E10’s market share in Germany fell slightly in 2017 to just over 12 percent.

B7 fuel (diesel with up to seven percent biodiesel) had an 83 percent share in diesel fuel sales in the European Union. The share of biofuels in total fuel consumption in Germany in 2017 was similar to the preceding year at around 5.9 percent.

Some 90,000 vehicles that run on compressed natural gas (CNG) are currently on the road in Germany. In the fuel sector, the market share of natural gas is around 0.25 percent. Blending natural gas with biomethane or using renewable electricity to produce methane – a process known as power-to-gas (PtG) – can have a positive impact on the climate and resources. However, it is crucial that the biomethane is produced from organic waste, not from cultivated biomass. There is currently no statutory quota for the blending of biogenic gaseous fuels. However, industry issued a declaration of intent in which it set itself the target of raising the biogenic content of natural gas vehicle fuel to 20 percent by 2015. In fact, it met this target ahead of schedule in 2013. The biomethane content of natural gas vehicle fuel is currently over 23 percent.

The German government is supporting greater market penetration of natural gas as a vehicle fuel. Under the Second Act to Amend the Energy Duty Act and the Electricity Duty Act (Zweites Gesetz zur Änderung des Energiesteuer- und des Stromsteuergesetzes), tax benefits continue to apply to compressed and liquefied natural gas (CNG/LNG) in Germany. The tax benefit for CNG/LNG has been extended to the end of 2026 but will be progressively reduced from 2024. The temporary toll exemption for goods vehicles that run on natural gas provides a further powerful incentive in the commercial vehicle sector. In addition, as part of its implementation of the European Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Directive, the German government has submitted a strategy for setting up and upgrading a network of CNG and LNG fuelling stations and LNG bunkering stations for the maritime sector and for boosting efforts to get the market for natural gas as a vehicle fuel up and running.

227 von 301 | www.bmu.de E. Environmental quality and health

Human health is influenced significantly by the quality of the environment. By protecting the environment we therefore actively protect human health.

“The environment and health” is a cross-cutting issue that involves all sorts of everyday aspects of human life such as the resources that go into the manufacture of regularly used products (chemicals), the quality of the air in homes and workplaces and outdoors (air), road traffic noise and neighbourhood noise (noise) or medical X-ray examinations and the use of mobile phones (radiation).

E.1 Environmental quality, safety and health Plant safety

In Germany there are currently around 3,500 potentially hazardous industrial plants. Because of the properties (e.g. toxicity) of the substances handled at these sites, these plants pose an elevated risk for people and/or the environment if the substances used there are released. Since Germany is densely populated, some of these plants are close to sensitive areas such as residential districts or transport routes. To prevent serious impacts on the environment or human health, these plants are subject to strict safety regulations, the aim of which is primarily to prevent incidents. In addition, there must wherever possible be an appropriate safety distance between the potentially hazardous plants and certain sensitive areas. This is intended to limit the impact of any incident that does occur. The Federal Environment Ministry (BMU) is currently working on a regulation that will define how this distance is to be calculated.

Chemical safety

Under the REACH Regulation (Regulation concerning the registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemicals), which entered into force on 1 June 2007, manufacturers, importers and downstream users are responsible for ensuring that chemicals that they produce and place on the market are used safely. The regulation requires distributors to assess the chemical risks and to register their substances (“no data – no market”). At the same time, the EU member states identify, in an ongoing process, substances of very high concern. www.reach-clp-biozid-helpdesk.de/de/REACH/SVHC-Roadmap/Roadmap.html

These “substances of very high concern” are entered in the Candidate List, which currently names 191 chemicals. https://echa.europa.eu/de/candidate-list-table

228 von 301 | www.bmu.de Once a substance has been placed on the list, extensive information about it must be communicated down the supply chain. If chemicals are processed into products (such as when a dye is incorporated into a plastic product), details of the Candidate List substances contained in the product must be passed on via the supply chain, together with information on safe handling of the substance. Consumers can ask retailers, manufacturers or importers what substances of very high concern a product contains. Companies are required to provide this information free of charge within 45 days – regardless of any possible purchase.

On 5/6 October 2016 the BMU and the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) held another REACH conference, which addressed issues of “Consumer protection and REACH” and “Registration as an instrument of chemical regulation”. www.bfr.bund.de/de/veranstaltung/reach_kongress_2016__verbraucherschutz_unter_reach_ -197914.html Following the European Commission’s first review of REACH in 2012/2013, a second review was due on 1 June 2017 and was published in March 2018. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52018DC0116

The Commission does not consider any fundamental change to the rules to be necessary, although some room for improvement was identified in connection with implementation. Discussion of the report commenced with a stakeholder workshop in June 2018. The Environment Council and the Competitiveness Council have given it their initial consideration. In December 2018 the BMU held a REACH conference with the German Federal Office for Chemicals (BfC) at which the Commission’s evaluation report was discussed.

Human biomonitoring

Since 2010 the German government has been cooperating with VCI, the German chemical industry association, to develop new analytical methods that can be used to measure exposure of the general population to chemicals. Many chemicals that may adversely affect health cannot be detected in the human body at present. It must be possible to measure these substances if their physical effects on the population are to be realistically assessed. The aim of the collaboration is therefore to develop methods of detection. Forty-three substances have so far been selected for inclusion in this methodology development process, which usually takes several years to complete.

When the methods have been finalised and their quality has been assured, they are applied to human samples in the German Environmental Specimen Bank and to the German Environmental Surveys (GerES) on health. Use of these methods meant that GerES V (2014

229 von 301 | www.bmu.de to 2017) was, for the first time anywhere in the world, able to gather representative data on the exposure of the population to selected substances. www.bmu.de/pressemitteilung/bundesumweltministerium-und-chemieverband-setzen-neue- ziele-fuer-human-biomonitoring/ While the collaboration with the VCI focuses on measurement methods, the Human Biomonitoring Commission at the Federal Environment Agency evaluates the health-related impacts of these chemicals in order to assess whether or not the identified levels of exposure are associated with risks to health.

Another prominent project in the field of human biomonitoring is the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU), which the Federal Environment Agency is overseeing on behalf of the European Commission. The initiative is coordinating existing data and methods in the various European countries in order to improve their suitability for informing decisions on chemicals policy and the regulation of chemicals in Europe. www.hbm4eu.eu

Health impacts of air quality

The quality of indoor air is also important for health, since people spend about 90 percent of the day in enclosed buildings. In 2017 the Indoor Air Hygiene Commission at the Federal Environment Agency revised the guidelines on mould and issued guidance on improving indoor air hygiene in schools. The guidance includes recommendations on dealing with damage to buildings caused by moisture and the resulting microbial contamination. Under the heading of “healthy construction”, the commission compared indoor air quality in buildings before and after energy-efficient refurbishment and drafted recommendations for improvement. www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/gesundheit/umwelteinfluesse-auf-den- menschen/schimmel/aktueller-uba-schimmelleitfaden www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/leitfaden-fuer-innenraumhygiene-in- schulgebaeuden The causes of pollutants in outdoor air (especially particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone) and their impacts on health are described elsewhere [↗ chapter A.3].

Environmental contaminants in food

Pollution of air, water or soil can be transferred to food, putting consumers’ health at risk. Environmental contaminants in food which can affect health include heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury or persistent organic pollutants such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The EU Contaminants Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 specifies maximum levels for lead, cadmium, mercury, dioxins and PCBs in foodstuffs such

230 von 301 | www.bmu.de as cereals, vegetables, fruit, food supplements, foods for infants and young children, milk, eggs, and meat and fish products. Food business operators must comply with those maximum levels, which are legally binding throughout the EU.

Figure E.1.1: Dioxin contamination in cow’s milk. Source: BMU (2019) Abbildung hier auf Englisch verfügbar: https://www.bmu.de/en/topics/health-chemical-safety- nanotechnology/health-and-food-safety/food-safety/consumer-protection/overview-dioxins- and-pcbs/dioxins-and-pcbs/#c15950

In Germany, the responsible authorities in the Länder monitor compliance with legal requirements for food. www.bmu.de/WS529

231 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.bmu.de/WS1396 Radioactive substances in drinking water

The available data indicates that contamination of drinking water by radioactive substances is very low in Germany. Risks to health can be almost entirely ruled out. Nevertheless, in some areas the geology of the bedrock means that drinking water can be expected to contain elevated levels of natural radioactive substances.

The Third Ordinance amending the Drinking Water Ordinance (Dritte Verordnung zur Änderung der Trinkwasserverordnung), which came into force on 18 November 2015 (BGBl. I p. 2076), imposes an obligation to measure and monitor artificial and natural radioactive substances in drinking water as an aspect of water quality. To enable compliance with the defined parameter values to be verified and monitored, the Ordinance sets out requirements for sampling, testing strategy, testing bodies and testing procedures together with rules on the frequency of testing and evaluation of the testing results. The introduction of these rules transposes Council Directive 2013/51/EURATOM of 22 October 2013 laying down requirements for the protection of the health of the general public with regard to radioactive substances in water intended for human consumption (OJ L 296 of 7 November 2013, p. 12) into German law. They provide the basis for taking steps to reduce radioactive substances in drinking water where necessary and thus ensure the high quality of drinking water with regard to radioactive substances that it may contain. By 26 November 2019, large water suppliers must now analyse their drinking water in accordance with standard national procedures. The required analyses may only be performed by accredited laboratories. The “Guidelines on compliance with the requirements of the Drinking Water Ordinance in the testing and evaluation of radioactive substances in drinking water” (Leitfaden zur Untersuchung und Bewertung von radioaktiven Stoffen im Trinkwasser bei der Umsetzung der Trinkwasserverordnung) published in 2017 provide recommendations for action by water supply companies and enforcement authorities. They ensure harmonised implementation of the rules on monitoring radioactivity parameters and include advice on the action to be taken if parameter levels in drinking water are exceeded.

Nanotechnology

Now that it is possible to work with substances at the nanoscale, new functions and properties emerge. Alongside the opportunities thus created there are also possible risks to the environment, resource conservation, and health. Since 2006 the German government and seven federal ministries have been pursuing action plans as a means of coordinating their activities in relation to the expansion of this cutting-edge technology, economic exploitation of it and the responsible use of materials and techniques. The reorientation of

232 von 301 | www.bmu.de the German government’s high-tech strategy is described in the current Action Plan Nanotechnology 2020. Since 2006 the German government has also been conducting a NanoDialogue in which the opportunities and risks of nanotechnologies are discussed. Experts, officials, ministries, industry representatives and associations exchange views on various areas of application and debate them at events devoted to specific issues. The results are published on the BMU’s website. www.bmu.de/WS567 The current fifth phase of the NanoDialogue commenced in June 2016, kicking off with a conference to mark the tenth anniversary of the dialogue. Participants discussed and considered the results so far and collated unanswered questions and topics to be addressed in the current dialogue phase. One such topic was “Opportunities and risks of the use of nanotechnologies in the construction industry”; an initial specialist dialogue on this subject was held in the autumn of 2016. Another topic was “Opportunities and risks of the use of nanotechnologies in the automotive industry”, for which the corresponding specialist dialogue was held in the autumn of 2017. The subject of the third specialist dialogue, held in April 2018, was risk research, assessment and management, focusing on the example of the long- term research project “Nano-In-Vivo”. This project, which was launched by the German government and a number of cooperation partners in 2013, aimed to collect information on the long-term impacts of nanomaterials in order to close existing knowledge gaps with regard to the potential long-term effects of inhaled nano-dust in the low-dose range. The specialist dialogue on this project provided an opportunity for experts to discuss the results and the possible regulatory consequences. It is likely that the study results will have implications for industrial safety. Consideration must be given not only to industrial safety but also to product safety throughout the entire life cycle – from manufacture and processing to use and disposal.

Since 2008 the European Commission has regarded the REACH Regulation as a suitable tool for the regulation of nanomaterials. In April 2018 the representatives of the member states on the REACH Regulatory Committee unanimously approved the EU Commission’s proposals, submitted in October 2017, for amendments to the annexes of the REACH Regulation. Manufacturers, importers and downstream users will in future be required to provide detailed information on nanomaterials and their nanoforms as part of the process of registration with the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). The new version of REACH with its amendments to Annexes I, III, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII comes into force in January 2020. Amendment of Annex II has not yet been completed. The mandatory data requirements that registrants must comply with from 2020 will enable the risks associated with the nanoscale substances registered under REACH to be assessed.

233 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.bmu.de/WS3660 If materials are to be developed safely, safety aspects must be considered over the entire life cycle of the materials and the products manufactured from them. This is being addressed in the materials research programme “From material to innovation” initiated by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF): the programme adopts an integrative approach to the study of materials that covers not only the manufacture, processing and use of materials but also the disposal and recycling of products made from them. Since 2006 the BMBF has provided around 58 million euros specifically for research into nanosafety; the money has funded research into the impacts of nanomaterials on humans and the environment, the development of methods for the measurement and characterisation of nanomaterials, and the design of nanomaterials that do not pose a risk to health. Funding programmes in the field of nanosafety research are detailed in the German government’s Action Plan Nanotechnology 2020.

The NanoCare4.0 funding programme, which is currently calling for proposals, is not restricted to nanomaterials but includes other innovative materials that are potentially harmful to health or the environment. The aim is to study the impacts and interactions in relation to humans and the environment of novel synthetic nanomaterials and innovative materials with critical morphologies on the nano- and microscale. Key issues are the prediction and early detection of material risks, the development of smart measurement strategies and the study of the overall system in order to ensure safe material design and sustainable production and use. The materials involved include fibre-shaped materials, fibre-reinforced building materials, new bio-persistent nanomaterials, graphenes and also nanocellulose, nanostructured materials, nanocomposites and nanohybrid materials. www.foerderinfo.bund.de/rss/bekanntmachung/3042/ The project DaNa 2.0 “Data and knowledge on nanomaterials – Processing of socially relevant scientific facts” is being funded as part of the nanosafety research being conducted by the BMBF. The Internet platform presents the findings of BMBF projects in the field of nanosafety, including their research topics and contacts. A knowledge base on the behaviour of nanomaterials and their toxicological impacts on humans and the environment is also being created for the general public. www.nanopartikel.info Noise

According to the Environmental Awareness Study 2016 conducted by the Federal Environment Agency (UBA), 76 percent of people in Germany feel that they are at least to some extent disturbed or annoyed by road traffic noise, while the figures are 59 percent for

234 von 301 | www.bmu.de neighbourhood noise, 46 percent for commercial and industrial noise, 44 percent for aviation noise and 38 for railway noise.

Figure E.1.2: Annoyance from individual sources of noise. Source: UBA. Umweltbewusstsein in Deutschland 2016

Belästigung durch einzelne Lärmquellen Annoyance from individual sources of noise

Straßenverkehrslärm Road traffic noise

Lärm von Nachbarn Noise from neighbours

Industrie- und Gewerbelärm Industrial and commercial noise

Flugverkehrslärm Aircraft noise

Schienenverkehrslärm Railway noise

äußerst extremely

stark a lot

mittelmäßig moderately

235 von 301 | www.bmu.de etwas somewhat

überhaupt nicht not at all

weiß nicht don’t know

Frage: Question:

Wenn Sie einmal an die letzten 12 Monate When you think back over the last 12 hier bei Ihnen denken, wie stark haben Sie months you have spent here, how much sich persönlich durch den Lärm von have you personally felt disturbed or folgenden Dingen gestört oder belästigt annoyed by the noise of the following gefühlt? things?

N=2.030 N=2,030

online Befragung, 1. Befragungswelle online survey, 1st survey wave

Stichprobe ab 14. Jahren sample aged 14+

Angaben in Prozent, Abweichungen von figures are percentages, deviations from 100 Prozent rundungsbedingt 100% are the result of rounding

Noise is a serious environmental problem. Noise maps show the locations and levels of noise. They provide information to the public and serve as the basis for noise management action plans (under Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise).

The results of environmental noise mapping show that large parts of the population are impacted by noise. Looking only at the streets measured, some 10.2 million people were exposed to LDEN levels (day-evening-night noise index) exceeding 55 decibels in 2012. Noise levels of this kind can seriously impair cognitive function and communication. Traffic noise protection distinguishes between different sources of noise. Noise abatement programmes and the legal basis for them both relate to specific sources. www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/verkehr-laerm/umgebungslaermrichtlinie/laermkarten Road traffic noise

Road traffic has long been the dominant source of noise in Germany. The aim of the National Traffic Noise Protection Package II is to help achieve a 30 percent reduction in annoyance to the public as a result of noise from road traffic at noise hotspots by 2020, by comparison with the baseline year of 2008. The first step, taken in 2010, was to reduce action levels for noise

236 von 301 | www.bmu.de mitigation on streets and roads for which the federal government is responsible by three decibels. The federal funding provided for this purpose was permanently increased. A planned amendment to the Traffic Noise Protection Ordinance (Verkehrslärmschutzverordnung – 16. BImSchV) will update the method used to calculate road noise pollution levels to take more accurate account of the noise behaviour of modern vehicles. Further improvements will be achieved through innovations in the field of noise abatement. This will involve testing new noise protection ideas in order to identify those that are sustainable, cost-effective and long-lasting.

Rail traffic noise Attempts to shift traffic to the climate-friendly rail network will only succeed if the public can be persuaded to accept the railway as a mode of transport and hence also agree to the construction of new lines and the expansion of existing ones. In the coalition agreement of 14 March 2018, the federal government again committed to cutting rail traffic noise in Germany by 50 percent by 2020 based on 2008 levels. With this in mind, the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure is pursuing a three-point “quiet rail” strategy which involves 1) Promote: noise protection at source, 2) Improve: stationary noise protection, and 3) Regulate: statutory setting.

1. Promoting noise protection at source

The focus is on noise reduction at source, which is achieved by retrofitting existing freight wagons with “whisper” brake technology. This is being funded by the federal government. Using brake blocks made of composite material instead of cast iron reduces the rolling noise of a freight wagon by up to 10 decibels (A). A 10-decibel noise reduction is perceived as a 50-percent reduction in loudness.

On the German government’s initiative, DB Netz AG introduced a noise-based train path pricing system at the time of the 2012/2013 timetable change. The new bonus-malus system creates a financial incentive to use quieter freight wagons. By the end of August 2017, more than 50 percent of freight wagons had already been fitted with quiet brake blocks. At the start of June 2018, some 167,400 provisional notices had been issued to European wagon owners. Since 1 August 2017 the German government has also been promoting particularly quiet freight wagons via the innovation premium TSI Noise+. An EU-wide funding programme could speed up the retrofitting of existing freight wagons, but proposals for such a programme have not been taken up by the European Union.

A national monitoring system for high-volume freight routes will provide a clear indication of how retrofitting is progressing.

237 von 301 | www.bmu.de The “Innovative freight wagons” project aims to promote the development of energy-efficient, quiet and cost-efficient freight wagons. The measurement phase and operational testing of prototypes are taking place in 2018.

2. Improving stationary noise protection

Stationary noise protection along railway tracks includes building noise barriers, installing soundproof windows and using innovative measures such as rail dampers and gabion walls. The German government has spent over one billion euros on this since 1999. Funds from capital investment programmes have also been used to improve noise mitigation in recent years.

As a result of the abolition of the “rail bonus” on 1 January 2015, calculations of noise ratings now include an amount of 5 dB(A) that was previously excluded. On 1 January 2016, the federal Budget Act (Haushaltsgesetz) reduced action levels for noise mitigation by 3 dB(A). In consequence, the entire railway network for which the federal government is responsible was reviewed and a new list of priorities was drawn up. The basic revision of the funding guidelines and the overall noise mitigation strategy has been concluded. The new funding guideline on noise mitigation (Förderrichtlinie Lärmsanierung) entered into force on 1 January 2019 (VkBl. 24/2018 p. 858). The coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period includes special conditions on the design of stationary noise protection if the area in which the measures are being implemented is of particular significance for tourism or the health industry. More costly noise protection walls can now be funded in such areas: versions that are designed to take account of the special requirements of these particularly sensitive areas can now be considered. This improves the quality of noise protection. In addition, greater dovetailing of the voluntary noise mitigation programme and noise action plans under the EU’s Environmental Noise Directive is being examined.

In collaboration with DB Netz AG and DB Umwelt, the German government has launched the I-LENA initiative to incentivise the development of innovative methods of reducing railway noise.

3. Establishing a statutory setting

The revised noise calculation guidelines Schall 03, which require railway noise to be calculated more precisely, entered into force on 1 January 2015. The Rail Noise Mitigation Act (Schienenlärmschutzgesetz), which bans the operation of noisy freight wagons on the German rail network from 13 December 2020, entered into force on 29 July 2017.

Aircraft noise

238 von 301 | www.bmu.de Aircraft noise is not as omnipresent as noise caused by other types of traffic and occurs primarily in the vicinity of airports. However, people who live near airports often find it particularly burdensome. Protests by members of the public against the expansion of airports are increasingly vociferous.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) takes what it calls a “balanced approach” to reducing aviation noise. It starts with reduction at source, for example by using quieter planes. Further actions include land-use planning and management that takes noise considerations into account from the outset when planning settlements near airports, and operational procedures geared to noise abatement. Operating restrictions may be introduced at airports but only as a final resort after the results of the first three actions have been evaluated. ICAO decided in 2013 to reduce noise limit values for commercial aircraft by seven decibels (as the total of three measurement points). These limit values apply to all large new-design commercial aircraft from the end of 2017.

The EU (in the Regulation on the establishment of rules and procedures with regard to the introduction of noise-related operating restrictions at Union airports) has introduced procedures and criteria that national authorities must follow when making decisions about introducing operating restrictions to reduce noise. Restrictions may, for example, be imposed on night flights.

Issues covered in the German government’s amended Air Traffic Noise Act (Fluglärmgesetz – FluLärmG) and its implementing ordinances include sound insulation in buildings and building restrictions in areas around airports. In accordance with the Act, the Länder have defined new noise abatement zones for larger airports.

Flight procedures (flight paths, altitudes, etc.) strongly influence where and how aircraft noise impacts on the areas around airports. The Federal Supervisory Authority for Air Navigation Services (Bundesaufsichtsamt für Flugsicherung – BAF) specifies new flight procedures, which are enacted as ordinances; the Federal Environment Agency (UBA) is involved in the review of noise abatement aspects at an early stage.

Since the amendment of the Air Traffic Noise Act in 2007, the German government is required to provide the Bundestag at least every ten years with a report on the limit values for noise abatement zones specified in the act. This involves identifying and examining the effects of implementing these statutory requirements – in particular the impacts on the protection of the public from aircraft noise due to settlement restrictions, passive noise abatement requirements and reimbursement of noise abatement costs. The first report was approved by the federal cabinet on 16 January 2019 and passed to the Bundestag and Bundesrat for further consideration (BT Printed Paper 19/7220).

239 von 301 | www.bmu.de http://dipbt.bundestag.de/doc/btd/19/072/1907220.pdf Environmental radioactivity and radiation exposure

Protection against ionising radiation

Ionising radiation is a natural part of the environment. Some of this radiation – cosmic radiation – comes from outer space. Soil, rock and construction materials also contain radioactive material. People are also exposed to radiation from anthropogenic sources, such as medicine. High levels of exposure to radiation can significantly increase the risk of cancer.

Figure E.1.3: A person’s effective annual dose of ionising radiation. Source: Umweltradioaktivität und Strahlenbelastung im Jahr 2016 [Environmental radioactivity and exposure to radiation in 2016]. German government (2018)

Natürliche Strahlenexposition in mSv Natural radiation exposure in mSv Zivilisatorische Strahlenexposition in mSv Man-made radiation exposure Direkte kosmische Strahlung 0,3 mSv (0,2- Direct cosmic radiation 0.3 mSv (0.2-0.4) 0,4) Direkte terrestrische Strahlung 0,4 mSv Direct terrestrial radiation 0.4 mSv (0.1-0.8) (0,1-0,8) Nahrung 0,3 mSv Food 0.3 mSv Radon und seine Zerfallsprodukte 1,1 mSv Radon and its decay products 1.1 mSv (1- (1-6) 6) Röntgendiagnostik ca. 1,6 mSv X-ray diagnostics approx. 1.6 mSv Nuklearmedizin 0,1 mSv Nuclear medicine 0.1 mSv Kerntechnische Anlagen < 0,01 mSv Nuclear installations < 0.01 mSv

240 von 301 | www.bmu.de Forschung, Technik, Haushalt <0,01 mSv Research, technology, domestic < 0.01 mSv Tschernobyl < 0,01 mSv Chernobyl < 0.01 mSv Atombomben-Fallout < 0,01 mSv Atom bomb fallout < 0.01 mSv Daten für das Jahr 2014 Data for 2014 Effective Jahresdosis einer Person durch A person’s effective annual dose of ionising ionisierende Strahlung in mSv im Jahr 2016 radiation in mSv in 2016 averaged over the gemittelt über die Bevölkerung population of Germany (range in brackets) Deutschlands (Wertebereich in Klammern)

The Radiation Protection Act and its associated Ordinance

The Radiation Protection Act (Strahlenschutzgesetz) of 2017 comprehensively revises German law on protection from the harmful effects of ionising radiation, modernising it and further improving what was already a high level of protection. Supplementary and more specific issues are covered in a new Radiation Protection Ordinance (Strahlenschutzverordnung). The revision was prompted by the implementation of Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM laying down basic safety standards for protection against the dangers arising from exposure to ionising radiation. Radiation protection law has for many years been regulated at EU level: this latest legislation adjusts it to the current state of scientific knowledge and significantly expands its scope of application. For example, new rules govern protection from the naturally occurring noble gas radon in habitable rooms, the management of radioactively-contaminated sites and radioactivity in building products. Regulations that were previously contained separately in the Radiation Protection Ordinance and the X-Ray Ordinance (Röntgenverordnung) have been substantially retained. They include in particular rules on the protection of the public and the environment from the harmful effects of ionising radiation, on the release of radioactive substances, on the safety of sources of radiation, on radiation protection in medicine and on radiological protection in the workplace. The Radiation Protection Act also contains detailed provisions on radiation emergency preparedness. With the exception of some rules – mainly those on emergency preparedness – which already applied from October 2017 onwards, the new radiation protection regulations entered into force on 31 December 2018.

Health risks from indoor radon

Radon is a radioactive noble gas that is released in the ground and can penetrate into buildings. Levels of indoor radon vary widely depending on geology and the condition of buildings. Radon and its daughter products are second only to tobacco smoking as a cause of lung cancer. As well as comprehensively revising and extending the regulations on protection against radiation in the workplace, the Radiation Protection Act also introduces

241 von 301 | www.bmu.de rules on the protection of the public from radon in dwellings. An activity concentration of 300 Bq/m³ is now specified as a reference level for radon-222 in the air of habitable rooms and workplaces. The Länder are required to identify areas in which it is expected that a significant number of buildings with habitable rooms or workplaces will exceed the reference level. These areas are termed “radon-prone areas”. Compulsory radiation protection measures apply to new buildings throughout Germany. The new Radiation Protection Act also imposes obligations on the federal government and the Länder with regard to reporting, awareness- raising and the provision of information. A Radon Action Plan produced by the BMU with the involvement of the Länder sets out the radon protection measures and specifies targets for the management of the long-term risks of exposure to radon.

Occupational exposure to radiation in recent years

Data is collected on the occupational radiation exposure of some 440,000 people in Germany. It is compiled in the Radiation Protection Register of the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) and analysed. According to the register, around 94,000 people received doses not equal to zero. Non-zero doses were recorded for almost all flight crews; in other sectors, only around 13 percent of personnel were officially registered as receiving doses not equal to zero. Excluding the flight crews, the mean dose for people exposed to radiation at work who received a measurable dose was 0.45 millisieverts (mSv) per year in 2017. The values were 0.6 mSv per year in the field of nuclear technology, 0.3 mSv per year in medicine and 2.0 mSv per year for flight crews. The mean occupational exposure to radiation thus remains at a very low level, far below the statutory limit of 20 mSv per calendar year. This exposure to radiation is also below the average radiation exposure of about 4 mSv per year from natural and anthropogenic sources to which every person on Earth is exposed.

The new Radiation Protection Act harmonises the protection requirements that apply to employees who handle naturally occurring radioactive material with those applicable to employees who handle artificial radioactive materials or operate X-ray machines or accelerators. In particular, a dose assessment will in future be required for individuals who may be exposed to a dose of 1 mSv or more in a calendar year.

The protection of workers who are exposed to radon is to be extended. In the radon-prone areas that are to be identified, radon activity concentrations in workplaces located at ground floor or basement level will have to be measured; if the reference level of an annual mean of 300 Bq/m³ is exceeded, action must be taken to lower the concentration. If the reference level is exceeded long-term, the dose received by workers must be estimated. If this estimate indicates expected exposure of more than 6 mSv per calendar year, the workplace must be registered with the competent authority and workers’ exposure must be assessed.

242 von 301 | www.bmu.de Emergency management system – Setting up the German government’s radiological situation centre

The Radiation Protection Act’s provisions on the emergency management system of the federation and the Länder entered into force on 1 October 2017. Following the reactor disaster in Fukushima, the legal and administrative framework for emergency preparedness and the handling of radiological emergencies was reviewed. An important new step is the requirement for the federation and the Länder to produce coordinated emergency plans. These plans should enable all organisations involved in the emergency response to make immediate and coordinated decisions in the event of a possible emergency and take prompt and appropriate action to protect the population. The Federal Radiological Situation Centre (Radiologisches Lagezentrum – RLZ) was set up as a network involving the BMU, the Federal Office for Radiation Protection and the GRS (Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit). In the event of supraregional emergencies in Germany or elsewhere, the RLZ will produce a definitive overview of the radiological situation for all the official bodies of the federation and the Länder. The RLZ is also responsible for coordinating protection measures nationally and internationally, informing the public and producing behavioural recommendations.

Protection against non-ionising radiation

As technology advances, the number of artificial sources of non-ionising radiation also continues to increase. The term “non-ionising radiation” refers to electrical, magnetic and electromagnetic fields, together with optical radiation (UV radiation, visible light and infrared radiation) and ultrasound.

Protection against UV radiation

Many scientific studies have shown that UV radiation can cause skin cancer and also influences the course of the disease. International organisations such as the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) therefore classify UV radiation as carcinogenic. This applies both to natural sources of UV radiation (sunshine) and to artificial ones (tanning beds). The number of new cases of skin cancer is increasing. The UV Protection Ordinance (UV-Schutz-Verordnung), which entered into force on 1 January 2012, therefore limits the maximum permissible irradiance when operating tanning equipment. Trained staff are one way for users to find out how they can protect themselves against health risks in tanning studios. According to the Act on Protection against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans (Gesetz zum Schutz vor nichtionisierender Strahlung bei der Anwendung am Menschen – NiSG), children and young people under the age of 18 are not

243 von 301 | www.bmu.de allowed to use tanning salons. When minors are exposed to artificial UV radiation, their risk of getting skin cancer increases considerably.

Protection from electromagnetic fields caused by mobile telecommunication equipment

Electromagnetic fields are increasingly being used in modern forms of communication. Germany’s Ordinance on Electromagnetic Fields (Verordnung über elektromagnetische Felder) is intended to protect people from any resulting adverse effects. It includes limit values based on recommendations of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the German Commission on Radiological Protection (SSK). The limit values apply to the fixed digital radio equipment of all operators (such as mobile telecommunications, radar, amateur radio) including the Bundeswehr, government agencies and organisations involved in public safety and security.

The mobile communications network is currently facing upheaval as a result of the imminent introduction of 5th generation (5G) networks. In connection with electromagnetic fields, noteworthy action includes the progressive addition to the network – begun during the reporting period – of small-cell transmitters with low radio frequency power output to boost coverage in areas of high demand, the use of higher frequency ranges above 20 GHz and the introduction of smart antenna arrays to make targeted contact with end devices. In the summer of 2017 the German government presented its 5G strategy, which stresses that the existing high safety standards of preventive health protection will be retained at all stages of development. Even during development, protection from the effects of electromagnetic fields as required by international guidelines will be taken into account in the standardisation process; a high level of protection will therefore be maintained as a standard recognised throughout Europe. In addition, the federal government supports research into the effects of electromagnetic fields, focusing on frequencies above 20 GHz.

The coalition agreement for the 19th legislative period stipulates that the German government will continue to monitor how digitalisation affects exposure to electromagnetic fields, in particular in the mobile communications sector but also, for example, in relation to innovations in automotive technology. Ensuring the safety of the public will remain a priority.

Protection against non-ionising radiation in new areas of application

On the basis of the Act on Protection against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans (Gesetz zum Schutz vor nichtionisierender Strahlung bei der Anwendung am Menschen – NiSG), the BMU has drawn up an ordinance on protection in connection with the use of non- ionising sources of radiation for cosmetic purposes. At present, these sources of radiation (which include lasers, high-energy flash lamps and ultrasound) can be used for cosmetic

244 von 301 | www.bmu.de purposes (permanent hair removal, smoothing of wrinkles, removal of tattoos, destruction of fatty tissue) by virtually anyone without the need for special qualifications. Improper use of the devices involved can lead to serious side effects (burns, scarring, permanently altered pigmentation, cell damage and internal bleeding). The ordinance sets out requirements, in particular with regard to the professional knowledge of people who use non-ionising sources of radiation on humans. Ultrasound recordings of unborn babies for which there is no medical justification (baby videos) will in future be banned. The German Commission on Radiological Protection has produced recommendations on this issue. The Ordinance on Protection against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans (Verordnung zum Schutz vor schädlichen Wirkungen nichtionisierender Strahlung bei der Anwendung am Menschen – NiSV) was promulgated in the Federal Law Gazette (BGBl.) on 5 December 2018. The main provisions enter into force on 31 December 2020. Users must provide proof of professional competence by 31 December 2021.

European safety requirements have been in place since 2014 for laser products for consumers (such as battery-operated laser pointers) that can cause damage to the eyesight or skin. The European standard EN 60825-1 on the safety of laser products prohibits consumer access to laser products of more than a particular output (for example, laser pointers with an output of more than one milliwatt) and requires appropriate warnings to be provided.

Protection against electrical and magnetic fields from power grids

Germany’s energy transition involves building many new high-voltage power lines. The EMF Ordinance (Verordnung über elektromagnetische Felder – 26. BImSchV) specifies limit values for electrical and magnetic fields from both low-frequency equipment and high-voltage lines, regardless of whether the lines are overhead or underground and whether they carry alternating or direct current. All applications that use electric power – especially power transmission – are associated with low-frequency electrical and magnetic fields.

Since 2013 it has been compulsory when constructing electrical installations or making substantial changes to them to minimise the electromagnetic fields they emit. In 2016 the German government issued a general administrative regulation that concretises this requirement, sets out the individual minimisation measures that must be assessed and specifies the process that the authorities must follow in identifying the applicable measures. For the first time, this thus provides precise guidelines on the action to be taken to minimise electrical and magnetic fields.

In parallel with the expansion and upgrading of the electricity grid, the German government’s research programme on “Radiation protection in the process of power grid expansion” aims

245 von 301 | www.bmu.de to reduce the remaining scientific uncertainties about the health impacts of the low-frequency electrical and magnetic fields produced in the course of power transmission. It is hoped that over the next few years this research will systematically increase our knowledge and also provide information about the best way to communicate the effects and risks of radiation. www.bfs.de/DE/bfs/wissenschaft-forschung/bfs- forschungsprogramm/stromnetzausbau/netzausbau_node.html

246 von 301 | www.bmu.de E.2 Sustainable chemistry and SAICM We cannot do without the products of the chemical industry. They are part of our everyday lives and, by providing resources, materials, food, drugs and medical products, it is the activities of the chemical industry that have enabled our economy to develop as rapidly as it has done. But while chemical products fulfil functions that we regard as essential, improper use of them results in chemical accidents, damages the environment and harms people’s health. Harm of this sort occurs particularly in developing and newly industrialising countries. The industrialised countries, headed mainly by the OECD, have therefore established a system to ensure that chemicals are managed safely.

In terms of turnover, Germany’s chemical industry was the third-largest industry in the country’s manufacturing sector in 2016; only the automotive and the machinery and equipment industries were larger. This meant that Germany was the fourth- largest chemical nation in the world, and its importance in this area continues to grow. Some 140,000 chemicals are manufactured and marketed by chemical- producing companies worldwide. www.vci.de/vci/downloads-vci/publikation/chemische-industrie-auf-einen-blick.pdf

However, another striking trend is also apparent: the largest chemical nation in the world is now an emerging economy, China. Increasingly, too, the production, processing and use of chemicals is occurring in other non-OECD countries such as India, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines. Industrialised countries are tending to import more and more products, which means that the harmful impacts of chemicals on the environment are being shifted to emerging and developing countries where labour and living standards are often unacceptable. www.vci.de/ergaenzende-downloads/chemiemaerkte-weltweit-asien.pdf

It also means that what is needed now is not just a safe system for managing chemicals but a sustainable chemical industry overall. The aim is to combine preventive protection of health and the environment worldwide with an innovative economic strategy that leads to more high value-adding employment while at the same time boosting the competitiveness of the chemical industry.

Industry, science, government and civil society must work together and strive to put general principles of sustainable chemistry into practice. Specifically this involves:

247 von 301 | www.bmu.de → combining creative force with the need to ensure that development is sustainable long-term, taking seriously the limited resilience of humans and the environment worldwide, and conserving natural resources,

→ using materials and process that have no harmful impacts or that impose the least possible burden on humans and the environment, and respecting the precautionary principle,

→ developing environmentally friendly and healthy substitute materials and alternative processes for problematic applications,

→ pressing forward with innovation as a basic principle by developing new concepts and technologies for products, services and integrated economic strategies,

→ protecting employment and the long-term competitiveness of the chemical industry and user sectors without ignoring poor social standards in developing and newly industrialising countries when outsourcing less profitable activities,

→ establishing sustainable chemistry as a fixed component of education and training in schools, colleges and universities in order to conserve resources long-term and make high levels of occupational safety, protection of the environment and consumer protection the norm the world over.

The discourse is accompanied by a stronger culture of participation by stakeholders and debate with them.

As part of this approach, the German chemical industry and many companies in the value chain are involved in initiatives, such as Responsible Care and Global Product Stewardship, that focus on sustainable development of the chemical industry. Another such initiative is Chemie3, which was founded in 2013 by the German chemical industry association VCI, the mining, chemical and energy trade union (IG BCE) and the German Federation of Chemical Employers’ Associations (BAVC). Other platforms – such as SusChem (European Technology Platform for Sustainable Chemistry) – extend beyond the industry and involve academia and other actors.

All are committed to the principle that responsibility must not be restricted to the manufacture of chemicals but must include processing and marketing and the use of substances and products by industry and commerce and also to a significant degree by consumers. It means that sustainable chemistry must not shy away from the challenge of extending the constructive societal debate to include calls for behavioural change or the

248 von 301 | www.bmu.de development of new ideas of prosperity and quality of life with products of the chemical industry.

Because the demands on sustainable chemistry are complex, many stakeholders concentrate on particular aspects and communication between different stakeholders is often inadequate. At the international conference on “Mainstreaming Sustainable Chemistry”, a forum for the debate on a sustainable and innovative chemicals policy which was held in Bonn on 17 May 2017, the BMU and the Federal Environment Agency therefore launched the International Sustainable Chemistry Collaborative Centre – ISC3. www.isc3.org/events/mainstreaming-sustainable-chemistry-launch-isc3-iscnet/ www.umweltbundesamt.de/service/termine/konferenz-mainstreaming-sustainable-chemistry

The aim of the centre is to promote sustainable chemistry solutions worldwide, ensure that they meet high qualitative standards and incorporate them into the international discussion; it will also strengthen cooperation between sectors and stakeholders. ISC3 provides a platform for policy-makers, civil society, industry and science via which innovative solutions at all points in the life cycle of products and processes can be discussed and developed as part of the transition to a circular economy.

At the same time, Germany plans to establish the concept of sustainable chemistry at international level as a contribution to the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) in order to implement standards for the sustainably safe management of chemicals worldwide.

Only a few chemicals associated with risks of worldwide importance to human health and the environment are regulated under internationally binding agreements. There is therefore a need for a platform via which international consensus can be reached on issues such as lead in paints, drugs, plant protectants and biocides in the environment, chemicals in products such as textiles and toys and hazardous substances in electronic devices. SAICM is a central programme under the aegis of the United Nations that addresses such issues. It brings states, industry, science and non-governmental organisations together on a voluntary basis to work on overarching questions of chemical safety around the world. The aim is to ensure that in all areas of life, chemicals are produced and used in ways that prevent or minimise significant adverse impacts on the environment and human health.

The progress made to date and the major obstacles that remain were detailed in the first draft of an independent evaluation report that was published at the start of 2018. The results show that the basis for an orderly and state-controlled chemicals management system has

249 von 301 | www.bmu.de been established in a number of newly industrialising and developing countries – in most cases with financial support from the temporary Quick Start Programme, which has now come to end. However, because of insufficient funding and the absence of political will – including in the industrialised countries and in the private sector – legal, technical, structural and personnel capacities are still lacking in many places. www.saicm.org/Implementation/QuickStartProgramme

The importance of an orderly chemicals management system throughout the world is emphasised in a report of the World Health Organization’s Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health published in October 2017. www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32345-0/abstract

In 2015 alone, diseases caused by pollution were responsible for the premature death of nine million people worldwide – three times more deaths than from AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined. A significant proportion of these deaths can be attributed to chemical pollution. An effective chemicals management system can alleviate this situation – and such a system benefits not only the developing countries and emerging economies but also the industrialised ones, because neither airborne pollutants nor the steadily growing trade in chemicals and the products manufactured from them are halted by national borders. Furthermore, an internationally effective chemicals management system also helps to harmonise competition conditions in the chemicals sector.

SAICM’s mandate expires at the end of 2020. A follow-on mandate for future international chemicals policy must therefore be agreed at the Fifth Session of the International Conference on Chemicals Management (ICCM5), which oversees SAICM, in the autumn of 2020. The BMU, which will be chairing ICCM5, is working with the EU member states and participating stakeholders and sectors from all regions of the United Nations on the preparation of a new mandate. Calls for concrete and verifiable actions will aim to boost countries’ willingness to become engaged and take practical steps. Attention will need to be paid to differing conditions, adequate financing and appropriate involvement of the private sector. www.bmu.de/themen/gesundheit-chemikalien/chemikaliensicherheit/internationales- chemikalienmanagement-saicm/ www.saicm.org

250 von 301 | www.bmu.de F. Legal foundations for environmental protection and international agreements, treaties and alliances

F.1 Legal instruments for environmental protection Legal instruments will continue to be an important part of the German government’s toolkit. At European level, Article 11 and Article 191 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) establish a clear mandate for policy-makers to contribute to promoting the goals of environmental protection and sustainable development. In Germany, Article 20a of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) assigns the task of protecting the natural foundations of life, also as a responsibility towards future generations, to the legislature and, in accordance with laws, to the executive.

Planning and regulatory law will also play a major role in future. Planning and regulatory provisions define environmental targets and standards and create the instruments required to safeguard compliance. In the field of air pollution control, for example, the setting of limit values for pollutant emissions from industrial facilities has proved effective over many years. The development of these and other requirements regarding best available technology to be used in industrial operations ensures legal certainty and provides a clear frame of reference for all stakeholders. Ambitious targets and standards in environmental law can also be a key driver of corporate investment and can generate innovative momentum for the development and use of green technologies and products, for example.

Planning and licensing regulations

Industrial installations may only be constructed and operated and infrastructure (e.g. motorways, rail tracks, waterways, airports and power supply lines) built or expanded with the appropriate authorisation. This is granted once it has been determined that the project in question complies with planning and licensing regulations. Planning and approval procedures are therefore conducted to verify compliance, particularly with environmental regulations. This ensures that projects are not only in conformity with technical and building regulations but also that they will not cause adverse environmental impacts in violation of the law. Although efforts are currently under way to speed up planning procedures, there must be no lowering of the bar in this respect. Fast-tracking of planning procedures must not be achieved at the expense of the environment. The goal is expedited but environmentally sustainable planning.

The Act on the Expedition of Planning and Licensing Procedures in the Transport Sector (Gesetz zur Beschleunigung von Planungs- und Genehmigungsverfahren im

251 von 301 | www.bmu.de Verkehrsbereich) meets this level of ambition. For the most part, its provisions entered into force on 7 December 2018. The Act does not lower environmental standards; the simplified rules are intended to shorten the duration of licensing procedures. For example, based on the long-standing regulations applicable to waterways the Act makes it possible – provided that certain criteria are met – to commence preparations and undertake partial measures on federal highway and rail projects before the formal licensing decision on the overall project is taken. Issuing a temporary order of this kind is contingent on, among other things, verification of the measure’s compliance with relevant environmental regulations.

To overcome current infrastructure challenges, adequate provision of well-qualified staff for the competent public authorities is essential. In the interests of climate progress, faster power grid expansion is also required. Here too, however, it is important to ensure that the measures do not lead to any lowering of environmental standards or to substantial curtailment of the public’s rights of participation.

Environmental impact assessment

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a key instrument of environmental policy. The EIA is a statutory review procedure which identifies, describes and evaluates the environmental impacts of industrial facilities and infrastructure projects. The scope and requirements of EIAs are regulated in the European Union’s EIA Directive, which was comprehensively revised by Directive 2014/52/EU in 2014. In Germany, these provisions were transposed into national law by the Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts (Gesetz über die Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung – UVPG).

The Act on the Modernisation of the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment (Gesetz zur Modernisierung des Rechts der Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung) of 20 July 2017 comprehensively amended the Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts and brought it into line with the new European rules. Among other things, it provides for improved public participation, e.g. through increased use of electronic media to inform the public about current EIA procedures. The federal government and the Länder have set up online portals for this purpose, giving the public and NGOs easier and more convenient access to EIA documents than can be achieved through more traditional channels.

The transposition of the amended Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (EIA Directive) was taken as an opportunity to simplify and harmonise all the rules governing environmental impact assessments and to make them more user-friendly. Following recent rulings by the Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht), gaps were also closed in the existing legislation, which had allowed project agencies to avoid conducting an EIA by splitting a larger project into several small ones. The new EIA rules make this

252 von 301 | www.bmu.de circumvention much more difficult. In such cases, the small schemes are treated as one large one and may only be approved if an EIA has been conducted with public participation.

In order to further simplify implementation of the Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts on a practical level, the German government plans to adopt new administrative provisions. The current administrative provisions pertaining to EIAs, adopted in 1995, are now outdated and do little to support implementation of the Act. The intention is to amend these administrative provisions in light of current circumstances and law.

Environmental impacts do not stop at national borders. For that reason, the members of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) – i.e. all the EU member states, most other European countries, and several others, e.g. in Central Asia – adopted the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention of 25 February 1991).

A transboundary EIA is required for industrial facilities and infrastructure projects which may have significant adverse environmental impacts in another country. Neighbouring countries and other potentially affected states may contribute to the environmental impact assessment for this type of industrial facility or infrastructure project by participating in the consultation processes for the general public and government authorities. It is unclear at present whether and under which conditions the Espoo Convention is applicable to the lifetime extension of nuclear power plants. This question is of practical relevance, as approximately 90 nuclear power plants within the Espoo Convention’s area of application will reach the end of their scheduled operating lifetime within 10 years. At the Meeting of the Parties in Minsk in June 2017, an ad hoc working group was therefore established, led by Germany and the United Kingdom, and tasked with drafting guidance on this issue. The working group presented a progress report at the intermediary session of the Meeting of the Parties in February 2019. The aim is to table the draft guidance for a decision at the next Meeting of the Parties in December 2020.

Compliance assurance and legal protection in environmental matters

Environmental provisions can only take full effect if they are correctly applied and consistently enforced. Alongside transparency of government action (e.g. through access to environmental information) and public participation in official decision-making, compliance assurance mechanisms – in other words, the ways in which public authorities promote and enforce compliance with applicable law – play a significant role.

Conflicts and disputes among stakeholders may arise, particularly over decisions taken by the public authorities. It is by no means uncommon for planning and licensing decisions to be challenged by individuals or environmental NGOs on the grounds of alleged violations of

253 von 301 | www.bmu.de environmental law. In other cases, notably those relating to the use of environmental resources not requiring authorisation, regulatory law is becoming an increasingly significant source of legal protection in environmental matters.

The legal protection afforded by the Environmental Appeals Act (Umwelt- Rechtsbehelfsgesetz) has evolved to a large extent from international and European law. Over the years, the Act has been amended and supplemented on various occasions since the Court of Justice of the European Union and the Meeting of the Parties to the Aarhus Convention found that implementation had been inadequate. As an initial step, and in response to a judgment by the Court of Justice of the European Union (Altrip ruling), supplementary and clarifying provisions were adopted; they concern the judicial review of procedural errors in certain authorisation procedures under environmental law and the conditions under which such procedural errors may constitute grounds for an application for annulment. The Act on the Alignment of the Environmental Appeals Act and Other Provisions to European and International Regulations (Gesetz zur Anpassung des Umwelt- Rechtsbehelfsgesetzes und anderer Vorschriften an europa- und völkerrechtliche Vorgaben) broadens the scope for environmental NGOs to initiate legal proceedings. Recognised environmental associations may now appeal against licensing decisions not previously covered, and against certain planning decisions or supervision and monitoring decisions. Furthermore, material preclusion has been abolished in appeals against decisions authorising projects requiring an EIA and certain types of industrial installation. The abolition of material preclusion means that objections and arguments not presented by the applicant in the previous licensing procedure are no longer excluded (precluded) in subsequent legal proceedings.

Even after the 2017 reform, legal protection in environmental matters continues to be a highly dynamic field requiring intensive engagement by the judiciary, the scientific community, practitioners and the German government.

Applicable environmental rules and valid decisions taken by the public authorities must be implemented in accordance with the law.

To that end, it is essential that stakeholders affected by the law are familiar with their legal obligations and that the public authorities supervise and monitor the implementation of general environmental law and formal licensing decisions. In order to promote compliance with environmental law and provide appropriate penalties for infringements, various supervisory measures and sanctions are available in environmental and criminal law and in the rules governing administrative offences, supplemented where necessary by the Environmental Damage Act (Umweltschadensgesetz) and other specialised legal provisions.

254 von 301 | www.bmu.de Effective use of these instruments is contingent, however, on the competent authorities having adequate human and financial resources at their disposal.

Here, a further source of potential support at European level is the EU Action Plan to increase compliance with EU environmental law and improve environmental governance, published by the European Commission in early 2018.

The Federal Environment Agency is currently conducting an evaluation of the 2017 reform of the Environmental Appeals Act. This action has been taken in response to a resolution adopted by the German Bundestag requesting the German government to report to the Bundestag on practical experience with the implementation of the Act. A key question to be clarified is whether the broadening of the scope for legal challenges by recognised environmental and nature conservation organisations and by private individuals and the abolition of material preclusion have led to an increase in the number of appeals under environmental law and to significantly longer decision-making processes (BT Printed Paper 18/12146).

F.2 European and international initiatives and alliances Environmental impairments such as the pollution of water or air cross national boundaries, often very extensively. Animal and plant species and their habitats are under threat all over the world and climate change, too, affects all countries. Germany is therefore taking steps transnationally and at European and international level to tackle these problems in collaboration with all the affected states. This involves both issue-specific approaches to improving our environment and quality of life – as outlined in the preceding chapters – and integrated approaches in environmental policy and beyond that encompass all environmental media. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 global Sustainable Development Goals provide the international community with a common framework of objectives designed to ensure that global development is socially, environmentally and economically sustainable. These objectives cannot be achieved without radical transformation of our lifestyles and economic activities. The task is now to ensure that policy- making as a whole is geared consistently to these goals.

European policy

The European Union’s environmental policy is a success story. For example, it is thanks to this policy that the air in Europe is becoming cleaner and that we can take clean drinking water for granted. EU policy also protects us against harmful substances in products that we use every day. It addresses problems such as the battle against climate change that no

255 von 301 | www.bmu.de member state can solve by itself. Germany works with its European partners to safeguard the natural resources that sustain human life and to protect nature in Europe.

The EU manages its environmental policy by means of multiannual Environment Action Programmes (EAPs). The current programme – the 7th EAP – entered into force on 17 January 2014 and runs until 31 December 2020. The EAP, which is produced by the EU’s three legislative institutions – the European Commission, the European Parliament and the Council – provides a comprehensive common reference document for EU environmental policy. It addresses the main environmental challenges against the background of the social and economic development of the Union, with the aim of improving both the state of the environment and that of society and the economy in the long term. The title of the EAP encapsulates this goal: “Living well, within the limits of our planet”.

One of the main challenges of recent years and one of nine priorities in the 7th EAP is improving the implementation and enforcement of EU environmental law. The European Commission has launched various initiatives in order to advance progress towards this goal in collaboration with the member states.

Environmental Implementation Review

The quite recently introduced Environmental Implementation Review (EIR) aims to yield more detailed information about shortcomings in implementation in the member states and the underlying causes. It is a concrete step towards improving the state of the environment as required under the seventh Environment Action Programme. Country reports are drafted every two years; following bilateral consultation with the member states to ensure factual accuracy, they are then published. A summary of the country reports in an accompanying Commission communication serves to identify obstacles to implementation that affect several countries and collate examples of successful means of overcoming them. The first country reports were published in February 2017. Preparations are currently under way for the second EIR cycle, which is due to be completed and published in 2019.

The first round covered the issues of circular economy and waste management, nature and biodiversity, air quality, noise and water and the implementation tools of “market-based instruments and investment” and “effective governance and knowledge”. Each section includes “Policy findings” and “Successful practices”. To date, the EIR has identified a number of common root causes of inadequate implementation. Chief among these are:

• ineffective coordination among local, regional and national authorities • lack of administrative capacity and insufficient financing • lack of knowledge and data • insufficient compliance assurance mechanisms

256 von 301 | www.bmu.de • lack of integration and policy coherence

Of 15 examples of successful implementation, two come from Germany. Of the 81 suggested actions for improving implementation, 24 are applicable to Germany. In the sections on “International agreements”, “Effective governance within central, regional and local government” and “Coordination and integration” the Commission had no suggestions for improvement to recommend to Germany.

The country report on Germany confirms that Germany has a strong set of environmental policies and laws. For example, its high recycling rates are highlighted. However, specific challenges are also mentioned, such as the need to improve air quality and to take further steps to reduce environmentally harmful subsidies.

The European Union's Action Plan on Environmental Compliance Assurance and Governance

On 18 January 2018 the European Commission adopted a nine-point Action Plan. With the cooperation of EU member states and European environmental compliance assurance networks (of environmental agencies, police officers, prosecutors and judges), various instruments will be developed to support cooperative and smart application and enforcement of environmental law (e.g. in industrial production, waste disposal and agriculture).

The action areas (which include steps to provide practical support for environmental compliance agencies, combat environmental crime, improve soil and water protection in rural areas and strengthen citizen engagement) were selected partly on the basis of the findings of the first EIR, which highlight continuing problems throughout the EU in areas such as water pollution from diffuse sources, poor air quality in cities, inadequate waste management and progressive deterioration of habitats and biodiversity.

The large number of environmental complaints and petitions is also highlighted, as is environmental crime, which in global terms is now the fourth-largest source of criminal profit.

The costs of non-implementation of EU environmental law are estimated at 50 billion euros per year.

The nine action areas aim to:

• improve deployment of environmental compliance assurance expertise; • identify necessary professional skill-sets and training needs for professional groups involved in implementing environmental law; • facilitate the sharing of good practices; • prepare a good practice guidance document on strategies for combating environmental crimes, with a particular focus on waste and wildlife offences;

257 von 301 | www.bmu.de • prepare guidance documents on good practices in environmental compliance assurance in rural areas (in relation to land and water); • prepare technical guidelines for inspections of extractive waste facilities; • prepare documentation on good practices in the handling of environmental complaints and citizen engagement; • build up the capacity and use of geospatial intelligence for compliance assurance (e.g. using Copernicus data); • assess national environmental compliance assurance systems as part of a wider governance assessment framework and regularly present feedback to member states, also as part of the Environmental Implementation Review.

United Nations

Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development / Sustainable Development Goals

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in 2015 represents a milestone in international cooperation. With the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) the global community has for the first time agreed on a list of objectives with clear deadlines that cover all three dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social). These objectives provide a new framework for sustainable policy-making that will have a decisive influence on many areas of policy in all countries in the coming decades. The aim of the Agenda is to shape global development economically, socially, environmentally and sustainably. The Agenda is based on a new understanding of development that sees climate policy, sustainable development and poverty reduction as inextricably linked. Both humans and nature are to be in a better position in 2030 than they are now. That is the central and ambitious mission of the Agenda.

Four years after the adoption of the Agenda, it is clear that the necessary transformation is proceeding far too slowly for the SDGs and their 169 targets to be achieved by 2030. The UN’s High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) is the main United Nations platform on sustainable development. Its primary remit is the follow-up and review of the 2030 Agenda and its SDGs. In September 2019 the Forum is bringing heads of state and government together for a summit that it is hoped will provide strong impetus for the necessary acceleration of the process. The meeting will deliver the message that the change of direction must start now. The longer we wait, the more expensive it will become – for our economies and industries and for our societies as a whole.

258 von 301 | www.bmu.de At the summit the first Global Sustainable Development Report will be released. The report will illuminate the state of SDG implementation from a scientific perspective and provide recommendations for policy-makers.

Reform of the United Nations development system was initiated in 2018. All the organisations that form part of this system (including the United Nations Environment Programme UNEP and the United Nations Development Programme UNDP) are to be reoriented with a focus on maximising progress towards achievement of the SDGs. The reform is intended to eliminate inefficiencies and create synergies. The most important element of the reform is reorganisation of the UN’s Resident Coordinator system. In future the Resident Coordinators will report directly to the UN Secretary-General rather than to the UNDP. This is intended to improve coordination of the work of the Country Teams and make implementation of the 2030 Agenda more effective.

High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development

The High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), which meets annually, has become established as the main United Nations platform for monitoring implementation of the SDGs and sharing information on good practices and common challenges. As a central aspect of the Forum, since 2016 member states have been encouraged to submit voluntary national reviews of their progress towards implementation of the SDGs. More and more states are now providing these reports – a clear sign of the communal will to advance sustainable development worldwide and a boost for the 2030 Agenda, despite the still sluggish progress towards achieving the targets. Germany and 21 other countries submitted voluntary national reviews to the HLPF in New York in 2016, the very first year. Forty-three countries provided reviews in 2017 and 47 did so in 2018 – some of them for the second time.

Since 2017 the HLPF has also conducted thematic reviews which focus on particular SDGs and provide an update on progress towards implementation of them. In 2017 the HLPF’s reports and discussions centred on SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality), SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure) and SDG 14 (life below water). In 2018 the focus was on some of the targets of the 2030 Agenda that are particularly relevant to the environment: SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) and SDG 15 (life on land).

At the end of the HLPF’s first four-year cycle in 2019 member states will evaluate the Forum in terms of topics, format and effectiveness. The German government actively supports further strengthening the Forum’s position and effective organisation.

259 von 301 | www.bmu.de United Nations Environment Programme / United Nations Environment Assembly

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), based in Nairobi, was founded at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in 1972. UNEP is the only UN body dedicated to the environment. Its mandate is to be the leading global environmental authority, coordinate United Nations environmental activities, draw up comprehensive reports on the global state of the environment, and develop policy and legal instruments for international environmental protection. It also provides consultancy services to interested countries.

Inger Anderson has been Executive Director of UNEP since February 2019. Her predecessors include the former German environment minister Klaus Töpfer, the present UNDP Administrator Achim Steiner and the former Norwegian environment minister Erik Solheim.

UNEP has an executive office, a senior management team and the following seven main divisions:

1. Communication Division

2. Economy Division

3. Ecosystems Division

4. Law Division

5. Science Division

6. Policy and Programme Division

7. Corporate Services Division

In addition there are six regional offices covering Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, and West Asia. Their role is to ensure close cooperation with the regions.

At Rio+20 delegates agreed to significantly upgrade UNEP as the voice of the environment within the UN system. The main decision-making body is now the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA), comprising representatives of all UN member states. UNEA’s decisions set out the priorities for UNEP’s work. UNEA also specifies priorities for global environmental policy, provides advice within the UN system on environmental policy and makes recommendations on new environmental challenges, organises dialogues with all relevant civil society groups and fosters partnerships that pursue environmental goals and mobilise the necessary resources.

260 von 301 | www.bmu.de Since 2014, UNEA has met in Nairobi every two years. Its third session (UNEA-3), with the theme “Towards a Pollution-Free Planet”, took place from 4 to 6 December 2017. One of the key outcomes of UNEA-3 was the adoption of a Ministerial Declaration in which ministers and delegation heads call for more systematic action to combat environmental pollution. Eleven resolutions setting out concrete steps to tackle the various forms of pollution were also adopted. A topic that received wide coverage in the international press was action on marine litter (especially plastic). The resolution on this issue calls for the establishment of an international expert group to examine both voluntary and mandatory options for tackling marine litter more efficiently. The conference also resulted in more than 2.4 million voluntary pledges and commitments to reduce environmental pollution that were submitted to UNEA by governments, the private sector, civil society and individuals. The Ministerial Declaration asks the then Executive Director of UNEP, Erik Solheim, to prepare a plan for implementation of the outcomes of UNEA-3.

The fourth session of UNEA took place from 11 to 15 March 2019 and addressed the overall theme of “Innovative solutions for environmental challenges and sustainable consumption and production”. The session attracted some 5,000 participants from 170 member states, including 85 ministers, six heads of state and government and representatives of many civil society organisations, and adopted important resolutions on a wide range of issues, making it the most high-profile UNEA session yet. The assembly adopted a Ministerial Declaration and 23 resolutions that will contribute worldwide to more environmentally friendly production and consumption, more sustainable chemicals management and the prevention of waste, especially plastic waste.

The activities of UNEP are based on a Medium-Term Strategy which is drawn up for a period of four years. This gives a general summary of priorities and goals, indicators and anticipated results. The more detailed two-year Strategic Framework is derived from this strategy and sets out the priorities for UNEP's seven thematic areas (climate change, disasters and conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, chemicals and waste, resource efficiency, environment under review). It outlines the expected and intended outputs, which are measured using indicators. A budget and staff contingent is also specified for each of the thematic areas.

Environmental conventions in the framework of the Committee on Environmental Policy of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

The Committee on Environmental Policy (CEP) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) is responsible for organising the environmental cooperation of the EU member states, the Western Balkan states, the states of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and

261 von 301 | www.bmu.de Central Asia (EECCA states), the US and others. In 1991 the Committee launched the multilateral Environment for Europe process with the aim of joining national and international forces for environmental protection and improving the environmental standards of countries in transition. Environmental Performance Reviews are an important tool in this process. To conduct such a review, a team of experts travels to the country in question to explore the need for action and identify progress made on environmental issues. The findings are discussed at the Committee’s sessions, which are normally held annually and are attended by representatives of the 56 member states – countries in Europe and Central Asia plus the US, Canada and Israel. In addition, CEP focuses internally on implementing the environmental conventions, whose representatives also participate. Under the auspices of UNECE, five internationally binding conventions (and their associated protocols) have been negotiated since 1979 and their implementation advanced:

• Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979)

• Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (1991, Espoo Convention)

• Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (1992, Water Convention)

• Convention on the Transboundary Impacts of Industrial Accidents (1992)

• Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (1998, Aarhus Convention)

Germany has ratified all these conventions and is working on them with its partners.

Multinational fora

G7

The group of major industrialised nations (G7: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States) sends important signals that are relevant to people’s lives and set the course of policy over the coming years. The group has met at regular intervals, under a rotating presidency, since 1975 (at that time without Canada and since 2014 without Russia). Policy issues of global significance are debated at its summits. Alongside the economic and development-related issues that are discussed, environmental issues – especially climate change – have in recent years become increasingly important items on the G7’s agenda.

Under Germany’s presidency in 2014/2015 the G7 focused on combating hunger and malnutrition, standards in supply chains, action on climate change and climate finance,

262 von 301 | www.bmu.de renewable energy, protection of the marine environment and resource efficiency. Subsequent presidencies (Japan 2016, Italy 2017 and Canada 2018) continued to address these topics with varying priorities. Japan, Italy and Canada each held a meeting of G7 environment ministers, thereby emphasising the increasing international importance of environmental issues. Under the French presidency of the G7, another meeting of environment ministers will be held this year.

At the summit under Italy’s presidency which was held in Taormina on 26 and 27 May 2017, the change of government in the US meant that climate policy was one of the issues that attracted considerable public attention. There was consensus on the need to improve joint energy security, ensure open, transparent, liquid and secure global markets for energy resources and technologies and impose the highest possible standards in the field of nuclear safety, security and non-proliferation. The seven heads of state and government and the EU also resolved to utilise the considerable economic opportunities for growth and job creation that arise from the restructuring of the energy sector and the development of clean technologies.

However, at the summits in Taormina in 2017 and La Malbaie in 2018, only six G7 states and the EU reaffirmed their express commitment, made at the 2016 summit in Ise-Shima, to prompt implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement. The US did not join the consensus.

The 2017 meeting of G7 environment ministers, which was presided over by Italy and held in Bologna on 11 and 12 June 2017, took place against the backdrop of the US president’s announcement that his country intended to withdraw from the Paris Agreement. The environment ministers agreed on an ambitious joint G7 communiqué that covers the majority of the international environmental policy agenda. The US made clear that it did not support the sections on climate and climate finance but would take steps to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The other six environment ministers and the representatives of the EU collectively and unanimously reaffirmed their determination to implement the Paris Climate Agreement quickly and effectively, stating that the Paris Agreement is irreversible and its integrity is key to the security and prosperity of our planet.

The communiqué also contains consensus-based statements on implementation of the 2030 Agenda, sustainable financing, resource efficiency, combating marine litter, environmental fiscal reform, the links between environmental policies and employment, and the situation in Africa. Particularly noteworthy is the agreement on the five-year Bologna Roadmap, which aims to advance resource efficiency as a driver of economic growth, employment and sustainable development.

263 von 301 | www.bmu.de Canada’s presidency, which followed in 2018, focused mainly on protection of the oceans – in particular on combating marine litter and on the resilience of coasts and coastal communities. The G7 declaration entitled “Charlevoix Blueprint for Healthy Oceans, Seas and Resilient Coastal Communities”, adopted at the summit held on 7 and 8 June 2018, covers measures to improve planning, emergency preparedness and the restoration of coastal areas, including innovative financing mechanisms; the sharing of data and expertise relating to the oceans; sustainable fisheries; and strategies to protect vulnerable marine areas. To reduce plastic waste and marine litter, five of the G7 states (excluding the US and Japan) adopted the G7 Ocean Plastics Charter, which sets out measures to accelerate the transition in the economies of the G7 to resource-efficient plastic use that takes account of the entire life cycle.

At a meeting of the G7 environment, energy and ocean ministers from 18 to 21 September 2018 the G7 countries explored the environmental issues in more detail and discussed them with representatives of industry, the financial sector and international organisations. The environment ministers adopted a joint declaration, the G7 Innovation Challenge to Address Marine Plastic Litter. To improve living conditions in coastal regions in the face of rising sea levels and an increase in extreme weather events, the environment and ocean ministers also agreed on a declaration on cooperation on remote sensing and making the data usable for coastal areas. This will assist decision-makers in affected coastal regions with issues such as marine spatial planning and the planning of protective measures.

The 2018 summit also revealed the lack of consensus on climate change as a result of the US’s withdrawal. A joint statement by all of the G7 on climate change, oceans and clean energy focused on energy security, energy systems as drivers of sustainable development, recognition of different national mitigation strategies and the joint intention to finalise the rulebook for implementation of the Paris Agreement at UNFCCC COP24. Six of the G7 (not the US) also declared their firm commitment to implementation of the Paris Agreement, focusing on innovation and the mobilisation of private and public financing. The communiqué also records a discussion of energy transitions, emphasising market-based policies including the importance of carbon pricing and technology collaboration to advance economic growth and protect the environment. The statement by the six partners includes a commitment to achieve carbon-neutrality by the end of the century.

Under the French presidency of the G7, a meeting of environment ministers is due to be held in Metz on 5 and 6 May 2019. The theme is “Fighting Inequalities by Protecting Biodiversity and Climate” and the meeting will focus on climate action, biodiversity conservation, social equity in the necessary transformation processes, marine litter and resource efficiency.

264 von 301 | www.bmu.de There are plans not only for an environment ministers’ communiqué but also for a new biodiversity charter and other initiatives and coalitions that the G7 will launch or support.

The G7 summit presided over by France is scheduled to take place in Biarritz from 24 to 26 August 2019.

G20

The G20 involves not only the major industrialised countries but also the leading emerging economies; it thus represents the most important global players. Since 1999 it has met regularly at the level of heads of state and government and for various ministerial conferences. Like the G7, the G20 has traditionally focused mainly on financial and economic policies to stabilise the global economy. It is comprised of 19 countries and the EU, with Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea and Turkey participating alongside the G7.

On 4 and 5 September 2016, G20 heads of state and government met in Hangzhou, China. One of the issues that the G20 supported was prompt and ambitious implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement.

In 2017 Germany held the presidency and invited members of the G20 to a summit in Hamburg on 7 and 8 July of that year. The German presidency was able not only to raise issues of economic and foreign policy but also to highlight environmental issues. The main topics addressed in the summit declaration included international climate policy, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, resource efficiency, marine litter and poaching and the illegal wildlife trade. Protection of the environment and the associated issue of the living conditions of people in the G20 countries and beyond have finally become established as major global concerns of the G20 process.

The G20 summit in Hamburg sent out clear signals about implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement, the introduction of a global energy transition and a new, sustainable growth model for modernising the economies of the G20 countries and supporting the transformation of developing countries. Despite the difficult background, the German presidency of the G20 thus succeeded in embedding implementation of the Paris Climate Agreement more firmly in the G20, even though the US did not support the consensus on the need to implement the Agreement. In adopting the G20 Hamburg Climate and Energy Action Plan for Growth, the other nineteen G20 members emphasised their clear commitment to the long-term objectives of the Paris Agreement (limiting the rise in global temperatures to well below 2°C and if possible to 1.5°C; boosting adaptation to climate change; redirecting global financial flows) and agreed on concrete steps for quick and comprehensive implementation of the Paris Agreement. They also noted the OECD Report “Investing in Climate, Investing in

265 von 301 | www.bmu.de Growth”, which concludes that an ambitious climate policy, combined with structural policy reforms, could increase the overall economic output of the G20 countries by an average of almost five percent by 2050.

At the summit, all the G20 heads of state and government also signalled their clear commitment to the global sustainability goals of the 2030 Agenda and to ambitious, comprehensive and prompt implementation of that Agenda. This further consolidates and reinforces structural change geared to development that is significantly more sustainable in social, environmental and economic terms: in the Hamburg Update, which is based on the G20 Action Plan on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of 2016, the heads of state and government agreed on further concrete actions that will contribute to implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals both nationally and globally.

Furthermore, in Hamburg the heads of state and government launched two specific initiatives that will contribute to implementation of the 2030 Agenda and reflect the G20’s commitment to sustainable development: the G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue and the G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter. The conservation of natural resources will from now on always feature in the G20’s discussions. Through the G20 Resource Efficiency Dialogue the G20 countries aim to work towards a resource-efficient and sustainable world economy and promote sustainable production and consumption.

Marine litter is a growing global problem that can only be tackled through collective action. In adopting the G20 Action Plan on Marine Litter under Germany’s presidency in 2017, the heads of state and government affirmed their intention to protect the marine environment. The Action Plan addresses both land-based and sea-based sources of litter in the oceans. It focuses on waste prevention, waste management and resource efficiency and considers socioeconomic aspects, awareness-raising and research.

The heads of state and government also undertook for the first time within the G20 to work together to tackle the worldwide boom in poaching and illegal trade in wildlife. In order to more effectively combat corruption in this area, the G20 adopted the High Level Principles on Combating Corruption Related to Illegal Trade in Wildlife and Wildlife Products.

Climate policy featured prominently at the G20 summit in Buenos Aires (30 November – 1 December 2018) under the presidency of Argentina. The G20 noted the IPCC Special Report and emphasised the importance of strategies for adapting to climate change. Delegates also discussed long-term strategies for reducing climate- damaging emissions and the need to manage international financial flows with this in mind.

266 von 301 | www.bmu.de In the final communiqué, nineteen of the G20 countries (not the US) reaffirmed the irreversibility of the Paris Climate Agreement and their determination to implement it in full. They promised to tackle climate change while at the same time promoting sustainable development and economic growth. Only the US stood by its withdrawal from the Paris Agreement. In the final communiqué the leaders of the G20 also stated that they looked forward to successful outcomes of COP24 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change and to engaging in the Talanoa Dialogue on making international climate policy more ambitious.

Germany announced at the summit that it would double its contribution to the Green Climate Fund to 1.5 billion euros.

At the summit the World Bank, the United Nations Environment Programme and the OECD presented a joint report entitled “Financing Climate Future: Rethinking Infrastructure”, which describes how investment in appropriate infrastructure can help reduce emissions and drive sustainable development.

Since December 2018 Japan has held the presidency of the G20. The next G20 summit will be held in Osaka on 28 and 29 June 2019. In a first for the G20, the summit will be preceded – on 15 and 16 June in Karuizawa – by a meeting of environment ministers and a meeting of environment and energy ministers. This demonstrates that the G20 is increasingly focusing not just on the global economy and security issues but also on protection of the environment. The emphasis will be on resource efficiency and action on marine litter, with Japan following up on the G7’s activities in this field. The promotion of innovation and innovative processes in connection with aspects of energy and the environment that are of common interest will also be addressed.

Environmental finance / international financial facilities

Global Environment Facility

Germany is involved financially in multilateral environmental cooperation and it continues to support the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which finances environmental projects in developing countries.

In July 2018 the donors pledged 4.1 billion US dollars for the seventh GEF replenishment period (2018–2022). Germany made a significant contribution, pledging 420 million euros (an increase of 70 million euros over the sixth replenishment period), which made it the second- largest donor.

267 von 301 | www.bmu.de The total replenishment amount was less than the total of 4.4 billion US dollars pledged in the sixth replenishment period. This was partly because of a significant reduction in the US’s contribution, which was cut by 53 percent, and because of an unfavourable US dollar exchange rate.

In view of the increasing visibility of the Green Climate Fund (GCF), it was decided that the Global Environment Facility would focus on the other priorities of its work (biodiversity, tackling land degradation, international waters, chemicals and waste, sustainable forest management and protection of the ozone layer). Across all projects, 60 percent of funds are nevertheless devoted to climate-related measures.

World Bank Group

The World Bank Group (WBG) has particular capabilities to accelerate the transition to sustainable, low-emission and climate-resilient development. As the fourth-largest shareholder in the World Bank, Germany advocates stronger gearing of projects to the objectives of the Paris Climate Agreement. The World Bank Group is a founding member of the NDC Partnership initiated by Germany which is strengthening international cooperation in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as quickly and effectively as possible and achieve the climate targets. In 2015 the World Bank Group produced a Climate Change Action Plan for the period 2016-2020, under which it focuses more strongly on supporting the new global development agenda (2030 Agenda, Paris Climate Agreement) and is to a large extent in line with the key concerns of the German government. In 2018 the WBG achieved its target of increasing climate-related lending to 28 percent two years ahead of schedule. A new target was agreed in the context of the capital increase: by 2030, the climate-related proportion of the World Bank Group’s lending volume is to be increased to at least 30 percent for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and 35 percent for the International Finance Corporation (IFC). In December 2018 the World Bank Group announced a further increase in its targets for 2021–2025: during this period, climate finance will total 200 billion US dollars, made up of 133 billion US dollars in direct climate finance from the WBG and 67 billion US dollars from mobilised private climate finance. The World Bank Group was a founding member – along with Germany, Fiji, Ethiopia and the United Kingdom – of the InsuResilience Global Partnership that was launched at UNFCCC COP23. In 2018 the World Bank Group was instrumental in establishing the Global Risk Financing Facility, one of the key implementation programmes under the InsuResilience Global Partnership, which aims to create and develop financing and insurance mechanisms that will help vulnerable countries enhance their resilience to climate risks.

268 von 301 | www.bmu.de Green Climate Fund

The German government is also active in the Green Climate Fund (GCF) as a board member and as a donor. Establishment of the GCF as a component of the UNFCCC financing mechanism was agreed at the climate change summit in Cancun in 2010.

The aim of the GCF is to help developing countries achieve low-carbon and – especially in poor and vulnerable countries – climate-resilient development. It does this by providing grants and loans for mitigation and adaptation activities. The fund also helps mobilise private investment in climate action. To create the necessary incentives, the GCF can, for example, set up guarantee funds or provide start-up capital. The guidelines on the use of funds set a high bar for the climate relevance of projects. The GCF bases its investment decisions on agreed investment criteria: sustainability, efficiency and effectiveness, impact potential, transformation potential, country ownership and the needs of the recipient country. The assessment indicators for the investment criteria effectively rule out funding of investment in nuclear power, fossil fuels or fracking.

Contributions of 10.3 billion US dollars were pledged towards the initial capitalisation of the GCF in 2014, making this the largest multilateral climate fund. Germany contributed 750 million euros to the initial capitalisation. The fund commenced its activities in May 2015 and started implementing projects. Since then 111 projects have been approved with a total volume of 5.2 billion US dollars. In addition, 88 implementing organisations have been accredited, including GIZ, KfW and Deutsche Bank. The first replenishment of the GCF was approved in October 2018 and is due to be concluded by October/November 2019. In November 2018 Germany became the first to make a replenishment pledge, announcing that it would double its contribution to the fund and provide 1.5 billion euros. As is usual in such cases, the formal pledge is subject to budgetary approval.

Adaptation Fund

The Adaptation Fund (AF) supports local measures that help population groups that are particularly severely affected by climate change to become more resilient. Germany is represented on the board of the AF and actively contributes to the development of the fund’s portfolio. The fund is administered jointly by developing and industrialised countries. The Adaptation Fund has pioneered an approach never before adopted by a multilateral fund: for the first time, it grants accredited national project implementing organisations in developing countries direct access to funds. It also received innovative finance – a percentage of the proceeds for project activities generated by the international carbon market under the Kyoto Protocol. The preparatory work conducted in connection with the accreditation of local and

269 von 301 | www.bmu.de regional implementing organisations is utilised by other bodies such as the Green Climate Fund.

Germany is the largest voluntary donor to the Adaptation Fund.

In 2018 Germany pledged a further contribution of 70 million euros to the fund. At COP24 in Katowice at the end of 2018 it was agreed that the Adaptation Fund, which was established under the Kyoto Protocol, would serve the Paris Climate Agreement.

270 von 301 | www.bmu.de G. The environment and the public

G.1 Citizen participation and public dialogue Tomorrow’s policy issues: citizen participation and public dialogue

Many decisions have to be made in environmental policy which touch on a wide variety of different interests and often have a considerable impact on the living conditions of citizens.

The German government lets citizens participate in individual political decisions and planning processes. Involving them in the planning, development or evaluation of projects, political action plans or legislative proposals by means of structured parallel processes opens up a multitude of opportunities: their creative potential and their everyday expertise can contribute to substantively better results, and can defuse conflicts while strengthening civic engagement, public acceptance and trust in the political system.

The German government’s numerous participation processes have shown that it is possible to secure citizen participation at national level: for example, citizens played a part in the preparation of the German Resource Efficiency Programme (ProgRess II), the Integrated Environmental Programme 2030, the Green Paper on Energy Efficiency, and the Climate Action Plan 2050. The German government would like to continue to involve citizens in the development of strategies and programmes in future.

In addition, the German government publishes individual drafts of laws and ordinances on the Internet, generally in parallel to its consultations with associations and the Länder. In this way, citizens are made aware of planned legislative measures at an early stage.

The European Union is similarly putting a growing emphasis on citizen participation. The parties to the Aarhus Convention (UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters) produce a regular report on how the convention’s provisions are being implemented nationally.

The right to information and a voice are requirements in an active democracy. The Aarhus Convention regulates this for the field of environmental protection. For instance, it enables people to participate in decision-making procedures, to obtain information on the state of the environment, and to request judicial reviews of state decisions.

271 von 301 | www.bmu.de Quality of citizen participation

Citizen participation procedures can only realise their full effect if they meet high quality standards. Not only do poorly designed participation processes fall short of their immediate goal, such as finding novel or least controversial options for the detailed design of a concrete project; they can do lasting damage to trust in players, participation processes and the political system as a whole.

The specialist literature is unanimous: citizen participation should begin at the earliest possible stage. The sooner activities to involve citizens are started, the better this is for the process. Success factors include:

• communicating on an equal footing

• establishing transparency for the entire process

• staying open-minded about outcomes

• starting early

• allowing scope to shape the process

• integrating many different opinions

• ensuring diversity

• involving as many participants as possible

• giving feedback

The BMU, for example, has taken its guidance until now from the existing good-practice guidelines for citizen participation. In many cases, however, these guidelines address a very broad and heterogeneous spectrum of target groups, or diverge markedly from citizen participation carried out by German federal ministries in terms of the purpose of participation, the actors and the political framework for action.

As part of the research programme on “Applicable quality standards for the BMU in citizen participation”, the BMU is therefore having the quality standards applied or recommended in the different contexts evaluated, as a basis for developing practice-oriented guidelines for good citizen participation. These shall reflect the specific framework conditions of citizen participation carried out by the BMU as a federal ministry. The guidelines for good citizen participation at the BMU were presented in January 2019. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/buergerbeteiligung/leitlinien_buergerbet eiligung_bmu_bf.pdf Participation procedures of the German government, research projects and best

272 von 301 | www.bmu.de practices

The German government is conducting a variety of research projects in the field of citizen participation. These examine the effectiveness of citizen participation methods, procedures and best practices in the context of projects, schemes and programmes. Participation procedures are being evaluated in order to disseminate best practices and establish high-quality methods. In the process, approval authorities, planning agencies, project executing agencies and environmental associations are exchanging experiences.

A large number of practical examples show that early and well-structured citizen participation in no way has to cause higher costs and delays, and can even accelerate the success of projects.

Climate Action Plan 2050

Climate action needs the backing of society to be successful. For this reason, the German government flanked the development of its Climate Action Plan 2050 with a broad public participation process. In parallel with its consultations with associations, local authorities and the German Länder, the BMU engaged citizens in their own dialogue process. On 14 November 2015, the day of the public dialogue on the Climate Action Plan 2050, public dialogue events were held simultaneously at five locations in Germany: the 472 participants engaged in a full day of discussions about measures for climate action, and finally developed 77 proposals for measures. These proposals were fed into a joint catalogue of measures, which was developed by citizen delegates along with representatives from the German Länder, local authorities and associations. On 19 March 2016, citizens, associations, local authorities and Länder jointly handed over the catalogue of measures to the Federal Environment Minister.

The Climate Action Plan 2050 was adopted by the German government on 14 November 2016. The dialogue was evaluated by two independent parties. www.bmu.de/themen/klima-energie/klimaschutz/nationale-klimapolitik/klimaschutzplan- 2050/buergerdialog-zum-klimaschutzplan-2050/ Integrated Environmental Programme 2030 (IUP)

Against the background of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the outcomes of the Paris Climate Change Conference and the G7 summit of 2015, in 2016 the BMU

273 von 301 | www.bmu.de published the Integrated Environmental Programme 2030, the third environmental programme in the history of German environmental policy. As part of the drafting of this programme, a citizen participation procedure was implemented in the form of six citizen councils, which were composed of randomly selected citizens, and six citizen forums, which were held in different German cities between February and April 2016. The central question to be addressed was “Environmentally sustainable: How do we want to live, work and do business in 2030? How can we get there together?” An online council and an online environmental forum were held in parallel to these events. The outcomes of the discussions were included as an independent chapter in the Integrated Environmental Programme 2030. At the “Festival of the Future” on 10 September 2016 to mark the 30th anniversary of the BMU, the outcomes of the citizen participation process were handed over to the Federal Environment Minister in the form of a citizens’ report, and presented to the public at the same time as the Integrated Environmental Programme. www.bmu.de/themen/nachhaltigkeit-internationales/nachhaltige-entwicklung/integriertes- umweltprogramm-2030 Dialogue on the “Green Spaces in the City” White Paper

The drafting of the “Green Spaces in the City – For a more liveable future” Green Paper was coordinated by the Directorate-General for Urban Development, Housing and Public Building Law, which is now based at the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community (BMI). The Green Paper analysed the functional diversity of urban green spaces and brought them into focus as an area for joint action. Following on from this, in a process involving all government ministries, German Länder and local authorities as well as industry and non- profit associations, foundations, science and civil society, a White Paper was drafted containing concrete measures and recommendations for action to safeguard and improve the quality of urban green spaces. The draft of the White Paper was opened for discussion in an online dialogue with citizens from 2 until 23 December 2016. The “Green Spaces in the City” White Paper was presented on 8 May 2017 by the then Federal Building Minister at the second Federal Congress on “Green Spaces in the City – For a liveable future”, held in Essen. https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/DE/publikationen/themen/bauen/wohnen/w eissbuch-stadtgruen-en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4

National Civil Society Board (NBG) on the search for a repository site

The search for a repository site with the best possible safety poses one of the main challenges for the disposal of highly radioactive wastes. The basis for the search for this repository site is the Repository Site Selection Act (Standortauswahlgesetz), the provisions

274 von 301 | www.bmu.de of which include the establishment of a pluralistically composed body to advise on the selection of the site in the public interest.

This 18-member National Civil Society Board (Nationales Begleitgremium – NBG) is to be composed of recognised public figures appointed by the Bundestag and Bundesrat, and of citizens nominated in a participation procedure and appointed by the Federal Environment Minister.

The selection of the first three citizen representatives for the NBG took place in November 2016. Randomly selected citizens were invited to five citizen forums, one of which was a forum for the younger generation. The participants initially drew up recommendations for the work of the citizen representatives on the NBG, and subsequently elected three individuals from among their number, including a representative of the young generation, who were duly appointed as citizen representatives by the Federal Environment Minister on 9 November 2016 for a period of one-and-a-half years. The election of the next three citizen representatives took place on 26 May 2018. Again, they were duly appointed by the Federal Environment Minister.

This is the first time that citizens have had the opportunity to participate directly in a high- level national body with far-reaching powers. www.bmu.de/themen/atomenergie-strahlenschutz/endlagerprojekte/das-nationale- begleitgremium “Our Climate! Our Future!” – Youth dialogue at the 23rd UN Climate Change Conference

The UN Climate Change Conference (COP23) took place from 6 to 17 November 2017 under the presidency of the Fiji Islands at the headquarters of the United Nations Climate Secretariat in Bonn. The conference served to drive forward the Paris Agreement adopted in 2015 and to introduce concrete measures for climate action. In advance of this event, the BMU therefore conducted a public dialogue with teenagers and young adults in Germany. At three simultaneous youth dialogues held in September 2017, participants aged between 16 and 25 years engaged in discussion, and developed their ideas and approaches for tackling the theme of climate change and climate action. At a workshop in October 2017, youth ambassadors whose names had been drawn at these events compiled the most important conclusions and recommendations from the outcomes of the youth dialogues and summarised them in a youth report, which was handed over to Federal Environment Minister Barbara Hendricks on 4 November 2017 aboard the special “Train to Bonn”, and presented on 9 November 2017 in various events at COP23.

275 von 301 | www.bmu.de www.cop23.de/jugenddialog

German Resource Efficiency Programme – ProgRess II

Another example of best practice is the dialogue process on Germany’s Resource Efficiency Programme ProgRess II, which gave citizens the opportunity to participate in a national policy programme by means of a pilot project. In the course of updating ProgRess II, the citizen participation concept “GesprächStoff: Ressourcenschonend leben” (Discussion material: resource-efficient living) was implemented nationwide in five citizen workshops and an online dialogue. From the beginning of 2015 to mid- year, randomly selected citizens along with participants in an online dialogue developed proposals for the citizen workshops on how natural resources could be conserved. Selected citizen ambassadors from the citizen workshops and the online dialogue wrote a summary containing twelve recommendations for action as the central outcome of the public dialogue. Its purpose had been to capture people’s everyday views on the theme of resource-efficient living. The approaches developed in the public dialogue were fed into the ProgRess II report.

Detailed information about the insights gained during the participation process can be found in the brochure “Wie gelingt Bürgerbeteiligung auf Bundesebene? – Erfahrungen aus dem Bürgerdialog ‘GesprächStoff: Ressourcenschonend leben’” (How does citizen participation work at national level? – Experience from the public dialogue ‘Discussion material: resource- efficient living’). The updating of the German Resource Efficiency Programme ProgRess II to ProgRess III will also be accompanied by public participation. The public dialogue planned for 2019 will build conceptually on the successfully implemented predecessor process to ProgRess II, known as “GesprächStoff” (Discussion material). Special features of this subsequent phase of the process are the involvement of teenagers and young adults (youth workshop), and the effort to involve more groups of individuals who are less predisposed to participate. www.gespraechstoff-ressourcen.de/ Research projects on participation procedures for environmental projects, and inclusion aspects of citizen participation

The project “Beteiligungsverfahren bei umweltrelevanten Vorhaben” (Participation processes for large environmentally relevant projects), which ran from December 2014 to January 2017, analysed selected citizen participation processes with the aim of identifying success criteria for successful participation procedures in relation to

276 von 301 | www.bmu.de environmental projects. The recommendations for action were published as “Das 3x3 der guten Öffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei Großprojekten” (The 3x3 of good public participation for large-scale projects). www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Forschung/beteiligungsverfahren_umwe ltrelevante_vorhaben_bf.pdf/ Another research project, “Impulse zur Bürgerbeteiligung unter Inklusionsaspekten”, provides impulses for citizen participation with inclusion aspects in mind. It was published in May 2017 and places an emphasis on the choice of the right participation format. www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/impulse-zur-buergerbeteiligung-vor-allem-unter Conception and testing of a model project on exemplary citizen participation

Because important insights for improving citizen participation are often not passed on sufficiently in practice, the model project “Vorbildliche Bürgerbeteiligung" (Exemplary citizen participation) specifically promotes the exchange of experience. To this end, the specialist conference “Bürgerbeteiligung auf Bundesebene – Erfolge und Perspektiven” (Citizen participation at national level – successes and perspectives) was organised on 11 July 2017. At the event, around 180 participants from public administration, research and civil society discussed examples of good practice. In addition, a concept was developed for an exemplary online participation platform. A new form of youth participation is being implemented in the form of a planning game on the Action Programme for Insect Protection, and the best possible synergies between citizen participation and environmental education will be tested. There are further plans for a brochure and a film, in which the benefits of citizen participation for the administration are made clear and citizens are encouraged to play their part. www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Forschung/fachtagung_buergerbeteiligu ng_dokumentation_bf.pdf www.bmu.de/buergerbeteiligung/ Green Paper on Energy Efficiency

With the Green Paper, the BMWi had initiated a consultation process for a medium- to long- term strategy to reduce energy consumption by making efficient use of energy in Germany. In the period from 12 August to 31 October 2016, the Green Paper was put out for broad public consultation in various formats: apart from the opportunity to submit written responses, a series of dialogue events were run and a complementary online consultation was held. A high and intensive level of participation was noted overall, with input from a wide spectrum of stakeholders. As well as associations, companies, public bodies and research institutions, individual citizens also took part. The BMWi is analysing the responses submitted in an

277 von 301 | www.bmu.de evaluation report, in which conclusions will be drawn about policy options to be taken up in a White Paper, and hence in a medium- to long-term energy efficiency strategy. https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/greenpaper-on-energy-efficiency.html

Electricity 2030: Long-term trends – tasks for the coming years

The BMWi published an impulse paper – in parallel to the Green Paper on Energy Efficiency – to initiate a broad debate about the framework conditions for the future electricity supply (generation, use in heating, transport and industry, and transmission through grids). It identified twelve robust, long-term trends for a secure, low-cost and climate-friendly electricity supply by 2050. From the twelve trends, the impulse paper derived key tasks for the years ahead and put these up for discussion – not least, by citizens. A concluding paper presents the outcomes of the discussion and the BMWi’s conclusions. https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/electricity-2030-concluding-paper.html

Public dialogue on the electricity grid

The public dialogue on the electricity grid (Bürgerdialog Stromnetz) is a BMWi initiative for an open and transparent exchange about electricity grid expansion in Germany between all the interested parties. By offering a wide range of information and dialogue opportunities, the public dialogue on the electricity grid takes up current discussions on grid expansion and supports constructive dialogue between all stakeholders. To achieve this, the dialogue provides basic information and answers questions on grid expansion in the context of the energy transition. Furthermore, it shows citizens what far-reaching and early opportunities for participation they have at the various planning and approval stages. www.buergerdialog-stromnetz.de

Competition: Excellence in public participation

Under the slogan "Ausgezeichnet! – Wettbewerb für vorbildliche Beteiligung" (Excellent! – Competition for outstanding participation), the BMU launched a first competition in which prizes were awarded to excellent citizen participation projects from all over Germany. The aim was to make excellent citizen participation schemes visible. In the three categories of entries – projects, strategy and regulations – around 160 citizen participation projects were submitted. In order to highlight outstanding examples of citizen participation, and hence draw attention to beacon projects, a special prize for especially innovative approaches was also awarded. Citizens were involved in the competition in several ways. They could nominate citizen participation projects, and subsequently rate the nominated projects online. In addition, a randomly selected citizens’ jury was recruited to support the expert jury in

278 von 301 | www.bmu.de selecting the prizewinners. The awards ceremony was embedded in a specialist conference and took place on 21 November 2018 at the BMU in Berlin. www.bmu.de/vorbildliche-buergerbeteiligung

The BMBF has advanced the field of citizen science structurally over the past few years. Via the Internet site www.buergerschaffenwissen.de (Bürger schaffen Wissen – Citizens create knowledge), which the ministry has funded since 2013, interested citizens and scientists can access information and participate in networks on the theme of citizen science. All told, the platform currently presents around 100 citizen science projects from a very wide range of scientific disciplines and invites citizens to take part. Over the years since it was launched, the portal has developed into a central contact point for citizen science in Germany and does important work in networking the actors.

From 2014 to 2017, the BMBF supported a wide-ranging dialogue process (GEWISS) to discuss fundamental questions of citizen science such as quality standards, data management, methodology, and opportunities and limitations of participation, and to strengthen networks. One result of this is the Green Paper – Citizen Science Strategy 2020 for Germany, published in 2016. Since 2017, the BMBF has also supported 13 citizen science projects with around 5 million euros under a dedicated funding guideline. The projects span a broad range of topics: for example, the citizen researchers can record the song of the nightingale in the city, investigate urban food growing, join forces with women scientists to research urban and rural lifestyles, or help to conserve bees by using tracking sensors to study the animals’ lives. It is also possible for citizens to work with scientists to develop their own research questions and to present the findings to the public in exhibitions. Building on the experience from the first funding period, the BMBF would like to publish an additional funding guideline aimed at advancing the field of citizen science methodologically and contributing to answering questions of relevance to society. The cooperation of researchers with non-school-based learning settings will also receive targeted support in future.

Projects involving citizen participation were implemented as part of the various Science Years declared by the BMBF. One noteworthy example is the nationwide campaign implemented during Science Year 2016*17 – Seas and Oceans under the title of “Plastic Pirates – The Sea Begins Here”. Under this project, more than 1,600 school classes studied the prevalence of plastic litter along and in German watercourses. The aim was to foster an awareness of the connections between watercourses and the oceans. Due to its great success, the project was implemented once again in 2018.

279 von 301 | www.bmu.de The main concern of citizen science is to advance the transfer of knowledge between research and society. All in all, citizen science makes a substantial contribution to aligning research more closely with benefits for society, and to enabling more rapid transfer of research findings into practice. At the same time, citizens gain an insight into the work done by researchers and play an active part in the formulation of research questions and the ongoing development of scientific practices.

280 von 301 | www.bmu.de G.2 Environmental education and communication Environmental education

Under the communicative umbrella of the BMU education service, the BMU provides a large number of educational offerings on environmental protection and nature conservation. The quality assurance and coordination of these offerings is based on an overarching education strategy which serves as a reference framework for the ministry’s portfolio.

The BMU’s environmental education portfolio follows the principles of education for sustainable development (ESD) in the sense of civic education with an action-oriented and participatory approach. The themes addressed by the BMU are the issues of the future and, as such, of great importance to young people. Accordingly the aim is to actively involve children, young people and young adults at an early stage and to consider the impacts of political decisions on the realities of their lives.

Using an online portal, fortnightly teaching suggestions on environmental topics for primary and secondary schools are provided so that environment-related topics in the news can be dealt with immediately in the classroom. Topics range from environmental protection and nature conservation to UV protection, radioactivity and the search for repository sites.

Teachers can download specialist background texts on the given topic of the week and specific lesson plans. Each topic of the week is supplemented with student materials which are differentiated by target group. The materials can be accessed without registering and can be used completely free of charge for teaching purposes. With few exceptions the content is published under open Creative Commons licences, so that users are permitted to make changes to the materials and redistribute and publish them in edited form. www.umwelt-im-unterricht.de

The education service also publishes topic-based educational materials for primary schools. The teaching resources consist of single worksheets at different levels of difficulty. The resources are addressed principally to primary school teachers as well as multipliers in the non-school sector. Since the resources are modular in design, however, in principle they are appropriate for many different school grades.

In addition, the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) offers its own teaching materials on the topics of mobile telephony and UV protection. Specifically for preventive education in relation to UV protection, resources for early years educators are also made available and multiplier training carried out.

Education for sustainable development

281 von 301 | www.bmu.de What education for sustainable development (ESD) can help everyone to recognise is that “My actions have consequences – not only for me and my environment, but also for others. I can contribute to making the world a little better”. This way of thinking is urgently needed in order to instigate changes and tackle pressing global problems. Apart from the environmental and economic challenges, social aspects such as equal opportunities or quality of life are of crucial importance.

On 29 September 2015 the constitutive meeting of the National Platform on ESD was held at the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). Under the chair of the BMBF, decision-makers from politics, research, business and civil society meet twice a year.

Its aim is to firmly embed education for sustainable development in all parts of the education system, treading new paths and diffusing good ideas widely. Successful examples of good practice receive targeted support, while prizes are awarded to model ESD initiatives.

Concrete proposals for optimal ways of learning and structurally embedding sustainable behaviour are summarised in the National Action Plan on ESD. This was adopted by the National Platform on 20 June 2017. The objectives set out in the National Action Plan include, for example, stronger embedding of ESD in curricula, schemes of work and vocational training regulations, and in informal learning. A report has been published on the ESD portal which shows, for example, how the results of the online consultation have been incorporated into the National Action Plan on ESD.

The platform is significantly supported by six Expert Forums and the ESD Youth Forum “youpaN”. The experts working in the expert forums were nominated by the members of the National Platform. Additional members of the Expert Forums are the Partner Network spokespersons, who contribute input from active ESD practitioners all over Germany.

The German government is breaking new ground – by international as well as national standards – with its national multi-stakeholder process for ESD: it fulfils the first of the five Priority Action Areas of the UNESCO roadmap. This contains the demand for political support for ESD.

282 von 301 | www.bmu.de Attached to the National Platform are six Expert Forums and the ESD Youth Forum “youpaN”, which form its main bodies. These follow the structure of the education chain: Early Childhood Education, School, Vocational Education and Training, Higher Education, Informal and Non-Formal Learning/Youth, and Local Authorities. The forums concentrate specialist expertise on their respective themes. In addition to their expert role of advising and supporting the National Platform in implementing its measures, the members of the Expert Forums themselves are afforded an active role as implementers of the National Action Plan, which they were substantially involved in developing.

The Expert Forums’ key tasks are to submit proposals to the National Platform about which measures to prioritise for implementation, and to actively support implementation of the measures. Progress is to be documented by producing studies and guidance, among other methods.

The working groups established for the UN Decade of ESD have been recognised as Partner Networks of the National Platform and are continuing with their work. Members of the ten Partner Networks are represented in all expert forums. In this way they help to ensure that the expertise and knowledge from the past ten years of ESD in Germany feeds into the Global Action Programme.

The Partner Networks took part in drawing up the action areas, objectives and measures of the National Action Plan (NAP). For implementation of the NAP, the Partner Networks are indispensable in order to incorporate ESD into educational structures. As multipliers they contribute to maintaining links between relevant practitioners in education and give important impulses for the implementation of ESD on the ground.

At the “youcoN” youth conference in September 2017, around 120 young people from all over Germany aged between 16 and 23 discussed how they could advance ESD. At that event they formed an ESD youth forum which has since been supporting implementation of the German National Action Plan on ESD and continues to strengthen the active involvement of young people in the ESD process. The “youpaN” youth forum’s 25 members actively participate in the Expert Forums and in the National Platform.

283 von 301 | www.bmu.de In October 2018, around 130 participants aged between 14 and 27 from all over Germany gathered in Wolfsburg for the second “youcoN” to talk about their ideas for a sustainable world. In futures workshops they developed projects for the implementation of the National Action Plan on ESD.

The ESD Agenda Congress provides a forum for specialist discussions and new ideas. The first such Congress was held in Berlin in July 2016 under the banner “Gemeinsam” (Together). The second Agenda Congress “In Aktion” (In Action), also held in Berlin at the end of November 2017, brought together around 800 participants.

In order to show where in Germany the National Action Plan is already being implemented successfully and to diffuse the Action Plan widely, instead of holding the Agenda Congress in 2018 it was decided to stage an ESD tour with 25 stops.

As is called for at international level, the implementation of the Global Action Programme in Germany is evaluated continuously. An initial monitoring report is already available. The summaries for each area of education were published by Institut Futur.

Once per legislative period the German government presents a report on education for sustainable development.

People all over Germany are actively engaged in ESD. Everyone can contribute to implementing the 2030 Agenda of the United Nations and the Global Action Programme on ESD in Germany. Since 2016 the BMBF and the German Commission for UNESCO have presented annual awards to municipalities, learning establishments and networks which are implementing ESD with particular success and embedding it for the long term.

Vocational education and training for sustainable development

For effective education on climate action across all elements of the education chain by the German government, great importance is attached to the acquisition of competence through ESD to ensure the implementation of all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This also encompasses the vocational education and training sector. In this respect the global sustainability strategy of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda is the yardstick of German policy.

In the vocational education and training sector, the BMU packages its offerings in the support programme “Promoting vocational education for sustainable development. Enabling green skills for climate-friendly, resource-efficient action at work (BBNE)” within the framework of the current funding period of the European Social Fund (ESF) from 2014 to 2020. The ESF

284 von 301 | www.bmu.de programme “Promoting vocational education for sustainable development” is the first federal government programme with an explicit focus on environmental protection and climate action in the European Social Fund’s more than 50-year history. By means of three different formats, the programme shows how sustainable action is possible in everyday working life and raises awareness about the “greening” of jobs and the world of work. Work camps and exhibitions open young people’s eyes to career options. For apprentices and training staff in building occupations, the projects provide courses on inter-trade cooperation in the renovation of buildings for energy efficiency. The programme’s core element is that it combines practice-oriented extracurricular offerings, information on careers involving sustainability, and ESD methods. The ESF programme was launched in 2015 with its first round of funding, in which 14 projects implemented their proposals with great success. Projects from the second funding round proceed to implementation from the start of 2019.

The BMBF funding for “Vocational education and training for sustainable development” is part of the ESD process under the Global Action Programme on ESD. It addresses the development of skills relevant for sustainability among apprentices, trainers, operational management and executive levels in SMEs and the design of sustainable (in-company) settings for learning. www.bmbf.de/de/nachhaltigkeit-in-der-beruflichen-bildung-3518.html

Under the funding priority “Vocational education for sustainable development (BBNE) 2015 to 2019”, the focus has been on initial and continuing vocational education in commercial occupations in retail, wholesale and foreign trade, freight and logistics, and on food trades and the food industry under the existing training regulations. Even during initial vocational training, methods including digital teaching and learning media for in-company training – and continuing education for the apprentices – teach learners how an economically viable contribution can be made in the workplace to fair working conditions or mitigating climate change. In retail, for example, the teaching and learning media developed make it possible to learn the features of the large number of ecolabels, or to use a personal mobile phone to access information on the places of origin of goods or raw materials, transportation routes etc. directly from the workplace. Climate action is seen here as the outcome of taking environmental, social and economic aspects into account. The aim is to teach learners constant reflection on the consequences of their own behaviour and whether it aligns with sustainability. www.bbne.de

Furthermore, a study by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) will shed light on “Competence requirements for sustainability in vocational education and

285 von 301 | www.bmu.de training in the context of digitalisation”, taking a particular look at environmental as well as social aspects of the digitalisation of work.

The BMU is a partner in the “Initiative Klischeefrei” or “Cliché Free Initiative” for gender- equitable career and study choices, which is jointly funded by the BMBF and the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ). The initiative provides information and advice on overcoming stereotypes in career guidance and supports measures counteracting the entrenchment of stereotypes in young people’s choices of careers and study programmes. www.klischee-frei.de

In addition, as part of Germany’s national “Girls’ Day”, “Boys’ Day” and “Future Day”, the BMU and many of the public authorities within its portfolio, such as the BfS, enable young people to investigate environment-related vocational fields in which girls and boys respectively are underrepresented. Along with other authorities, the BfS additionally participates in the annual “Green Day” career guidance day, which is held under the banner “Schüler checken grüne Jobs” (Students check out green jobs).

Involving children and young people

The BMU education service is committed to ensuring that children, young people and young adults are actively involved in BMU activities. To this end, the BMU education service facilitates an ongoing dialogue with young people and young adults for the purpose of developing tailored and authentic offerings. They should have a say in decisions about topics, content and strategies from the start.

The 2015 youth congress “Zukunft selber machen" (Self-made future) gave young people the chance to work creatively and independently on shaping their future; the project ideas developed were subsequently given financial backing in the form of small grants. The concept and content of the congress were developed over a one-year period by a preparation team of 12 young people at the invitation of the German Federal Environmental Foundation (DBU) and the BMU. The third “Youth Congress Biodiversity” was held in 2017, after preparations which similarly involved young people and young adults in a broad participatory process.

Through the initiative “Projekt Erdballkunde – Jugend macht Umwelt” (Project global knowledge – youth shapes environment), in 2017 the BMU invited young people and young adults to get actively involved and become better informed about environmental policy. The central element was a planning game in which young people took over the ministry and

286 von 301 | www.bmu.de developed an action plan on the theme of sustainable mobility in the city. In 2018 the BMU carried out a further planning game on the Action Programme for Insect Protection.

The BMU youth study “Zukunft? Jugend fragen!” (The future? Ask young people!) was published at the beginning of 2018. The research project was envisaged as a pilot project to give initial pointers for the drafting of a youth-specific agenda for the future. It was a participatory study in which young people and young adults were intensively involved for the duration of the project. They played their part not only as research subjects but also as active researchers at the same time. A follow-up study will be published in spring 2020. www.bmu.de/publikation/zukunft-jugend-fragen/

Environmental education at the BMU also takes place via digital channels: the “Naturblick” (Nature view) app released in 2017 gives users a digital mode of access to nature. Plants and animals can be identified using an identification key, while birds can additionally be identified from their songs using the voice recorder of a smartphone. The project combines the presentation of biological knowledge, digital ESD offerings and citizen science aspects. http://naturblick.naturkundemuseum.berlin/

Under the National Climate Initiative (NKI), climate action projects are initiated and supported in schools and other educational settings [↗ chapter B.2]. The projects strengthen climate awareness among children, young people and young adults and enhance their opportunities to participate in climate action. Beyond this, they encourage schools to generate concrete ideas for climate action.

Voluntary Ecological Year / Federal Volunteer Service(FÖJ/BFD)

The Voluntary Ecological Year (FÖJ), a successful scheme for learning and vocational orientation through volunteering, has now been in progress for 25 years. It ensures that young volunteers are covered by legal and social security protection while they engage in service to the environment and society.

Topics related to environmental protection, nature conservation, ecology and education for sustainable development appeal to young people and, year after year, many of them choose to become volunteers and carry out service for the environment and society. Over the years the number of volunteers has continually risen. In the early days of the FÖJ scheme, it had around 700 active volunteers. Currently 3,000 volunteers per year are working for nature and the environment all over Germany. In the Federal Volunteer Service (BFD), on average 1,300 volunteers per year were engaged in service in 2015; in 2018 there were around 1,800 volunteers. Sponsoring organisations and places of assignment provide them with support

287 von 301 | www.bmu.de during their voluntary assignments and they have regular contact with educators during this educational and orientation year.

To avoid excluding volunteers whose personal circumstances made them unable to engage as a full-time volunteer under the official schemes, a new law was passed introducing the possibility of part-time service in the youth volunteer services and the Federal Volunteer Service for persons under the age of 27. It entered into force on 11 May 2019.

By appropriately amending the Youth Voluntary Services Act (Jugendfreiwilligendienstegesetz – JFDG) and the Federal Volunteer Service Act (Bundesfreiwilligendienstgesetz – BFDG), young people aged under 27 who have so far been prevented by important personal reasons from carrying out volunteer service comparable to a full-time job are now enabled to undertake such service. Those primarily affected are persons with domestic childcare or elder care commitments and persons with physical or mental impairments or other serious health limitations.

Communication on environmental issues (public relations work, citizen communication, events)

Public relations work

The German government and the BMU in the course of its daily work keep the public updated and informed about environmentally relevant goals, tasks and projects, and draw public attention to these. The websites of the German government and a range of its ministries continuously publish current information on activities, measures and decisions in the environmental sector and make background information available. Communication of this daily work is centred around the online channels. Alongside the accessible communication of complex issues, another focus is interaction with the interested public. Likewise the German government, and the BMU in particular, informs the public about campaigns and initiatives specifically addressing the current thematic priorities of environmental policy. Last but not least, citizens can obtain more extensive information from the ministry’s brochures and newsletters. www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/federal-government/ministries www.bmu.de/ministerium/kampagnen

A direct link to citizens

A further communicative element, civic communication, is used to create transparency about the work and decision-making processes of the German government, and the BMU in particular, on environmental protection and climate

288 von 301 | www.bmu.de change mitigation policy. All citizens can contact the federal ministries with their concerns regarding environmental policy issues and communicate with them actively via this channel.

Every year, for example, the civic communication service at the BMU deals with around 17,000 telephone enquiries and some 12,000 written communications from citizens. These communications are received in different media formats (letters, emails, faxes).

In addition, the BMU’s civic communication service maintains a portal on the BMU website entitled “Bürgerforum” (Citizens’ forum), which is targeted specifically at citizens as a group. It includes a list of constantly updated FAQs with short and readily understandable information on the current BMU themes most frequently asked about. Citizens can also send more detailed questions to the ministry via a contact form.

Furthermore, a central and popular element of civic communication by the federal ministries are information events for national and international groups of visitors.

At the ministry’s visitor centre, for example, the BMU offers expert talks, discussions and tours of the building to around 5,000 participants per year. Participants are familiarised with the ministry’s structures and tasks and gain an insight into the political work of the institution. On a tour they also learn interesting facts about the special building of the Berlin seat of office, which blends an eventful history with modern, sustainable construction. The topics of most central interest to citizens during the reporting period were pollution by diesel vehicles, waste avoidance, organic agriculture, climate action, microplastics, species conservation and affordable housing.

German federal government events: informative, communicative, sustainable

For the planning of German federal government events, the focus is on information, communication and sustainability. At the key events for citizens, the Federal Government Open Day and the German Unity Day, citizens can find out about current environmental policy priorities.

The ministries and their subordinate authorities also participate in major events and consumer, book and education fairs, where they come into contact with large numbers of

289 von 301 | www.bmu.de interested citizens and experts. On these occasions, interactive exhibits and participatory elements of the event are designed to invite conversations with those attending.

The BMU’s event planning is based on its Guidelines for the Sustainable Organisation of Events. A design for a trade fair stand focusing on sustainable materials and reusability or events where the catering is exclusively vegetarian are examples which show that the BMU takes its role-model function seriously.

The guidelines are an element of the German government’s Sustainability Measures Programme and provide all ministries and their portfolios with recommendations on how the organisation of events can be made environmentally sound, socially acceptable and economically efficient.

Apart from the BMU, there are other ministries in the German government which communicate on environmental issues in their policy areas, particularly the Federal Ministry of Finance (BMF), the Federal Ministry of the Interior (BMI), the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi), the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL), the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ).

290 von 301 | www.bmu.de G.3 Environmental and sustainability research – a sound scientific foundation for environmental protection A large amount of sound scientific information is required to put environmental policy into practice appropriately, using the right strategies and concepts. Such information relates to the various environmental influences (such as noise, substances discharged into air, soil and water, land fragmentation and land consumption) and the impacts of these on humans and the environment or on societal, economic and technological developments. In addition to this, there are environmental regulations, programmes and strategic approaches that need to be reviewed and updated continuously.

For the German government’s general research support, in the fields of environmental, sustainability, biodiversity and radiation research a number of different programmes exist, the principal of these being the Federal Ministry of Education and Research’s (BMBF) framework programme “Research for Sustainable Development” (FONA3). The FONA³ (2015–2019) framework programme provides around 1.5 billion euros up to the end of 2019 to support sustainability research projects and half a billion euros to continue the renewal of the German research fleet and large-scale equipment for climate research. Projects supported range from basic research to the development of fully operational applications. The main elements of FONA³ comprise flagship initiatives on the green economy, city of the future, energy transition and conservation of biodiversity. Beyond the flagship initiatives, the BMBF supports research into precautionary approaches in the following fields: the climate, biodiversity and oceans as public goods; intelligent use of resources; and improvement of quality of life and competitiveness in Germany. As a further aspect, FONA³ fosters the interplay of research and education for sustainable development. The overall aim of FONA³ is to make research programmes interdisciplinary and more application-oriented, and to promote the involvement of stakeholder and user groups in the choice of topics at an early stage.

In this respect the BMU’s departmental research acts as a bridge between science and environmental policy. The research fields of BMU departmental research span the complete breadth of research activities and research questions that are necessary to achieve the BMU’s objectives. These include the following specialised domains: climate action, adaptation to the impacts of climate change, environmental aspects of the energy transition, resource efficiency, circular economy and waste management, sustainable product and consumer policies, environment and economy, groundwater protection, water pollution control, soil conservation, marine conservation and urban environmental protection. Also covered are overarching questions such as issues relating to digitalisation and the social organisation of environmental protection, air pollution control, noise control, environmental

291 von 301 | www.bmu.de standards for the transition to sustainable mobility, questions of sustainable agriculture, and the areas of environment and health, chemical safety, and finally, in some areas, citizen participation.

Part of the BMU’s departmental research is in-house research carried out by the Federal Environment Agency (UBA), the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN), the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) and the Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management (BfE). Furthermore, research and development is also commissioned externally, for which the agencies in the ministry’s portfolio provide expert support. The scientific findings obtained serve to fulfil the ministry’s statutory duties, to provide ongoing, up-to-date advice to policy-makers and, where possible, to identify environmental policy challenges at an early stage (prospective research).

The research requirements are published in the BMU’s annual departmental research plan. Support is also provided for research in the field of electric mobility. www.bmu.de/themen/forschung-foerderung/forschung/ressortforschung-forschungsrahmen/

An important objective of the German government’s agricultural policy is to do more for the protection of climate, soil, water, air and biodiversity. To this end, the German government’s agricultural policy relies heavily on science and research, on the use of modern, benign technologies, and on networked digitalisation. It strengthens research and innovation. German agricultural policy depends on broad-based, independent and excellent research for the purpose of reaching goal-oriented and forward-looking decisions. To this end the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) maintains and finances numerous research institutes and scientific bodies within its portfolio. The BMEL’s departmental research participates in a variety of collaborative EU projects and European and international bodies, and cooperates with international research institutions. Innovative research and competent scientific policy advice are closely interrelated elements of these institutions’ duties and performance. For example, as part of the BMEL’s innovation programme, the “KlimAgrar” project is supported. This focuses on the scientific monitoring of the research projects funded under the three calls for proposals on climate action, on the adaptation of agriculture to the consequences of global warming in livestock and crop production and on soil management [↗ chapters A.4.2 and B.3]. It monitors the projects for their duration and afterwards, and acts as a link between science, the economy and politics. Important objectives are cooperation across topics and calls for proposals, as well as establishing specialist networks for the individual projects. www.bmel.de/DE/Ministerium/BildungForschung/_Texte/Forschungsfoerderung.html www.unter-2-grad.de/klimagrar.html

292 von 301 | www.bmu.de The Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) likewise carries out in- house departmental research on environmentally relevant themes. Particularly noteworthy are the research projects of the BMVI network of experts, which are carried out in thematic fields such as “Adapting transport and infrastructure to climate change and extreme weather events” or “Designing environmentally friendly transport and infrastructure”. www.bmvi-expertennetzwerk.de

293 von 301 | www.bmu.de H. Outlook: Environment and nature – the basis of social cohesion

The German government regards the preservation of the natural foundations of life as crucial to freedom, democracy and social cohesion for present and future generations. For reasons of social justice, too, protecting nature and the environment is imperative: due to their personal circumstances, the socially disadvantaged are among the most vulnerable members of our community and often lack the resources and hence the capacity to adapt to changing conditions.

The German government is committed to preventing damage to the environment and actively contributes to society’s transition towards sustainable development. It plays a leading and proactive role in implementing the policy mandate agreed by the international community in the Sustainable Development Goals. This commitment extends to all areas of society and the economy and is embedded in constitutional provisions (environmental protection as one of the German state’s objectives), legal principles (e.g. the precautionary principle) and the core tenets of the social market economy.

In the response to present and future environmental and nature conservation challenges, it will continue to be essential to reach out across national borders and engage in multilateral cooperation. As a multilateral partner, Germany advocates for successful environmental policies at the European and international level.

The Earth’s vital natural resources face numerous threats: the growing realities of climate change, biodiversity and species loss, unsustainable resource consumption, marine litter, dwindling and increasingly polluted drinking water, and poor air quality in many urban areas. The impacts of these environmental problems are amplified by the still high level of inequality between and within countries, pressure on human rights, regional crises, isolationism, populism and nationalism. International and global environmental policy is therefore gaining in significance. Now more than ever, national environmental policies must inform international and multilateral processes, doing so proactively and on a sound scientific basis, in order to achieve sustainable outcomes. Multilateralism, along with fact- and rules-based action, is proving time and again to be crucial to the success of agreements that have environmental policy relevance. The 2030 Agenda, with its universal Sustainable Development Goals, and the Paris Agreement, which was ratified by 179 countries in record time, are evidence of this, and are increasingly influencing other policy areas as well [↗ chapter F.2].

The multitude of environmental problems, their complex nexus effects and the wide-ranging need for change in every area of life – at home, in the family, in the workplace and in leisure – require coherent and transformative solutions now and in future. These solutions must reflect the interdependencies between the environment, economy and society. This means

294 von 301 | www.bmu.de harnessing the immense environmental policy potential of science, technology, business and society ever more effectively in building a better future and, to that end, developing new forms of governance and trialling them in conjunction with key stakeholders and the public at large.

Opportunities to have a say and play a part in integrating environmental and sustainability commitments into everyday routines are essential. Only then will the benefits of successful protection of the environment – in terms of improved health, quality of life and prosperity – be experienced by everyone. Environment and transport are a good example: we urgently need mobility, but traffic poses problems. The limitations of our transport system are experienced by countless people every day. The ever-increasing volume of traffic has adverse impacts not only on the environment but also on transport users, in the form of stress and high costs – not to mention the damage to local residents’ health.

In order to reconcile diverse and sometimes conflicting interests, as shown in this and the following examples, and to harness stakeholder and citizen potential at the same time, it is essential to develop and test new forms of governance. The German government’s Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment is a good example of how diverse and sometimes conflicting interests relating to the exit from lignite produced constructive proposals on potential paths towards the future. In its final report of 31 January 2019, the commission made recommendations on the sustainable and equitable management of the structural change that Germany needs for energy and climate reasons; these proposals are now being examined by the German government. An Act on Structural Change (Strukturstärkungsgesetz) and Act on the Phase-out of Coal (Kohleausstiegsgesetz) are due to be adopted in 2019 [↗ chapter B.2.2].

In the transport sector, the German government launched the National Platform Future of Mobility in order to work with key business and civil society stakeholders on developing proposals for a sustainable mobility system. The government’s aim is to decarbonise the German transport system – in other words, to end its reliance on fossil fuels – by 2050 at the latest and hence to bring it close to GHG neutrality. The mid-term target is a 40–42 percent reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030. This vision is based around a transport system with greatly reduced air and noise pollution and a lower rate of land take than today, thus improving quality of life and creating space for leisure and recreation. A largely emissions-free transport system ensures high-quality mobility for the general public and safeguards the movement of goods within the economy. With an improved infrastructure, fair competition among transport operators and intelligent networking of diverse passenger and freight transport services, it is possible to leverage the potential for a modal shift. The transport system will thus make a major contribution to maintaining and increasing quality of life in urban and rural areas and to protecting natural resources, including clean air [↗ chapter D].

295 von 301 | www.bmu.de Digitalisation is a social and economic development megatrend that offers major opportunities but also poses challenges for resource efficiency policy. There is scope to boost energy and resource efficiency to an ever-increasing extent in future, e.g. through smart buildings and networks, opportunities for transport optimisation and smart production systems (Production 4.0). However, the growing use of information and communication technologies is driving up consumption of energy and resources such as rare metals. We need solutions and standards for resource-efficient data centres or efficient software that require lower inputs of energy and materials. The German government is therefore moving forward with the rollout of green IT [↗ chapter C.4].

Digital networking is a key prerequisite for governance of an energy system that comprises multiple generation and demand facilities. Smart metering systems will be a core pillar of data exchange in the smart energy grid of the future. In Germany, mandatory rollout of these systems for selected consumer groups and generation facilities is planned in the near future. In addition, with the Smart Energy Showcases (SINTEG) programme and its real-world laboratories, the German government is supporting the trialling of digital solutions for the networked energy system of the future. And with the Energy-Savings Meter (Einsparzähler) project, the German government is supporting the development of digital applications to increase energy efficiency.

Climatic changes are unavoidable and affect nature and the environment. Climate change and the necessary adaptation to its impacts are one of the greatest political challenges of the 21st century. As the work undertaken within the framework of the German Adaptation Strategy clearly shows, the impacts of climate change are mounting and are making themselves felt in all the fields of action identified in the strategy. A key challenge will lie in transforming Germany’s infrastructures into resilient systems. This requires further technical regulations, training and upskilling across a wide range of professions, and the development of suitable funding and incentive mechanisms. Planning and implementing adaptation measures is a complex task which involves major challenges for all sectors of society. Appropriate training for stakeholders across all education sectors is therefore a matter of priority [↗ chapter B.3.3].

Cities provide living space for large numbers of people and are therefore significant for all sectors of society. Urban development that is integrative and sustainable, with a particular emphasis on reducing land and resource consumption and preserving biological diversity, is therefore essential. The vision that must apply here is dual-system urban development: this means maintaining quality of life in urban and residential areas by ensuring that urban densification is accompanied by targeted improvement of existing green spaces. Expansion and upgrading of public infrastructures are key strategic elements of the sustainable economy

296 von 301 | www.bmu.de and of environmental policies that focus on preventive health care. The overall aim is to reduce energy, land and resource inputs. The BMU’s Integrated Environmental Programme 2030 addresses ecological infrastructure expansion as a key challenge and agenda item [↗ chapter C.5].

Nature and environmental conservation puts people first. By protecting nature and the environment, our aim is to support implementation of the transformative policy mandate conferred by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and preserve vital natural resources in the interests of freedom, democracy and life in dignity. This environmental policy approach reflects the German government’s active commitment to social welfare and cohesion at national and global level, for the benefit of present and future generations alike.

297 von 301 | www.bmu.de I. List of abbreviations

°C Degree Celsius µg Microgram µm Micrometre ABS Access and Benefit Sharing BATs Best available techniques BBR Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning BBSR Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development BFD Federal Volunteer Service BfE Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management BfN Federal Agency for Nature Conservation BfS Federal Office for Radiation Protection BGBl Federal Law Gazette BImA Institute for Federal Real Estate BImSchV Federal Immission Control Ordinance BioAbfV Ordinance on Biowastes BMAS Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs BMBF Federal Ministry of Education and Research BMEL Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture BMF Federal Ministry of Finance BMFSFJ Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth BMI Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community BMU Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety BMVI Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure BMWi Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy BMZ Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development BNB Assessment System for Sustainable Building Bq Becquerel BVWP Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan CAP Common Agricultural Policy (of the European Union) CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCAMLR Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora cm Centimetre CNG Compressed natural gas CO2 Carbon dioxide COP Conference of the Parties CORSIA Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation CSR Corporate social responsibility DAS German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change dB Decibel DB Deutsche Bahn (German Rail) dB(A) Unit for the measurement of acoustic pressure level DBBW Documentation and Advice Centre on Wolves

298 von 301 | www.bmu.de DIN German Institute for Standardization DMIabiot Abiotic direct material input DNA Desoxyribonucleic acid EC European Community EEG Renewable Energy Sources Act EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone, beyond the territorial 12- mile zone EIA Environmental impact assessment EIR Environmental Implementation Review ElektroG Electrical and Electronic Equipment Act EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme EQS Environmental quality standard ESD Education for sustainable development ESF European Social Fund ESG Energy Efficiency Strategy for Buildings etc. et cetera EU European Union EURATOM European Atomic Energy Community EUROPARC Federation of National Natural Landscapes FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAQs Frequently asked questions FISA Information System for Agriculture and Food Research FÖJ Voluntary Ecological Year Fona3 Research for Sustainable Development FSC Forest Stewardship Council G20 Group of Twenty, comprising the G7 plus leading emerging economies G7 Group of Seven, comprising major industrialised nations: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States GAK Joint Task “Improvement of Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection” GCF Green Climate Fund GDP Gross domestic product GerES German Environmental Surveys on Health GHG Greenhouse gas GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH GMP Genetically modified plant Green IT Green information technology GSP Global Soil Partnership GWh Gigawatt hour HELCOM Helsinki Commission HLPF High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IFC International Finance Corporation IKI International Climate Initiative IKT Information and communication technology IMA Inter-Ministerial Working Group IMO International Maritime Organization IPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

299 von 301 | www.bmu.de IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPZ Innovation Platform City of the Future ISO International Organization for Standardization IT Information technology IUP Integrated Environmental Programme KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau km Kilometre KrWG Circular Economy Act LCA Life-cycle assessment (eco-balancing) LDN SDG 15.3: land-degradation neutrality LNG Liquified natural gas m3 Cubic metre MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships mm Millimetre mSv Millisievert NAPE National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency NaRess National Resource Efficiency Platform NASA US National Aeronautics and Space Administration NBS National Biodiversity Strategy NDC Nationally determined contribution NECA NOx emission control area NiSG Act on Protection against Non-Ionising Radiation Used on Humans NKI National Climate Initiative NO2 Nitrogen dioxide NOx Nitrogen oxides NRVP National Cycling Plan OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSPAR Oslo-Paris Convention, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North- East Atlantic p.e. Population equivalents PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl PEFC Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes pH value Scale specifying how acidic or basic a water-based solution is PM10, PM2.5 Particulate matter with a diameter <10 µm or <2.5 µm POP Persistent organic pollutant ppm Parts per million ProgRess German Resource Efficiency Programme R&D Research and development RDE Real-driving emissions REACH Regulation European Union Regulation concerning the registration, evaluation, authorisation and restriction of chemicals RED Renewable Energy Directive REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation RLZ Federal Radiological Situation Centre

300 von 301 | www.bmu.de RMI Primary raw material input in raw material equivalents SAICM Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management SDG Sustainable Development Goal SEA Strategic environmental assessment SME Small and medium-sized enterprise SOx Sulphur oxides StBA Federal Statistical Office TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Tier I-III Exhaust emission limits TWh Terawatt hour UBA Federal Environment Agency UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEA United Nations Environment Assembly UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFF United Nations Forum on Forests US(A) United States (of America) UV Ultraviolet UVPG Act on the Assessment of Environmental Impacts VCI German chemical industry association VDI Association of German Engineers VDI ZRE VDI Centre for Resource Efficiency WBG World Bank Group WFD Water Framework Directive WHO World Health Organization WKF Forest Climate Fund WSV Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration

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