NYAI AND THE PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION : INTERTEXTUALITY, RECEPTION THEORY, AND NEW HISTORICISM

Umar Junus'

ue to the prevalent concept of lite- but what is said to have happened . And in rature being a document, recording this case the respective incident has been an incident, as well as the lack of filtered through the dominant ideology of the Dproper historical documents, people tend to late 19th century Indonesia among the peo- take for granted that the description of a ple surrounding Francis' life . It can be com- society in a literary work as an authentic pared to Lucien Goldmann's statement description of the society it describes . Seja- (1964, 1967) on Racine's dramas . Racine rah Melayu "Malay Annals is then simply did not report an incident in ancient Greece . regarded as an authentic description of the He simply used them to express his Jan- Malay society in the Sultanate of Malacca . senist ideology. And the phenomenon can They never bother to questioning it although be compared as well to F .R. Ankersmit's they know it was written more than 100 statement (1983 :8). The facts are there, but years after the fall of the Sultanate - for a as they are put in a narrative writing of his- further discussion please refer to Umar tory they are then subjected to the narrative Junus, 1984 and Cheah Boon Kheng, 1998 . logic rather than to the facts as facts . In this Accordingly, one might take the same atti- case we have to refer as well to Alun Mun- tude towards Cerita Njai Dasima "Nyai Da- slow's discussion in Deconstructing History sima story" by G. Francis (1896) which re- (1997) which emphasizes the fact that eve- lates an incident in 1813 . In this case, I ry thing is a discourse . It has to be seen as agree with Kenji Tsuchiya (1991 :476) who belonging to a syntagmatic system rather reminds us about the time difference bet- than to a paradigmatic one as I have pre- ween the incident and the time the work, viously discussed (1989 :3-18) and, it can be which reported it, was written and published compared as well to the statement by Ri- which does not allow us to take it as an chard Harland in discussing the super- authentic description of the respective inci- structuralism and beyond . However, we al- dent. It is quite possible that the incident did so have to take note on what Tineke Hell- take place in 1813 . And as it was reported wig says in her 1992 article . She believed by Francis only in 1896, his source was Dasima was fictional . She questioned the simply one's memory rather than the actual authenticity of Dasima's photograph (3-4) in incident - in this case it can be compared to Francis' text. It is quite possible that the the role of memory as discussed by Mark function of the respective photograph is Freeman (1993). Francis then simply based simply to authenticate the story, similar to his report on somebody else's report and those in Pertemoean "The Meeting" (Abas this fits very well to Michael Maranda's sta- Pamoentjak n.S, 1927) and Rol Patjar Me- tement regarding the nature of a historical rah Indonesia "The Role of Indonesian fact (1998 :416). It is not what has happened

Pakar Sastra, pernah menjadi guru besar di Universdi Malaya .

82 Humaniora No. 12 September - Desember 1999

Umar Jun s

Scarlet Pimpernel" (Matu Mona, 1940) as I re Iity, dialogs among texts - Julia Kristeva have previously discussed (1988). de eloped the concept of intertextuality Goldmann treated Racine's dramas as fro that of dialogic of Mikhail Bakhtin and an epiphenomenon to the Jansenist world bo now develop into two different ideas . In view . He started with the Jansenist idea of as .ition to that, Tempo Doeloe was pu- the hidden God, le Dieu cachee, and then bs' hed at the same period with Toer's tetra- look for it in Racine's dramas . He was then lo y, starting with Bumi Manusia "The Earth able to establish the relation between the of Mankind" (1980), in which a nyai, " a na- Jansenist world view and Racine's dramas . ti • concubine of an European master", He used the information regarding a certain a o plays an important role, although she period or thing to explain the factors res- w s of a different quality . At least we can ponsible for the creation of certain works . r late it to the hyperreality phenomenon as However, there are other ways of seeing a di cussed by Umberto Eco (1987) . There is certain phenomenon . In this case I would en an ideology - in Althusserian sense like to employ ideas developed within the ( f. Catherine Belsey, 1980 :5) - behind its intertextual studies, the reception theory r printing. It can be also related to Toer's and the new historicism .. • ort of introducing a new paradigm to the The presence of other versions of an in- s udy of Indonesian literary history . Instead cident regarding Nyai Dasima allows us to • starting with the novels published by Ba- detach Nyai Dasima story from a (possible) I i Pustaka, a literary agency established by real incident supposed to take place in • Dutch colonial power, he started the 1813. It does not concern us whether the in- I donesian literary history with novels of cident really took place or not as we are no arlier period published in colloquial Malay longer concerned with the authenticity of y private publishers which is usually asso- the report. We simply concern with the pu- iated with non-Malay people : Chinese or blication of the works, discourses, directly urasian. For him, the genesis of Indone- related to the situation around 1896 - the ian literature is not the classical Malay, year Francis published his work, 1940 - the sually associated with the palace . life, but year Roestam St . Palindih published his 'th literary works in the colloquial Malay Dasima, not Nyai Dasima, based on a mo- hich was responsible for spreading the vie story, and 1965 the year S .M. Ardan pu- alay beyond its natural boundary . He then blished his Nyai Dasima. They take us to ccordingly called the literature as sastra the world of text: Francis', Palindih's and Ar- ra-Indonesia, "literary works of pre-Indone- dan's texts respectively . To these we can an period" . And this is simply a continua- add 's text which is on of what the communist party had pro- more than a simple re-publication of Fran- pagated before their 1965 abortive coup . cis' text, especially seeing it from the follow- There is another version of Nyai Dasima ing perspectives . He published it as Tjerita story but I would not discuss here as it is in Njai Dasima "Nyai Dasima Story" only while Dutch . It was written by A. Th. Manusama Francis published it as Tjerita Njai Dasima, in 1926 under the title: Njai Dasima, het soewatoe korban daripada pemboedjoek slachtoffer van bedrog en misleiding . Een "Nyai Dasima, a victim of temptress" . As historisch zedenroman van Batavia "Nyai Toer's title is different from that of Francis, Dasima : a victim of cheating and temptress . his edition might lead the audience to a dif- A historical moral novel of Batavia" . Manu- ferent perspective . In addition to that, Toer sama did not mention the presence of Fran- published Nyai Dasima story in Tempo cis' version . He based his version on a "co- Doeloe "The Yesteryear" (1982) together medy" performed by a Komedie Stamboel with other works from the same period group in Indonesia as he also regarded which according to him seemed to have the himself as a writer for "comedies" perform- same characteristics . It is then no longer an ed by such group . He was also the writer of independent discourse. It now belongs to a "Stephan de Lima", "Krontjong" and "Kome- wider discourse consisting of several dis- die Stamboel" . Although his story line is not courses. This encourages us to compare different from that of Francis but he did so- Dasima story to other works, an intertextual me changes to the structure of the story

Humaniora No. 12 September-Desember 1999 83 Umar Junus telling, by reorganizing it. And this might It is neither a movie story as such as it has lead the audience to a different perspective been narrativized . I assume Mak Buyung but I have no intention of discussing it here . was never labeled as Iangkaneb," a poiso- Manusama also did other changes . It was nous leave", in the movie - langkaneh is a no longer a simple Master Edward W, it was Minangkabau idiom for someone who only now Master Edward Williams or Master creates trouble for other people . Palindih Williams. He extended the story to the court gave her that label in the story as the narra- sentencing people responsible for Dasima's tivity allowed it . Accordingly, Palindih's text death. Poeasa, no longer Poasa, got a de- has to be treated as a story rather than as a ath sentence . Samioen got a life sentence, screenplay. However, we can not erase the while each Saleha, Hajati and Mak Boe- trace of a movie from it. There are more joeng was sentenced 15 year prison . Koen- than mere facts in it, according to Ankers- toem, Samioen's slave, was bought by mit's idea (1983 :7). Master Williams and was set free . Williams Our first problem is the intertextuality . and Nancy then left Indonesia for England . There are so many discussions on intertex- In addition to that, Manusama also added tuality but for convenience I would like to re- an introduction and a historical background fer here to an anthology edited by Jay Clay- of the story. Accordingly, Manusama wrote ton & Eric Rothstein (1991) . And for the pre- the version not for an Indonesian audience, sent discussion, I would simply ignore some but for the Dutch one, at that time, during preliminary concepts of intertextuality. the colonial period, was a concerned au- Where does it take place? During the dience. They were concerned about what process an author authoring his work? Or in happened to their colonized subjects as it the work itself as it does refer to other would affect their life as well. It is then diffe- work(s)? Or does it take place in the rent from the audience of Harry Aveling's audience who relates the respective text to translation of the story - he translated the any text - cultural and social as well - he story for two other purposes, both are ldera- ever encounters with? As far as (Nyai) ry in nature (1988 :1-3). At least Manusama Dasima text is concerned, I will concentrate prepared the story for the people who on two types of intertextuality. First, its spoke Dutch . For this reason I prevent intertextual relation to any text published at myself from discussing it here . the same period. We can establish an There were some socio-cultural and po- intertextual reality of Francis' text and texts litical phenomena responsible for the publi- published around 1900 . We can establish cation of "new" versions of Dasima story. It an intertextual reality of Pallndih's text with was not by accident that Palindih and Ardan texts published around 1940 . Or Ardan's published their texts, which are different text with texts published after 1950 or from that of Francis, as it can be studied by around 1960 . Second, the irdertextual the reception theory . Later on, the new his- relation among any (Nyai) Dasima texts . I toricism introduces a new dimension to the would like to concentrate my discussion on study of literary texts . Instead of describing the second concept of intertextuality, the nature of a work from the historical although sometime I might venture as well background, which produced it, one now to the first concept. starts from the other end, constructing a so- Besides that, the differences among ciety based on the phenomena supplied by those texts and the "reasons" for their diffe- literary works . Our problem now is how to rences might also take us to the field of re- construct the society responsible for the pu- ception theory, the factors responsible for blication of Francis', Palindih's and Ardan's someone altering a particular text - there text from the phenomena supplied by each are so many discussion on the reception text. However, based on some reasons, we theory but I will simply refer to Wolfgang have to discuss the nature of Palindih's text Iser (1 978a, 1978b) and Hans Robert Jauss first. (1979). At the same time, reading a text Although Palindih's text was based on a from a particular point of view would enable movie story, it is not a screenplay . It was us to construct the cultural reality of the pe- not prepared for the production of a movie . riod, which reminds us to a cultural mate-

84 Humaniora No. 12 September- Desember 1999 Umar Jun s rialism of Raymond William, in America now useless, she was successful in reintro- known as new historicism (cf . H. Aram Vee- ducing Dasima to her native's world . ser, 1989) . However, before going to such She reminded her of her sin living an an analysis, I have to make an inventory of illicit relation, especially with a kafir, a the property of each text .1t is not an objec- non-Muslim man She reminded her of tive one as it is not free from any prejudice her bleak future as her master might and subjectivity . I would also include items take a wife of his own race; as well as absent from the text as I have expected of her loneliness being secluded from them to be present - based on the texts I her own race . have so far read . Or I would question the 6 Dasima was a victim of a native conspi- presence of an item as I have expected that racy who lured her to their world in or- it should not be there . I would, for example, der to rob her of her wealth . She was list the absence of the description of how the victim of the corrupted native life . Toean or Master Edward W took Dasima as his nyai in Francis' text. The respective text Poasa, Samioen and Koentoem who does not tell us either regarding the living were responsible for the death of Dasi- condition of Dasima family before Master ma were either got killed or would be Edward W took her as his nyai, concubine . later on be punished . However, no acti- on was taken against Mak Boejoeng who lured Dasima to the native's world . Inventory of Francis' text: There was no action taken either 1 . (it does not mention how Dasima be- against Mpok Saleha and Hajati who came Master Edward W's nyai - 'mas- treated Dasima badly and who urged ter' is the translation of Indonesian Toe- Samioen to get rid of her. an, a pronoun mostly reserved for a Eu- 8. Although Samiun only paid Poasa to kill ropean master .) Dasima - he was not Poasa's asso- 2. Master Edward W treated Dasima kind- ciate - he was not a good man either . ly, providing her with materials and je- He was a black-marketer dealing with welry. It might suggest a happy "family" stolen properties . life especially as Dasima had given him 9. Hayati was Samioen's wife who treated a daughter . He even let her having Dasima badly. And Mak Boejoeng, as everything he had given her when she she was paid by Samiun, played an ac- . She came out from his house left him tive role in luring Dasima into Sami- as a rich woman. oen's trap . The happy "family" life of Master Ed- 3. 10. Master Edward W was staying in Gam- ward W and Dasima was guaranteed bir, while Samioen in Pejambon and as they were secluded from the native Poasa in Kwitang . world. 11 . The story ends with a tragic ending . 4 . The corruptness of the native people . They were so greedy . They would do anything for money. They were ready to Inventory of Palindih's text: sacrifice their religious principle for the 1 . The title is no longer Njai Dasima but sake of money until we suspect the Dasima only. And there is no longer religiousness of Salihoen, a haji who Master Edward W . He was replaced by had performed pilgrimage to Mecca . Winata, -a rich native who was legally We can also assume that one could married to Dasima, whose parents cleanse his sin by performing pilgri- were poor . mage . As a matter of fact, the text has 2. Dasima felt empty as Winata spent manipulated Islam . It was used to cheat most of his time with his business al- somebody. though he did provide her with material 5. Mak Boejoeng's infiltration to Dasima's wealth. life . Although she failed to influence Da- sima by using a magic potion as it was

Humaniora No. 12 September- Desember 1999 85 L uar Iwrus

3 . Dasima was dissatisfied with Winata as as a hillbilly, not worthy for his social he did not respect her parents and did circle. In addition to that, she felt lonely not support them with money either. living alone in a big house with nobody 4 . Mak Buyung - nobody paid her, just for to talk to. She left him because she got fun? - played an important role in bored with such a life and wanted to breaking up Dasima's marriage to Wi- share the community life of her compa- nata by fabricating false stories about triot. After she left him, she stayed with him. And she did her best matching Da- Mak Buyung, Samiun's neighbor. She sima to Samiun . stayed there even after getting married to Samiun . 5. Samiun, after the death of his wife, spent his time in Puasa's gambling den, 3. Accordingly, Master Williams was bad . and was under Puasa's influence . He As Dasima did not return to him as he asked Mak Buyung to match him to Da- had predicted, she was afraid that he would do something bad to her (1971 : sima after she was divorced by Winata and returned to her parents . Samiun 53). And Puasa's conversation with Du- later on actively took part in the plot of b (55) suggested that Puasa was hired killing Dasima . by Williams to kill Dasima . Puasa was boasting having plenty of money, and 6. Hayati was Samiun's sister, not his wife he didn't tell Dulo who gave him, but as in Francis's version, who together we, the audience, are sure he did not with her mother, Saleha, purposely get it from Samiun who was not rich treated Dasima badly . enough to give away a big amount of 7. Salihun, Saleha's brother, was a good money. man but was cheated by Saleha and 4. Mak Buyung was a lady with good cha- her children. racter. She worked for Dasima without 8. At the end of the story, everybody got any prior motives . She matched her their punishment. Samiun and Puasa with Samiun as he was really in love was caught by the police after Winata with her, not because he paid her to had revenged their cruelty towards Da- persuade Dasima to many him . The sima, and were properly punished. Ha- same thing goes to Saleha and Sali- yati and Saleha now made a living as hun. Saleha was, as a matter of fact, beggars. And Mak Buyung had to complaining about Hayati's character spend her life in a mental hospital . and she was against Samiun taking a second wife. 9. There were no specific location about where the story took place. 5. Samiun earned his living honestly. Da- sima knew him as he sent Nancy, Da- 10 . The story ends with a tragic ending. sima's daughter, to school . He married Dasima out of his love to her. He had no intention of robing her of her wealth . Inventory of Ardan's text : However, he was too weak, to go 1 . The title . is once again Njai Dasima. against Puasa's and Hayati's wish - There was no description on Dasima's Hayati was his wife and a gambler - household with Master Edward Wil- the antagonists. Samiun could not pre- liams - no longer a simple Master vent Hayati from mistreating Dasima, Edward W. It only told us that Dasima taking away her jewelry . is Williams' nyai and they had a daugh- 6. The audience knows that Samiun was ter, Nancy. It didn't tell us how Williams not guilty . It was Williams who hired Pu- got Dasima. But it did tell us that Da- asa to kill Dasima . But no other story sima's parents no longer acknowledged characters knew that. And the audience her after she became Williams' nyai. also expects that the authority would 2. Dasima left Master Williams as he did take Mr. Williams responsible for the not respect her. He simply treated her death of Dasima, not Samiun. The knowledge of audience of the 1965's

86 Humamora No. 12 September -Desember 1999 Umar Jun s

version of Dasima story is then different ret rn to her native world which promised from that of the characters of the story. her a safe heaven, the move she later re retted 7. Williams stayed in Pejambon while Sa- . Nyai Dasima story is then a tragic on . Dasima was trapped between two miun in Kwitang . op osing worlds . One gave a secured pre- 8. The story has a comical ending . Every- se t but an uncertain future . The other, on body said that Salihun and Mak Buyung th other hand, she hopes, would give her a pitied Samiun . Samiun's father had ce ain future . On the contrary, it gave her a asked Salihun to take care of him, while bl ak present instead as it simply victimized Mak Buyung treated him as her son . he Stories published at the same period The inventory tells us how one text dif- pr vide us some information . The mother in fers from another . In addition to that, by "T erita Njai Tassiem" - Story of Nyai Tassi- comparing them to the social or cultural e - in "Tiga Tjerita" - Three Stories - texts so far known to us we can establish (1 97) sold Tassiem to a European man . At the relationship between a particular text fir t she was happy as her master was very with those of its period . Let me concentrate g nerous. He however threw her out of the on the first item of the Francis' text, the ab- h use after getting married to an European sence of description on how Dasima be- gi I. She accordingly lost her minds as she came Mr . W's nyai and what kind of family w s not allowed to take her children with life they might experience . h r. Mas Kromodiwirjo in "Sahira" in "Tiga The social and cultural texts, which T erita" had to let babah Ong, a rich brought me up - I do not think I have to ite- C inese, to take Sahira as his nyai as he mize them - tells me that the Dutch master as unable to pay his debt . However, forced the nyai system to Indonesian wo- hira persuaded Mas Ngabehi Tirto di men. By abusing his power - the most res- edjo, her fiancee, to kill babah Ong . Mas pectable one only abused his money, he gabehi was later sentenced to death. And was able to force a native girl to be his nyai, ahira took her own life at the very date to satisfy his sexual needs . Only an immoral as Ngabehi was executed . Saipa in girl would voluntarily submit herself to be a " jerita " - Story of Conat - (F .D.J . nyai. In addition to it, as it is an extramarital angemanann, 1900, Toer, 1982 :155-220) relation, it is a sin according to the Islamic ecame a nyai as her father sold her to her law. A faithful Muslim would not commit aster. Nyi Paina in "Tjerita Nji Paina" such a sin . Accordingly, the principal motive tory of Nyi Paina, (H . Kommer, 1900; of nyaiship is a sexual pleasure - a nyai is oer, 1982: 315-29) - had to inflict herself simply a sexual object - rather than esta- ith smallpox in order to kill Master Briot, blishing a family life, as is the case with a er master who had abused his power so marriage sanctioned by law. Accordingly, er father who was working for him had to we can not expect much from it. We can not urrender her to him, becoming his nyai. expect it to be lasting . And it is not a happy aster Briot was accordingly dead and she family life either. Dasima in both Francis' urvived by only having scars on her face . and Ardan's version, experienced a psycho- he same thing happened to Nyi Sarikem . logy of fear . She was afraid her master hose stories told us the hardship an would anytime get married to a European ndonesian woman had to endure because girl and she would be thrown out of the f the practice of nyaiship . They are totally house. She did not belong to her master's different from Dasima's experience . Those society . She then felt she had to reunite stories then make us question the reality of with her native community to which she be- Dasima's story . It is too good to be true . Or longed. She was also afraid of punishment we might arrive at other conclusions . from God in the other World . And the na- Francis' version of Dasima's story was tives, in their effort of luring Dasima to their discrediting the natives who victimized Da- trap, capitalized on this matter . As she was snna by first luring her to their world and la- anxious about her future, at present as well ter victimized her. It is explicitly expressed in the after-death life, Dasima was ready to by its subtitle : soewatoe korban daripada

Humaniora No . 12 September - Desember 1999 87 Unrar Junus pemboedjoek "a victim of a temptress" and story in order to favor the world of (her) Eu- the temptress happened to be the natives. ropean master, parts of his mission sacree, They manipulated the religious and the eth- bringing out Desima from the world of dark- nic sentiment until she submitted herself to ness of the natives to that of light of her Eu- the psychology of fear. We might then con- ropean master. xShe had to return to her dude that Dasima would lead a happy life master for protection . It was not by luck that should she stick with her master, did not Nancy and her servant who found Dasima's submit herself to the fantasy world of her corpse in the river behind her house . W natives circle . As a matter of fact, Dasima then informed the Dutch Resident who took moved from the white world of her master to the proper action, arresting the persons, the the black one of her natives . In addition to natives, who were responsible for her that, Francis' text was also discrediting Is- death. lam - Heiwig also raised this problem (12- Accordingly, we might conclude that on- 15). Dasima left her master as Mak Boe- ly the European master provided Dasima joeng reminded her of her sin living together with material pleasures . The natives, on the with a man without getting married . She other hand, simply robbed her of the wealth would receive heavy punishment in the she got from her master . And as W failed to other world. The religious fear made her save Dasima from being victimized by the leave her master and yet she was victi- (wicked) natives, he had failed in his sacred mized by the very society she sought for mission to help and to civilize the natives . salvation. He failed to bring out Dasima from the world Master Edward W was very understand- of darkness of her natives to that of light of ing. He provided Dasima with every mate- his own. He even let Dasima victimized by rial pleasure even when she was leaving the world of darkness of the natives . him. He even had an intention of legally Or it can be said that Francis wrote Njai marrying her after she was converted into Dasima story in order to describe the tragic Christian. The native world was, on the con- life of a nyai living in the world of no return . trary, black . The world of darkness, duis- She could not return to her previous world temis, as the title of the collection of Karti- as it would only victimize her . In addition to ni's letters edited and published by J .H. that, she no longer had a previous world to Abendanon in 1911 might suggest . Dasima, return to. By leaving her society, she had, as did Kartini, had to brought to the world of as matter of fact, changed herself. She light, licht, as the tide of the collection of could riot erase the fact that she had left her Kartinr s letters, Door Duistemist tot Licht, society. To her, her previous society is no 'From Darkness to the world of Light', might longer the same . It had changed . She ac- suggest The world of natives are the world cordingly had to stay in the world of her of black magic, black-marketing, the world master and had to accept any consequen- of leisure and cheating, getting something ce. She should accept the fact that she without having to work (hard) for it. The na- might one day be thrown out of her master's tives were then simply lazy, creating the house and had to accept whatever her mas- myth of the lazy natives . To earn his living, ter gave her . She could not ask for more . Master Edward W had to work up to five Tassiem's mistake was she asked too much o'clock in the afternoon . The natives, on the - asking for her child - from her master . other hand, were simply enjoying life, did She is supposed to be passive, had to sim- nothing to improve their living condition . Sa- ply accept what other people decided for miun ''improved' his living condition by ro- her. bing Dasima of the wealth she got from her Everything in Njai Dasima story was master. For such a purpose, they did not Francis' ideology who was in opposition to hesitate to manipulate the religious and the that of people who were associated with the ethnic sentiment, giving Dasima a false national movement against the Dutch colo- sense of belonging . She did not, in fact, be- nialism. G. Francis did this as he was a long to the ethnic and religious world of her descendant of an English gentleman who, natives who would only victimize her. Fran- after the British left Indonesia in 1816, cis was accordingly wrote Nyai Dasima's joined the Dutch administrative system . For

88 Humaniora No. 12 September - Desember 1999 a further information regarding G . Francis wh to men) for their purposes . There was and his family see Toer (29-31). no religious reason in Ardan's text for Dasi- Francis' discourse was then a colonial m 's return to the native community. Dasi- discourse. However, we can also say that m left her master not because she was during the time he authoring the story, there a aid of committing a sin . There was no were some conflicting views regarding the st tement to that effect in Ardan's text . nyaiship . Besides promising material secu- I am sure, Ardan started working on his rity to a native woman, it also promised her to after reading Francis' colonial text . He a spiritual insecurity, which made her look- re lized that Francis had discredited the ing for it outside her master's world, the n tives, blaming them for the misfortune world of her natives, which at the same time D sima encountered with . Francis believed would rob her of her material wealth . Accor- th t the natives were bad as they would do dingly, Ardan, whose world was in opposi- a y trick to rob Dasima of her wealth. Islam, tion to that of Francis', had to reformulate eir religion, failed to prevent them from the story. He then wrote a different version d ing such a thing . On the other hand, it of Nyai Dasima story as can be seen by g-ve them room for manipulation . Besides comparing the inventory of his story to that t fling Samioen that killing someone was a of Francis' . Ardan's text can then be regard- s n, Hadji Salihoen also told him that the sin ed as a post-colonial text, questioning the c uld be cleansed by going pilgrim to ideology of Francis' discourse ecca, praying for God's blessing . He even In Ardan's version Dasima left her mas- ctively engaged with black magic activity . ter on her own free will as she felt she did ccording to Francis every native was bad . not belong to his society who simply looked ven Moesanip and Gani. They told the down on her. For her master, she was sim- uthority about the murder not for the sake ply a sexual object. She accordingly felt that f truth, but for the sake of money as they she belonged to her native community, ere interested in the reward offered by the which, in turn, due to her relation to her overnment. master, had however, regarded her as an Ardan expresses a different perspective . outsider. In addition to that she had been e does acknowledge the presence of bad living alone, secluded from her native com- atives such as the unrepentant Puasa and munity. In Ardan's version there was no ayati who later blamed herself for what conspiracy among the natives to lure her to happened to Samiun . However, there were their community . And as far as Mak Buyung also some good natives . Mak Buyung was is concerned, she only gave Dasima encou- good, no longer bad as she was in Francis' ragement to leave her master . Samiun did and Palindih's text. Samiun was good . And fall in love to Dasima but he did nothing to he was arrested only for two reasons . First, pursue it. He even had to hide it from Haya- the authority's effort to blame the native for ti's knowledge . Saleha and Salihun was the death of Dasima as he had committed a against the idea of Samiun getting married serious mistake, robbing a white man of his to a nyai. property, of his sexual pleasure . Secondly, In Ardan's version, Dasima was not a Ardan might somehow feel that he had an victim of a native conspiracy . Samiun did obligation to change the story-line develop- not pay Puasa to kill her . Ardan, as a matter ed by Francis as it had a pretension of be- of fact, did his best to convince his audien- ing a historical record, describing an inci- ce that Williams paid Puasa to kill Dasima . dent took place decades ago. He then did Samiun was a good man . He was not lazy . his best to twisting it . Samiun was arrested He had a job to support his living . But he as he was at the scene of the killing. He however failed to prevent Hayati from mis- was suspected of helping Puasa killing Da- treating Dasima as he was too weak to go sima. As a matter of fact, Samiun was not against her wish . Hayati even bullied him, involved in the killing. He did not defend Da- "robbing" him of his money . Not the other sima as he did not dare to go against Pua- way round . What Ardan admits is the pre- sa. The murder was Puasa's idea as he sence of bad hats among the natives and was paid by Master Williams . Ardan blamed they were exploited by the Dutch (and the the Dutch colonial power, who ignored the

Humaniora No . 12 September- Desember 1999 89 Umar Junus role played by Williams in the killing of Dasi- He was a keen businessman who could ma . They were happy to have caught Pua- provide Dasima every material she needed . sa and Samiun and they do not want to pur- Dasima was a victim of a conspiracy of Sa- sue it further. Ardan simply reveals the dirty miun, Puasa, Mak Buyung, Saleha and Ha- tactic played by the Dutch authority . They yati who robbed her of her wealth . And they were not looking for the truth. They were were property punished according to the ro- looking for a truth which suited them. le they held . But the parallelism stops there . Ardan also feels that he has an obliga- Winata was no longer an Englishman but a tion to defend Islam from a false accusation rich native who legally married Dasima . The present in Francis' text . He accordingly era- text is no longer about the nyaiship as it is ses any trace of such an accusation. Dasi- not about Nyai Dasima, but about Dasima . ma left her master not because she was Rumini, a native name, replaced Nancy, afraid of her sinful sexual relationship with Dasima's daughter . Dasima had her own Williams. She left her for other reasons. reason for divorcing Winata . She got lonely Francis' and Ardan's text are different from as Winata spent most of his time with his each other as each of them were written business . She let herself influenced by her within two opposing socio-cuttural and parents' complaint as Winata did not give political conditions. I do not think I have to them what they asked for. She also let her- elaborate it further as I have exposed them self influenced by Mak Buyung's gossip above. Francis' text is a colonial discourse who told her bad things about Winata . She while Ardan's text is a post-colonial one . simply believed it, never questioned it . She Palindih's text was written within a diffe- "divorced" Wnata after Mak Buyung told rent condition . Palindih is, different from her that Winata was enjoying himself in a Francis, a native. And as the text was a restaurant served by several girls. Samiun "translation" of a movie story we have to and Puasa asked Mak Buyung's favor to take into account the persons who were lure Dasima to their trap . Samiun would like responsible for producing the movie as well to marry Dasima so he could lay his hands as the implicit audience, the audience who on the wealth she got from Winata . Altho- might react to the story . In addition' to that, ugh Saleha and Hayati never liked Dasima, we also have to take into account the socio- they had no objection of Samiun marrying cultural and the political condition of the her as it would benefit them. Hayati was not time it was produced. It is the different colo- Samiun's wife, but his sister . In addition to nial period from that of Francis. that, Dasima was also a victim of her pa- Francis lived in an era where the coloni- rents' dislike of Winata. Her father was very al power was absolute . Nobody challenged happy with the breaking up her marriage to it, at least not systematically . Native resis- Winata . He had no objection of Dasima tance was only directed against a further marrying Samiun . Only later he regretted it. encroachment of their territory by the Dutch I would like to talk about the changes without any intention of liberating Indonesia . Palindih made to Francis' text . First, he Palindih lived in a different era . The Dutch changed the tide from Nyai Dasima to Dasi- colonial power was politically systematically ma only. Second, it was no longer Master challenged . This condition was responsible Edward W, but Winata . Third, the father for the creation of Palindih's text. However, played an important role in breaking up Da- as I do not have the materials, which allow sima's marriage to Winata. Fourth, the role me talking about the prewar movies and of gossip in breaking up Dasima's marriage . their implicit audience, I prefer to talk the And the fifth, the resistance towards poly- other way round. I would construct the con- gamous marriage. dition responsible for the creation of the res- The movie is the world of images . In pective text from the materials provided for playing a certain role, one's characteristics by the text itself. contributes something to the image of the The scriptwriter based his movie story person he/she portrays . We can question on Francis' text. Wnata shares some Mas- the beauty of a character played by a cer- ter Edward Ws qualities . His name can be tain actress if she is supposed to portray a regarded as the extension of the initial W . beautiful lady . Accordingly, there should be

90 Humnniore No. 12 September- Desember 1999 Umar Ju us some questions concerning the images por- I donesian stories, especially the popular trayed by an actor and an actress playing W o es, such as ludruk stories as discussed and Dasima respectively in case there were b James L . Peacock (1968) . And this a movie portraying their life . ade situation favorable for Mak Buyung . The Dutch might question the beauty of he gave Dasima reasons for breaking up an actress playing Dasima . It is a matter of er marriage to Winata . And the decisive someone's taste. And the natives would feel I st blow was her gossip about Winata sorry for Dasima if she were portrayed by a njoying himself with some girls in a beautiful actress . The Dutch might also feel estaurant while Dasima was waiting for him sorry for a handsome Dutchman if he were o return home, waiting to have an evening portrayed as a rather ugly person . The situ- alk. This made the gossip played an ation can be compared to the absence of mportant role in the movie story, and was illustration in Salah Asuhan "The Wrong Up- Iso quite popular in the Indonesian popular bringing" by Abdul Moeis published for the iterature before the second world war. first time in 1928 as I have discussed it Hayati in the movie is Samiun's sister, (1988). They encountered a problem in vi- not his wife . The change had something to sualizing Hanafi and Corrie . A handsome do with the sentiment regarding the poly- Hanafi would suggest that every native was gamous marriage in Indonesia . The cultural handsome . A not-so-handsome Hanafi wo- atmosphere at that time was against it. In uld make people questioning Corrie's choi- case of Dasima marrying Samiun while ce of a man she falls in love with . A not- knowing he already had a wife, the audien- beautiful Corrie would suggest that every ce would not sympathize her . She would be Eurasian girl was not always beautiful . And condemned . In addition to that, of having no one would pity a beautiful Come for falling wife - his wife had deceased - Samiun had in love to a native. Due to those considera- a reason to be wild . Salihun hoped he tions, I hypothetically state that the movie would change by marrying Dasima, the intentionally changed W to Winata. The di- hope never accomplished . rector did not have any problem of how to That is the problems we encounter in visualize them . having three versions of Dasima's story . In addition to that, describing a life of a Their presence can be analyzed by using nyai is more than simply presenting it. It ideas developed in the study of intertextual, might go as far as legitimating it. Or at least reception theory and new historicism which acknowledging it. And the (native) people at I have described above . How those three that time might not be ready for it . They did texts intertextually related to one another. know the presence of nyaiship but they did How one text was particularly created in not want to openly acknowledge it . It was a response to the existing text and in this shame for an Indonesian to acknowledge it case we can not ignore the role played by as it could be understood as a submission the implicit audience - this is usually stu- to the world of European master . It was also died by the reception theory. How the pre- a shame for the European descendants, the sence of a particular text can be used to undo, to acknowledge that they were born see the socio-cultural condition at the time it out of such a condition, from a nyai who was written and published, the new histori- was forced into nyaiship . As it is better not cism perspective. to talk about the nyaiship, Mr . W had to be substituted with Winata. REFERENCES The movie also added another flavor t the story by introducing the role played b Abendanon, J .H. (ed.) (1911) Door duiste- Dasima's father in breaking up her marriag mis tot licht (1976 edition by Ge Na- to Winata . He did his best to prevent Dasi brink, Amsterdam) . ma from reconciling with Winata . His onl reason was he was not satisfied with Wina Ankersmit, F .R. (1983) Narrative logic, a se- ta . He did not give him what he wanted . Hi mantic analysis of the historian's la- role is then simply a variant of the role of nguage, The Hague, Nijhoff . mother-in-law, a popular topic in the prew r

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Eco, Umberto (1987 Travels in hyperreality, Matu Mona (1940) Rol Patjar Merah Indo- London, Penguin. nesia, Medan, Centrale Boekhandel .

Francis, G (1896) Tjerita Njai Dasima, soe- Moeis, Abdoel (1928) Salah Asoehan, (2 watoe korban daripada pemboe- volumes) Batavia, Balai Poestaka . djoek, Batavia (see alsoToer, 1982) Munslow, Alun (1997) Deconstructing His- Freman, Mark (1993) Resriting the self., his- tory, London, Routledge tory, memory, narrative, London, Ro- utledge . Palindih, Roestam St . (1940?) Dasima, Yogyakarta, Kolff-Buning . Goldmann, Lucien (1964) The Hidden God, a study of tragic vision in the Pen- Pamoentjak n.S, Abas (1927) Pertemoean, sees of Pascal and the tragedies of (2 volumes), Batavia, Balai Poestaka Racine, London, RKP. Peacock, James L . (1968) Rites of Moderni- (1967) "The sociology of literature : zation: symbolic and social aspects status and problem of method", of Indonesian proletarian Drama, International Social Science Journal, Chicago, Univ . of Chicago Press. 19, 493-516 . Tjoe Toei Yang (1897) Tiga Tjerita, Batavia . Harland, Richard (1993) Beyond Super- structuralism, London, Routledge . Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (1980) Bumi Ma- nusia, Jakarta, Haste Mitra . Hellwig, Tineke (1992) "Nyai Dasima, a fic- tional woman", RIMA, 26:1-20 , (1982) Tempo Doeloe, antologi sas- tra pra-Indonesia, Jakarta, Hasta Mi- Iser, Wolfgang (1 978a) The Act of Reading, tra. Baltimore, John Hopkins Univ. Press Tsuchiya, Kenji (1991) "Popular literature (1978b) The Implied Reader* and colonial society in late nine- Pattern of Communication in Prose teenth-century Java - Cerita Nyai Fiction from Bunyan to Beckett, Dasima, the macabre story of an Baltimore, John Hopkins Univ . Press.

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