Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-41707-5 - The Cambridge Urban History of Britain: Volume III: 1840–1950 Edited by Martin Daunton Index More information
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Note: page numbers in italic refer to Tables and Figures; only those Plates mentioned in the text are indexed
AMC see Association of Municipal and disease Corporations legislation on –, Abercrombie, Patrick , , pollution , , – County of London Plan () smoke pollution –, , – Greater London Plan () , urban fogs , , , – Aberdare , , see also pollution, atmospheric; smoke Aberdare valley air travel, international linkages Aberdeen , , aircraft industry Abergavenny , airports, location of – Aberystruth alienation , Aberystwyth , , in tower blocks accountability –, , –, in urban place –, Accrington , Aliens Act () , Ackroyden Alkali Acts (, and ) , , Addison, Christopher Alkali Inspectorate , see also Housing Act () allotments advertising , , – Almack’s agencies Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and and fashion , Joiners retail shops Amalgamated Society of Engineers , Aerated Bread Company cafés Amulree Committee () Aesthetic movement Ancient Order of Foresters aesthetics, of cities – Andy Capp, cartoon character agencies, government , , Anglesey , accountability of , Anglican Christian Social Union prescriptive nature of – angling – strategic weaknesses of – Angus (Forfar) see also inspectors Annan, Thomas, photographs of Glasgow , Agricultural Wages Boards and Plate agriculture anti-clericalism depression , , , , Anti-Corn Law League effect of free trade on –, – antiquarianism migration from –, apprenticeships , , , , – see also rural areas architects , air quality , role in town planning , , ,
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architects, borough, authority of ash, waste, for brickmaking n, Architects’ Journal Ashbourne architecture , Ashby de la Zouch , , aesthetics of – Ashington ‘Art Deco’ Ashley, Percy department stores , Ashton-under-Lyme , , factories – asphalt, as street surface , , of high density housing assemblies , of London landed estates assembly rooms modernist –, assize towns , , municipal association music halls and theatres and individuality – new churches – suburban forms of office buildings , see also clubs and societies public houses Association of Municipal Corporations , railway stations opposition to National Insurance Act () aristocracy and gentry , church attendance Special Conference on Local Government influence in urban government , , () , , Aston Villa football team leisure pursuits –, – asylums , , as patrons of municipal culture Atkinson Grimshaw, John, artist as urban landowners , – Attwood, Thomas, Birmingham see also landowners Auden, W. H. , armaments industry , August Bank Holiday – Armstrong family, Newcastle Austin, Herbert, Report on a General Scheme for army, territorial allegiances Extra-Mural Sepultre Army & Navy Stores, London Australia, telegraph connections , Arnold, Matthew Avebury, Lord, objections to municipal trading Arnott, Neil, inventor of stove , art Avonmouth, port , aesthetics of cities – crowds portrayed – BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) leisure depicted in – and national identity – portrayals of working classes –, BOCM, millers River Thames in – Bacon, Sir Francis social reportage , – Bagnall, Charles, West Bromwich and topography – Baldwin, Stanley see also photographs, of city life ballads art collections broadsheet see also museums and galleries street singers – art movements balls, charity artisans , – Banbury central London , population , craft traditions of – social and cultural life , football supporters social structure , in London industrial suburbs bands mobility of –, , brass , , mutual aid organisations , –, mission social exclusivity of , street trade associations , Bands of Hope use of apprenticeships , , Banffshire, small towns welfare benefits , Bangor , , Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act () Bank Charter Act () , Bank of England , , Artizans’, Labourers and General Dwellings monetary policy , – Company Bank Holiday Act () Arts and Crafts movement , Banking Act ()
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Banks, J. A. Beer Act () , banks and banking , , beer consumption , branch offices , , , beerhouses – career structures , –, see also public houses centralisation of , , Belfast , , credit facilities port , foreign and imperial, City of London sewage system delayed – joint-stock , Belgium, network systems municipal and n Bell, Lady Florence penny Bell, Sir James, Glasgow private Belle Vue gardens savings , benefactions see also Bank of England; credit; finance benevolent societies, town-based baptism Berkshire Baptists , Berlin Bargoed Berman, Marshall , Baring’s Bank Bertram, Anthony, Design Barker, Ernest n Berwick-on-Tweed, wealth Barking, sewage outlet Betjeman, John , Barlow, Sir Montague ‘betterment levies’ see compensation and Barlow Report () , , , , betterment Bevan, Aneurin, Minister of Health , , Barnardo, Dr Thomas, Home for Destitute Children , Beveridge, William –, Barnet, fair Beveridge Report (), social insurance Barnett, Henrietta , –, Barnett, Canon Samuel, , Bevin, Ernest, Minister of Labour Barnsley Bexley, housing development population, marriage and fertility , , Bibby, millers , Bible classes Barrow-in-Furness , , , , bicycle manufacture , population, marriage and fertility , bicycles , , , Barry , , cycling clubs , Barry Island, resort Bilsland, Sir William, Glasgow Barstow, Stan, A Kind of Loving Bilston Bath xx, , , Birkenhead , , church attendance , industry , middle class , , middle class occupations , population , , population, marriage and fertility Birmingham , , , , baths, swimming airport Baths and Washhouses Act Bull Ring Centre Baudelaire, Charles – culture , ; art gallery , ; Music Baxter, R. D., middle-class subdivisions Festival () , ; night life ; bazaars , , Symphony Orchestra ; theatres ; penny Vauxhall music hall Bazalgette, Joseph economy , –, ; holidays , Embankment ; occupational structure , , , London sewers , ; small workshops , , Beaumaris , expansion , , ; industrial estates Beccles , , ; suburban , , Becontree fairs proscribed council housing estate , , governance , , ; council, political industrial estate , control , , , ; social Bedford , composition , , , municipal Bedford, duke of – culture , , , , ; trading Bedwellty, mining revenues , , ; see also Beecham pharmaceutical company infrastructure (below)
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Birmingham (cont.) abolished () , , , industry , ; Austin motors , ; concern about finances diversity –, ; outward industrial cooperation with charities , –, migration , , , ; small firms – , , –, medical relief infrastructure: by-laws on pollution ; middle-class roles on capital investments , , , ; Poplar , sewage disposal ; slum clearance ; West Ham telephone connections Boer War , , , institutional structure , Bohemians middle class , , ; leisure –; Bolton , , wealth , ; see also suburban Mass-Observation study of ‘Worktown’ expansion (below) –, Moseley Millstone Inn population , , , ; age structure poor relief, guilds of help , ; life expectancy ; marriage population ; age structure ; life and fertility ; mortality rates , ; expectancy ; marriage and fertility place of death , ; mortality rates – recreation ; leisure pursuits , –; recreation , public parks , urban elite religious observance , ; wealth nonconformist , , , books Saltley cheap social services , ; poor relief , illustrated suburban expansion , , ; Boot, Jesse, Nottingham Handsworth ; Harborne –; see also Booth, Charles , , , –, Edgbaston on growth of large cities – urban elite , , – Life and Labour of the People of London Birmingham Daily Post on mission halls Birmingham Political Union , poverty maps of London , –, , birth rate see fertility rates , , Blaby on public houses Black Country –, , Booth, William, Salvationist recreation , Bootle, population , , , urban elites , – Boots the chemists , Blackburn , , borough councillors infirmary changing social status of – middle class , civic pride among population, marriage and fertility political allegiances – recreation , , ; football teams , and public participation in planning , , textile industry , borough extension –, Blackheath, fair and regionalism – Blackpool , , , Borough Funds Act () , entertainments , , ; Pleasure boroughs, municipal Beach status of – population, marriage and fertility , subordinate to counties – trading profits see also county boroughs; local authorities Blaenau Ffestiniog Boscawen Report (), on transport Blaenavon , Boston, Massachusetts, trams – Blair, A., and elected mayor of London Botanical Gardens Board of Supervision (Scotland) Bott, Elizabeth, urban anthropology Board of Trade Bottle shipping offices , boundaries supervisory and regulatory powers , administrative Water Power Resources Committee Bevan’s proposal for Boards of Conciliation and definitions of migrants – Boards of Guardians , , , , of entitlement –, , –,
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multiple , , , , , – governance , ; revenues , – within towns –, , housing , – see also borough extension industry –, , boundaries, local authority , , – middle class , ; wealth , resistance to reform –, , occupational structure , , , Boundary Commission , poor relief, and charity , Bourdieu, Pierre , population , , Bourne, George – port , , , , ; limited access Bournemouth , , public health middle class public parks , population , , Redland trading profits suburbs , Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra trade , , , , Bournville , , , transport: motor buses ; trams , , Boy Scouts , Boys, Thomas Shotter, London As It Is () urban elite , , and Plate utilities, private companies Boys’ Brigades , water supply Bradford , , , British Board of Film Censors governance n; political control of British Electricity Authority , council , , , ; trading profits British Empire connections with , housing, mortgages for London as centre of – industry: factory paternalism ; small see also Commonwealth firms –; wool , British Empire Exhibition (-) musical culture , British Gas Council nonconformity British Indian Telegraph Company poor relief, charities British Legion population , ; migrants , British Transport Commission Royal Infirmary Briton Ferry , , St George’s Hall Bromsgrove , , trolley buses Brooks, James, church architect wealth Broons, cartoon characters Wool Exchange , , Broughton Bradford Building Society Brown, Alexander, on Glasgow Braine, John, Room at the Top Brown, Ernest, Minister of Health Braintree, population , Brown, Ford Madox brass bands , , An English Autumn Afternoon () and Brecon , Plate Brevitt, Horatio, Wolverhampton Work and Plate brewing, development of large firms Buccleuch, duke of, and Hawick brickmaking, waste ash for n, Buchanan, Colin, Traffic in Towns report () Bridgend –, Bridgnorth , , Buchanan, Robert, Glasgow , Bright, John Buckingham, middle class ‘Brighter Sunday’ campaign builders and developers , –, , Brighton early London suburbs – capital expenditure projects , landowners as culture , office buildings middle class , private developments , , occupational structure public image of population , and slum redevelopment Bristol , , , small , , –, – Clifton , , specialist Cotham speculative , , –, , culture: cinema-going , ; museum, building costs , , , , gallery and library , ; music ; and development profits Theatre Royal Scotland
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building industry , , – corporate structure , –, boom (s) development of formal offices boom (s) – family firms , , , – craft traditions in internal labour markets , cyclical nature of , , , internalised supplies employment in , , , local links severed –, , , recession (s) , , managerial structure , , , , , building licences , , , mergers , , building materials mining companies post-war shortages , multi-national reinforced concrete national organisation of –, , –, steel-framing , –, technological developments –, –, need for stable workforce , new forms of organisation , , , transport of , building quality , public corporations , , council housing , , , – run from home , , , , early developments – small firms –, , – building regulations , , structure of , , –, building societies , , see also property development cheap mortgages –, Bute family, Cardiff, credit facilities , – by-law housing , , loans for development , see also council housing Building Societies Act () by-laws buildings to regulate trams commercial , –, , –, , – on smoke pollution community , factories , – cabaret historic Cadman Report () industrial, redevelopment of – Caernarfon , , institutional , Caernarfonshire public –, Caerphilly , see also architecture; housing; office cafés buildings; shops Caithness bulk processing , Cambridge , bull-running , , modern – Bungay , , science-based industry , burghs of barony (Scotland) , Camden Town Group of artists , burial societies , canals , , , Burnley , , , Canterbury , , , Burslem capital Burton-on-Trent , flows , Burton’s, tailors , knowledge-based human and men’s fashions – local supplies , Bury , , , , mobility of , –, – Busby, William, trams capital costs , –, buses capital investment horse –, , , , by family firms licensing of – funding for , London, privatised in industrialising regions , – motor –, – in ports – operating costs – capitalism trolley , dynamic nature of , business organisations, influence in local and house ownership – politics – and linkages businesses , , , and modernity company headquarters in London –, and social structure , , , – and urbanisation , –
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Caradog Jones, D., Social Survey of Merseyside central places, small , centralisation , , , card games banks , , Cardiff, , , France , changing fortunes , , –, and loss of local influence –, , economy , opposition to , –, entertainment , pressures for , – governance ; political control , , state –, , , ceremony, importance to municipal culture journeys to work , , – occupational structure , , , cesspits , , , population –, ; immigrants , ; Chadwick, Edwin , , , life expectancy ; marriage and fertility model of central control , Report () , port , , , , ; coal exports sewage disposal system – , , ; Docks , ; Tiger Bay chain stores (multiple retailers) , , , , , – regional centre , –, expansion of – residential segregation grocery –, , , satellite suburbs , – Marks and Spencer , , , Cardigan , and property development , – careers Sainsbury’s managerial , – small towns modern Tesco professional variety stores , for women Woolworth’s , , , Caribbean see also Lipton; retailing immigration from , Chalmers, Rev. Thomas, Glasgow , , Carlisle , , , Carlyle, Thomas Chamberlain, Joseph , , , Carmarthen , , and municipal culture , Carmichael, James Wilson, artist on municipal ownership of utilities , Carnegie, Andrew, philanthropist and support for public health measures Carpenter, Edward – carriers and carters , , Chamberlain, Neville – Cassell’s Illustrated Family News, panoramic Local Government Act () , , views along Thames – Castle Donington , Chamberlain Circular () catalogues, mail-order Chamberlain family, Birmingham , Catchment Board (water) Chamberlin family, Norwich cathedral cities , Chambers, William , middle classes , Chambers of Commerce , , , , , cathedrals, as defining aspect of cities celebrations, public , middle-class influence in , cemeteries Chambers Edinburgh Journal censuses n Chance J. H., West Bromwich , London , – chapels , religious attendance – Chaplin, Charlie , City Corporation chapmen (hawkers) and classification of towns –, , , charities , , continuing contribution of –, , occupational classes in , for deserving poor , , records of migration , endowed , Central Advisory Water Committee fund raising Central Electricity Board () , , , missionary , , , poor relief –, , Central London Railway religious , central-place functions , , servicemen’s
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charities (cont.) recreational clubs , trusts and foundations , urban attendance urban focus of – as urban landowner see also voluntary organisations urban ministry – charity and urban missions exhortations to see also churches and religious groups; impulse to intervention evangelicalism Charity Organisation Society (COS) , , Church Lads’ Brigade Church of Scotland , cooperation with poor law guardians , churches and religious groups –, – attendance: census of () –; falling coordination role , , , , –, Charlton, fair City Missions Chartism , , and education – demonstrations , , , ; evangelising role , , Kennington Common , , income , , Chatham, naval base influence in local politics –, , Chelmsford , – Cheltenham , lay leadership positions in , , chemical industry , , lay workers’ societies , Chepstow , membership –, , ; failure to Cheshire retain young – Chesser, Eustace, urban anthropology and moralism , Chester , , , national networks of shopping areas , new urban –, – wealth popular alienation , – Chester Gaslight Company revivalism , Chesterfield and rites of passage Cheyne Investments Ltd social facilities , , , – Chicago School of urban ecology , social functions of –, , Chichester , , , and social life , , , children , , , in suburbs childcare , voluntary organisations , compulsory education , , , welfare provision , , ; poor relief consumer expenditure on , , ; unemployment as consumers , – see also Church of England; evangelicalism; costs of childrearing , , Methodism; nonconformity; religion; deaths: from disease –, and n, ; Roman Catholics in hospitals Churchill, Winston employment of , –, , cinemas , , , , playgrounds , development of portrayed in London scenes – expansion of –, on suburban council estates and film stars , Children’s Act () n and licensing – Children’s Care Committee popularity of – Chingford, urban growth Sunday opening – Chiozza Money, Leo circulation choice ‘continuous’ –, consumer –, of information , , in urban life , , , restricted –, cholera , cisterns, public water choral societies – cities see towns and cities Chorley City and Guilds of London Institute Church Army qualifications Church of England , , , City of London Real Property Ltd and class , City of Manchester Plan () – and housing reform City Offices Company , pew rents , – civic culture ,
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role of religion in Clowes, William, and Primitive Methodism see also municipal culture civic identity , clubs and societies , , and football teams civic in London metropolitan boroughs – drama , – in new towns gentlemen’s, London , , civic ritual and ceremonial , , – middle-class – civil defence, regional organisation music and choral –, – civil disturbance see public disorder political , civil service recreational – colonial religious –, – employment in –, in small towns civil society in suburbs , – development of –, women’s , and growing stability , working men’s and public participation in planning , Clydebank , Clydeside , working-class participation – shipbuilding , class , – Co-operative movement , , and fertility rates , decline of – and garden city concept – extension to Midlands and South , – and leisure pursuits –, – moral economy of and local political allegiances political role , , neighbourhoods and formation of Rochdale Pioneers and perception of the city – self-service stores , and perceptions of social structure –, welfare provision – Co-operative Retail Societies , , , and process of negotiation , and public space , –, , Royal Arsenal (Woolwich) , regional divisions Co-operative Wholesale Societies (CWS) , relative harmony in urban life – and religion , , – co-partnership housing movement , and residential segregation –, –, coal , ; London –, domestic fuel , ; unregulated –, , and shopping , in small towns exports , , see also aristocracy and gentry; lower middle coalfields , , class; middle classes; social contact; Midlands , working classes Newcastle Clauses Consolidation Acts (s) , and urban networks – Clean Air Act () , , welfare provision , – Clegg, Samuel, Surveying Officer () see also mining clergymen , , Coalville , , in Charity Organisation Society (COS) Coatbridge clerical work , , Cobbett, William, on London , career structures – cock-fighting , increase in , Cockfosters middle-class employment , , – coffee houses, business functions in , paid holidays Coggeshall , in ports Colchester , , , , women in , , , , collective action, in urban governance –, Clore, Charles , –, , , clothes Collins, Sir William, Glasgow home-dressmaking Colman family, Norwich ready-made Colville, David, MP women’s fashions – Colyton –, clothing industry , commerce , Clough family, Keighley information networks , , –
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commerce (cont.) compensation and betterment , –, , London , southern counties – and Town and Country Planning Act see also Chambers of Commerce; commercial sector; retailing; service for land for development , sector; shops unresolved , commercial development competition effect on urban space – between utility companies , – in town centres , bounded commercial property , –, , – concert halls construction boom (s) – concerts , , government controls on – public parks , , market , conflict, tensions within urban society , retail shops –, – , – commercial sector , Congregationalists , , – female employment , Conrad, Joseph middle-class employment , , – conservation societies –, and welfare provision –, – Conservative Party commercial travellers , Conference Commission on the State of Large Towns, decline in urban areas , reports ( and ) Industrial Charter () commissioners of sewers, London n in local government , , –, , Committee on Scottish Health Services () local social organisations commons, public , middle-class support for –, , Commons Preservation Society and public ownership of utilities Commonwealth see also government, central, Conservative connections with , , administrations immigration from , , , –, Conservative Working Men’s Associations consumer credit , , Commonwealth Preference System consumer democracy , , , communications consumer goods , , , and consumerism , cheap novelties , international – collectables for light industry and cultural products local domestic , , , , and retailing holiday souvenirs , technological development production methods – see also telegraphs; telephone services; quality of – transport second-hand –, community, concept of and wartime rationing among miners consumerism and football teams attacks on –, and garden cities – blamed for theft and aggression linked with land reform projects and class –, public lack of interest in – eighteenth-century , in town planning , – emulation as stimulus , , – Community Association and Centre and middle classes , – movement and poverty – community associations, on new estates and rise of department store –, , community centres , Ruskin’s ideals of – commuters see journeys to work urbanised – Compagnie Générale des Omnibus de Londres see also consumer goods; consumption consumers, and producers – companies, joint-stock , , consumption –, , company towns , , , , alternative modes of and model factories conspicuous , Saltaire , , , , effect on urban economies , ,
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elite, London , , , , and suburban domestic culture and good taste , suburban estates , –; lack of integrated networks of – amenities – mass –, –, , ; exclusion of in suburbs –, , , , , – poor – types ; blocks of flats , –, –, middle-class , , ; tenement blocks in town centres patterns , , –, ; men’s , –, – , , – counter-urbanisation xxi, , stimulation of demand – counties theories of – as basis of local government , see also consumerism population in small towns , , , , Contagious Diseases Acts (-) , containerisation of cargoes , , , see also county councils contraception – country houses abstinence , , countryside condoms and n surburban encroachment on control upper-class leisure pursuits in moral , –, as urban amenity , , paternalistic – see also rural areas police powers of , , , County and Borough Police Act () of public disorder county boroughs , by state of local administration , applications for status of –, , of urban space – created by act –, use of , health provision conurbations , , , infant mortality , Black Country maternal mortality London as special case responsibility for education , tendency to expand , responsibility for planning Cook, Thomas , see also local authorities copper smelting, pollution , , county councils corn laws administrative powers of , , Cornwall, copper industry created () corruption, in property development opposition to borough extension – Costain, housing development responsibilities, for education –, ; Cotton, Jack for planning ; for poor relief cotton see textile industry county towns cotton famine (American Civil War) , , church attendance , , –, economic diversity , council housing , –, , –, – middle classes , access to , , , courts and courtyards , , building quality , , , – enclosed , , –, effect on mobility , , improved , effect on neighbourhood structures , see also slums , Coventry , general needs () –, , economy, business networks –; incentives for manufacturing ; new industry in interwar revival –; specialisation , LCC developments , , occupational structure , , Liverpool –, , , –, – population, marriage and fertility , local authority expenditure on recreation , and municipal landownership and town planning system – problem estates –, , wealth rental income from Coventry City Guild, social welfare group right to buy Cowbridge , size of , craft production , , , , for slum clearance tenants , , , engineering – in small towns see also artisans sold to private sector Craig, John, Motherwell
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Crawford, Robert, Glasgow , Dale, Robert, Birmingham , , credit , Dalrymple, James, Glasgow consumer , , dance halls , , differential access to , dancing hire-purchase social for industry –, in streets provided by Co-operative societies Darlington , n, Crewe , , population , cricket , , , Darwinism crime Davenport in cities , , Dawson, George, Birmingham , juvenile Dawson, Henry, artist criminals debt croquet mortgage Cross, George, shop developer municipal n, , –, Cross Act () , , debt recovery Cross Commission () decentralisation , , Crossley family, Halifax , and Local Government Act Crossman, Richard, Minister of Housing of industry , – Crossness, sewage outlet in political theory , Crowe, Eyre, The Dinner Hour () – of urban areas , and Plate decision-making, in representative institutions crown, as urban landowner , Croydon , , , democracy , , Cruikshank, George ‘aristo-democracy’ in town planning The Bottle () consumer , , , The Drunkard’s Children and Plate deficit of accountability Crystal Palace in garden city management committees Great Exhibition in local government Sydenham Gardens , – in municipal culture , – Cullen , in planning system , , , , Cullwick, Hannah, diaries – cultural events, geography of see also franchise; public opinion cultural identity demonstrations, public , – local , Dennis, Norman, urban anthropology national Department of Civil Aviation regional department stores , –, –, , , culture creation of – American influence effect of employment structure on class and , , international–local tension employees , political – facilities , , popular –, –, –, gendered nature of and social geography increased size , urban –, – London , , , and urban networks – Derby, Lord, Alkali Inspectorate see also art; municipal culture; music; social Derby , and cultural life economy , ; regeneration committee Cumbria, regional networks – Cunard shipping line , football , , Curtis, W. J., trams occupational structure , , , cycling clubs , population, marriage and fertility Cyclists’ Touring Club , wealth Cyprus, immigrants from Derbyshire, small towns developing countries, urbanisation in Dagenham Development Areas , council housing estates , , Dewsbury , , Ford works , diaries
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Dickens, Charles , , , , docks on urban experience – in art diet financial performance of municipal among poor , investment effect on health –, and n redevelopment of xx, , Dingwall , dockyards, naval dioceses, reorganised doctors diseases , powers of – asthma , , see also medical officers of health bronchitis , , , dogs, strays destroyed cancer , – Dolgellau , , chronic and degenerative , –, – Dollan, P. J., Glasgow diarrhoea: epidemic , ; infant and domesticity, ideology of , – n, as middle-class aspiration , germ theory of and middle-class career structure improved diagnosis , – welfare provision to support industrial Donald, R., on costs of infant mortality and n, Doncaster , , infectious –; diphtheria , ; falling revenues , mortality from –, ; measles –, Dorchester, as ‘Casterbridge’ ; scarlet fever , , ; smallpox Doré, Gustave , ; typhus ; whooping cough London:A Pilgrimage () and Plate –, ‘The River Bank – Under the Trees’ – late-onset diabetes Dorset miasma theory Dover , and need for sunlight –, Drabble, Richard, artist pneumonia , , , drink and drunkenness , polio (s) , beer consumption , and pollution , , , at fairs and festivals – respiratory , – portrayed by Cruickshank rickets , , see also public houses Spanish influenza () Dublin , transmitted syphilis Duckworth, Mr, Rochdale tuberculosis , , , , , , Dudley , , , , –; reappearance of Dudley Report, on design of dwellings () water-borne , , ; cholera , , , ; typhoid , , , , , Dulwich Duncan, Andrew, chairman of CEB dispensaries , , Dundee , Diss , , economy , dissenters see nonconformity occupational structure , , ; female Distressed Areas, residential segregation in employment , n distribution recreation , networks utilities , retailing , wealth transport and , Dunfermline , , Distribution of Industry Acts ( and ) dungheaps Dunlop, relocation to Speke (Liverpool) district councils (second tier), proposed () Durant, Ruth Durham , , district nursing , Dyos, H. J. xxi, xxii, , District Provident Societies district visiting, by charitable societies Ealing Tenants’Society dividends East Anglia , , , per cent limit , , East Hoathly (Sussex) Co-op East India Company , do-it-yourself Eastbourne , , , dock workers , –, , –, population, marriage and fertility ,
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Eastbourne (cont.) transport , private utility companies wealth trading profits education , , Ebbw Vale , for civic interest in planning , , ecological analysis, of urban space , compulsory , , , economies of scale , county responsibility for –, , and nationalisation – day-release schemes and regionalism London in retailing lower-middle-class in suburban development – middle-class –, in utility provision , – minimum leaving age economy private – cycles of –, , regional organisation of depressions , , , , ; agricultural religious influence –, ; sectarian , , , , ; and cyclical disputes , unemployment –, –, ; impact scientific and technical – on mortality patterns ; and port see also school boards; schools; technical employment , –; and poverty ; education recovery (s) Education Act () – globalisation school boards , , , government policy and , –, , Education Act () and housing policies , , Education Act () , , , Imperial Preference policy Education Act () inflation Education Act () information-based Education Act () n, , n Keynesian macro-economic policy , Education Act (Scotland) () –, , – Education Department, regulation by national effect on small towns Egg, Augustus, Past and Present () and ‘path-dependency’ (interwar) Plate , and poor relief policy Egley, William Maw, Omnibus Life in London productivity growth () – and Plate proportion of GNP on social services , elderly , housing regional divide – institutional care for , see also commerce; finance; industry; service pensions for , , sector; urban economy poverty among , Edgbaston , , tuberculosis mortality rates suburban exclusivity , , , welfare provision for –, Edgware, Northern Line extension to , elections , after reforms Edinburgh , , municipal – economy, banking centre , ; diversified uncontested – , see also franchise governance , electric lighting , , –, , infrastructure , Electric Lighting Act () , Jenner’s department store purchase clauses – New Town electric power , nonconformist social organisations for industry , occupational structure , , , and industry location , pew rents for underground trains population , , Electricity Act () regional centre , ; post office Electricity Act () Royal Infirmary electricity supplies – social and cultural life , , , ; investment music festival ; theatres ; university municipal undertakings , , , , –, ; financial performance ; suburban tenements trading profits town planning , national grid , , , , ,
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number of statutory undertakings – Engineering Employers Federation () productivity growth engineering industry regional production and distribution , electrical employment in Electricity (Supply) Act () heavy electrification light , investment in , reduction in craft base – of trams –, , technological development Elen, Gus England, John, urban anthropology Eliot, T. S. England and Wales elites acreage of urban land , defined urban population see also urban elites entertainment Ellis, Joseph F., artist marketing of – Emerson, Ralph Waldo moral control over – emigration , and n municipal provision – ‘Empire Palaces’ and popular identity – employers popular mass local influence of , , , Sabbatarian restrictions on and paid holidays specialist premises , see also paternalism unrespectable – employers’ organisations –, , women’s access to employment see also cinema; leisure; music halls; bonding contracts in mining recreation ‘boy labour’ occupations , – entrepreneurs, property development , building industry , , , and building programmes environment casual , , , , , , – effect on disease , , in central and local government and social improvement changing nature of –, environmental problems of children , –, , controls – clerical work , – of expanding conurbations , in commercial and service sectors , urban pollution –, concentrations (male and female) , , see also pollution Epping Forest , distribution of Esher dock workers , –, , –, Essex County Council, and LCC council in factories , – estates , of Irish immigrants – Estates Exchange () in manufacturing , , Estates Gazette , for migrants – ethnicity , mining industry – and sectarianism – new industries – Europe , , , occupational distribution cities xix–xx, in ports –, –, – see also France; Germany in retailing , European Economic Community (EEC) rising (s) secondary occupations – evangelical moralism , , shop assistants , , disapproval of entertainments , , stability of , – structures – and social reform sweated trades , see also moralism in transport – evangelicalism –, see also labour; occupational structure; under effect on church attendance women; unemployment opposition to pew rents employment exchanges Evelyn, John, on pollution enclosures, parliamentary , Everton, football team Engels, Friedrich Excess Profits Duty
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exchanges employment patterns –, LETS systems housing , –; in council blocks of flats labour ; view of model cottages – local stock and commodity , and infant and maternal care , –, , Exeter , governance , , , influence on migration – middle class , and informal childcare poor relief, and charity , and local business networks urban elite , nuclear , , , – wealth obligations under poor law , – exhibitions provision of assistance –, –, , art , – Great () , , see also households; middle classes of home design , family firms , , , – exports – resilience of –, coal , , see also small firms externalities –, , , famine, Irish of labour markets – Farley, Reuben, West Bromwich Eye , Farnham, growth Farr, William , , Fabian Society, London Programme () fashions Fabianism , , , and advertising and town planning , , men’s –, factories , , –, music halls and in art women’s – assembly-line –, Faucher, Leon for consumer goods , Federation of British Industry , design of –, –, Fergus, John and Sons, Fife employment in , – fertility rates , exempt from local taxes , changes in –, – government control of development , connection with type of industry – and contraception –, location of , –, – fall in , , in market towns and female employment , – model illegitimate – in New Towns industrial North , offices on premises local geographical variations – re-use of former mills and marriage – rented , middle classes –n rented space in migrants as tourist attractions reasons for limiting , , transport for bulk supplies and single mothers see also company towns; industrial estates see also marriage Factory Act (), statutory holidays Festival of Britain () , Factory Act () , festivals, music factory villages , Fielden, John, Oldham Factory and Workshop Acts () finance fairs , , , – costs of , London for industry , – unlicensed – links with industry –, Fakenham , local/regional autonomy , Falkirk private, transport Falmouth, Gibraltar and Malta Telegraph for property development , , –, Company –, families , , for retail store acquisition – care for elderly relatives trade (London) continuing diversity of forms – see also property investment and culture of domesticity – fire fighting, and water supplies
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First World War , , Frankland, Edward, Rivers Pollution airfields Commission effect on social and cultural life , , Fraser, Hugh free trade , , food rationing effect on agriculture –, – and ports freedom and public assistance , cities as source of and public housing policies and creation of civil society fish and chips leisure as – Fishery Boards freemasonry , , , Fishguard , freethinking, and sexual morality – fishing, recreational – friendly societies , , –, , , fishing industry , , , flax decline of , , –, , Fleetwood, port Friendly Society Acts Fletcher, Alfred, Alkali Inspectorate Frith, William Powell, artist flies, and disease and n fruit-picking Flint, population Fry family, Bristol Flintshire , , funerals, religious Florence, P. Sargant furnishings , Fogarty, M. P. middle-class , , – folklore societies Fyffe, Will Food, Ministry of food industry, retail multiples –, , gambling , , food markets Gammage, Robert, Chartist and artisan food processing , garages and petrol stations , food supplies Garcke, E., Electric Traction Company , cheap imports , foods, convenience , garden cities , , , , – football industrial estates on – amateur clubs , , leases and communal identity , limited infrastructure competitions , management structure – mid-week matches see also Howard, Ebenezer; Letchworth; professional , – Unwin, Raymond; Welwyn spectator sport , , , , Garden City Association , street , , – garden squares Football Association – gardening , , Football League gardens, individual , , footwear Gas, Light and Coke Company industry Gas Regulation Act () retail chains , , gas supplies –, , foreign investment –, financial performance of municipal Forshaw, John, County of London Plan () undertakings investment , Forster, E. M. , municipal ownership of , , Howards End , , number of statutory undertakings – Four Per Cent Industrial Dwellings Company private companies , , private–municipal comparisons –, framework knitting, Leicestershire , regional companies France , , regional distribution boards – centralisation , small companies – peasant tenure , , – Gaskell, Elizabeth, North and South – franchise Gasworks and Waterworks Clauses Act () and centralisation of politics , , extensions of , , , , Gateshead , , revision () population , , see also elections Geddes, Patrick, town planner ,
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Geddes Committee, on local authority funding Union –; cinema-going , ; football teams ; golf courses ; gender relations music festival ; public parks ; tea- and consumption patterns – rooms , ; theatres in households , –, social services , ; Royal Infirmary labour markets , – , ; Western Infirmary in London Sunday Schools in public spaces , , –, , transport , , , and retailing –, , urban elite , and working-class communities utilities , ; water supply , , , see also men; women , General Board of Health , , wealth General Strike () working-class action, organised , , gentry see aristocracy and gentry Glasgow City Improvement Act () George, Henry, American land reformer Glasgow City Improvement Scheme germ theory of disease Glasgow Tramways and Omnibus Company Germany , globalisation company organisation , Gloucester , , , immigrants from , Godfrey, Dan, Bournemouth Symphony industrial productivity , , Orchestra labour productivity , golf clubs , Gibbon, I. G., town planner , Goole, port Gibbons, H. G. Gordon, William Evans, MP Gillingham , Gore, Spencer, Mornington Crescent and Gilmour, John, central government in Scotland Plate Gorer, Geoffrey , Gilson, Donald, Coventry planning officer Goschen, Lord Gissing, George, novels about London , , Goschen Minute () , –, , , government, central , , , Glamorgan , , , Board of Trade Glamorganshire canal and corporatist agencies – Glasgow xx, , , , economic policies , –, , ; airport , Keynesian , –, , – in art: photographs ; street scenes as facilitator –, , buildings ; municipal – growth of: bureaucratic , , , ; church membership , –, ministerial powers and n; office economy , , ; business–science buildings ; post-war , links and housing –, , ; role in governance , , ; capital investments suburbanisation , – , ; civic pride , , , ; industrial policies , , political control of council –, , intervention in labour markets , laissez-faire policy , , , , housing , ; overcrowding , , and local government finance: attempts to ; rent strikes , ; slum clearance control , ; control over borrowing ; suburbs , , ; tenement powers , , ; control of utility blocks , –, prices middle class , , , and London , occupational structure , , , ‘national efficiency’ movement , , pollution , , , population , , ; age structure , and port development , ; death rate –; fertility rate ; and proposals for local government reform immigrants , , , ; social – structure regulation of utilities , port , ; development , ; trade relations with local government –, , patterns , , –, –, –, sectarianism , , , relations with urban elites , social and cultural life , , ; annual supervisory and regulatory role , –, fair , ; Boys’ Brigade ; Choral –
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technical education policies – Grimsby welfare provision –, , , –; fishing , expenditure on social services , , port , , , ; responsibility for unemployment guide books , , relief –, Leicester see also agencies, government; legislation; Metro-Land state funding guilds, disappearance of , government, central, Conservative Guilds of Help , –, , administrations Guinness company, housing for workers and county government , , – Guy Fawkes celebrations hostility towards local government , , , ‘habitus’, concept of housing and planning policies , –, Hagerstrand, Torsten, time-geography , development and industrial development – Haggard, Rider relations with London , Halifax , , see also Conservative Party All Souls church , government, central, Labour administrations Co-operative Society Blair (–) electrification economic policies – journeys to work and nationalisation , North End Unitarian Chapel restrictions on property development poor relief: Guilds of Help –, population, marriage and fertility , social assistance system Square Chapel and town planning , , , –, wealth wool industry , see also Labour Party Hallaton , government, central, Liberal administrations Halstead , national housing legislation Hamilton and welfare reforms –, , , Hammersons property company Gowans, James, Edinburgh Hanley , Gramsci, Antonio , – Hardie, James Keir grants, government , –, , Hardy, Thomas, The Mayor of Casterbridge block , –, –, increasing dependence on hare coursing proportionate (percentage) , , –, Harlow new town Harrison family, Leicester for universities Harrow, fair for welfare provision Hartlepool Water Company graveyards, overflowing , Harvest Festival Great Central Railway, employment – Harvey, David, theories of space Great Exhibition () , , Harwich, port Great Torrington, trading profits Hastings , Great Western Railway, housing for workers church attendance , population, marriage and fertility Greater London trading profits Abercrombie plan () Haussman, Baron population , , , Haverfordwest , – Greater London Council, abolition Hawgood, John, on limited social relations green belt policy , , – Greenock , , Hawick Greenwich meridian () Hawthorne family, Newcastle Greenwood Act () , health Greg family, Liverpool and improved nutrition –, and n Greig, Teresa Billington – physical degeneration theory –, Gresham Chambers company, property see also diseases; infant mortality; mortality developers health services , , greyhound racing coordination of –, –
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health services (cont.) Home Office infant and maternal care , –, , control over police force , , homelessness see also hospitals; medical care; National Hook, Rev. W. F., Coventry and Leeds Health Service; public health; voluntary hop-picking hospitals Hornchurch, urban growth Hearts of Oak, savings society horse buses –, , Heath, Edward, local government reforms horse trams , –, Helensburgh , horses Hemel Hempstead costs of , – Hendon , knackers’ yards , Henriques, Fernando, urban anthropology and pollution – and road surfaces Herefordshire, small towns Horsfall, T. C. Heron, Joseph, Manchester Hospital Savings Association (London) Hertfordshire , hospitals , –, , Hetherington, R. G., Local Government and care for elderly Board inspector n increasing expense of , –, Heyworth Report, on gas supplies –, , isolation , , municipal Hickman, Sir Alfred, Bilston as place of death , Hicks, George Elgar, artist teaching , High Wycombe voluntary , , , , –, Highway Surveyors hotels –, hiking house prices Hill, Octavia, housing reform regional inequalities Hinckley , , , , households modernisation of industry budgets , , occupational structure –, definitions population , female-headed hire-purchase , gender relations in , –, historiography xxi–xxiii, – middle-class definitions , of religious census – see also families of consumerism – housing , of middle classes – apartment buildings, London , oral studies blocks of flats , , , of urban culture – built by businesses for workers –, , history, and local identity , , Hoare, Samuel, Liverpool and changing property rights hobbies , co-partnership models , Holden, Charles, architect converted to commercial use , holiday camps on greenfield sites , holidays ‘homes for heroes’ programme , , annual , – bank – inner-city , charabanc excursions – interwar boom –, ‒ customary days , , , landed estate developments: London , fair days , fruit and hop-picking local styles paid low-density , Saturday half-day , , middle-class –, – seaside , , , , for miners statutory , model dwellings , –, wakes , , modern pressure for – Holidays-with-Pay Act () New Town developments Holloway pharmaceutical company nomenclature of – Holmes, Stanley, Tyneside Development Board parlour and non-parlour houses , –, Holyhead , penthouse flats
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by philanthropic trusts , wealth redevelopment –, , wool industry , regional authorities proposed Huddersfield Technical School and residential mobility –, Hull , standards of , , –, , governance ; revenues – state regulation of – housing: mortgages for , subdivided , population , terraced , –, , port , , , , ; bonded and town planning movement – warehouses ; bulk processing ; for transport workers competition from Grimsby ; fish variations between towns – supplies from ; trade through , , working-class –, , – , , , see also by-law housing; council housing; Primitive Methodism courts and courtyards; furnishings; private utility companies , segregation, residential; slums; suburban recreation , , housing; tenements, in Scottish towns; wealth town planning Humber estuary, fishing , , Housing Act () , , , Humberside, ports quality of housing under , , Hyde, borough status Housing Act () Hyder, Joseph, Land Nationalisation Society housing associations – housing density –, , , , hydraulic power , in post-war redevelopment plans hygiene, standards of , proposed redevelopment (East London) , – ICI , Scottish towns ice-cream parlours on suburban estates – ice-skating housing market, profitability – ices, penny housing reform movement iconography, of municipal monuments evangelical influence in – housing tenure –, , , , , Ideal Home Exhibition and citizen empowerment idealism, self-conscious freehold identity garden city leases and development of leisure – leasehold , , –, – middle-class , , , , , – of London landed estates , provincial , and migration religion and , for miners role of consumption in formation of owner-occupation , , –, –, see also civic identity; urban identity ; middle-class – Ilford private rented –, , , , –, Illustrated London News, panoramic views along Thames restrictive covenants , immigration , , see also council housing; rents from Commonwealth , , , –, Housing and Town Planning Act () , , –, and entitlement to welfare provision –, Housing and Town Planning Act () , , Jews – Housing of the Working Classes Act () , see also Irish immigrants; Jewish immigrants , , – Improved Industrial Dwellings Company Howard, Ebenezer, garden cities , , , improvement, concept of – , – improvement commissions Howell, George, on apprenticeships incinerators, for household waste Huddersfield , , , incomes medical provision , , , and purchasing power , – poor law , rising real , , , population, marriage and fertility , , variations within middle class –, Independent Labour Party (ILP) , Ramsden estate , Independents, on borough councils –
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India , scale of production , ; small-scale , immigrants from , , individualism , , in small towns –, , , and association – small workshops –, , , industrial buildings specialisation –, –, , workshops –, , , structure of see also factories and technical education – Industrial Development Certificates , and urban restructuring industrial estates , , use of road transport on arterial roads see also businesses; manufacturing decentralised , , infant mortality –, , , , in garden cities – among immigrants government controls over –, among Jewish community (East End) , government finance for , , causes of – on outskirts of towns – and local authority health provision see also factories variations in –, Industrial Revolution infirmaries and labour discipline deaths in and local cultures information industrial towns circulation of , , age structure , City of London infant mortality rates and educational institutions – and marital fertility rates , , , networks of , , , , – – for planning Industrial Transference Scheme and social capital – industrialisation xx, , see also knowledge and infant mortality information technology legacy of – infrastructure –, and small-town growth industry investment in , and urban growth , , municipal investment in –, , –, and urbanisation –, – , –, industry public investment in associated diseases – and urbanisation , , bulk processing, at ports , , inheritance laws, factor in migration , and creation of mass markets inspection decline of family-owned by central authorities , – decline of xix, –, , of pollution and nuisance , , in Development Areas use of –, , diversification –, –, Institution of Mechanical Engineers flexible specialisation institutions internationalisation and business networks – and investment in infrastructure , leadership role of links with finance –, positions of leadership in local links lost , –, – representative , and local taxation , – insurance , , location of , , , –, –; fire decentralisation , –; relocation , life assurance , –, –, ; in suburbs (London) maritime national health , , new –, , –, –, unemployment , office work in , , as welfare provision , – pollution from traditional , see also national insurance portrayed in art and Plate insurance companies , –, –, productivity , collection of compulsory state contributions rationalisation , , relations with central government , and property investment , – Interdepartmental Committee on Physical rural Deterioration ()
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interest rates, low , peak demands Invergordon , underground trains Inverness , , and working hours investment judicial system capital , –, –, network of assize towns , , capital formation jurisdictions, confused cycles of justices of the peace foreign –, private –, , Kahn, Albert, Detroit architect in property , , , – Kay, James P. , public –, Keighley in sewage systems Kelso, population , Ipswich , , , Kempe Committee () occupational structure , , Kendal population, marriage and fertility , Kennedy, Hugh, building contractor Ireland , Kenninghall , famine Kenrick family, Birmingham , , , migration from , , –, , Irish immigrants , –, Kent n, as cause of urban crisis –, Keynes, J. Maynard , in coalfields Kilmarnock poor relief – Kingston-upon-Thames , , and Roman Catholicism Kirkcaldy and sectarianism – Kirkwall , iron and steel industry , , knowledge Isherwood, Christopher , commercial, networks of , – itinerants and knowable community spread of Jack the Ripper , and urban growth Jamaica, immigrants from Knox, Vesey, on trams , James, Henry , Jarrow , , LETS (Local Exchange Trading Systems) jazz clubs labour – Jenkinson, Canon Charles, Leeds ‘boy labour’ occupations , –, Jerrold, Blanchard, London:A Pilgrimage () casual , , , , , , –; and poverty , Jevons, Rosamund, on Bristol housing policy exploitation of – – mobility –, , , , , Jevons, W. S., The Coal Question () seasonal demand – Jewish communities skilled –, –, –, – east London , sweated trades , , Jewish immigrants –, see also employment; labour markets; and Aliens Act – occupational structure; unemployment housing for labour costs , and Leeds clothing trades labour discipline , Jewish Refugees Committee labour markets –, , – Jewson family, Norwich artisans – Johnes, Arthur, Surveying Officer () casual –, Johnson, Samuel, Nottingham effect of compulsory education on , Joicey family, Newcastle external , Joint Committee on Water Resources and factory work –, – Supplies (s) gendered , – journals, illustrated internal , and n, journeys to work and migration , , –, – commuting from small towns mining – on foot , and new industry length of , –, , –, outworkers from middle-class suburbs – personal networks , , –
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labour markets (cont.) compensation for development , , recruitment , –, –, , , , state incentives , , compulsory purchase urban –, – control over , , white-collar work – local authority purchase of – see also employment; paternalism parliamentary enclosures , labour mobility –, , , – private transport companies and labour movement development , centralisation of , and redevelopment , labour organisations taxation of , , influence in local politics – see also land prices; land tenure; see also labour relations; trade unions landownership Labour Party Land Nationalisation Society , – in London land prices , members on borough councils – effect on housing , and nationalisation of local politics effect of railways on and public ownership of utilities – fall in , , rise of , –, , –, in London , and town planning , , and outward expansion of towns , – and working-class politics and post-war development – see also government, central, Labour and social status – administrations land reform –, labour productivity , debates on – labour relations , , , , Land Securities company building industry land tenure conciliation and arbitration , , , freehold , , and migration , , – employers’ organisations and , Scotland London landfill, for household waste and national settlements landlords –, ports , decreasing returns on rents – Laing, John & Sons, developers and ground rents Lamb, Charles slum , Lanarkshire , landowners Lancashire , , betterment levies on improved property , coastal sewage pollution , consumption patterns , , compensation for slum demolition , , cotton industry , , ; and cotton , famine (s) , ; decline influence in local politics , –, – London, West End , – economy , , ; coalfields traditional urban , – employment: clerical work ; female urban estate developments –, –, –; labour markets ; occupational , –, –; investment in roads structure – and amenities ; restrictions on football teams , , nuisances mill towns , , –; consumer see also aristocracy and gentry culture in , ; cultural identity of landownership , changes in population , ; marriage and fertility and development of rural land , , , , – fragmented , Protestantism public , small towns , see also property rights urban elites Latin America, links with , welfare, friendly societies –, ; law and order, middle-class role in voluntary hospitals enforcement , land Law of Property Act () acreage of urban – Le Corbusier, image of cities calculations of value , leadership
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nature of local , , , – population , ; infant mortality rates patterns of , – –, in suburban society , St Philip’s church Leamington Spa social and cultural attractions , ; Leasehold Enfranchisement Bill () theatre ; Thomas Cook’s Guide ; lecturers, itinerant University College lectures, public Leicestershire , –, Ledeboer, Judith, Ministry of Health architect leisure artistic depictions of – Leeds , , class patterns –, buildings ; municipal architecture commodification of – Co-operative Society and department stores economy , ; diversity –, ; domestic , engineering – entrepreneurs and employment ; occupational structure , facilities for all –, , , as freedom – food supplies perceptions of governance n, , ; corporation, relations with religion –, , political control , , , , , Saturday pursuits ; social composition , , ; social function of trading profits , Leno, Dan industry , ; wool , , Lerwick , , infrastructure , , ; electric trams , development of , , ; trolley buses insanitary conditions , land development , municipal improvements – measures against pollution , , – population , middle class , Leslie (Fife), Prinlaws industrial village pawnbrokers Letchworth Garden City , , , population , industry , social and cultural life , , management structure – street scenes (Atkinson Grimshaw’s) Lever, W. H., Port Sunlight urban elite , Lewes , utilities, economies of scale , Lewis, George Cornewall welfare provision ; charity , Leybourne, George, music hall star Yorkshire College Leyton Leeds Corporation Gas liberal progressivism Leek , , influence on town planning Lefebvre, Henri – see also London County Council (LCC), legislation , , Progressive control to enforce minimum standards – Liberal Unionists and labour markets , Liberalism , mandatory , , , and nonconformism permissive –, , , , Liberals, in local government , , –, on pollution –, , – –, , public interest clauses libraries , , on welfare provision , , , , circulating Leicester xx, , public , , , central-place functions , , , licences corporation: political control , , building , , , –; social composition ; trading revenue from , profits for utilities economy , , ; occupational Licensed Victuallers societies structure , , life expectancy –, , –, , housing standards lifts, passenger industrial structure , , lighting middle class , electric , , –, , nonconformity gas , , poor relief, and charity neon strip
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limited liability incorporation , , , urban elite , , – utility companies, private , , Lincoln water supply middle class , wealth population, marriage and fertility welfare provision , , trading profits Liverpool Central Relief Society () Lincolnshire , , Liverpool Corporation Act () Lipton, Thomas, multiple grocery stores –, Liverpool Society of Carpenters – , , , , , Liverpool Typographic Society – literacy Liverpool University, Department of Industrial mass Chemistry literary and philosophical societies , living standards literature and leisure , dialect , rising , , evocation of docks in tuberculosis as indicator of –, n urban experience in – Llanberis, slate quarries see also Dickens, Charles; Gissing, George Llanelli , Liverpool , Llanfyllin church attendance , , Llewellyn Smith, Herbert, New Survey of economy: business–science links ; central London Life ... () , , business district Lloyd, Marie employment: casual labour ; holidays Lloyd George, David , , , ; occupational structure , , National Insurance Bill – , , ; unemployment , and national welfare reforms – governance , , ; political control and taxation of land values , of council , , , , , ; Lloyd George, Gwillam, Minister of Fuel revenues –; trading profits housing , ; Artizans’ Dwellings , Lloyd’s insurance, membership ; council housing –, , , loans –, –; Davidson Road ; from central government , Gerard Gardens , –; Larkhill estate to fund capital projects , –; courts , , –, ; Gildarts moratorium (Second World War) Gardens , , ; slum clearance and local authorities rebuilding , ; suburban estates , in s , – administration of poor law (after ) , industry, bulk processing , , ; zoning , as agents of central welfare state , international links –, anti-pollution measures – middle class , autonomy , , municipal architecture and complexity of sanitation undertakings population , , , , ; black –, –, – community ; Irish immigrants , education: responsibility for –, , , ; life expectancy ; marriage ; technical , and n and fertility , ; mortality rates , employees health care provision , –; port , , , ; bonded warehouses expenditure on , ; cargo handling ; decline –; housing and slum clearance Docks , , , ; emigrant industry: financial burdens on –; departures from ; post office steamers regeneration initiatives – from ; trade patterns , , , ; joint ventures transport links , limits on responsibilities , – poverty , options to purchase electric lighting sectarianism , , , , ; and companies – education , options to purchase tramways –, , social and cultural life , , ; library , –, ; music festival ; theatres ownership of ports , – social structure –, perceived as extravagant street scenes (Atkinson Grimshaw’s) planning ; and consultation , –;
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powers under act –; publicity funding , , ; bond issues ; procedures , borrowing powers , , , provision of amenities –, income: central government control of , and public safety measures – , ; estate revenues , , –; relations with central government –, from fairs ; from licences and duties –, –, , ; loans , , , , ; social service provision , ; sources of –, , –; trading expenditure on –; partnership with revenues , , , , , –; private sector and voluntary bodies , see also grants; rates indebtedness n, , –, utilities, regulation of –; reluctance to and rates exemption for industry , give up see also rates see also council housing; county boroughs; local government officials – local government finance; utilities accountability – Local Boards of Health, compulsory appointment and salaries – establishment of borough officials – Local Education Authorities (LEAs) chief officers – local government , –, municipal officers – autonomy of , –, , , , , planning officers , , powers and composition of –, – and doctrine of ultra vires professionalism , – eighteenth-century – relations with borough councillors growth of bureaucracy –, local government reform , hierarchy of , Bevan’s proposals – late twentieth-century funding () lower-middle-class posts in Heath administration (s) party politics in , – proposals for – principle of confidentiality see also Local Government Acts () and relations with business/industry , – () restraints on – localism and state centralisation –, , , of employment unreformed corporations , , forces of – urban–rural relations –, – in London Victorian system of – and regional planning see also borough extension; boroughs; in small towns , , county boroughs; county councils; local Loch Katrine , , government finance; state funding Lock, Max, Middlesbrough planning officer Local Government Act () , –, –, Locomotive Act () n Local Government Act () , lodging houses , Local Government Act () , , model and industry , London , , poor law reorganisation , , Acton, population, marriage and fertility Local Government Board () , Agar Town, rubbish disposal sites powers for counties and n air pollution , , , –; powers of –, , legislation –, relations with Treasury , airports , see also Ministry of Health application of principles of modernity local government finance , , , – capital investment: in infrastructure –, in art –; panoramic views – and , –, , –, , ; in Plate , ; photographs ; portrayals public water supplies , –, ; in of crowds – social provision artistic centre as constraint on town planning , –, Balham, Du Cane Court , Battersea: fun-fair ; power station expenditure ; rise in , –, , Bayswater Bedford estate fiscal crisis (s) , , Bedford Park garden suburb , ,
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London (cont.) –; see also City (above); port (below); Belgravia trade (below) Bermondsey , , Edmonton , Bethnal Green , , , Elephant and Castle Centre Bexley, housing development Embankment , Blackwall Tunnel employment , ; labour market ; Brentford unemployment , , – Brewer’s Green estate Enfield Bush House , Euston station Camberwell , , , , Finsbury Charing Cross railway , Fulham Fellowship for the Unemployed Charing Cross Road , , – Cheapside government: centralisation –, ; City Chelsea Corporation , ; elected mayor church attendance , , , () ; parish vestries , ; rate City , ; banking , ; Clements inequalities , ; relations with Lane ; company headquarters –, central government ; see also London , , , –; Corporation , County Council; metropolitan boroughs ; and docklands development ; (below) Fenchurch Street, Fountain House ; Great Eastern Railway works financial centre , , , , –; Great Exhibition () , , imperial character of –; industry in Great Smog () , – ; office buildings , –, –, ‘Great Stink’ () , –; resident population decline , Great West Road, industrial estates , , , ; Stock Exchange , ; Threadneedle Street ; urban elite , Greenwich Park , , ; and world economy Hackney Clerkenwell , , , Hackney Marshes Collier’s Wood Hampstead , , , ; church communications , attendance , ; welfare provision competitive advantage for South-East towns , Hampstead Garden Suburb –, , contrasted with Paris , Copenhagen Fields Hampstead Heath , County of, boundaries () ; see also Harrow London County Council (LCC) Highbury New Park – Covent Garden ; renovation Highgate Cremorne Gardens , Holborn , Crystal Palace , –, ; concerts Horniman Museum Hornsey , culture and entertainment: cinemas –, Hospital Savings Association ; music societies ; ‘Season’ –, hospitals , , ; theatres ; variety of attractions hotels , –, – housing: council estates –, , –, Dickens’ descriptions of , , , (in suburbs) ; Islington ; landed docklands renewal xx, , estate developments , ; middle class Eagle Tavern (City Road) ; model dwellings –; and Ealing , , ; Bedford Park estate residential mobility –; slums and , , slum clearance , , –; social East End , , ; housing estates , differentiation –; suburbia , ; industry , , ; proposed –; survey () ; tenants’ redevelopment , –; theatres associations ; West End developments East Ham –; White Hart Lane , ; see economy , –; centre of elite also social geography (below) consumption ; commerce , ; Hoxton, theatre employment for migrants –; food Hurlingham Club supplies ; information-based ; and Hyde Park , ; Rotten Row , , mixed residential areas ; services , Imperial College
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industrial estates , , ; on arterial infant , , maternal –, , , roads ; Great West Road , , share of , , see also size (below) industry: geographical trends –; New port , , , ; cargo handling ; Towns factory development ; small- dock labour –; and Port of London scale , , –, ; in suburbs , Authority (PLA) ; proportion of trade ; workshop production , , , , –; transport links ; infrastructure ; disposal of household volume of trade –, waste , ; sewers n, , ; see also predominance , –, , –; imperial utilities (below) capital –; perceptions of –; as international role , , , world city , Islington , , Queen’s Hall , journeys to work ; see also transport Queen’s Park Kennington Common , , recreation, church facilities , –; Kensington , , , sports , , ; suburbs –, Kingston By-Pass Regent Street , – Kingsway-Aldwych Regent’s Park , Knightsbridge relations with regions –, –, ; Lambeth , –, provincial urban elites and – Lea Valley, industry Ritz Hotel, steel-framed Lewisham , Rotherhithe Tunnel livery companies , Royal Colonial Institute Marylebone, poor law , Royal Docks May Day celebrations St Helier industrial estate Mayfair, Grosvenor estate St James Park metropolitan boroughs , , , ; St Pancras station , after GLC ; conflict with LCC , ; St Paul’s Cathedral – and Plate housing policies –; municipalisation Savoy Theatre of utilities ; and voluntary Shaftesbury Avenue , , organisations Shaftesbury Park suburb Metropolitan Railway – shopping districts , , middle classes , , ; compared with Shoreditch, theatre provinces , , –; occupations size , , , ; boundaries , ; expansion , , Millbank council estate Smithfield , Mornington Crescent and Plate social geography –, –; Booth’s New Oxford Street , poverty maps , –, Noel Park suburb Somers Town North Circular Road Southall, trams North Kensington, slums Spa Fields office buildings , , ; see also City Stepney – (above) Strand , Pall Mall , Stratford , parliamentary boroughs Streatham Street, model dwellings – Piccadilly Circus , streets –; new , ; surfaces , Pimlico , , suburbs: Highbury New Park –; politics: Labour Party ; Liberals ; recreation –, Progressives , ; radical Liberalism Tate Gallery ; working-class – Tottenham , ; trading profits poor relief –, ; administration , Tower Hamlets ; charities –; COS coordination trade: coal supplies ; connections –; role in ; poor law rebellion , share ; warehouses – Poplar –, , , , Trafalgar Square population , , , ; census transport , , , ; cabs ; , ; decline in central districts ; hackney carriages ; horse buses ; growth ; Irish immigrants , ; motor buses ; road accidents ; Jewish immigrants ; life expectancy trams , , , ; underground ; marriage and fertility , ; railways –, , ; see also railways migrants ; mortality rates , , Ty b u r n
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London (cont.) London School Board , , utilities , ; districts , ; electricity London Transport () supplies ; see also water supply (below) London United Tramways Vauxhall Gardens , London and Westminster Bank Victoria coach station Long Eaton Victoria Park , , , Longbridge, motor works , Victoria Street , Lotery, Edward, shop developer water supply , ; private companies , Loughborough , , , , – Louth Watling council estate lower middle class , – wealth access to art welfare provision –, ; Hampstead aspirations of , –, – , ; see also poor relief (above) and consumerism – Wembley, industrial estate and fertility rates West End , ; contested space –; housing model dwelling developments –, ; and religion shopping district , ; theatres representation in art , West Ham , ; Board of Guardians social life , –, ; industry ; Labour Party control suburbanisation of , and urban politics , , Western Avenue, industrial estate Lowry, L. S., The Football Ground Westminster , , Luddism White Hart Lane estate Ludlow , , , Whitechapel: poor law , ; Toynbee Lumière Brothers, Lyons Hall , Lund, Niels, The Heart of the Empire (painting) Whitehall, government offices and Plate , Willesden Luton , , , , Woolwich , ; Arsenal and Dockyard Lutterworth , , , occupational structure , , see also Greater London; Metropolitan Board population , of Works Lynn , London, New Survey of (-) , , Lyons corner houses , London Building Act () MEPC property company London County Council (LCC) , , –, macadam, for road surfaces , , Macaulay, Rose conflict with metropolitan boroughs , McConnell, William, Twice Round the Clock hospitals – () – and Plate housing: ‘cottage’ estates ; policies , Macdonald, Ramsay –, ; sites , , – McGowan Committee () , Labour control , , –, , Mackintosh, Charles Rennie and leisure facilities , , Macmillan, Harold , and location of industry Madge, John, on Bristol housing policy – Moderate control –, Maidstone political control , economy , Progressive control , , ; and occupational structure , , betterment of property policies –; mail coaches and rate burden Major, John, and local government and rating inequalities – Mallet, Bernard and town planning , Maltbie, Milo – White Hart Lane estate managers , London County Council Tramways , as middle class –, London General Omnibus Company Manchester xx, , , London and Manchester Insurance Company airport , atmospheric pollution , , London Municipal Society Bowden London Passenger Transport Board , , city centre –; redevelopment plan , –
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Co-operative movement export goods District Provident Society specialisations economy –, , , ; structural change within –, business–science links ; central manufacturing towns business district –; diversity –, and industrial diversification – ; occupational structure , , , in urban ranking , ; small firms ; wealth Manzoni, Herbert, architect governance , , ; political control maps , , – , ; political culture , ; street plans , revenues , ; trading profits , Market Bosworth , , Market Harborough , , , , housing , , ; middle-class suburbs population , market relationships industrial estates , ; Trafford Park , market towns , , , decline of , industrial zoning engulfed by industrial estates Metrolink factories in middle class , , , Leicestershire – nonconformity , middle classes , Peterloo massacre , population decline – population , , ; life expectancy ; Wales migrants , marketing , , – port , , of the city regional centre , , development of , relations with Salford role of transport in , shopping areas markets social and cultural life , , , ; covered , Hallé Orchestra ; library ; music as function of urban systems , festival ; Owen’s College , ; integrated networks of – public parks ; recreational space , local authority provision , ; theatres ; Vauxhall gardens ; in small towns YMCA Sunday Sunday Schools Marlborough , , Town Hall , Marley Tiles Trafford Park , marriage Union Chapel (demolished ) age at , , , , –, ; mill University towns , urban elite , bar on women’s employment utilities , , in church welfare provision , , , , and economic cycles , Manchester Owens College , and fertility rates –, , Manchester and Salford Noxious Vapours patterns of , , Abatement Association see also fertility rates Manchester Ship Canal , , Marshall, Alfred Mann, Horace, and religious census , Marwick, Sir James, Glasgow town clerk Marxian analysis Mann, Tom, on dock labour commodity fetishism – manufacturers of urban spatial structure – influence in towns , Mass-Observation studies , , , links in London Bolton –, opposition to anti-pollution measures on religious belief – – Masterman, Charles, on suburbs – in urban government –, , Maternity and Child Welfare Act () , manufacturing administrative jobs within , Matrimonial Clauses Act () consumer goods , , , , , Mayhew, Henry , , London Labour and the London Poor employment (male and female) , on ports –
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means tests revivalism household , Wesleyan , for school meals Metropolitan Board of Works () –, for unemployment relief Mearns, Andrew, The Bitter Cry of Outcast boundary () , London , , sewer system , Mechanics Institutes , , subsidies to working-class housing – media , , Metropolitan Commission of Sewers () national broadcasting , –, , and popular culture – metropolitan councils () see also press Metropolitan District Railways – medical care Metropolitan Police () , , , , hospital savings schemes – and infant mortality rate Metropolitan Police District, boundaries , local authority provision Metropolitan Railway – and maternal mortality Metro-Land guide voluntary organisations’ provision , Metropolitan Traffic Act () see also health services Metropolitan Water Board () , , medical officers of health (MOHs) , , Mewport M’Gonigle, Dr, Stockton-on-Tees full-time , ‘microbe’ theories inspections by – middle classes medicines careers: structure –; working hours patent , –, penicillin and sulphonamides church attendance , , – Melton Mowbray , and consumerism , , , – fox hunting , , , defined –; subdivisions , – occupational structure , dissenting population domestic life: and culture of domesticity Melville, Herman –, , ; life style , –, men –; servants , , consumption patterns , , , – education –, employment concentrations , , housing – fatherhood and masculinity , identity , , , , hobbies income and wealth , –, , ; and marriage rate economic power of ; liability to middle-class occupational structure , income tax –, ; property and mutual improvement societies investment and personal appearance – leisure pursuits – and public space , marriage: fertility rates –n, –, role as sole breadwinner , , and n; patterns , , ; relationships Mendelssohn, Felix, Elijah, in Birmingham within Menzies, J., book retailers networks among , – merchants notion of respectability –, – business premises at home , , occupational structure –, , –, in urban government –, –, Merchants’ Houses, Scotland politics , –; radicalism ; response Merionethshire , to rise of Labour , , , Mersey, River, shipbuilding , in ports Merseyside, Social Survey of () post-war changes – Merthyr Tydfil , , role of , , economy , size of –, local health provision – social and cultural life , –, –, middle class , , –; enthusiasm for art ; increased population , ; marriage and fertility cultural dominance ; life style , , ; mortality rates –, – Methodism , , suburban , , , , ; and Primitive , suburban life , –
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transport, use of , , Mill, John Stuart , urban , –, ; decline in urban milling, development of large firms – leadership role –, ; elites Millport , –; in local government , , mills –, –, – mining industry , , view of working classes –, , and disease as viewers of pictures , –, employment and unemployment , welfare role , , ; in voluntary – organisations , –, and fertility rates , women’s independence – and small-town growth , , see also lower middle class; suburbs; urban Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries elite Ministry of Health , , Middlesbrough , , , , and local authority funding – governance , ; finances , regional organisation –, – industry ; ironworking , , ; responsibility for water resources , specialisation , White Paper on Local Government () occupational structure , , population, marriage and fertility , Mission Bands port , mission halls , –, Middlesex missionary societies, urban , Midlands mobility coalfields , of artisans – new industries between coalfields migrants , , increasing population –, adaptation , of labour –, , , , entitlement to poor relief , – among managers , and housing redevelopments and migration itinerants personal transport and low fertility and regional house price variations mortality rates residential –, –, –, and nonconformity , social , poverty of model dwellings , –, reception of , modernity –, skilled and unskilled , and capitalism and urban growth and fairs young adults as instability of see also immigration; Irish immigrants; and suburban life Jewish immigrants; migration transport station architecture – migration , , –, urban relationships and causes and nature of –, –, , and urban space , – Mold , between cities and towns , , , money – circulation of from cities , , and time, and consumerism –; for from Ireland – leisure and labour markets –, , , ‘monkey parades’ , , to and from mining areas , Monkseaton and new industry Monmouth , from North to South , –, , Monmouthshire , , , to northern industrial towns – monopolies and population growth , ‘natural’ (utilities) –, , , , rural to urban –, , , –, , – – postal service to small towns , Monopolies and Mergers Commission to suburbs , Montagu, Lord within cities Montgomeryshire see also immigration; migrants; mobility monuments, public Milford Haven , , Moody, Dwight L., and Sankey, Ira
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moral controls , Municipal Corporations Act () , , moral degeneration, perception of –, –, , Boundary Commission moralism , , , , political changes after , , – and entertainment –, , , – municipal culture –, , –, nonconformist , , and decline of supporting institutions , and retailing – see also evangelical moralism and democratic control Morden growth of –, , – Morecambe, resort and public health measures Mormons in small towns – Morris, William , see also civic culture Morrison, Herbert Municipal Franchise and Assessed Rates Act local and national politics , , () and regional utility boards , municipal socialism mortality , , ideology of – accidental deaths LCC Progressives and changing causes of death , Labour Party and – deaths in old age – provision of infrastructure – maternal –, –, municipalisation –, and place of death – of land and housing , – and sanitation , –, in Scotland from smogs – of transport –, see also disease; infant mortality of utilities , –, mortality rates , – Webb’s parable of –, falling –, –, museums and galleries , , , , , and life expectancy , –, , of migrants municipal , , , , North–South variations , , Sunday admission and occupational structure – music , mortgages , , clubs and societies –, – availability of , , –, concerts , , cheap – festivals for property development in small towns Moss, H. E., architect in streets – Mothers’ Meetings women’s participation in – Motherwell , , , see also brass bands motor cars , –, –, –, music halls , , , , and access to town centres , depicted in paintings and Plate availability of , lighting effect on historic cities – moral controls over effect on small towns , in provincial towns for leisure , , , in suburbs police controls on and ‘swell’ songs – pollution , , – women’s access to , proliferation of models mutual aid organisations , , road improvements for , , , mutual improvement societies, nonconformist see also traffic , , motor charabancs – motor industry , , , Nairn, Sir Michael craft privileges Nairn, small towns employment in Nairn family, Kirkcaldy Japanese investment Napoleonic Wars, and falling land prices motorcycles , , National Assistance Board Moyne Committee report () National Children’s Homes municipal corporations National Coal Board service provision phase – National Council of Social Service (NCSS) , unreformed , , , , ,
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National Deposit Friendly Society social –, – national health insurance – transport and – National Health Service , , , , , variations in – see also urban networks establishment of , New Brighton, resort and hospital care for elderly New Earswick regional hospital boards New Estates Community Committee , , National Housing Reform Council and n national insurance –, , – new factory towns , administered by agencies New Ideal Homesteads Ltd (s) and concept of nuclear family New Lanark , effect on labour markets , New Leeds as state responsibility –, New Poor Law see Poor Law Amendment Act National Insurance Act () –, –, () New Town Development Corporations financed by contributions , New Towns and friendly societies factory development in National Insurance Act () , post-war , , national parks skilled labour requirements , National Smoke Abatement Institution New Towns Act () National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty New York City , to Children (NSPCC) , Newcastle United Football Club – National Sunday League Newcastle-under-Lyme, fair National Trust Newcastle-upon-Tyne xx, , National Union of Ratepayers Associations governance ; political control , , nationalisation , , , , industry , ; small firms – of electricity – Metro financial objectives middle class , ; move to suburbs , institutional arrangements of land (proposed) occupational structure , , , of ports poor relief , of railways population, marriage and fertility , of utilities , , –, – port , , , naval bases , private utility companies , naval dockyards recreations , , , ; importance navigation laws , of football team – neighbourhoods suburbs , and class formation , telephone connections and council housing , , urban elite , social interaction in Newman, Bernard, on miners and town planning , Newport , , , , and welfare provision , , –, , News of the World () – newspapers , neighbours, relations between advertising in , Nettlefold, John, Birmingham , cartoons of urban experience – networks financial artisans’ –, , local , , business – popular , for casual labour –, property market international –, , – women’s periodicals kinship , , , see also press maritime Newtown , , among middle classes , – night clubs professional night life , , , – railway , –, , night soil regional marketing in small towns retailing branches see also sewage
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nonconformity freemasonry ; music festival ; assimilation of – public houses demolition of Manchester’s Union Chapel urban elite , () wealth moralism , , Nottingham , , , and municipal culture –, , – governance ; political control , , organisation , ; trading profits popularity in towns , housing: courts , ; middle-class suburbs recreational clubs – and social networks – industrial diversification Sunday Schools middle class , – and urban missions , population, marriage and fertility see also Baptists; churches; Methodism; University College Unitarians wealth Norfolk Nottinghamshire North Notts County football team Co-operative movement –, nuisance cultural life –, concept of development of civil society inspectors of employment structure , in medieval London housing tenure regulations to prevent , industrial towns: decline , , ; nutrition , restructured effect on health –, and n industrialisation –, mortality rates , Oban, migration from , municipalisation in , , occupational continuity, artisans North Berwick, population occupational structure –, , –, North-East – coalfields , of Liverpool council tenants failure of regional collaboration , middle classes , –, –, , high fertility rate and migration poor law administration in – and political culture –, ports specialisations –, North-Eastern Railway (NER) occupations North London Tramway, steam trams declining North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board secondary – North Shields O’Connor, John North Walsham , From Pentonville Road Looking West: Evening Northampton , , , () – and Plate economy, diversification , ; family The Embankment () and Plate businesses , ; wages Oddfellows occupational structure , , office buildings , , overcrowding Bush House , population , ; mortality rates – City of London , –, , , trading profits design improvements , Northampton, marquis of Labour ban on development () Northern Line, extension to Edgware size of – Northern Star newspaper skyscrapers , Norwich offices economic decline , in city centre districts , , governance , ; trading profits in converted residences middle class decentralised Mousehold Heath formal poor relief , , government , , population , , ; life expectancy ; in homes , , , , marriage and fertility , technology for social and cultural life , , , ; Okehampton, borough status church clubs and societies ; Oldham , , ,
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cultural identity as defining aspect of cities family companies distinct from commons infirmaries as expression of municipal pride , , middle class –, for health – population , Liverpool religion , location of – soot pollution for recreation , , –, – wealth Parks and Open Spaces Society omnibuses see buses parliament see government, central opera Parrott, William, London from the Thames: Orange Order lithographs () – and Plate Orchard, Benjamin Passenger Acts ordnance factories paternalism , , Ordnance Survey, maps industrial , –, –, , – Orkney , mining industry orphanages , , , and model towns , Orwell, George modified Osborn, Frederic patriarchalism Osborne, Rev. S. G. paupers, migrant , –, Outrage (Nairn, ) – paving setts (granite) , , outwork , , pawnbrokers , , , sweated labour Peabody Trust, housing estates , , overcrowding , , pedestrians –, , artistic portrayal of , , Peel, Sir Robert and cinema attendance Pember Reeves, Maud and disease , , – Penarth , Gateshead Pennethorne, James Glasgow , , pensions , , Liverpool effect on labour markets and pollution Pensions Act () Owen, Robert People’s Palace movement Oxford , Peterborough economy: manufacturing ; motor pew rents , – industry , ; science-based industry philanthropic bodies , , and housing redevelopment , , local health provision , and poor relief – middle class , urban elite and , , occupational structure , , philanthropy , poor law administration , conspicuous trading profits limitations of – utilities , ‘new’ Philharmonic Society P & O shipping line , photographs, of city life , Paisley , Physical Training and Recreation Act () Palmer family, Reading Palmerston, Lord pianos , Paris , – Pictorial Times, panoramic views along Thames parish vestries , , parishes Picture Post as basis of poor relief , , , accounts of provincial cities and entitlement to poor relief – view of working-class power –, poor rates Pigou, A. C. Scottish , Pilgrim Trust, Men Without Work report () subdivision of urban – Park Royal industrial estate , , , Pinner , Parker, Barry, town planner – Planning journal parks, public , , , planning officers, borough , band concerts , , authority of , , –
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Playfair, Dr Lyon administration of –, , , –, Pleasant Sunday Afternoon movement – pleasure gardens , , , declining importance of , , Vauxhall (London) , and entitlement to relief , , –, Plymouth , , , cinema-going , medical facilities , naval base , opposition to population, marriage and fertility reforms (twentieth century) – trading profits relations with charities police unions , , –, , and popular celebrations , see also Boards of Guardians; Local powers of control by , , , Government Act (); welfare provision stations Poor Law () , , and youngsters on street Poor Law Amendment Act () , , , Police Acts (Scotland), powers conferred by , , , and deaths in institutions Political and Economic Planning Report on exclusive nature of , the Location of Industry and mutual aid political parties Poor Law Amendment (Scotland) Act () centralisation of , clubs and associations , – Poor Law Board , and debate on land reform , , poor relief , , in local government , – entitlement to , , –, , middle-class allegiances –, , Guilds of Help and social and public health legislation middle-class role in , political process, and civil society outdoor relief , , , – political reform religious groups s in rural areas see also franchise see also poor law; welfare provision political stability, development of , popular culture –, politicians, national , youth –, – politics , , popular songs , – and measures against pollution –, population –, – age structure , –, , , – middle-class participation in – demographic changes –, regionalism in growth revival of municipal (s) northern industrial towns politics, urban –, , proportion as urban –, , , moralisation of in small towns , , , , , ; poll tax, as rate reform decline –; to define – pollution , , urban growth , , , atmospheric , , , –, see also diseases; fertility; marriage; migrants; effect of electric power on migration; mortality industrial , , , , populism, and social structure – and industrial disease Port Glasgow , legal measures against –, – Port of London Authority (PLA) , by motor vehicles , , – Port Sunlight , , smoke –, , – Port Talbot, port of water supplies , , Porthcawl water-borne Portishead, port see also sewage; water supply Portpatrick Pontypool ports , , –, Poole, Guilds of Help cargo handling , –, , , , poor ; bulk cargoes , ; and deprivation of –, containerisation , , , diet , classification of – in inner-city areas , , – coasting trade – poor law deep water facilities , ,
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economies: commercial activity in ; as pressure groups – distributive centres , , ; diversity environmental – , , –; processing industries , single-issue prestige international links , –, of involvement in local institutions investment in , –, –, from philanthropy labour disputes , Preston , naval bases , economy , occupational structure – occupational structure , , packet population ; infant mortality rates –; private ownership , life expectancy ; marriage and fertility public trusts , , reinvented as urban heritage xx, recreation , sailortowns – trading profits urban structures –, – wealth volume of trade –, –, – welfare provision , ; informal , Portsmouth , , , , clothing industry – prices middle class control of , naval base falls , –, population: life expectancy ; marriage of nationalised utilities – and fertility retail price maintenance (RPM) –, self-service Co-op store Priestley, J. B. , , , wealth Primrose League Post Office , Prinlaws industrial village employment in , printing industry , and telegraph , prints, art and telephone system – prisons , postal services –, , Pritchett, V. S. penny post , private sector postcards, seaside – building development , posters , economic comparisons with municipal postmodernity , utilities –, Potteries , , investment –, , ; in urban renewal labour market , , poor relief , and rural utility provision Roman Catholicism transport companies , see also Stoke-on-Trent utility companies –, , – poverty water companies , among elderly privatisation , and casual labour , of transport and consumerism – of utilities and Harvest Festival services prize fighting and mass unemployment production , Scottish towns and consumption , –, – sentimental portrayals of costs –, surveys of mass –, see also poor; poor law; poor relief Ruskin’s principles of power scale of , , , electricity standardisation , for industrialisation sweated trades , power, concept of see also workshop production Power, Nellie productivity – preachers and leisure street , professionals theatrical style as local government officials Preece, Robert, Dudley relations with industrialists press see media; newspapers in urban government , , ,
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professions , , , local authority expenditure on careers and reduced deaths from disease , employment in , , –, – reforms, London – new and water supplies , regional organisations see also General Board of Health; health women in services; hospitals; sanitation profits Public Health Act () , –, , , allocation of municipal trading , Public Health Act () , , , from natural monopolies , Public Health (London) Act () retained in cities , public houses , –, , state limits on as meeting places , from utilities , , , , , restricted hours , property , , social role of , – concept of , public opinion increased fragmentation for development apathy towards town planning , –, , , , – sale and lease-back acquisitions and preference for suburban living – as vested interest , , of property developers property companies –, , , public participation, in town planning , post-war , –, , –, , – property development – public regulation see regulation per cent tax on , public safety , destruction of historic buildings perceptions of , , finance for , of shopping areas , government intervention –, – public spaces interwar – and class , post-war – and consumption , see also compensation and betterment elite – property investment , , – for meetings and demonstrations , – corporate , in new developments equity – see also pleasure gardens; parks, public; private streets and rent review Public Works Loan Board property market –, , – public works projects , , , , , commercial estate agents post-war rise in values publicity, in planning procedure , property owners, small , , – pumps, public water property rights puritanism, influence of , effect of urban development of , – Purley and Uthwatt proposals for land development Pwllheli , , , Pyne, James Barker, artist prostitution , , artistic portrayals of –, Quakers , , Provident Dispensaries Association Prudential insurance company , , –, race meetings , racism Prussia radicalism, political Public Assistance Committees , , middle classes and , public conveniences Oldham , , public corporations , popular , utility companies , radios , , public disorder , , , Radnorshire, small towns and fairs railway companies fear of , investment in docks , – and perception of urban space ownership of ports , public health , , – role in port creation , , Glasgow railway excursions , , , inspections – from London
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Sundays economy , to tourist attractions housing railway lines occupational structure , , , as boundaries –, population ; mortality rates – construction in inner cities , –, welfare provision , , railway stations , –, , reading rooms, source of commercial railways , , –, , information effect on small towns – recreation , –, –, electrification , as alternative to church-going –, , freight , , ; fall in business , in countryside , – internal labour markets excursions – nationalisation facilities , networks , –, , , , in public parks , passenger , , ‘rational’ , , , privatisation of for religious purposes , – public regulation of , rural origins of – Stockton and Darlington secular provision suburban , in streets , , – and view of poor areas Sunday –, visibility of – see also entertainment; leisure; sport railways, underground –, , , Redfern, Percy, on Co-operative movement station architecture , –, – to suburbs , , , – Redlich, Josef, on local government , , Ramblers Association , rambling Reform Act (), definition of franchise Ramsgate – Rank, Joseph Reform Act, second () rateable values, increase in reform societies ratepayers refuse see waste products and franchise –, regional centres , , interests in utilities , , – economic diversity , – plural voting – in eighteenth century – revolts by , institutions – ratepayers associations middle-class wealth , rates , , multiple functions ‘capping’ twentieth century ‒ failure to reform –, , , , regional identity , , cultural inadequacy of , and professional sport – increase in , – regional planning, post-war independent power of raising , regionalisation – on industry , – of health provision , – poor law – and industrial development –, –, and profits from municipal utilities , , proposals for , – to subsidise working-class housing for utilities , , , – water charges as regions , , , see also grants comparisons of class structures Rathbone, Eleanor economic variations –, , Rathbone family, Liverpool industrial specialisation –, , ‘Rational Sunday’ movement – rationing, wartime –, integrated links with London –, Ravenstein, E. G., on migration and middle-class networks – Ray Committee on local expenditure () variations in holiday patterns – variations in middle classes , – Raynard Bible Mission ‒, variations in mortality rates –, Read, Herbert registration of births, marriages and deaths Reading , ,
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regulation presentation of goods – of housing price competition – parliamentary property development and tenure –, of trade – of utilities –, , , public companies (by ) weakness of , rural areas Reid Report (), on coal self-service , – Reigate , small towns Reilly, Sir Charles supply networks for –, Reith, Lord, BBC – see also Co-operative movement; religion consumerism; department stores; and class , , shopping centres; shops continuing use of rituals reversionary profit system and identity , Reynold, Hans and industrial urbanism Reynolds News influence on social behaviour –, , Rhondda , , Rhyl, resort intellectual doubt – Ribbon Development Act () liberalism Richmond (Surrey) , , personal belief – rights of way, for mains and tracks public role of riots, sectarian Religious Tract Society Ritchie, C. T., and local government reform rent controls , , , , , and inner-city property river boards , interwar rivers, pollution of –, rent reviews, on developed property Rivers Pollution Prevention Act () , rents council housing , , , , Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act () from developed properties , housing , road accidents profitability of –, –, Road Improvement Association () resort towns , , , roads , , capital expenditure projects arterial , , –, church attendance to docks and consumerism , , effect of improvements on town centres middle classes in , –, , , migration to freight transport , and sewage pollution improvement for motor traffic , , , unemployment () , –, resources , and peripheral industrial estates circulation of , ribbon development along , debate on depletion of surfaces –, respectability through slums , , , – constraints of –, –, – trunk , religious influence see also streets restaurants , – Roberts, alderman, Grantham retailers, on borough councils , Roberts, Charles retailing , , –, , Roberts, David, artist commercial buildings –, , – Robinson, Sir Arthur concentrated in urban areas Robson, W. A. – corner shops , Rochdale , , , and democratisation of shopping , Pioneers Co-operative movement , distribution , employment in , population , independent traders Rollason, Thomas, West Bromwich mail-order catalogues Rollitt, Sir A. K., Hull and move to primary production Roman Catholicism , multiples see chain stores church attendance
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and education – Sabbatarianism , , – in Liverpool Sacred Harmonic Society Roman Catholics, in local politics Saddleworth , Romford, population , Saffron Walden, population , rookeries see slums sailors’ homes Roscoe, Henry St Andrews Rose, Jack, office developer St Helens Ross and Cromarty governance , , Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, Found – and industry: pollution , , ; specialisation Plate , Rotary clubs , occupational structure , , Rotherham , , population, marriage and fertility , Rothesay , St Monday , , , Rowntree, B. Seebohm , – St Pancras House Improvement Society Royal Academy Exhibition Sala, George Augustus, Twice Round the Clock Royal Air Force () – and Plate Royal Commission on the Distribution of the Salford , , , Industrial Population (Barlow Report) corporation () , , , middle class , , Royal Commission on the Health of Towns poor law union (/) , population: life expectancy ; marriage Royal Commission on the Housing of the and fertility Working Classes (-) recreation –, Royal Commission on the Irish Poor in Salisbury , England () Salisbury, marquess of, Prime Minister , Royal Commission on Local Government , , , () , – Salt, Titus, Saltaire , Royal Commission on Local Taxation () Saltaire , , , , and n mills converted Royal Commission on Population (-) Salvation Army , Samaritan societies Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal () Samuel, Harold sanitary districts Royal Commission on Tyneside () sanitary inspectors , Royal Liver insurance company sanitary reformers , Royal Ordnance Factories, redeveloped and water-borne pollution , Royal Sanitary Commission, report , sanitation , , complexity of undertakings –, – Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to for each house , , Animals London, post-war rugby football , and mortality , –, rural areas , in small towns , , depopulation , , , water closets , , migration from , , , – see also pollution; public health; water supply population –, ; fertility rates , ; satellite towns , illegitimacy ; infant mortality , proposed around London ; life expectancy ; maternal Saturdays mortality evening entertainments , provision of utilities half-holiday , , relations with urban authorities , savings, personal , retailing , , Scarborough , welfare provision , annual holidays at , see also agriculture; counties; countryside; school boards , , , , small towns abolished () Ruskin, John , , , , representation on , moral aesthethics school meals, local authority provision of Russell, Lord John Rutland school teaching
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schools seamen , – board , seamen’s missions elementary , seaside resorts see resort towns grammar , , n ‘Season’, London social –, inspections of , Seatown public , , Second World War ragged bomb damage –, religious day , effect on church attendance secondary Emergency Medical Service voluntary – and housing policies , , – see also education; technical education; and local government reform – universities and ports – science and technology, education – and post-war property development –, Scotland agricultural reform second-hand stalls –, church attendance sectarianism , –, churches , ; Presbyterian , ; and football teams role in social service ; Sunday Schools and Irish immigrants ; urban church building Secularists, and fertility patterns n Co-operative movement , segregation economy, banking system , ; business and mortality rates organisation ; new industry residential –, –, , –, employment: holidays ; structure –; within middle class – football teams , social – governance , , ; revenues Select Committee on Municipal Trading housing , ; owner-occupancy ; () public ; standards ; tenement Select Committee on the Supply of Water to buildings , ; tenure , , , , the Metropolis self-employed, Sunday working influence of aristocracy in , self-help organisations –, , , land: acreage of urban , ; clearances self-interest, economic – ; development costs ; tenure , self-maintenance, principle of – Selfridge’s department stores , , Lowlands , service, domestic , , , , , Merchants’ Houses , – middle class , decline of municipalisation , Irish women – population, marriage and fertility patterns on London , –; migration in –, ; male employment in tuberculosis death rate –; urban in middle-class families , , powers conferred by local Police Acts , mop fairs non-resident royal burghs and unpaid housework rural population service sector small towns , , employment in , , , – towns xx–xxi, ; legal status expansion , –, , utilities , female employment welfare , , , ; poor law system productivity of – specialisation within see also Edinburgh; Glasgow Sunday working Scott, George Gilbert , Settled Land Act () – Scott, William Bell, Iron and Coal and Settlement, Laws of , , Plate applied to Irish immigrants – Scott-Moncrieff, George settlement house movement , , Scottish Insurance Commission () sewage sea, sewage pollution activated sludge method , , Seafield, earl of, and Cullen as agricultural fertiliser , Seaham Harbour, port chemical deodorisers
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filter-bed treatment , shopkeepers treatment of , –, , premises Sewage Boards in urban government , , – sewers n, shopping and drains as cultural and social activity , –, local authority programmes – , –, Metropolitan Board of Works system , democratisation of , , , shopping centres relationship with water supply n, arcades , , sexual behaviour city-centre and contraception – fashionable – culture of abstinence , –, , High Street , , , – malls laws controlling , out-of-town , , , liberalisation of , – secondary , pre-marital shops , , religious influence on – corner , , and use of public space – fascias and fittings , , Shaftesbury lighting for window displays , , Sharp, Thomas Shaw, George Bernard London Sheffield , , , multiple see chain stores church attendance size of , Firth College specialist , governance , ; political control , supermarkets , , ; weak civic culture , see also chain stores; Co-operative , movement; department stores; retailing Hallam, middle-class suburb Shropshire , , industrial diseases Sickert, W. R. industry: peripheral sites , ; steel The P.S.Wings in an O.P.Mirror () production –; structure , – and Plate Norfolk Park Silcock, millers occupational structure , , silk weaving population , , Silkin, Lewis, on town planning , private utility companies Sillitoe, Alan, Saturday Night and Sunday recreation , , ; theatres Morning town planning Silverthorne, Arthur wealth Simon, E. D., Glasgow welfare provision , Simon, Henry, Manchester Shepherd, George Sidney, artist Simon, Sir Ernest Shepherd, Thomas Hosmer Simon, Sir John, English Sanitary Institutions engravings of London – and Plate () Metropolitan Improvements (-) Singer Manufacturing Company Shillibeer, George, omnibuses Slaughter, Clifford, urban anthropology Shimmin, Hugh, on back-to-back houses (s) – slaughterhouses shipbuilding , , , Slough , labour market , industrial estates , , , and repairing new industries –, shipowners , population – shipping slum clearance –, , , barges, to remove rubbish from cities and s council housing , , , coastal –, , , – passenger liners , , church influence in technological developments –, –, compensation to landowners , , , on Thames Glasgow shop assistants , , government powers of ,
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slums –, , , seamen and – demolished , , and spatial segregation – in early suburbs social and cultural life –, Irish immigrants in attractions of – London , and differing economic structure –, new roads to clear , , , – –, – photographs of , increasing informality – redevelopment of –, , – middle-class , –, –, ‒ see also courts and courtyards nature of urban – Small Dwellings Act () organised small firms –, , –, – provision of facilities xix, continuing local links – small towns , , – niche markets –, in suburbs –, , , see also family firms see also clubs and societies small towns , –, social description, urban –, –, as central places , –, – changed nature of , , – Social Development Areas , development of municipalism – social reportage, in art , – distribution , , social services , economies , ; importance of cooperation with voluntary sector accessibility , ; and large businesses expenditure on , , – mixed provision of – infant mortality statutory provision local authority housing see also poor law; welfare provision municipal utilities in – social structure, urban –, –, occupational structures – analyses of – poverty – and marital fertility rates proportion of county populations , , reactions against enforced community – , , and town planning in rural counties , , , see also class sanitation –, , social theory social and cultural life , , – and dimensions of space – suburban growth , and town planning –, – urban growth , –, , socialism , Smalley, William, career in banking – and nonconformist politics , Smart, William, Glasgow radical smells, and ‘Great Stink’ () utopian , Smethwick , , society Smiles, Samuel tensions within , , – Smith, Adolphe and John Thomson, Street Life urbanisation of –, –, , , in London () and Plates , Society of Arts, on advantages of wooden Smith, Angus, Alkali Inspectorate paving Smith, Joshua Toulmin , , Society of the Chemical Industry Smith, W. H., book stalls , , Society of Engineers and Metallurgists smoke , Society of Friends War Relief Committee controls on , – Society for Improving the Condition of the from domestic coal , Labouring Classes legislation on –, sociology, and town planning and urban fogs , , , – Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Family Association social capital –, , , solicitors, and mortgages social connections, among urban elites , Somerset – songs social conservatism popular social contact –, ‘swell’ – comic portrayals of – South Africa and housing reform telegraph connections limited desire for – see also Boer War loss of , –, South-East
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new industries in –, – sports facilities proportion of middle classes , , , football grounds municipal provision –, , prosperity of –, , Sprague, F. J., American investor urbanisation , Springburn, satellite town South Shields , Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, preacher population , , Staffordshire , South Wales , , see also Potteries; Stoke-on-Trent coalfields , –, Stanmore (Middlesex) , labour markets – state ports , growth of , , South-West , see also centralisation; government, central; South-Western Railway Company, and Treasury Southampton docks state funding , , , , Southampton cheap loans to local authorities , airport for council housing , orderly reputation of , grants , , –, –, population, marriage and fertility , statistics, use of , port , ; passenger trade , , , statues, public ; railway development of , ; Steam Engine Makers’ Society volume of trade , steam engines, smoke controls revenues , steam power wealth effect of Southend-on-Sea , , – for factories –, , Southern Railway, electrification steamboats Southport , Stephenson family, Newcastle space –, sterling, international reserve currency concepts of spatial structure –, Stevenage new town contested , – Stirling – control of urban –, stockmarket, finance for property development cultural meaning of , –, – , gendered , Stockport , private residential – occupational structure , , , public and private , , –, wealth public residential –, – Stockton and Darlington Railway recreational , , , Stockton-on-Tees , , , restructuring of , – Stoke-on-Trent , streets redefined – population , in suburbs , pottery , and time – wealth within houses Stoll, Oswald see also public parks; streets Stopes, Marie, Married Love ‘Special Areas’ , Stornoway , Special Areas (Development and Improvement) Stowmarket , Act () Strange, William speedway racing Stranger’s Friend Benevolent Societies Spencer, Herbert Stranraer , Spillers, millers street cleaning , , sports , , street lighting and identity , , – streets , professional , ; working-class congestion , , domination of – furniture , restricted space for , as informal playgrounds , in small towns and motor vehicles , street as places of social interaction –, , in suburbs – – see also football for recreation , , – sports clubs , shopping ,
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streets (cont.) Sunday Trading riots () for transit –, –, – Sundays see also roads church attendance , , , strikes middle class London engineers () ‘monkey runs’ , violent recreation –, see also labour relations and Sabbatarianism – Stromness , Sunderland , , – structuration theory – economy , structure, significance of poor relief , Styal population: life expectancy ; marriage suburban housing and fertility , , detached villas , private trams with garages –, trading profits municipal sunlight, blocked by smoke owner-occupied Surrey private small towns , , –, – semi-detached , , , , stockbroker belt villas with stabling Surrey Garden Music Hall see also garden cities; suburbs; town planning surveillance , suburbanisation xx, , –, , of urban space –, and assumption of male breadwinner , Sutherland, small towns criticism of , , Sutton Trust (housing) eighteenth-century – Swaffham , , around London , –, Swansea , , middle-class , , , , , economy , and migration , – industrial pollution , as restructuring of urban space middle-class suburbs and spatial density , population , ; age structure ; spread of –, cancer deaths ; marriage and fertility and urban growth and utopian fantasy – port , , – of working class , , revenues , – suburbs , , , , sewage system council estates in –, , , , – utilities and culture of domesticity – sweated trades elite employment in , , exclusivity of , , , working hours industry in , Swindon inner, decline of population , middle class , , , ; move to , railway town , , Sykes, Frederick, Civil Aviation department planned garden symbolism shopping centres in , in civic ritual social and cultural life –, , , ; London Underground logo amateur theatricals –; amenities , in municipal architecture – ; sports clubs – synagogues street names transport to , –, Taff, River women’s life in –, , , , , Taff Vale Railway , Sudbury Taine, Hippolyte , Sullom Vo, oil terminal tanning yards, Bermondsey Summerson, Sir John, historian , , tariffs, trade , Sumner, John Bird, evangelical minister taste Sunday Schools , arbiters of –, , attendances nationalisation of teachers , , taxation Sunday Schools movement , corporate
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to fund pensions textile industry , , income tax liability –, cotton famine (s) , , , , income tax reform , –, land , , employment , –; female –, , local , , ; effect on industry –; narrow base , , ; Royal limited migration fields –, Commission () and n and low fertility rates , , , monopolies’ powers of paternalism of mill owners , post-war rises and political culture , on property development , rented space in factories redistributive , short-time working , and trust –, in small towns tea-rooms –, synthetic Team Valley industrial estate ten-hour day technical education , , water supply for , employer support for , wool , –, , and labour skills – Thames, River new institutions –, artistic portrayals of – Sheffield pollution , and status of artisans – shipbuilding Technical Instruction Acts ( and ) see also Plate sections n Thames Conservancy Board technological development , , , , Thames Land Co., developers Thatcher, Margaret building construction , –, attempt to reform rating system and decentralisation , hostility towards local government , , development of large firms – domestic theatres , , , of electricity supply evangelical disapproval of – engineering lighting glass industry (plate glass windows) London hydraulic power , provincial maritime , –, – travelling media theft, and rise of consumerism and networks , Thetford, trading profits office equipment , Thompson, William, scheme for municipal role of small firms – housing of sewage disposal – Thomson, Alexander, Glasgow smokeless fuels Thomson, John see Smith, Adolphe transport Thorley, millers for underground rail tunnels Thornley family, Bolton and urban growth , , Thornton, Richard, South Shields in utilities , thrift –, , , technology, information and consumer enjoyment – Teesside , Tilley, Vesta telegraph boys Tillings, motor buses telegraphs , , , time undersea cables , condensed by communications telephone services , , , night and day spread of network –, , – time-geography development, concept of temperance movement , , , – organisations , Tissot, Jacques Joseph, London Visitors () Ten Hour movement , – and Plate tenants’ associations , Tocqueville, Alexis de tenements, in Scottish towns , , –, Tonypandy topography , –, –, , Tennant, H. A. artistic images – tennis clubs small towns
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Tory Party see Conservative Party post-war –, – tourism , procedures – attractions , , public participation in , , –, tourists , – American, in London public perception of – depicted in paintings – and Plate residents’ view of –, – guidebooks for , Scotland in London , – Second World War – maps for , social theory and –, –, –, Tout, Herbert, survey of poverty in Bristol see also garden cities; New Towns town centres Town Planning Act () , , , abandoned by elites , Town Planning Act () –, abandoned by middle class , towns and cities –, , , central business districts , , –, ability to attract new industry –, – administrative linkages – community disintegration – aesthetics of – effect of road improvements on – changes (after ) – housing in , , , church attendance – industry in concentric view of – obsolescence of property , congestion in , , , , , and out-of-town shopping , as conglomerates – parking restrictions contemporary mixed feelings about –, pedestrianised shopping precincts , –, – population decline , , as cultural product – redevelopment , , ; s xix, decline of xix–xx, , ; post-war proposals –; early building development Victorian – effect of motor vehicles on – regeneration functions of –, , ; as centres of town clerks , consumption , ; as cultural focus full-time , ; as focus of power –, ; as town councils , labour markets , –; as markets chief officers , , Town and Country Planning Act () hierarchies –, n, , –, ; and Town and Country Planning Act () , migration –, High Street shopping centres , , , appeals procedure , , Town and Country Planning Act () incorporated see boroughs Town and Country Planning Association insanitary conditions –, , – town halls , , , institutional structure , , , new buildings , local authority housing town planners loss of confidence in relations with public moral perceptions of , – town planning , , , nature of social and cultural life –, , aesthetics of – appeals procedure () , new forms of charity provision – as central policy – population , ; age structure , ; for city-centre redevelopment –, maternal mortality controls –, , – rivalries between as democratic process , , , , size –, , , –; outward – expansion –, –, –; spatial and environmental pressure groups – density of , , , –, estate , as source of freedom formative period (-) – topography , –, –, interwar – utility companies , joint local plans variations between , , – lack of consensus see also company towns; resort towns; small neighbourhood plans , towns; urban growth origins and nature of , , – Townswomen’s Guilds
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Towyn , , and location of shops , , Tractarians, opposition to pew rents maximum fares traction engines, at fairs municipal trade new systems coasting –, , number of statutory undertakings – decline in international –, to suburbs , effect of world wars on – on Sundays exports – tracks for , –, free , , , Tramways Act () , –, , , imports –, Tramways Act () London financial transport , monopolies for factory production and distribution , overseas – , state regulation of fares , , , ; cheap workmen’s through ports –, –, – , , , ; flat-rate trade associations , , financial performance of municipal trade directories undertakings trade organisations , financing of – Trade Protection Societies freight , , , , trade unions , , , integrated networks , –, craft-based , investment in , depiction of consumers – links with building cycles dock workers private –, –, , ; see also falling membership (-) bicycles; motor cars and labour markets , public , , , , ; and peak miners demand ; and residential mobility , and new industry origins and restructuring of urban space – political power of , for retailers’ supplies –, , , role in welfare provision , to suburbs –, – shop stewards’ movement of waste from towns – and shorter working hours , , , within towns –, – see also railways; roads; shipping; trams Trades Union Congress (TUC), and paid transport companies, internal labour markets holidays tradesmen transport costs, for heavy industry – London transport services in regional centres boy labour trading revenues employment in –, , to finance services , , , travel forbidden in Scotland between towns objections to and social contact –, –, and rise of municipal trading – treasurers, municipal , traffic, pedestrian –, Treasury traffic congestion , , , – control over local spending , , modern problems of – and loans to local government , and park and ride schemes and location of airports parking restrictions , Tredegar, industry traffic regulation , , , Trent Fishery Board London trolley buses , Train, G. F., and horse trams Trollope, Anthony training , Trowbridge, textiles , see also education truancy trams , , , Trunk Roads Act () alternative means of propulsion trust, and taxation –, electric , –, , trusts, charitable , electrification , Tuckwood, John, Sheffield wholesaler – horse –, Tudor Walters report, on housing
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Tyne Commission, harbour improvements urban anthropology, and variety of family Tynemouth, population , forms – Tyneside , urban crowd, as subject of genre painting – economy , urban culture – ports , historiography of – regional reorganisation proposed , urban decline and renewal xix–xx, , Tyneside Development Board urban degeneration, theory of typewriters urban economy –, –, typhoid, epidemics , consumption in – effect on social structure –, , –, Ulverston – unemployment , , effect of utilities on –, and consumerism – flexible specialisation during cotton famine , – and housing redevelopment , cyclical nature of –, –, industrial growth and leisure mixed interests London , recent regeneration mass , –, , urban elites , –, , , mining industry , businessmen –, regional connections with London – short-time working , , – diversity of interests – structural influence on local issues , see also employment in local government , –; withdrawal Unemployment Assistance Board , , from , , , –, , – unemployment relief , , loss of confidence of , building projects , , , middle-class , , – central government responsibility for –, move from town centres , , – in ports , church schemes – religious affiliations – and inadequacy of poor relief scientific – statutory , , urban governance , see also national insurance and collective action –, –, , Union Chargeability Act () , , development of – disruption of Unitarians urban growth , , , , , United States changes in urban form building technology , – and consumerism , – business structure , and conurbations , , , capital investment in Britain , and industrialisation , , , , cinema in , path-dependency comparisons with , population: and mortality rates –; as consumerism , result of migration , electricity undertakings principles of expansion , interest in British municipal enterprise and size n, ; acreage of urban land –, and technology , – rise of , , variations in , , – telephone connections with see also population trade with , urban identity –, , transport systems , –, and civic pride – universities , , expressed in professional sport – civic , , , foundation myths middle-class access to – as middle class and science-based research , and sentimental loyalty – and settlement house movement structure and culture in –, , – Unwin, Raymond use of history –, and council housing as working class (from s) , – Letchworth Garden City , – urban networks –, , , and town planning , , , , county
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cultural – voluntary hospitals , , , , – international , funding for –, and pathways – increased numbers regional –, –, partial payment schemes see also networks specialist urban surveys, academic voluntary organisations , , , urban system difficulties of coordination corporate structures of , honorary roles in and industrial geography – influence in local politics , and interconnections – London boroughs longevity of xx–xxi and maternal and infant welfare – urbanisation xx, , middle-class involvement , –, and growth of government – organisational innovations – and industrialisation , –, – partnership with local authorities , , and infrastructure , , , –, – and interwar town planning –, and planning – problems of , religious , of society –, –, , , state and municipal finance for Uthwatt Committee on Compensation and urban focus of –, , Betterment () , , Volunteer Force movement, annual camps , utilitarianism utilities , , capital investment in – wage bargaining , development of , – wages , , economic performance –, , – building industry local authority provision domestic servants municipalisation of –, – higher real , , nationalisation of , , – local authority employees number of statutory undertakings –, and mortality rates , ownership of –, , , – new industries productivity –, , –, and rents public corporations , teenagers’ , public regulation of –, , Wakefield , , regional organisation of , , , – medical provision , , run for profit , –, population, marriage and fertility , – see also electricity; gas; sewers; water Wales utopian fantasies, of surburban life middle class utopian socialism, influence on town planning migration from , mortality rates , musical culture , vaccination, compulsory Sunday closing , Vaughan, Robert telephone connection The Age of Great Cities towns xx, , , on urban way of life , , urban hierarchy , Vaughan family, Brixton urban population , Victoria, Queen Wales, Edward, Prince of Jubilees , Wallasey , , – villages Wallis, Gilbert & Partners, architects engulfed by industrial estates Wallsend-on-Tyne planned, Scotland Walsall , , and urban networks population , , voluntarism Walthamstow in early urban governance – Wandsworth, cat-meat suppliers and public cultural provision Wapping in Scottish public health war tradition of , , , effect on religious adherence in welfare provision , , –, – effect on trade – see also charity; hospitals; philanthropy impact on mortality patterns –,
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warehouses –, , , proportion of local spending on – location of see also poor relief at ports , welfare provision , –, , Warrington attempts at coordination – population –, , churches and Warwick, seasonal labour disability benefits Warwickshire, small towns higher minimum standards , washhouses informal –, waste products , and labour markets – horse manure , , local administration of , – household , –, , local authority role , –, –, treatment and disposal of , , , national legislation on , , , , –, , – state responsibility for –, , , , see also sewage , watch committees see also poor law; poor relief Watch Night services welfare services, employment in water closets , , welfare state, and continuing regional variation water companies n, , joint stock Wellcome pharmaceutical company municipal Wells, H. G. , , private , Welsh, in Liverpool water supply , , –, Welshpool , centralisation of control –, Welwyn Garden City , , charges for , Wesleyan Central Mission Hall movement contamination by sewage , , , , West Bromwich , Albion football team ‘continuous circulation’ middle class , costs , , Pleasant Sunday Afternoon movement enforcement of anti-pollution legislation population , ; marriage and fertility , , , ; mortality rates financial performance of municipal West Hartlepool , – undertakings –, population , informal (springs and streams) West Midlands , investment in , , , – small metal trades , municipal ownership of , Westminster, duke of , number of statutory undertakings – Westmorland and public health , , , Weymouth quality of , whaling reliability , –, , whippet racing, Blackburn from wells , , Whistler, J. A. M. Waterhouse, Alfred, architect Nocturnes (s) – Waterhouse, Edwin Thames Set () – and Plates , Waterhouse, Theodore Whitby, port, investment Watford, new industries White, L. E. Wathen, Sir Charles white-collar workers –, wealth middle-class , , and local leadership roles recreation , middle classes –, working life – Wearside, ports Whiteley, William weavers, handloom Whiteley’s department store , , Webb, Sidney , Whitley Bay parable of municipalisation , , Whitley Councils, for non-union workers weddings, Saturday afternoon Whitsuntide, traditional holidays , Wednesbury, wealth wholesaling , , weekend, concept of Co-operative movement welfare Widnes , entitlement , , , , Wigan , , exclusivity of – population , ,
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Wigtownshire social life , , , ; cinema-goers Willesden , ; in clubs and societies ; and family Williamson Committee Report () holidays ; limited mobility ; Willinck, Henry, Minister of Health middle-class –; proportion of Willmott, Peter, urban anthropology church-goers , ; use of tea-rooms Wills, Sir W. H. and restaurants – Wiltshire , and suburban life –, , , , Wimbledon , tuberculosis mortality rates Winchester, wealth see also domesticity, ideology of; fertility; Withenshaw marriage; mortality Wivenhoe (Essex) Women’s Advisory Housing Council () Wolfson, Isaac Wolverhampton , , , Women’s Co-operative Guild freemasonry Wood, Kingsley governance , , Wood, Sir Charles middle classes , Wood, Thomas, Keighley occupational structure , , , Woodbridge , population , Woodcraft Folk organisation wealth wooden blocks, as street surface , Wolverton Woodward, E. H. E. women wool access to public space , –, , , production and marketing – – see also textile industry as consumers , , ; middle-class Woolwich , , Arsenal and Dockyard , , and Contagious Diseases Acts , Riverside Gardens and culture of domesticity , –, , Woolwich Building Society , , Woolworth’s chain store as domestic servants , –, , , Worcester , – work creation schemes employment , , , ; clerical work Workers’ Education Association , , , , ; in commercial workhouses , , and service sectors , , ; effect on tests for admission fertility rates , –; in factories , working classes , , , , – and Plate ; informal access to fine art ; in manufacturing , , , , artistic portrayals of –, ; in middle-class occupations , , car ownership , , ; outworkers ; part-time ; church attendance , ; and church shop assistants , ; short career , organisations –; and pew rents – ; as skilled workers ; textile in city centres , industry –, , , ; working and community life , , hours and consumerism , , , , growing autonomy of , –, ; and fatherhood female impersonators ; living household employment patterns , independently , ; and safety of housing –, , –, ; department stores –, (dis)satisfaction with suburban estates influence in planning , – –, –, –; home ownership by Irish immigrant –, –, –; suburbanisation of , , marriage and fertility rates –, , – , – migrants –, –; in Scotland and leisure , –; mass entertainment poor , , ; popular pastimes , – in port towns middle-class view of , –, ; public roles , ; in local government leisure seen as idleness ; need for , , , , ; in partisan politics policing measures against , , ; in voluntary charitable and mutual aid organisations , organisations –, , , politics, influence in local , –, , as publicans ; London ; manufacturing towns sexual harassment of –
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working (cont.) Yarmouth , , –, private insurance provision –, Yates, Edward, builder rising influence of –, , ; in local Yerkes, C. T., American financier government –, , –, , York xx, , , , , travel to work – middle class and urban identity , – population , , use of bicycles private utility companies , working hours , , trading profits middle classes –, welfare provision , and overtime , Yorkshire , , reduction in , , , wool towns ; low fertility rate , , Saturday half-holiday , , , women’s woollen industry , –, , see also holidays Young, Michael, urban anthropology working men’s clubs Young Men’s Christian Association , , Workington , – , workshop production –, , Young Women’s Christian Association , holidays youth London , –, church organisations , , – move from – as consumers – revival of , social activities , , in small towns – street culture – subcontracting Youth Hostels Association , World Bank, and urbanisation in developing countries zoning ‘worldliness’, and moral destruction in city redevelopment plans , – Worsborough , commercial –, – Wrexham , industrial estates – Wyllie, William, Toil,Glitter, Grime and Wealth Zweig, Ferdynand on a Flowing Tide () and Plate
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