40/2018 Origins – Beginnings – Genesis

40/2018

Origins – Beginnings – Genesis

Cracow 2018 „Maska” vol. 40 Chief editor: Cracow 2018 Katarzyna Kleczkowska

ISSN: 1898-5947 Managing Editor: Print: 100 copies Magdalena Wąsowicz Free copy Editorial staff: “Maska” is a peer reviewed academic journal. Katarzyna Kleczkowska According to requirements of MNiSW (Ministry Aleksandra Korzonek of Science and Higher Education) a full annual Anna Kuchta list of article reviewers is available on the Igor Łataś following webpage: www.maska.psc.uj.edu.pl/ Joanna Malita-Król maska/listy-recenzentow Sylwester Szwedzki All texts and illustrations (unless stated Piotr Wajda otherwise) are published in open access mode, Magdalena Wąsowicz according to Copyright Law for non-commercial Kama Wodyńska purposes (under Creative Commons BY-NC 4.0 Agnieszka Wójcik obligations). Proof-readers: Full texts and summaries of published works are Agnieszka Kiejziewicz available on-line in the international database Olga O’Toole “The Central European Journal of Social Sciences Magdalena Stonawska and Humanities” (cejsh.icm.edu.pl). Magdalena Wąsowicz

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Magdalena Wąsowicz 5 On the idea of genesis and beginning Alicja Neumann 15 Egyptian creation myths as examples of creatio ex deo doctrine – the philosophical approach Szymon Jellonek 33 Foundation Scene on Coins of Mallus Michał Wagner 45 The many origins of totemism. Critical analysis of theories of James G. Frazer, Émile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud Natalia Zajączkowska 59 The Origin, Roles and Social Evaluation of the Caste System. A Case Study in Rural North India Krzysztof Trnka 75 The Origins of a State. a Legal Perspective Raiany Silva Romanni 87 The Myth of European Secularization – Origins and Aftermath Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola 103 Politics, Theatre and Echoes of Separatism in Nigeria Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham 115 Remembering the origins. Everyday life of Polish Jewish refugees’ children in Shanghai under Japanese occupation Marcin Hanuszkiewicz 131 An Origin of Unknown Origin: On Unfamiliarity and Making Strange Marcin Kosman 145 Humble beginnings or youthful arrogance: Vladimir Nabokov’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

3 Justyna Dąbrowska 161 Created by Men and Reborn into a New World. Disability and Displacement in Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney Dominika Ciesielska 175 The birth of a contemporary myth – fan fiction as a myth-making practice accompanying the Harry Potter phenomenon Joanna Ruczaj 185 Suicidal Career: The Specifics of the Emergence of Suicidal Tendencies in the Life Span

4 Magdalena Wąsowicz On the idea of genesis and beginning Institute of English Studies, Jagiellonian University

The urge to know and understand our origins is one of the most primary needs of humankind. The question of how we and our world came into being has always haunted and puzzled people, and we have found numerous ways of answering it. Throughout the centuries, we have conceived creation myths, religions, rituals, philosophy, poetry, history, and science, all of which were devoted to explaining the world around us and our place in it. As Dudley Young writes in his Origins the Sacred: the Ecstasies of Love and War, “the idea of the beginning involves the intersection of the known with the unknown, of being with nonbeing”1. Notwithstanding the progress of mankind, some questions remain unanswered. Worse still, as societies develop and we learn more and more about the world, many new evidences emerge and absorb our attention. Just as we believe we have found the answer to the questions which have troubled us for centuries, we realise that antecedent spoors come to light and encourage us to investigate further. In this issue of MASKA journal, we seek to address the question of how, when, and why things come into being and where to search for their roots. The topic of the issue is Origins–Beginnings–Genesis. The word “origin”, as defined by theOxford English Dictionary, means “the point or place where something begins, arises, or is derived”2 and, like many other English words, comes from Latin where oriri means “to rise”. “Beginnings” is, in contrast, a word of Germanic origin which is derived from the noun “begin” and denotes “the background or origins of a person or organisation”3. “Genesis” is perhaps the most intriguing word in this trinity, as it can be understood

1 Young, Dudley. Origins the Sacred: the Ecstasies of Love and War. London: Abacus, 1993, p. 4. 2 Origin. Oxford English Dictionary. Web. 7 May 2019. 3 Ibidem. 5 Magdalena Wąsowicz in several ways. It is a proper noun denoting the first book of the Old Testament which describes the story of the origin of the world and the creation of the first man. Its name derives from the opening words: “In the beginning…” (“bereshit” in Hebrew)4. However, nowadays the term “genesis” is widely used to describe when something begins or starts to exist, “the origin or mode of formation of something”5. The word entered English via Latin from Greek “generation, creation, nativity, horo- scope”6. Thus the three words that form the topic of this issue ofMASKA refer broadly to the idea of birth, generation, the moment when something begins or starts its existence, a background of someone or something, but also to creation and religion. The impact of these ideas on the history of humankind cannot be overestimated. We may, of course, wonder why the questions pertaining to the idea of origins and creation are so appealing to us. I shall briefly address this problem, as I believe it may serve as a good point of reference to further investigations. First of all, creation myths often served as proof of the high status of the human race. Most cultures claimed in one way or another that man was created by the gods. In Greek mythology, man is formed by Prometheus who moulded people out of water and earth. In the Quran, God creates man from clay. According to Genesis, God made Adam out of the dust of the ground. Similar ideas can also be found in Hindu or Sumerian cultures, as well as in many other mythologies. The act of creation imposed, of course, certain obligations on the human race. These obligations, dictated by gods, had to be remembered and passed on to the next generation. Thus the idea that man was created by either gods or a single God, who also provided him with skills, and laws, also served as a proof of an exceptional status of the human race. These obligations which had to be constantly retold provided also a foundation for an individual and collective identity. This, I believe, is a second reason for our fascina- tions with creation myths and origin stories: they provide a crucial role in the formation of identity. Learning how we began is a first step toward understanding ourselves and anticipating our future. More often than not, such knowledge imposes on us an obligation to behave in a certain way, embrace specific values, or, at least, remember about our ancestors and pass this memory on to the next generation. The memory of the remote past, which Jan Assmann, German Egyptologist, calls “cultural memory”7, is stored in myths, anniversaries, feasts and many other rituals. It is formalised, institutionalised, and narrated by specialists such as poets, shamans, mask-carvers or bards

4 Genesis. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 1995. 5 Genesis. Oxford English Dictionary. Web. 7 May 2019. 6 Ibidem. 7 Assmann, Jan. “Communicative and Cultural Memory”. Media and Cultural Memory/Medien und kulturelle Erinnerung. Ed. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nuenning. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2008, p. 112. 6 MASKA 40/2018 who have to undergo initiation, instruction, and examination8. Assmann claims that cultural memory does not only store the traditions about the origins of the world and the early history of the tribe (nowadays rather society or nation) but also “illuminates a changing present”9. Thanks to remembering our origins, we can make sense of who we are and where we are going. While the myth of how the human race came into being was (and in many cases still is) one of the most important stories of many societies, the story of the origins of a particular tribe, group or society may play a significant role in explaining and pursuing political ideas. Polish nobility, for example, explained their exceptional status and legal privileges they enjoyed in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by claiming, that they are the descendants of ancient Sarmatians. In a similar fashion, in the 19th century the white southern society of the United States of America traced its roots to the aristocratic Cavaliers (allegedly of Norman origin) who have settled in the southern states after they were routed by the supporters of the Parliament in the English Civil War10. By the 1850s the Cavalier legend has become a central myth on the basis of which white southern society adopted a strict masculine code of behaviour rooted in a European tradition of honour11. While such myths could serve as a positive force which consolidated people and made societies possible, they could also be used to validate and legitimise injustice, war, racism, and oppression. For example, the idea that the Germanic people descended from the ancient superior race of Aryans was one of the key concepts in Nazi ideology which rationalised anti-semitism and Hol- ocaust. The myths and legends of origins can, thus, became extremely dangerous and harmful when used by xenophobic ideologies. Mankind has always been interested in creation myths not only because it served as a tool for building identity, but also because they helped to understand the world and its working. Such stories explained not only how the world came into being, but also the origins and meaning of natural phenomena such as birth and death, dusk and dawn, change of seasons, storms or floods. These myths showed men their place in the world, served as a basis for their worldview, and made nature less menacing by explaining and making sense of the unknown. Today we no longer need myths and legends to explain the beginnings of the world or origins of mankind. They were superseded by science. Nowadays we make sense of the world by means of scientific method. Dudley Young believes that myth and science are overlapping modes of knowledge, but while mythology is concerned

8 Ibidem. 9 Ibidem. 10 See more in: Cobb, James C. Away Down South: A History of Southern Identity. Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 2005, p. 22. 11 Ibidem, pp. 41 – 43. 7 Magdalena Wąsowicz with what happened “in the beginning”, science is uneasy with beginnings12. It is evident that every our research into the origins of humankind reaches a point at which we have to admit that despite the advancement of knowledge, there are still things we cannot prove or fully understand. Yet I would not agree with Young’s conviction that science “uneasy” with beginnings. Yes, it may be puzzled by them, but numerous researches into the idea of origins is still conducted. Science, just like myth, is interested in the question of the beginnings of the universe, the evolution of homo sapiens, as well as many other problems. One of these numerous inquiries is the research into the origins of language. As Philip Lieberman notes, it is “almost impossible to think of any aspect of human culture or human behaviour that would be unchanged if language did not exist”13. The complexity of human language may be one of the things which distinguish humans from other animals, and so there are numerous hypotheses regarding its origins, such “bow-wow” theory, “Yo-he-ho” theory, signalling theory, gossip and grooming hypothesis or gestural theory. Just like linguistics and anthropology is interested in origins of language, archaeology and history try to trace the beginnings of cities, nations, cultures, or political movements. Interestingly enough, these studies, just like myths and legends, can be used to achieve political objectives. As Hayden White notes, the mission of historiography in the 19th century was to provide a genealogy of nation states14. Its aim was, then, the justification of the existence of nation states. History can – and often is – used by political bodies to explain their worldview and actions by means of “historical policy” or “politics of memory”15. But of course the study of beginnings and origins can deepen our understanding of significant events from the past and provide a valuable lesson for the future. Philippe Burrin’s book Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust is a perfect example of that. In his study, Burrin tries to unravel the factors which led to the ex- termination of Jews. As he writes: “...how much do we know about what preceded the slaughter? ...Even a genocide must have some sort of birth, monstrous as that seems; it must have a genesis, though this may be rooted in events which historical investigation

12 Young, Dudley. op.cit., p. 4. 13 Lieberman, Philip. On the origins of language. An introduction to the evolution of human speech, New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1975, p. VI. 14 See: White, Hayden. “Against Historical Realism. A Reading of War and Peace.” New Left Review, Vol. 46, July-August 2007, pp. 89 – 110. 15 See e.g.: Temin, David M. and Dahl, Adam. Narrating Historical Injustice: Political Responsibility and the Politics of Memory. “Political Research Quarterly”, Vol. 70, No. 4 2017, pp. 905 – 17, or Grindel, Susanne. The End of Empire: Colonial Heritage and the Politics of Memory in Britain. “Journal of Edu- cational Media, Memory & Society”, Vol. 5, No. 1, Special Issue: Postcolonial Memory politics in Educational Media, 2013, pp. 33 – 49, or Bałdys, Patrycja and Piątek, Katarzyna. Memory politicized. Polish media and politics of memory – case studies. “Media i społeczeństwo”, No. 6, 2016, pp. 64 – 77. 8 MASKA 40/2018 strains to comprehend”16. By this endeavor into the genesis of the genocide he want to address the question whether in 1941 the Holocaust could have happened without Hitler’s impetus and whether this impetus “derived from an ideology consistent enough to provide direction and purpose”17 (in the end, he decides that without Hitler the decisive thrust would have been absent). His, and other research into the origins of the genocide, may serve as a guidance for today’s society because by demonstrating the tendencies and policy which led to the genocide, it may alert us to similar ideologies if they happen to appear. To conclude, the need to discover the origins and beginnings of our world and humankind has been driving both religion and science. Every culture has stories of its beginnings which define their identity and self-image. Interestingly enough, the power of origin story is so great, that nowadays even brands have to present their own because it influences how customers evaluate its products and whether they relate to it and want to buy it18. People engage in telling origin stories because they show us where we began and where we might go, help us assess our place in the world and learn from the past mistakes, build the sense of individual and collective identity, as well as explain our present circumstances. We, the editorial team of MASKA journal, strongly believe that the research into the broadly understood idea of genesis, origins, and beginnings can provide us with an insight into who we are, how and for what purposes we create stories about ourselves. For this issue of MASKA, we have gathered a number of articles which analyse the idea of beginnings from various perspectives. We believe that by aggregating articles written by scholars from many different fields, we may gain a wide view on the topic. Still, we may distinguish five broad categories for the articles gathered in this issue: 1) the idea of beginnings and the distant past, 2) genesis and political agenda, 3) beginnings in history, 4) origins in philosophy and literature, 5) beginning and psychology. The opening article, “Egyptian creation myths as examples of creation ex deo doctrine - the philosophical approach” was written by Alicja Neumann who believes that the analysis of creation myths coming from Egyptian culture (usually recognised as devoid of the philosophical tradition) can provide valuable, philosophical conclusions. The article deals with the criteria which scholars use to assign creation myths to the group of stories about creatio ex materia, ex deo or ex nihilo in order to prove that Egyptian origin stories belong to ex deo type. Interestingly enough, the author

16 Burrin, Philippe. Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust. London: Edward Arnold, 1994, p. 17. 17 Ibidem, p. 21. 18 The importance of origin story is stressed in numerous articles and guide books for entrepreneurs and CEOs. See e.g. blog post written by one of the guru of online marketing Neil Patel: Patel, Neil. “Why Your Marketing Needs to Include Your Company’s Story”. Neil Patel: SEO Made Simple. N.d. Web. 13 May 2019. 9 Magdalena Wąsowicz concludes that the reinterpretation of Egyptian origin stories contributed to the development of ex nihilo doctrine and may be interpreted as forgotten roots of creation out of nothing doctrine. Alicja Neumann’s article is an interesting one, especially in the context of the topic of this issue, as it analyses both origin myths and possible roots of ex nihilo doctrine. In the second article, Szymon Jellonek from the Institute of Archeology of the Jagiellonian University analyses colonial coins of Mallus, a Roman colony during the rule of Severus Alexander. The author is especially interested in coins depicting a foundation scene that contains figures of the emperor (Severus Alexander), Tyche (city goddess), and Amphilochus (mythic founder of the city) crowning emperor’s head with a wreath. The scene on the coin, as the author claims, reflects the diffusion of symbols and ideas in the 3rd century and symbolises the integrated and syncretic identity of Mallus. The article shows thus how origin myths were used to achieve political objectives as early as in antiquity. The third article, “The many origins of totemism. Critical analysis of theories of James G. Frazer, Èmile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud” by Michał Wagner describes the origins of totemism, a system of belief which used to be considered a unique mixture of religion and social system, but then was deemed an artificial unity. The author claims that totemism research conducted by James G. Frazer, Èmile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud cannot be considered as a product of false reasoning because it explained and built totemism into a certain evolutionary sequence from which European culture emerged. Then, Michał Wagner goes on to describe Frazer’s “conceptional” theory of totemism, Durkheim’s theory according to which community was the main reason for the formation of not only totemism, but also society in general, and Freud’s psychological approach which assumed that social evolution is a reflection of the model of ontogeny which he developed in his research. The author concludes that totemism was a mirror reflection of the philosophical and methodological assumptions of a given scholar. The next article belongs to the second category of texts dealing with genesis and political (as well as social) agenda. The article is titled “The Origin, Roles and So- cial Evaluation of the Caste System. a Case Study in Rural North India” and offers a multidisciplinary approach to studying Indian caste system. The author, Natalia Za- jączkowska, point out that caste system still exists in Indian society, even though some elements of it were outlawed over 60 years ago. The author tries to answer the question of whether Hindu caste system should be treated as social backwardness or a source of social wisdom and universal values. The article describes the genesis of the system and its philosophical provenance, as well as Dumont’s treatise which revolutionised the perception of caste system and the ethnographic fieldwork conducted by the author in

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2017 and 2018. This highly interesting study does not only focus on the emergence of caste system, but also attempts analysing its modern function and perception. The fifth article, “The Origins of a State. a Legal Perspective” by Krzysztof Trnka, focuses on the circumstances of beginnings of modern states. The author points out that even though Europeans are used to political stability, states continuously emerge, especially in Africa and Asia. Krzysztof Trnka formulates four research questions: is there a legal definition of a state? What elements are needed to constitute a state? How can we examine the legality of state’s founding? How can we found a state? The author offers a comprehensive response to these queries which is without a doubt worth reading, as it makes the readers aware of certain legal definitions and matters pertaining to the beginnings of states. The following article titled “The Myth of European Secularization – Origins and Aftermath” written by Raiany Silva Romanni examines the concept of a secular Eu- rope and its development, as well as challenges of Refugee Crisis. The article provides an important insight into the origins of many of today’s issues and conflicts and is a valuable addition to our issue. The last article dealing with the idea of genesis and political agenda is “Politics, Theatre and Echoes of Separatism in Nigeria” by Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah and Taiwo Afolabi Okunola, who claim that the medium of theatre, especially applied theatre, can be a platform for fostering dialogue and a tool of achieving integration of a diverse society. They are especially interested in the possible application of applied theatre in Nigeria, a country suffering from ethnic tensions, separatist agitation, and political unrest. They believe that theatre can sensitise the masses to the need for national integration and cohabitation. This is especially important in Nigeria with its civil war, which was a product of disunity and ethnic hate. The next section encompasses articles dealing broadly with the field of history. This section includes an article titled “Remembering the origins. Everyday life of Polish Jewish refugees’ children in Shanghai under Japanese occupation” written by Olga Bar- basiewicz and Barbara Dzien-Abraham. It describes the experiences of Polish war refugee children isolated in Shanghai between 1941 and 1945. This fascinating study makes use of many archival and documentary sources depicting the transportation of Polish Jewish families to China, their settlement in Shanghai, and the education of children. The authors also verify the importance of refugee children’s situation in Shanghai for their development of Polish-Jewish roots in later life. The article provides an interesting insight into the life of Polish refugees in Shanghai and makes us aware of the importance of early experiences for the development of an individual human being. The next section dealing with the idea of origins in philosophy and literature begins with Marcin Hanuszkiewicz’s article “An Origin of Unknown Origin: On

11 Magdalena Wąsowicz

Unfamiliarity and Making Strange”. The article ponders over the idea of genesis through the tension between the known and the unknown, familiar and unfamiliar, light and darkness, by referring to mythology and literature. This interesting article refers to such figures as George Bataille, Viktor Skhlovsky and Bruno Schulz to investigate the meshing of the aforementioned contradictory ideas while treating the concept of genesis as a point of reference. In contrast, the tenth text, Marcin Kosman’s “Humble beginnings or youthful arrogance: Vladimir Nabokov’s Аня в стране чудес”, focuses on the problem of translation. “Alice in Wonderland” was one of the first books which Nabokov translated, long before he wrote his essays on the art of translation. One may then wonder how his first translation looked like and whether it corresponded to his later views on the art of translation. Marcin Kosman compares the original text with Russian translation to conclude that Nabokov’s mode of translation is inconsistent with his later translation principles. Despite that, the author believes that in this youthful exercise we can already see the glimpses of genius. This study is definitely worth reading, not only because of its interesting comparison of the Russian translation of “Alice in Wonderland” to the original, but also because it makes us realise that even great minds had their humble beginnings. The next article “Created by Men and Reborn into a New World. Disability and Displacement in Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney” by Justyna Dąbrowska analyses Brian Friel’s play in which a visually impaired woman who undergoes surgery is “reborn” into a new world of sight which, however, is very different to the one she imagined. This rebirth is thus not a happy one. The articles forces us to reflect on the issue of disability and how the idea of a new beginning may turn against us and became a nightmare. The philosophy and literature section includes one more article, namely Domini- ka Ciesielska’s “The birth of a contemporary myth – fan fiction as a myth-making practice accompanying the Harry Potter phenomenon”. Dominika Ciesielska believes that Harry Poter novels can be treated as a modern myth because, as Véronique Gély writes, stories become myths in reception. Harry Potter novels inspired numerous fan fiction stories, games, movies, and was retold by its fans in numerous ways, supplemented and modified to curate its readers’ needs. Dominika Ciesielska’s article thus shows how modern myths are created and disseminated around the globe. Finally, the last article of this issue falls into the category of psychology. In her “Suicidal Career: The Specifics of the Emergence of Suicidal Tendencies in the Life Span” Joanna Ruczaj discusses the selected theories of suicidal tendencies in relation to people’s development at various stages of their lives. This interesting article refers to both statistical data and various theories which sensitises us to the problem of suicide as a long-term process subjected to modifications throughout the life span.

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The author points out that an in-depth analysis of suicidal tendencies in different stages of life might translate into increased effectiveness of therapeutic methods and in a decrease in the reported number of suicides. The articles we publish in this issue ofMASKA analyse an abundance of subjects from many different fields. Most of them provide an interdisciplinary approach to the problem of origins, genesis, and beginnings. We hope that our readers will find them as compelling and stimulating as we do, and feel encouraged to conduct their own research into origins, genesis, and beginnings.

13 Magdalena Wąsowicz

Bibliography

Assmann, Jan. “Communicative and Cultural Memory”. Media and Cultural Memory/ Medien und kulturelle Erinnerung. Ed. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nuenning. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2008. Bałdys, Patrycja and Piątek, Katarzyna. Memory politicized. Polish media and politics of memory – case studies. “Media I społeczeństwo”, No. 6, 2016. 64-77. Burrin, Philippe. Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust. London: Edward Arnold, 1994. 17. Cobb, James C. Away Down South: a History of Southern Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Genesis. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1995. Genesis. Oxford English Dictionary. Web. 7 May 2019. Grindel, Susanne. The End of Empire: Colonial Heritage and the Politics of Memory in Britain. “Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society”, Vol. 5, No. 1, Special Issue: Postcolonial Memory politics in Educational Media, 2013. 33-49. Lieberman, Philip. On the origins of language. An introduction to the evolution of human speech, New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1975. Origin. Oxford English Dictionary. Web. 7 May 2019. Patel, Neil. “Why Your Marketing Needs to Include Your Company’s Story”. Neil Patel: SEO Made Simple. N.d. Web. 13 May 2019. Temin David M. and Dahl, Adam. Narrating Historical Injustice: Political Responsibility and the Politics of Memory. “Political Research Quarterly”, Vol. 70, No. 4 2017. 905-917. White, Hayden. “Against Historical Realism. a Reading of War and Peace.” New Left Review, Vol. 46, July-August 2007. 89-110. Young, Dudley. Origins the Sacred: the Ecstasies of Love and War. London: Abacus, 1993. Alicja Neumann Egyptian creation myths as examples of creatio ex deo doctrine – the philosophical approach Collegium Invisibile

Reflection on arché, the beginning and principle of the universe, initiated by Ionian philosophers of nature, remains one of the most important in the history of ideas. Although it may seem that there is an enormous gap between their works and folk myths, in fact, there is lack of sufficient evidence to cross out the myths because purely philosophical considerations about the creation of the world have been neglected. In other words, due to prejudices2, they were pushed into the areas of other disciplines, religion, and science, while the philosophy itself focused on considering the causes or the nature of what exists, but not on the creation stories. Moreover, it should be noticed that how we think and talk about the nature of what exists can be influenced by what we think and talk about how everything started to be. Therefore, the potential for research, also a philosophical one, may be hidden in myths created in cultures commonly recognized as devoid of a philosophical tradition. This paper is a philosophical analysis of the stories about the world’s creation. In contrast to the widely accepted opinion that philosophy began in the Greek territories during the lifetime of Thales, it will be pointed out that the analysis of creation myths coming from an allegedly philosophically immature culture like Egypt can be a source of conclusions valuable for philosophers.3

1 This article is a result of cooperation between MA Alicja Neumann and PhD Andrzej Ćwiek during the Tutoring Programme in Collegium Invisibile. The author of this paper expresses gratitude towards Mr Ćwiek for his support and helpful remarks. 2 DuQuesne, Terence. “The raw and the half-baked: approaches to Egyptian religion.” Discussions in Egyptology 30, 1994, pp. 29 – 35. 3 Like in many other cases, in the most influential Polish work on history of philosophy Władysław Tatarkiewicz explicitly points out that ‘philosophy’ is a phenomenon specific for Greece and did not 15 Alicja Neumann

The primary purpose of this paper is to specify the criteria that scholars are using to assign creation myths to the group of stories about creatio ex materia, ex deo or ex nihilo and then to indicate the motifs that testify that Egyptian origin stories above all belong to ex deo type. An additional topic of this paper will be a reflection on the importance of creatio ex deo doctrine for the development of philosophy with the assumption that it is a precursor of creatio ex nihilo doctrine. However, it should be emphasized that a comprehensive analysis exceeds the formal framework of short journal’s paper. Therefore, these considerations are rather remarks than conclusions. The considerations will be carried out in several stages. First of all, the importance of the reflection on creation myths for ontological research will be indicated. In the next part, the criteria applied to the creation stories found in the literature will be analysed and clarified. Finally, Egyptian creation myths will be referred, and their philosophical categorization based on the constructed criteria will be proposed.

Creation myths and philosophy

At the beginning, certain exceptions from the already sketched tendency in philosophy should be mentioned. Some religious stories about the creation of the world were recognized as worth analysing. That is to say, the biblicalBook of Genesis and the Saint John’s Gospel were considered with the use of philosophical methodology, although they were originally the subject of theology. Moreover, the doctrines of creation out of nothing and creation by divine word, extremely important to Christian thinkers, are nowadays in encyclopedias and dictionaries4 treated seriously as philosophically significant concepts. Unfortunately, many stories were not included in the area of keen interest of philosophers, for reasons that are not entirely clear. However, several prominent researchers advocate for the change of this state of affairs. For example, James Breast- ed,5 James P. Allen,6 and Joshua Bodine7 claim that philosophical speculation did not

appear in any other place in the ancient world. See: W. Tatarkiewicz. Historia Filozofii, vol. I. Warsza- wa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2007, p. 17. 4 Ed. Flew, Antony. A Dictionary of Philosophy. London: Pan Books Ltd., 1979. Ed. Runes, Dagobert D. The Dictionary of Philosophy. New York: Philosophical Library Inc. Vander Laan, David. “Creation and Conservation.” In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017. Ed. Edward N. Zalta, n.d. Web. 28.07.2018. Hans Halvorson, and Helge Kragh. “Cosmology and Theology.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017. Ed. Edward N. Zalta, n.d. Web. 28.07.2018. 5 Breasted, James H. “The Philosophy of a Memphite Priest.”Zeitschrift fur ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 39. 1901, pp. 39 – 54. 6 Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt. The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University, 1988, pp. ix – x. 7 Bodine, J. Joshua. “The Shabaka Stone: An Introduction.” Studia Antiqua, 7(1), August 2009, pp. 19 – 21. 16 MASKA 40/2018 begin in Greece and even if philosophy itself as a unique phenomenon is the achievement of the culture of Thales and Socrates, older civilizations developed their speculative tradition or some kind of natural philosophy.8 Henri Frankfort9 also protests against separating philosophy from the speculative thought of the ancient Near East, pointing out that the boundaries between what is philosophy and what is religion or mythology are fluid and arbitrarily determined.10 Moreover, this researcher pointed out that, despite some differences, speculations of various traditions have a common goal – to give an order and meaning to the experience – and, as such, they can be analysed philosophically for the benefit of philosophy.11 Since the researchers of these mythologies have come to such results, it is probably reasonable to assume that a philosopher may draw similar conclusions. In that case, the attempt to philosophically analyse creation stories seems to be justified. What is more, if the culture of Egypt was appreciated by such thinkers as Thales, Pythagoras, and Plato,12 and we have access to more words of the Memphite Theology than the Heraclitus’ treatise, then the sources of such quality cannot be ignored.

Characteristics of the Egyptian creation myths

It is worth to mention that the decision to choose Egyptian myths was not accidental but dictated by substantive reasons. Firstly, as David Klotz shows, Egyptian culture fascinated the Greeks, and the stories and beliefs of the people that were ancient even for Thales, Pythagoras, and Plato, deeply inspired these Greek philosophers.13 Moreover, later Hellenised Egyptian culture also left its mark on other traditions and influenced the doctrines formulated on the territory of the former pharaohs’ state. It is possible then that the creatio ex nihilo doctrine, that according to some researchers was formulated in times of Basilides14 and which could not be of Greek origin, has its roots in Egyptian concepts.

8 Allen, James P. “The natural philosophy of Akhenaten.”Religion and philosophy in ancient Egypt. New Haven: Yale Egyptological Seminar, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Gra- duate School, 1989, pp. 89 – 101. 9 Et al. eds. Frankfort, Henri. The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay on Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977, p. 3. 10 Ibidem, p. 3. 11 Ibidem, p. 3. 12 Klotz, David. “Elements of Theban theology in Plutarch and his contemporaries.” Eds. Michael Erler and Martin Andreas Stadler. Platonismus und spätägyptische Religion: Plutarch und die Ägyptenrezep- tion in der römischen Kaiserzeit. Berlin, Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2017, p. 128. And also in works of Plato such as Timaeus (22b-25d) and Phaedrus (274b-277a). 13 Klotz, David, op. cit., p. 128. 14 May, Gerhard. Creatio ex Nihilo. The Doctrine of ‘Creationout of Nothing’ in Early Christian Thought. Tr. A.S. Worall. London, New York: T&T Clark International, 2004, p. 179. 17 Alicja Neumann

As Allen15 observes and what is confirmed by Klotz’s16 studies, over the centuries the Egyptians have created many versions of the creation myth,17 and it seems that they were considered complementary. Although we know and repeat a few different stories now, the Egyptians probably treated them as a coherent whole, despite the different places and times of emergence and even divergent answers given to basic questions.18 As it appears from Allen’s anthology, labels like ‘Theology from Heli- opolis’ refer to contemporary compilations of texts from different places and times. Egyptian creation stories do not have one treatise as a source, but they are known for many fragments of different formulation which can be found in funerary texts such as the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and Book of the Dead and in other treatises such as hymns or the Memphite Theology.19 According to researchers like Allen, fragmentation, and incompleteness of texts should not be a reason to resign from philosophical research in this area. What is more, for the selected texts, Allen provided a commentary on the most important philological and translational issues and outlined basic philosophical problems contained there. However, those comments are limited to pointing out quite general issues and Allen does not analyze more deeply a significant amount of metaphysical problems that can be seen in the texts he cites.

Creatio ex – problem of criteria

As it was already mentioned, it seems that the development of the mythological concept of the origin of the world is not a very popular subject in a contemporary philosophical reflection. According to the best knowledge of the author, there is lack of a scientific elaboration concerning categorization of a creation stories in terms of

15 Allen, James P., 1988, op. cit., p. 13. 16 Klotz, David., op. cit. 17 I consider here creation myths as stories that present a specific ontological vision. However, some researchers read those myths differently. For example Leonard H. Lesko claims that the primary purpose of cosmogonic and cosmological myths was to legitimize the religious and political order, while the explanation of the universe was a secondary goal. See: Lesko, Leonard H. “Ancient Egyptian Co- smogonies and Cosmology.” Religion in Ancient Egypt. Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Ed. Byron E. Shaffer. Ithaca, London: Cornell University Press, 1991, pp. 90 – 91. 18 Susanne Bickel also sees the diversity of mythological images. Similarly, Brett McClain claims that various cosmogonies were combined together and since New Kingdom major traditions were syn- thesized with local traditions. See: Bickel, Susanne. La cosmogonie égyptienne avant le Nouvel Empire. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 134. Freiburg, Göttingen: Universitätsverlag; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1994. Brett McClain, “Cosmogony (Late to Ptolemaic and Roman Periods).” Eds. Jacco Dieleman and Willeke Wendrich. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles, 2011, p. 2. 19 Allen, James P., 1988, op. cit. 18 MASKA 40/2018 various aspects. It is possible that the criteria that were given by Norman Geisler20 and Charles Long21 are the only available to the broader audience. This state of affairs is undesirable because it proves the failure in studying a wide range of problems within the history of ideas and metaphysics. Moreover, it is more challenging to correct unilateral approaches, such as those proposed in Baker Ency- clopedia of Christian Apologetics where Geisler gave some criteria for categorisation of creation myths but also simplified some issues so far that it may decide about the limited scientific and philosophical usefulness of the indicated characteristics of three views on the origin of the world.22 According to those criteria, a proponent of creatio ex materia is usually a supporter of some variation of materialism or dualism, and he or she accepts that matter is eternal. Two variants of this doctrine can be indicated: one accepts that creation is what matter does through evolution and in harmony with laws of nature, without God; the second claims that in creation ex materia participates an active God who organized this matter. Another doctrine recognizes the origin of the world as creatio ex deo and according to the author of the note, it is associated with pantheism. a supporter of an absolute version of it can claim that only a spiritual reality truly exists and every physical body is produced by a mind or spirit, or even is just an illusion. In the nonabsolute type of pantheism, it is claimed that it is possible to distinguish a lot of aspects, things or beings in one mind, a spirit or God, and multitude has one common source. In other words, the act of creation can be interpreted as an emanation process in which a spirit/mind/god is the material of creation, its cause and principle. Therefore, if the creation was done ex deo, there is no clear distinction between what is created and what/who creates and both of them are made from the same substance. As the author of this encyclopedic note has claimed, creatio ex nihilo is just a next step in the process of reasoning when we once accepted ex deo perspective. It is possible to say that at the beginning it was nothing except God/spirit/mind and then, after the act of creation, there was something else than a God/spirit/mind – the world. With such expression of ex deo doctrine, a smooth transition to ex nihilo is possible. So the last category of creational stories is the creatio ex nihilo that the author ascribes to theists. In this doctrine, the eternal God created everything without using a pre-existing substance. That is to say, the creator’s actions caused changes: something replaced nothing. In this point, it should also be clear that this perspective

20 Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Baker Books, 1999, pp. 108 – 118. 21 These criteria are referred by Leeming, David A. Creation Myths of the World. An Encyclopedia. Vol. I. Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: ABC-CLIO, LLC. 2010, pp. 1 – 29. 22 See: Geisler, Norman L. op. cit., pp. 108 – 118. 19 Alicja Neumann underlines that the world has a beginning, and it is possible to make a distinction between the creator and the world that is created. An alternative typology is proposed by David Leeming.23 This author recalls five types of the creation myths that were formulated by Long: those telling about creatio ex nihilo, creation out of chaos, stories about cosmic parents of the world, emergence creation, and myths about earth-diver creation. These categories differ from the three elaborated earlier but are still useful. Despite this, it was decided not to discuss them here for two reasons. First of all, while discussing them, Leeming pointed out examples of this way of thinking in various mythologies, including Egyptian. In addition, the division proposed here is somewhat thematic, in contrast to the previously indicated three categories which are more formal and accept one criterion of the differentiation – the nature of primary building material. Since the presented paper is a philosophical work, it has been decided to rely on a formal distinction instead of the material one. To briefly sum up this section, the most important distinctive features of the three creative concepts and the most serious doubts related to these criteria should be indicated. Most of all, it should be underlined that these are not disjunctive categories. In other words, they are some kind of a continuum and can jointly define one story depending on what element we consider to be the key and the most important for the characteristics of the act of creating the world. In stories about creatio ex materia a spontaneous emergence of the formed being from unformed matter can be underlined or it is possible to speak of creating out of matter when the primordial matter is formed by a quasi-personal being or even God. It seems that only the first narration is clearly about creatio ex materia and the second has features of another type of a creation story – about creatio ex deo. In these myths, it is possible to consider the whole universe as having one source, but there is no requirement of an agent that acts intentionally, purposefully. Thus a lot of very different stories can belong to this category. What is more, in this group, there is no definite criterion that the agent has to be the creator of matter. It seems that it is possible to think about such a creator as being ‘only’ an organizer of matter, if only this matter came out of him or out of the same source as him or at least remains under a very strong influence of the creator. In this way, the doctrine of creatio ex deo becomes difficult to distinguish from the doctrine of creation out of nothing. In fact, stories about creatio ex nihilo lose their unique features because everything that was created by the creator in some way comes from him. It is not excluded that creatio ex nihilo doctrine is a most radical version of creatio ex deo in which the omnipotence of the creator is emphasized.24 Moreover, in the context of stories about creatio ex nihilo, some questions should be asked. For example –

23 Leeming, David A., op. cit., pp. 1 – 29. 24 Thanks to Michał Bizoń for this observation. 20 MASKA 40/2018 what does ‘nothing’ mean? Is it a story about the creation out of absolute non-being or about the creation out of ‘something’ else that is without shape or defined features? These doubts may seem to be multiplied without a need. However, when we get into discussing specific myths, it turns out that the precise assignment of them to the categories is difficult but important from a philosophical point of view.

Egyptian creation stories – analysis of selected examples

This section will discuss examples of Egyptian stories about the creation of the world that were chosen as “major local accounts.”25 In addition to their characterization, I will emphasize the features that allow me to assign them to a specific category of creation myths. a) Atum – the creator god of Heliopolis (Iwnw)26

This creation myth is known from a few sources:Pyramids Texts, Coffin Texts, and the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus.27 These versions differ from each other at several important points; however the main idea is still the same: Atum becomes the first definite element of what is chaotic and indefinite and wakes up as a quasi-personal, creative consciousness. Then, having planned it in his heart and measured by sight, he creates other beings – gods (that are identical with cosmological frames, elements of the visible world like sky or earth), animals and human beings.28 In the context of the topic of this article, controversies are associated with the matter which was used by the creator and the means he used to organize it.29 As Marc Orrlois-Llonch describes it, according to the Pyramid Texts, Atum created everything by masturbation that led to the creation of new gods. However, in the Coffin Texts and the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus, his hand has female quality while Atum is given the masculine gender, and his act is the copulation with a fist where he “acts like a husband.” In other fragments, Atum conceives and gives birth to other gods, so he acts like a mother. However, Orrlois-Llonch conducts a detailed reflection on

25 Klotz, David., op. cit., p. 133. 26 Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 91. 27 Orrlois-Llonch, Marc. “Sex and Cosmogony. The Onanism of the Solar Demiurg.”Göttinger Miszel- len. Beiträge zur ägyptologischen Diskussion, 2012, pp. 31 – 42. According to Lesko, the allusions for this story can be found in texts from different times and McClain points out that some testimonies of the knowledge of this doctrine can also be indicated in other, sometimes relatively young, sources. See: Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 92, and McClain, Brett., op. cit., p. 2. 28 Budge, E.A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians or Studies in Egyptian Mythology. Vol. 1. London: Me- thuen & Co. 1904, pp. 282 – 321. 29 These controversies are elaborated by Orrlois-Llonch and, independently, by Susanne Bickel. See: Orrlois-Llonch, Marc, op. cit., and Bickel, Susanne, op. cit. 21 Alicja Neumann these linguistic inaccuracies which result in difficulties in determining the gender and nature of Atum; it is not the only problem here. According to the interpretation proposed by Orrlois-Llonch, Atum emerged in the process of autogenesis as an androgynous deity and then he created his children from his sperm, copulated with his hand or spat his saliva or seed as descendants.30 These are sexual or quasi-sexual acts – if the divine creator ejaculated or gave birth31 to his children, then his body was engaged as a source of the universe. In other words, this is an act of cosmogenesis where one deity is the creator and the material of what comes to existence. If it is so, then the ‘Theology from Heliopolis’ is a myth aboutcreatio ex deo. However, some difficulties appear when Budge’s translation and interpretation of the Bremner Rhind Papyrus are considered because the problem of Nu (or Nun)32 as the primordial, possibly eternal matter is outlined there. In both versions a and B it is said that Shu and Tefnut were raised from Nu33 and additionally in version B Nu is named a primordial source also for matter from which Atum built himself. This fragment clearly indicates that Atum used a material that was external to him and then possibly re-embedded in his own body. So even if he was the creating force, the material was something else, so the concept of creatio ex materia can be defended. In contrast, Allen quite consistently emphasizes the significant role of self-developing Atum34 as the creator and not just the builder of the world. According to his interpretation, Atum as a primary Monad contains all the elements of creation35 and animates what is potentially alive36, so the creational process can be understood as a self-development and differentiation where Atum, as the cause and driving force

30 Orrlois-Llonch, Marc, op. cit., pp. 31 – 37, and Budge, E.A. Wallis, op. cit. 31 Orrlois-Llonch, Marc, op. cit., p. 35. 32 The concept of Nun itself is extremely complex and philosophically significant. It is reflected in- nu merous publications on the subject. For example Jean-François Pépin has pointed out several aspects of Nun in the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts and Eliana Labroinho has published a paper about this concept in Coffin Texts. Another interesting analysis of this issue presents Susanne Bickel. She claims that Nun is not only pre-existent state but it is present in the world after the creative act. According to Brett McClain, in Late Period divine creator, Amun-Ra, was identified with Nun. See: Pépin, Jean-François. “Quelques aspects de Nouou dans les Textes des Pyramides et les Textes des Sarcopha- ges.” Ed. Sylvia Schoske Akten des vierten Internationalen Ägyptologen Kongresses München 1985. Band 3: Linguistik, Philologie, Religion, 1989, pp. 340 – 345. Hamburg: Buske. Labroinho, Eliana M. “Nun, the primeval water according to the Coffin Texts.” Eds. Alessia Amenta, Maria Michela Luiselli and Maria Novella Sordi. L’acqua nell’antico Egitto: vita, rigenerazione, incantesimo, medicamento; proceedings of the first International conference for young Egyptologists. Italy, Chianciano Terme, 2003, 2005, pp. 221 – 227. Roma: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider. McClain, Brett., op. cit., p. 4. 33 Budge, E.A. Wallis, op. cit. 34 Allen, James P., 1988., op. cit., p. 15. 35 Ibidem, p. 17. 36 Ibidem, p. 24. 22 MASKA 40/2018 for it, realizes his own potency and nature. What is more, Allen risks a claim that there is the transmission of matter from one source to various forms of existence distinguished from it.37 In fact, it seems that Allen ascribes the creator so significant role that he probably is willing to recognize Atum’s creation act as creatio ex deo rather than ex materia. Moreover, a pantheistic point of view, where a multitude of elements of the world are born as the children of one creator, seems to be consistent with this myth, and this was one of the features of ex deo doctrine. b) Ogdoad – ‘negative’ deities

This creative concept, sometimes called Theology from Hermopolis (#mnw),38 is dated to the First Intermediate Period and references for it can be found in the Coffin Texts.39 This myth contains some vague threads, but researchers like Christiane Ziv- ie-Coche40 claim that it influenced the theologies of Ptolemaic temples, including cosmogony from Thebes. Especially the concept of Ogdoad was in Late Period combined with stories about Ptah-Tatenen.41 In this story, it is recognized that at the beginning, in the primordial waters, there were four pairs of deities. They were Nun and Nunet, Heh and Hehet, Kek and Keket, Amon and Amonet,42 and generally, the researchers agree that these deities are associated with primordial waters and what is dark, disordered, unclear.43 For example, Leonard H. Lesko translates these names (in order) as: watery abyss, formlessness, darkness, and hiddenness.44 According to the myth, these pairs of deities called Og- doad are considered to be fathers and mothers of the solar creator god (because they spawned an egg45 or a lotus flower from which the solar creator god emerged). In this

37 Ibidem, p. 20, 36. 38 Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 94. 39 Assmann, Jan. “Schöpfungsmythen und Kreativitätskonzepte im Alten Ägypten.” Heidelberger Jah- rbücher XLIV, 2000, p. 161. 40 Zivie-Coche, Christiane. “L’Ogdoade d’Hermopolis à Thèbes et ailleurs ou l’invention d’un mythe.” Egitto e Vicino Oriente 39, 2016, pp. 57 – 90. 41 McClain, Brett., op. cit., p. 3. 42 It is important to notice that these deities did not immediately get their names and forms. It is not until the 26th Dynasty that these “beings” get characteristics and definitions and it culminated in Ptolemaic times. See Zivie-Coche, Christiane., op. cit. 43 Budge, E.A. Wallis, op. cit., and Assmann, Jan, 2000, op. cit. 44 Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 95. 45 An interesting interpretation of the Hermopolitan story about the cosmic egg is presented by Moha- med Gamal RashEd. He proposed a metaphorical reading of eggs for the pre-existence. See: Rashed, Mohamed Gamal. “The four primeval elements of creation according to the philosophy of Her- mopolis: a new interpretation of their origin.” Eds. Gianluca Miniaci, Marilina Betrò and Stephen Quirke. Company of images: modelling the imaginary world of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-15000 BC). 23 Alicja Neumann way, the Hermopolitan theology complements other stories because it describes the state before the creation of the world. This description is philosophically interesting. It seems to be a misuse to say that it is a description of nothingness, and yet these deities are some aspects of a negative ontological state, names of some deficiency. Moreover, this myth describes the transition from negative deities to a positive existence, from four pairs of gods and goddess that represent darkness, infinity, primary waters, and hiddenness,46 from Chaos47 emerged the creator of the world. Therefore the act of creation in this myth can be recognized as a demarcation, forming, qualitative change, and the transition to what is determined from indeterminate and unknowable. This story evidently evades categorization for the creation of ex materia, ex deo, and ex nihilo. It can be successfully argued that it belongs to each of the three groups depending on what aspect is emphasised. In some interpretation, it is a story about spontaneous evolution of the universe.48 Sometimes the “elements” of Ogdoad are called deities, so it is possible to interpret this myth as a story about creatio ex deo, but obviously it is not an entirely adequate label when the nature of these “beings” is considered. It seems that they are not even entities, so they cannot be material for a creative act. However, they are too much defined to treat them as clear “nothing,” they are instead some characteristic of the primordial state, context or void for a creative act. For these reasons, it is clear that the criteria selected earlier fail concerning this myth. Despite this, one can still infer the significant role of the creative deity who, having somehow entered this chaos, brings order, constructs the world, and fills the void. c) Ptah – a demiurge from Memphis

This story, sometimes titled The Memphite Theology49, comes from the 25th Dynasty (but some researchers suggest that it could be older)50 and is preserved in the text on the stone known today as the Shabaka Stone, housed in the British Museum but coming from Ptah’s temple in Memphis.51 Assmann argues that this text is a reinterpretation of a Heliopolitan myth and that it presents an allegorical description of the creation of the world which was al-

Proceedings of the International Conference of the EPOCHS Project held 18th-20th September 2014 at UCL, London, 2017, pp. 377-393. 46 Assmann, Jan, 2000, op. cit., p. 161. 47 Ibidem. 48 Assmann, Jan, 2000, op. cit. 49 Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. London, 2006. pp. 51 – 57. 50 Ibidem, p. 51, and Bodine, J. Joshua, op. cit., pp. 1 – 6. Also McClain speaks on this matter: McClain, Brett, op. cit., p. 3. 51 Bodine, J. Joshua, op. cit., p. 1. 24 MASKA 40/2018 ready known in Coffin Texts.52 In this treatise, the main creator, god is chthonic Ptah, named the father of solar Atum and the maker of everything.53 According to this text, Ptah is responsible for creating elements of nature and culture, including speech and writing, hieroglyphs.54 He also gives birth to the gods and prepares bodies for them from natural materials such as stone and wood.55 In this context, it is important that Ptah is also called Tatenen, which reveals his connection with the earth. Tatenen was once an independent deity whose name meant “the Risen Land.” He also carried a mace called “the Great White of the Earth Makers,” and then he became associated with the cult of Ptah56, and as Ptah-Tatenen was worshipped in Memphis as a god creator and patron of craftsmen and artists, sculptors and architects. This text arouses the great interest of researchers and is interpreted in various ways, sometimes very controversial ones. For example, Lesko interpreted it quite bravely – as an exemplar of the story about creatio ex nihilo by word and as a concept precursory for Logos’ doctrine.57 Philosophically interesting in text of the Memphite Theology is not only the role of words in the process of creating the world (which concept is notoriously pointed out by Egyptologists as an argument that Egyptians had their own philosophy even before the Greeks58), but also the concept of a demiurgic deity treated as the body of the world, which finds its expression in the hymn59 where Ptah is linked with the main solar creator god as his body. In this context, the question about the nature of the creative act attributed to Ptah returns. As Allen puts it, Ptah is not the creator himself, but instead he represents the personification of the mediating force between the thought, the creator’s intellect, and the final result which directs the process of ‘in-formation’ of matter,60 the evolution of the raw material to the form of a perceptible world. Thanks to this, it becomes understandable why chthonic Ptah creates not only things but also appropriate words for them, hieroglyphs, which at the same time represent elements of the sensual

52 Assmann, Jan. “Rezeption und Auslegung in Ägypten: das «Denkmal memphitischer Theologie» als Auslegung der heliopolitanischen Kosmogonie.” Eds. Reinhard Gregor Kratz, Thomas KrügerE. Re- zeption und Auslegung im Alten Testament und in seinem Umfeld: ein Symposium aus Anlass des 60. Ge- burtstags von Odil Hannes Steck, 1997. 125 – 139. Freiburg, Göttingen: Universitätsverlag; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. See also Allen, James P., 1988., op. cit. 53 Lichtheim, Miriam, op. cit., p. 51, 54. 54 Ibidem, p. 55. 55 Ibidem. 56 McClain, Brett, op. cit., p. 3. 57 See: Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 96. 58 Allen, James P., 1988., op. cit., p. ix – x. Bodine, J. Joshua, op. cit., p. 19 – 21. 59 Allen, James P., 1988., op. cit., pp. 48 – 55. 60 Ibidem, pp. 42 – 47. 25 Alicja Neumann world and their ideas, things and concepts. Although Allen’s thesis is reasonable, its consequence is to minimize the role of Ptah – from the creator god to the demiurge who built the world from primordial matter and from himself he gave plans, ideas, forms, and work of his own hands. Moreover, in this interpretation, it is justified only to speak about the process of cosmopoiesis, not cosmogenesis because the world is a product of work of a craftsman and it does not come from an organic birth process. However, it should be noticed that in some texts it is said that Ptah is the visible body of the Amon,61 he is Tatenen, the land. Therefore, if Ptah creates from natural resources, then he creates from himself and therefore he is not only a source of intellectual ideas and a force that directs the formation of entities, not only the efficient and formal cause but also the material cause. Because of that, it could be claimed that Ptah is indistinguishable from what he created, generated from himself. This premise allows again to strengthen his position as the one who created the world out of himself, ex deo. d) Stories from the Hellenistic and Roman periods

As it was mentioned above, Egyptian creation stories survived much longer than the independent state of the pharaohs and were a source of fascination for people in Hel- lenistic and Roman periods. For example, Theban priests propagated them among the Greeks, but it may be assumed that they were not isolated exceptions and similar practices took place in other large cities, including Alexandria.62 Probably it is reasonable to look for links, or, as James Hoffmeier described it when writing about the connections between Egyptian myths and the Biblical Book of Genesis – the ideas and motifs that diffused between cultures. For example, Klotz recalls not only the myth about Osiris that fascinated Plutarch, but also other synthesis of older myths, like The- ban story of Kematef (who is “the complete one” like Atum63 and hidden like Amun from the Ogdoad) and his son, nomen omen the Creator of the earth (Irita, related with Ptah-Tatenen).64 In that story, the next emanation of the creative deity expels negative deities of Ogdoad, what probably had influence on Neoplatonists’ philosophy.65

Roots of creatio ex nihilo doctrine

It seems that major myths described above are versions of creatio ex deo doctrine, and they strongly emphasize the importance of the figure of creator god whose actions

61 Ibidem, p. 54. 62 Klotz, David., op. cit., p. 128. 63 Lesko, Leonard H., op. cit., p. 92. 64 About these deities writes also Brett McClain. See McClain, Brett., op. cit., p. 5. 65 Klotz, David., op. cit., pp. 134 – 137, 142. 26 MASKA 40/2018 count more than the material it interacts with. It is also known that the idea of ex nihilo creation came from a tradition that had to be radically different from the Greek culture, and looking for it in the Old Testament is a misunderstanding. Considering it all, perhaps it is reasonable to suppose that ex nihilo doctrine that philosophy is dealing with is some reinterpretation of Egyptian myths. According to Charles Kahn,66 basic ancient meaning of Greek verb “to be” was ve- ridical, so it differed from contemporary existential sense and revealed the close connection between being and truth. In other words, in the Greek language and therefore in the Greek philosophy, it was no chance to think about “something that does not exist.” The researcher also pointed out that later, the thinkers struggled with this concept and proposed their own ways of solving the emerging difficulties within the ontology. Although it is clear that ancient Greeks, thinking in this grammatical-ontological framework, could not come up to a doctrine of a creation out of nothing because in their language it would sound absurd. The creatio ex nihilo doctrine could be formulated and considered reasonable only within the framework of language in which there was no taboo of non-being. Therefore, later, Christian philosophers who considered such doctrine had to formulate it inspired by ontology different from that used by the ancient Greeks because it is a clear violation of an important linguistic and metaphysical taboo. What is more, the creatio ex nihilo doctrine is also not formulated in the Old Testa- ment. In his text, Hoffmeier67 comments Genesis, pointing to possible Egyptian influences in this book. He does not only claim that act of creation was a distinction and separation but also compares primordial state described in Genesis with a description from myth about Egyptian Ogdoad as non-absolute non-existence. Similarly, Ger- hard May,68 in his book doubts whether the Old Testament can be the source of the creatio ex nihilo doctrine. He also denies the reasonableness of looking for origins of this doctrine in the Second Book of Maccabees. It is possible, therefore, that due to the fact that the concept of the creation out of nothing appears in the thought of thinkers that (like the author of the Second Book of Maccabees) came from the Alexandrian environment, the ‘blame’ for breaking the Greek taboo should fall on Egyptian thinkers. It can be assumed – if one considers the Hermopolitan concept using negative characteristics to determine the state before creation, and also to other theologies, emphasizing the active role of the creator – that it was the late reinterpretations of Egyptian stories that contributed to the development of creatio ex nihilo doctrine. If

66 Kahn, Charles H., The Verb ‘Be’ In Ancient Greek. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Com- pany, 2003. 67 Hoffmeier, James, K., “Some thoughts on Genesis 1 & 2 and Egyptian Cosmology.”Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 15, 1983, pp. 39 – 49. 68 May, Gerhard, op. cit, pp. xi, 6 – 8. 27 Alicja Neumann it is so, then Egyptian myths about creation ex deo are forgotten roots of creation out of nothing doctrine, and as such, they are much more interesting than philosophers assumed. However, tracing connections that would help determine whether such dependencies actually took place requires numerous, very detailed studies. Without such research, we can speak only about the “diffusion of ideas and motifs.”69

Recapitulation and remarks for further research

As it has been said, the present article is not an exhaustive elaboration of the topic, but only a brief sketch of one philosophical problem. The main purpose of this paper was to specify the criteria that scholars are using to assign creation myths to the group of stories about creatio ex materia, ex deo or ex nihilo, and then to indicate the motifs that testify that Egyptian origin stories belong to ex deo type. Specifying those conditions may help to indicate how the transition from the doctrine of creating out of god to the doctrine of creating out of nothing has been made. This interpretation, together with an assumption that ex deo doctrine in an extreme formulation that emphasised the God’s omnipotence can lead to ex nihilo doctrine, allows suggesting that the Egyptian myths could be an inspiration for the subsequent development of selected ontological concepts in philosophy. However, still a lot of details that are not considered may be crucial for understanding our intellectual culture, and care- ful examination of the creation stories can be extremely valuable for the history of thought. To illustrate this point, it could be enough to recall examples of topics such as comparison of using terms like chaos, void, and nothingness in Greek from Hes- iod to Plato and in Egyptian culture. It is possible to propose more issues including analysis of connotations of basic metaphysical terms (like arché and maat). Moreover, it would be valuable and reasonable to study how Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians propagated among themselves the ideas of their cultures and modified the old stories in sometimes surprising directions that started new doctrines.

69 Hoffmeier, James K., op. cit., p. 41. 28 MASKA 40/2018

Bibliography

Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt. The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University, 1988. Allen, James P. “The natural philosophy of Akhenaten.”Religion and philosophy in ancient Egypt. Ed. Anonymous. New Haven: Yale Egyptological Seminar, Depart- ment of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Graduate School, 1989. 89–101 Assmann, Jan. “Rezeption und Auslegung in Ägypten: das «Denkmal memphitischer Theologie» als Auslegung der heliopolitanischen Kosmogonie.Rezeption und Au- slegung im Alten Testament und in seinem Umfeld: ein Symposium aus Anlass des 60. Geburtstags von Odil Hannes Steck, ed. R.G. Kratz and T. Krüger. Freiburg, Göt- tingen: Universitätsverlag; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997. 125–139 Assmann, Jan. “Schöpfungsmythen und Kreativitätskonzepte im Alten Ägypten.” Heidelberger Jahrbücher XLIV, 2000. 157–188 Bickel, Susanne. La cosmogonie égyptienne avant le Nouvel Empire. Orbis Biblicus et Orien- talis 134. Freiburg, Göttingen: Universitätsverlag; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994. Bodine, J. Joshua. “The Shabaka Stone: An Introduction.” Studia Antiqua, 7(1), 2009. 1–21 Breasted, James H. “The Philosophy of a Memphite Priest.” Zeitschrift fur ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 39, 1901. 39–54 Budge, E.A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians or Studies in Egyptian Mythology, vol. 1, London: Methuen & Co, 1904. DuQuesne, Terence. “The raw and the half-baked: approaches to Egyptian religion.” Discussions in Egyptology 30, 1994. 29–35 Flew, Antony (ed.). a Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books Ltd., 1979. Frankfort, Henri et al. (eds.). The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay on Spe- culative Thought in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, -: Baker Books, 1999. Halvorson, Hans, Helge Kragh. “Cosmology and Theology.” The Stanford Encyclope- dia of Philosophy. 2017. In: Edward N. Zalta, ed. n.d. Web. 28.07.2018. Hoffmeier, James, K. “Some thoughts on Genesis 1 & 2 and Egyptian Cosmology.” Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society 15, 1983. 39–49 Kahn, Charles H. The Verb ‘Be’ In Ancient Greek. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 2003. Klotz, David. “Elements of Theban theology in Plutarch and his contemporaries.”Plato - nismus und spätägyptische Religion: Plutarch und die Ägyptenrezeption in der römischen Kaiserzeit. Eds. M. Erler, M.A. Stadler. Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2017. 127–48 Labroinho, Eliana M. “Nun, the primeval water according to the Coffin Texts.” L’acqua nell’antico Egitto: vita, rigenerazione, incantesimo, medicamento; proceedings of the first International conference for young Egyptologists. Eds. A. Amenta, 29 Alicja Neumann

M.M. Luiselli, M.N. Sordi. Italy, Chianciano Terme, 2003. Roma: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2005. 221–27 Leeming, David A. Creation Myths of the World. An Encyclopedia. Vol. I. Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2010. Lesko, Leonard H. “Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies and Cosmology.” Religion in Ancient Egypt. Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Ed. B.E. Shaffer. Ithaca, Lon- don: Cornell University Press, 1991. 88–122 Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. London: -, 2006. McClain, Brett. “Cosmogony (Late to Ptolemaic and Roman Periods).” UCLA En- cyclopedia of Egyptology. Eds. J. Dieleman, W. Wendrich, Los Angeles: -, 2011. 1–9 May, Gerhard. Creatio ex Nihilo. The Doctrine of ‘Creation out of Nothing’ in Early Chri- stian Thought, tr. A. S. Worall, London, New York: T&T Clark International, 2004. Orrlois-Llonch, Marc. “Sex and Cosmogony. The Onanism of the Solar Demiurg.” Göttinger Miszellen. Beiträge zur ägyptologischen Diskussion, 2012. 31–42 Pépin, Jean-François. “Quelques aspects de Nouou dans les Textes des Pyramides et les Textes des Sarcophages.” Sylvia Schoske (ed.), Akten des vierten Internationa- len Ägyptologen Kongresses München 1985. Band 3: Linguistik, Philologie, Religion. Ed. S. Schoske, Hamburg: Buske, 1989. 340–45 Plato. Phaedrus, Dialogi vol. II, tr. W. Witwicki. Kęty: Wydawnictwo Antyk, 2005. Plato. Timaeus, Dialogi vol. II, tr. W. Witwicki. Kęty: Wydawnictwo Antyk, 2005. Rashed, Mohamed Gamal. “The four primeval elements of creation according to the philosophy of Hermopolis: a new interpretation of their origin.” Company of images: modelling the imaginary world of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000–15000 BC). Pro- ceedings of the International Conference of the EPOCHS Project held 18–20 September 2014 at UCL. Eds. G. Miniaci, M. Betrò, S. Quirke. Leuven: Peeters, 2017. 377–93 Runes, Dagobert D. The Dictionary of Philosophy, New York: Philosophical Library Inc. Tatarkiewicz, Władysław, Historia Filozofii, vol. I. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Nauko- we PWN, 2007. Vander Laan, David. “Creation and Conservation.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philo- sophy. 2017. Ed. E.N. Zalta, ed., n.d. Web. 28.07.2018. Zivie-Coche, Christiane. “L’Ogdoade d’Hermopolis à Thèbes et ailleurs ou l’invention d’un mythe.” Egitto e Vicino Oriente 39, 2016. 57–90

30 MASKA 40/2018

Summary

The main purpose of this paper is to specify the criteria that scholars are using to assign creation myths to the group of stories about creatio ex materia, ex deo or ex nihilo and then to indicate the motifs that testify that Egyptian origin stories belong to ex deo type. The secondary aim is to reveal a non-trivial ontological reflection contained in the Egyptian creation stories and to elaborate it philosophically. This interpretation, together with an assumption that ex deo doctrine in an extreme formulation that emphasised the God’s omnipotence can lead to ex nihilo doctrine, allows suggesting that the Egyptian myths could be an inspiration for the subsequent development of selected ontological concepts in philosophy. Finally, the direction of further research in this area is proposed.

Szymon Jellonek Foundation Scene on Coins of Mallus Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University

One of the most essential ways of ancient cities to manifest their identity was the civic coinage2. A city proud of its myths and history presented the local deities, temples and games on coins. Roman colonies followed the same pattern, even though their situation was far more sophisticated. On the one hand, they highlighted the bounds with Rome by commemorating the colonial foundation. On the other hand, they summoned the pre-colonial origins. Additionally, the colonies followed the regional trends in coinage. The emissions of Mallus fit the general picture of colonial coinage. Nevertheless, one type struck from times of Severus Alexander till Valerianus is a perfect example of integration of Roman, Greek, and local elements. In this paper I am going to analyze colonial coins of Mallus with a special concern for emissions containing a figural scene of the emperor, Tyche, and Amphilochus – which is an essential proof of iconographic integration between colonial patterns and the local identity. The juxtaposition of the mythical founder, city goddess, and the emperor expressed as the founder on one scene reflect the diffusion of symbols and ideas in colonies in the 3rd century. The scene and its iconographic components will be examined in an attempt to comprehend the message encoded in this picture. Mallus, located in Cilicia, at the bank of Pyramus River, was a town of temper- ate significance. One of the most important event was the visit of Alexander the Great who performed there, on his way to Issos, the sacrifice for Amphilochus3. Am-

1 The presented research is financed by the National Science Centre of Poland, project 2018/29/N/ HS3/01502 “The Roman Colonial Coins as a Manifest of Cultural Identity 235-275 AD”. 2 Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East 31 BC - AD 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 257. 3 Strabo XV 5, 17. 33 Szymon Jellonek philochus (Ἀμφίλοχος) is considered a mythic founder of Mallus, therefore he was worshipped there and consequently his image was presented on the local coins. Am- philochus was a son of Alcmeon and Manto4. He founded two towns: Argos in Eto- lia5 and Mallus in Cilicia6. According to myths, Mopsus assisted him in establishing Mallus. Later Amphilochus decided to return to Argos but he got dissatisfied with the affairs there, so he returned, but Mopsus remained as the sole ruler of the Cilician town. Eventually the heroes fought a duel in which both died and were buried in Magarsa near Pyramus River. In order to strengthen the testimony, Strabo mentioned that he had seen the tombs of these heroes7. One altar and the oracle of Amphilochus was placed in Mallus8 (the one visited by Alexander), and the other in Athens9. Under Roman control Mallus probably started to strike coins during the rule of Julio-Claudians, however the rarity and low standards of designs obscure the picture of the first emissions10. There are depictions of Tyche (RPC I 401711), local Athena Magarsis (RPC I 4016), and probably one of Amphilochus (RPC S 4016A)12. None- theless, from the time of Hadrian the founder was a frequent motive on local coins. He used to be depicted as hipmantled and youthful hero (in guise of Apollo) with a drapery, looking left, holding a branch in left hand over the boar (RPC III 3325)13. The ethnikon: ΜΑΛΛΩΤΩΝ is added. The theme of Amphilochus remained unchanged until the colonial foundation under Severus Alexander. Mallus was most probably granted with a colonial title under the rule of the last member of the Severan dynasty in 229/230 AD14. It seems to be proofed by two groups of coins struck under Alexander. The earliest followed the tradition and were inscribed with Greek inscriptions but later they were converted to Latin. The title: mallo colonia alexa s c felix replaced ΜΑΛΛΩΤΩΝ. However, the conversion

4 Apd. Bibl. III 7, 7. 5 Ibidem. 6 Strabo XV 5, 16. 7 Ibidem. 8 Imhoof-Blumer, Friedrich. “Coin Types of Some Kilikian Cities,” The Journal of Hellenistic Studies, v. 18, 1898, p. 163. 9 Paus. I 34, 3. 10 Burnett, Andrew, Michael Armandy, and Pere Pau Ripollès. Roman Provincional Coinage. Vol. 1, Lon- don-Paris: British Museum Press, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 1992, p. 592. 11 Ibidem. 12 Burnett, Andrew, Michael Armandy, Pere Pau Ripollès, and Ian Carradice, Roman Provincional Co- inage, Consolidated Supplement I-III. 13 Amandry, Michael, Andrew Burnett et al. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. III: Nerva, Trajan and Had- rian (AD 96-138). London-Paris:British Museum Press, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 2015. 14 Ziegler, Ruprecht. ‘Wann wurde Mallos zur römischen Kolonie?’ Studien zum Antiken II. Asia Minor Studien 8. Bonn: Universität Münster, 1992. pp. 181-183. 34 MASKA 40/2018 does not mean that any colonists were settled down there. So the question if Mallus was just a “titular” or a “proper” colony requires further investigation15. In spite of the fact that the nature of colony remains uncertain, the introduction of new coin types is beyond the discussion. The first issue of the following type was struck between 230-235 AD (RPC VI 715716) (ill. 1). Later almost identical scene was repeated on the coins of Trajan Decius (RPC IX 1431-1433) (ill. 2-4)17. On the obverse there is a bust of the emperor with a legend: IMP CE M AV SEV ALEXANDROS AVG. It is important to highlight that the Latin version, ALEXANDER, was replaced by the Greek ALEXANDROS. It can indicate on the Hellenistic origins of the engraver. Other examples of such error on the colonial coins are known from Alexandria Troas (RPC VI 4026, 4034, 4035). The problem with the proper letters occurs also on coins of Decius, where Є is introduced instead of Roman E (RPC IX 1431-1433) (ill. 2-4). In light of that the colonization of Roman settlers seems unlikely. The multifigured scene on the reverse is exceptional. In the middle of exposition there is the emperor in a military dress looking left. In one hand he holds a scepter, in the other he shows a statue of Marsyas. He is juxtaposed with touretted Tyche holding cornucopia and receiving the statuette of Marsyas. Behind Alexander Severus, Amphilo- chus is crowning emperor’s head with a wreath. In front of him there is a yoke of oxen driven by the emperor. On the coins of Trajan Decius the small figure of boar is far better legible than on earlier issues of Alexander Sever- us, however its presence is beyond the discussion. Before the interpretation of such scene will be provided, the particular elements of this composition shall be investigated. The most important figure of the scene is the Ill. 1. Severus Alexander. Mallus. RPC VI 7157. AE 42. one in the middle: the Obv: imp ce m av sev alexandros avg Rev: MALLO COLONIA ALEXA S C FELIX emperor. He is slightly All illustrations were brought from: rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk

15 Filges, Axel. Münzbild und Gemeinschaft: Die Prägungen der römischen Kolonien in Kleinasien. Frank- furter Archäologische Schriften 29, Studien zu Münze und Geld in der griechisch-römischen Welt 2. Bonn 2015. p. 54. 16 Calomino, Dario, Andrew Burnett, and Sandra Matthies. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. VI (Tempo- rary Numbers – Online 2017). 17 Holstein, Antony, Jerome Mairat. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. IX, London-Paris: British Museum Press, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 2016. 35 Szymon Jellonek

higher than Tyche and Amphilochus. Although Alexander Severus was reluctant to military affairs18, he is wearing a military dress. The last emperor of the Severan dynasty was forced to fight against Ar- dashir I and after a short Ill. 2.Trajan Decius. Mallus. RPC IX 1431. AE38. campaign, he managed to Obv: IMP CAES CAI CVIN DЄCI TRAINO ЄVS SЄ Rev: COLONIA MALLOTON, FELIX, S C defeat the Sassanids. The vision of emperor in cui- rass can be a reminiscence of the military actions of Alexander in Armenia and Mes- opotamia. Furthermore, Mallus was one of the places of gathering the Roman army on the way to face the Sassanids19, so the military context is substantial. His gesture of offering the statue of Marsyas indicates on him as a benefactor of the town. Alex- ander Severus was the one who granted the colonial title to Mallus and that moment is presented in the scene. It is unique gesture in colonial coinage, known only from coins of Mallus. To show the symbolism of the composition, it is essential to understand the importance of the figure of Marsyas. Marsyas is a frequent motive of colonial coinage of 2nd and 3rd century. He is depicted on coins of Cremna (e.g. RPC IV 4031), Apamea (e.g. RPC IV 2955), Ninica (e.g. RPC IV 10290), Alexandria Troas (e.g. RPC VI 3966), Tyre (e.g. RPC IX 1999), Ne- apolis (e.g. RPC IX 2172), and Bostra (e.g. RPC IX 2219). Marsyas used to be presented with a wine- skin and he was believed to be a symbol of freedom (libertas) – Liber Pater20. Ill. 3.Trajan Decius. Mallus. RPC IX 1432. AE 39. Є Є Є The statue of this Silenus Obv: IMP CAES CAI CVIN D CI TRAINO VS S Rev: MALLO COLONIA FELIX, S C 18 Hdn. VI.2.3. 19 Ziegler, Ruprecht. Städtisches Prestige und kaiserliche Politik: Studien zum Festwesen in Ostkilikien im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert n. Ch. Dusseldorf: Gebundes Buch, 1985. p. 97. 20 Katsari, Constantina, Stephen Mitchell. “The Roman Colonies of Greece and Asia Minor. Questions of State and Civic Identity.” Atheneum 96, 2008. p. 231; Basso, Patrizia, Alfredo Buonpane. “Marsia nelle Cittá del Mondo Romano.” Mediterraneo Antico: Economie Societá Culture. Vol. XI, 2008, p. 139.

36 MASKA 40/2018 was erected on Forum Ro- manum and since colonies were imitations of Rome – they followed the same law, rules and rituals – this was also another way to show their bonds with the capital21. Therefore, the scene where the emperor is Ill. 4. Trajan Decius. Mallus. RPC IX 1433. AE 37. offering the figure of Mar- Obv: IMP CAES CAI MЄ CVIN DЄCIO TRAIANO SЄ syas to Tyche can be under- Rev: MALLO COLONIA FELIX, S C stood as a delivery of freedom to a town of Mallus. The composition is completed with Tyche- City goddes. From pre-Roman times it was extremely popular to place the divine patron on coins. In case of Roman Mal- lus, Tyche was presented for the first time on early emissions of Caligula: she was sitting with two river gods who symbolize two branches of Pyramus River22. In this case, that was an allegoric way to present Mallus on coins. Therefore the scene of the emperor offering statuette of Marsyas to Tyche is in fact an allegory of a decree granting colonial status of Mallus. On the right side of the reverse youthful Amphilochus is crowning the emperor. The mythic founder of Mallus is, as usual, wearing only chlamys. In pre-colonial coinage his attributes are boar and branch (e.g. RPC III 3325). In case of Alexander’s issues the boar is located in exergue next to FELIX. Since it is barely visible, it cannot be proved with certainty that it is a symbol of Amphilochus. However, on emissions under Trajan Decius an image of boar is convincing. The lack of branch is caused by the act of crowning. The other hand of founder is leaning on his hip. Actually the act of crowning was a common motive in imperial and provincial coinage. In Philippi issues depicting Augustus crowned by Julius Ceasar were struck until Commodus23. In case of Koinon of Crete, Nike is crowning Trajan, also in a military dress (RPC III 31). A similar image is presented on coins of Alexandria (RPC III 4164). On emissions of Cyzicus, the Tychai of Cyzicus and Smyrna are both crowning the emperor (RPC IV 746). However the closest analogy comes from Smyrna where eponymous, turreted Amazon Smyrna is crowning the emperor (RPC IV 256).

21 Klimowsky, Ernest. “The origin and meaning of Marsyas in the Greek Imperial Coinage.” Isreal Nu- mismatic Journal 6. 1983, p. 95. 22 Tekin, Oguz. “River-Gods in Cilicia in the Light of Numismatic Evidence.” Varia Anatolica 13, 2001, p. 530. 23 Papageorgiadou-Bani, Hariklea. The Numismatic Iconography of the Roman Colonies in Greece and Local Spirit and the Expression of Imperial Policy. Athens:ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ. 2004. p. 42. 37 Szymon Jellonek

In these cases the act of crowning can be read as a way to show the gratitude to the emperor. Amphilochus, the mythical founder of the city, is demonstrating grateful- ness towards the emperor who is a benefactor of the city. Another important topic is an item that is used in the act of crowning. Since the artistic design and a preservation state are not perfect, the wreath is barely legible (the best example: RPC IX 1433). However, at first glance there are two probable options: corona laurea and corona civica. The first type is one of the most popular wreaths in Roman and Greek art. It symbolizes eternity, victory and peace. Usually Victory is the one who crowns the emperors. It was a way to show the military triumph of a leader24. The other possible item is an oaken wreath corona( civica) which symbolizes strength and longevity. In the Roman tradition it was granted to the soldiers who saved Roman citizens25. The oaken wreath was associated with emperors from the time of Augustus for rescuing all Roman citizens (ob cives servatos)26. It seems that both wreaths could be in use in this case. However, as it was mentioned before, Sever- us Alexander was a successful leader. Thereforecorona laurea fits the composition. The other option is strongly connected with Romanitas, and seeing that Mallus became a Roman colony, adaptation of corona civica on coins seems plausible. Nevertheless, Amphilochus remained a local god, and presenting him in the act of crowning with a typical Roman wreath appears unlikely, however it cannot be completely denied. Therefore the laurel wreath seems more accurate in this case. The juxtaposition of the emperor and two oxen shall be read as a kind of variation of a scene where two oxen are standing next to the priest – which is one of the most common motives in colonial coinage27. As it was mentioned before, the colonies were the imitations of Rome. so they followed the tradition, law, religion, rituals, and urban design of the Mother City28. One of the most important festival celebrated in Rome were Parilia which commemorated the foundation of Rome, held on 21st April29. In common belief Rome was established by Romulus by determining the future town boundaries (pomerium) in the act of aratrum (plow) belonging to assem- blage of Etruscan rituals (disciplina Etrusca). According to Dionysius of Halicarnas- sus, Romulus, under the advice of Etruscan priests, plowed the first furrow sulcus(

24 Rogić, Dragana. “Wreath – Its Use and Meaning in Ancient Visual Culture.” The Journal of the Center for Empirical Research on Religion, 18, 2004, p. 343. 25 Plin. HN, XVI, 5. 26 Mon. Anc. 34. 27 Jellonek, Szymon. “The Foundation Scene on Roman Colonial Coins.”Pecunia Omnes Vincit: Coin as a Medium of Exchange Throughout Centuries. Ed. Barbara Zając, Paulina Koczwara, and Szymon Jellonek, Kraków 2018. pp. 61-74. 28 Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. Religions of Rome, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambride University Press, 1998. pp. 333-334. 29 Ovid. Fast. IV. 806. 38 MASKA 40/2018 primigenius) using a yoke of oxen30. In places where the gates were planned he lifted the plow. It was the birthday of Rome, however later, when the city was expanding, the ritual was repeated. According to Varro, the foundation ritual of colonies was almost identical. The veiled man plowed the first furrow with a bull and a cow31. The act was depicted on a late Roman Republican denarius of C. Marius (RRC 378/1c)32 and early Imperial denarius of Octavianus (RIC² 272)33 after his victory over M. Anthony. In case of colonial coinage, this type was introduced in the 40s BC. The first issues with this motive were struck in Iberian Lepida (RPC I 261) and in Macedonian Philippi (RPC I 1646). The foundation scenes were widespread in 1st and 2nd century AD. In the 3rd century it became less popular, however it was presented on coins of Alexandria Troas (RPC VI 4065), Comama (RPC VI 5936), Ninica (RPC VI 6900), Aelia Capitolina (RPC IX 2195), and Rhesaena (RPC IX 2014). In most cases the motive was reserved for colonies, however in case of Assorus on Sicily (RPC I 666) and Tralles in Lydia (RPC I 2649), which had never gained colonial status, a foundation scene was also depicted on the civic coins. It is known that in both cases Ro- man colonists were settled down there, and their presence caused the choice of such theme34. This assumption brings us to another theory provided by E. Dąbrowa: that the use of foundation scene, often accompanied by vexilla, can indicate the presence of Roman settlers in colonies that were treated hitherto as “titular”35. Furthermore, the occurrence of foundation scene on coins is associated with the commemoration of colonial birthday, therefore, in some cases, it was connected with its centenary (eg. Cremna)36. In case of Mallus, which gained the colonial status in 229-230 AD, the emission struck under Alexander Sever was a way to confirm the foundation, while the next issues, under Decius Trajan and Valerianus, cannot be connected directly to any jubilee. Since the examination of particular elements of the scene has been conducted, it is possible to propose its interpretation. The most significant figure is the emperor who is perceived as a military leader and a benefactor of a town. He is granting colonial status to Mallus by offering statuette of Marsyas which is commonly understood as the symbol of colonial status (fiscal privilege or liberty)37. The personification of

30 Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. I.88. 31 Varro. Ling. V.14. 32 Crawford, Michael. Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. 33 Sutherland, Christopher, H.V. Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol.1, London: Spink and Son, 1984. 34 Grant, Michael. From Imperium to Auctoritas. Cambridge University Press, 1946. p. 191; Magie, David. The Roman Rule in Asia Minor, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, p. 469. 35 Dąbrowa, Edward. “Military Colonisation in the Near East and Mesopotamia under the Severi.” Acta Classica 55, 2012, p. 33. 36 Levick, Barbara. Roman Colonies in Asia Minor, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967, p. 36. 37 Basso, Patrizia, Alfredo Buonpane, op. cit., p. 151. 39 Szymon Jellonek a city is Tyche who is receiving the colonial grant. The mythic founder, Amphilo- chus, is crowning the emperor in an act of gratitude. The yoke of oxen signifies the foundation act of colony, and indirectly indicates on Rome as an archetype of colonial Mallus. The nature of the scene is syncretic: the local and colonial identities are manifested38. On the one hand, the common elements of Roman tradition, such as Marsyas, yoke of oxen, act of crowning, and cuirassed emperor indicate on Mallus’ adherence to Roman culture. On the other hand, the figures of Amphilochus and Tyche reveal the local identity. The juxtaposition of the emperor in a military dress, popular in imperial coinage, and typical colonial symbols, such as Marsyas and yoke of oxen, with mythic founder and city goddess manifest the developed integration in art. Furthermore, the first of such emissions was struck in the late period of Alex- ander’s regime (230-235 AD). The adoption of a new status was almost immediately presented on coins, combining it with local tradition. No matter if the colonists were actually settled or not, an engraver was familiar with Roman, Hellenistic and local iconography, however the mistake of using Greek version ALEXANDROS instead of Roman ALEXANDER is puzzling. There is another essential thing about this type: the extremely large denomination of all times in Mallus. The known examples weigh from 22 g to 38 g in times of Severus Alexander (RPC VI 7157), while in times of Trajan Decius the weight varies less: from 26 to 38 g (RPC IX 1431), 32 to 37 g (RPC IX 1432), and 25 to 38 g (RPC IX 1433). It seems that it was a way to celebrate and later to commemorate the colonial foundation39. It is important to summon other colonial coins struck in Mallus. On the bilingual coin of Julia Mammea (RPC VI 7159) Amphilochus is offering wreath to the personification of the city. Marsyas is also depicted on that coin, while on the smallest issue from the Severan times Marsyas is shown alone (RPC VI 7162). Tyche, touretted and sitting on a rock, surrounded by two vexilla, was placed on a few coins from around 250 AD (eg. RPC IX 1437). The two significant local gods, Athena Magarsis and Amphilochus, are juxtaposed on the smaller coins (RPC IX 1438), while on the smallest one the symbol of Roman She-wolf with twins is shown (RPC IX 1441). The developed level of Roman and local integration is clear. The foundation issue of Mallus follows the manner of adopting local myths to colonial identity40. Presenting eponymous founders was popular for Greek towns but also colonies, eg. Parius in Parium portrayed the local heroes, especially in the

38 Fliges, Axel, op. cit., p. 138. 39 Calomino, Dario. “Bilingual Coins of Severus Alexander in the Eastern Provinces.” American Journal of Numismatics, vol. 28, 2014, p. 204. 40 Katsari, Constantina, Stephen Mitchell, op. cit., p. 247. 40 MASKA 40/2018 insecure times of the 3rd century41. Furthermore, the colonies could commemorate multiple foundations (Alexandria Troas was founded in mythic times by Apollo Smintheus, later re-founded in early Hellenistic times, and eventually founded as colonia)42. Consequently, the scene of the emperor driving a yoke of oxen, offering Marsyas to city goddess, and being crowned by Amphilochus indicates on a concord and harmony between the mythic founder and a new benefactor. The fact that the scene was presented on the heaviest emissions struck in Mallus proves its importance. The composition consisted of colonial and local symbols manifests the integrated and syncretic identity of Mallus.

41 Heuchert, Volker. “The Chronological Development of Roman Provincial Coin Iconography.” Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces. Ed. Christopher Howgego, Volker Heuchert, and Andrew Burnett. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005. p. 51. 42 Price, Simon. “Local Mythologies in the Greek East.” Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, op. cit., p. 120. 41 Szymon Jellonek

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Amandry, Michael, Andrew Burnett et al. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. III: Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian (AD 96-138). London/Paris: British Museum Press, Bi- bliotheque Nationale de France, 2015. Basso, Patrizia, Alfredo Buonpane. “Marsia nelle Cittá del Mondo Romano.” Medi- terraneo Antico: Economie Societá Culture, vol. XI, 2008. 139 – 159 Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon Price. Religions of Rome, vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Burnett, Andrew, Michael Armandy, and Pere Pau Ripollès. Roman Provincional Coinage vol. 1, London-Paris: British Museum Press, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 1992. Burnett, Andrew, Michael Armandy, Pere Pau Ripollès, and Ian Carradice. Roman Provincional Coinage, Consolidated Supplement I-II British Museum Press, Bi- bliotheque Nationale de France. Calomino, Dario. “Bilingual Coins of Severus Alexander in the Eastern Provinces.” American Journal of Numismatics. Vol. 28, 2014. 199 – 222 Calomino, Dario, Andrew Burnett, and Sandra Matthies. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. VI. (Temporary Numbers – Online 2017). Crawford, Michael. Roman Republican Coinage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Dąbrowa, Edward. “Military Colonisation in the Near East and Mesopotamia under the Severi.” Acta Classica vol. 55, 2012. 31 – 42 Filges, Axel. Münzbild und Gemeinschaft: Die Prägungen der römischen Kolonien in Kle- inasien. Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften 29, Studien zu Münze und Geld in der griechisch-römischen Welt 2. Bonn: Frankfurter Archäologische Schriften 2015. Grant, Michael. From Imperium to Auctoritas. Cambridge: Cambridge Unviersity Press, 1946. Holstein, Anthony, Jerome Mairat. Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. IX, London-Paris: British Museum Press, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 2016. Heuchert, Volker. “The Chronological Development of Roman Provincial Coin Icono- graphy.” Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces. Ed. Christopher Howgego, Vol- ker Heuchert, and Andrew Burnett. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. 29 – 56 Imhoof-Blumer, Friedrich. Mallos, Mégarsos, Antioche du Pyramos: étude géographique, historique et numismatique. Paris: Société française de numismatique et d’archéo- logie, 1883. Imhoof-Blumer, Friedrich. “Coin Types of Some Kilikian Cities.” The Journal of Hel- lenistic Studies, vol. 18, 1898. 161 – 181

42 MASKA 40/2018

Jellonek, Szymon. “The Foundation Scene on Roman Colonial Coins.”Pecunia Om- nes Vincit: Coin as a Medium of Exchange Throughout Centuries. Ed. Barbara Zając, Paulina Koczwara, and Szymon Jellonek. Kraków, 2018. 61 – 74 Katsari, Constantina, Stephen Mitchell. “The Roman Colonies of Greece and Asia Minor. Questions of State and Civic Identity.” Atheneum vol. 96, 2008. 221 – 249 Klimowsky, Ernest. “The Origin and Meaning of Marsyas in the Greek Imperial Coinage.” Israel Numismatic Journal vol. 6, 1983. 88 – 101 Magie, David. The Roman Rule in Asia Minor, Princeton University Press, 1950. Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East 31 BC- AD 337. Cambridge University PRess, 1993. Levick, Barbara. Roman Colonies in Asia Minor. Oxford University Press, 1967. Papageorgiadou-Bani, Hariklea. The Numismatic Iconography of the Roman Co- lonies in Greece and Local Spirit and the Expression of Imperial Policy. Athens: ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 39. 2004. Price, Simon. “Local Mythologies in the Greek East.” Coinage and Identity in the Ro- man Provinces. Ed. Christopher Howgego, Volker Heuchert, and Andrew Bur- nett. Oxford University Press, 2005. 115 – 124 Rogić, Dragana. “Wreath – Its Use and Meaning in Ancient Visual Culture.” The Journal of the Center for Empirical Research on Religion, vol. 18, 2004. 341 – 358 Sutherland, Christopher H.V. Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. 1. London: Spink and Son, 1984. Tekin, Oguz. “River-Gods in Cilicia in the Light of Numismatic Evidence.” Varia Anatolica vol. 13, 2001. 519 – 551 Ziegler, Ruprecht. ‘Wann wurde Mallos zur römischen Kolonie?’ Studien zum Anti- ken II. Asia Minor Studien 8, Bonn: Universität Münster, 1992. Ziegler, Ruprecht. Städtisches Prestige und kaiserliche Politik: Studien zum Festwesen in Ostkilikien im 2. und 3. Jahrhundert n. Ch. Dusseldorf: Gebundes Buch 1985.

Summary

Mallus became a Roman colony during the rule of Severus Alexander. After the foundation, the largest emissions of coins presented a multifigural scene. The emperor is standing in the middle, offering a small statue of Marsyas (symbol of liberty) to Tyche who is the city goddess. The emperor is crowned by Amphilochus – the mythic founder of Mallus. A pair of oxen located in front of the emperor signifies the colonial foundation. The composition of local deities (Amphilochus, Tyche) with a typical colonial motive (yoke of oxen) and the Roman emperor indicates a high level of cultural integration. In this paper I will examine these components and reconsider the meaning of the scene as well as the identity manifested on the coins of Mallus.

Michał Wagner The many origins of totemism. Critical analysis of theories of James G. Frazer, Émile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud Institute of Philosophy, Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw

Totemism occupies a special place in the history of ethnography. The main topic of ethnographic research in the 19th century, it was not only entirely abandoned by the 20th-century ethnographers but also called a product of a Victorian mindset that falsely represented cultures of less-development countries of that time. In general, totemism was to be the most primal religion and social system whose manifesta- tions could be found among Indian and Aboriginal tribes. In the interpretation of the 19th-century thinkers like Herbert Spencer, totemism represented the first stage of cultural evolution and thus had extreme significance to every social scientist who wanted to get to know its course1. In 1899 Edward B. Tylor stressed its importance by highlighting its status as a primordial culture2 that represented “…the most effective processes in the early social growth of the human race”3. The importance of totemism mostly came from its specific structure. In his book Totemism, famous 19th-century ethnographer James G. Frazer characterised totemism as a unique mixture of religion and social system4. The religious aspect of totemism revealed itself in the belief that man is related to a supernatural animal protector (or plant); therefore, he cannot hunt it or eat it5. The social character of totemism manifested itself in the fact that the symbol of this supernatural ancestor (the totem)

1 Spencer, Herbert. “Origin of animal worship.” H. Spencer, Recent discussion in Science, Philosophy and Morals. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1873, pp. 54 – 55. 2 Tylor, Edward B. “Remarks on Totemism, with Especial Reference to Some Modern Theories Respec- ting It.” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 28(1899) 1/2, pp. 147 – 148. 3 Ibidem, p. 148. 4 Frazer, James G. Totemism. Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1887, p. 3. 5 Ibidem, p. 7. 45 Michał Wagner was a signature of the clan recognized by its members6. Totem also determined the social structure of a given tribe – the group gathered under one totem was exoga- mous7. However, in 1910 anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser announced his doc- toral thesis Totemism, an Analytical Study, in which he questioned the coexistence of these critical phenomena. Each of them, according to him, occurred independently of each other and only exceptionally, these features were observed simultaneously in the studied tribes8. From now on, the concept of totemism as the original religion that linked all cultures began to disappear from the scientific literature. The ultimate end of studies on totemism can be associated with Claude Lévi-Strauss’ book Totemism in which he wrote that “totemism is an artificial unity, existing solely in the mind of the anthropologist, to which nothing specifically corresponds in reality”9. Studying the history of research on totemism, a historian of science encoun- ters interesting question: How should one explain the origins of this false category? At the beginning of the 20th century many anthropologists, like Franz Boas, Bronisław Malinowski and later Lévi-Strauss, criticised totemism research as a product of the 19th-century eurocentrism (i.e., Boas10) or weak methodology (Malinowski11). But can we reduce the most crucial topic in social science of that era to false reasoning? Re- search on totemism focused not only on describing but also explaining and building it into a specific evolutionary sequence which endpoint was the European culture. Using three most important figures of totemism research: James G. Frazer, Émile Durkheim, and Sigmund Freud, I will argue that their studies generated various explanations of this belief system, and for this reason, they cannot be considered merely as a product of false reasoning.

1. How should studies on totemism be interpreted?

Another problem with the early explanations of origins of totemism research is that they originated from a new school of anthropology and ethnography, which not only aimed to establish its methodology but also show weaknesses of their predecessors. Therefore it is hard to consider Malinowski’s or Boas’ critical analyses as objective ones – because they could be a part of a generational conflict between different schools

6 Ibidem, p. 30. 7 Ibidem, pp. 58 – 60. 8 Goldenweiser, Alexander. “Totemism, an Analytical Study.” The Journal of American Folklore XXIII(1912)88, pp. 264 – 268. 9 Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Totemism, trans. R. Needham. London: Merlin Press, 1991, p. 10. 10 Boas, Franz. “The Origin of Totemism.” American Anthropologist, XVIII (1916), p. 321. 11 Malinowski, Bronisław. Wierzenia pierwotne i formy ustroju społecznego. Pogląd na genezę religii ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem totemizmu. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, 1915, pp. 28 – 30. 46 MASKA 40/2018 of thought. Historian Peter Bowler connects these criticisms with a significant paradigm shift that occurred at the beginning of the 20th century in social sciences and biology12. In Bowler’s interpretation, most of the 19th-century theories were shaped by the paradigm of ‘developmental evolution’ created by early transmutationists like Robert Chambers, who claimed that evolution was a gradual process with humans as its final goal. This view on evolution was, of course, very different from Charles Darwin’s concept of evolution through natural selection – which did not assume any hierarchy of species nor a final goal. But, as Bowler claims, Darwin’s theory was not adequately understood by the 19th-century scholars who criticised it and assumed that evolution was teleological13. When applied to social sciences, this assumption meant that there was a hierarchy of races in which Europeans were on the top, while other races could be seen as inferior and past stages of human evolution14. The end of ‘developmental’ paradigm occurred in the 1900s when Mendel’s theory of heredity re-emerged, and the discipline of genetics was established. In Bowler’s interpretation, mendelians were able to do what Darwin failed to accomplish – undermine the view of evolution as a guided process15. In social sciences, similar reform was conducted under the guideline of Franz Boas and functionalist school that wanted to free themselves from the methodological framework of the previous generation which relayed too much on biology16. Similarities between these paradigm shifts can be easily observed when we compare ways in which both mendelians and functionalists (especially) tried to discredit their predecessors. Moreover, the most essential aspect of the developmental paradigm that they criticized (Malinowski17 in social sciences and notably William Bateson18 in biology) was the focus on reconstructing the evolution of phenomena they were investigating. In his book Life splendid drama Bowler argues that reconstruction of the history of life was the main focus of developmentalists, while other tasks were mar- ginalized19. In this view, the importance of totemism is evident. The main focus of social sciences under ‘developmental paradigm’ was a reconstruction of origins of society, and because totemism was regarded as its first evolutionary step, to study it became a priority.

12 Bowler, Peter J. The non-darwinian revolution. Reinterpreting a historical myth. Baltimore, London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988, pp. 139 – 141. 13 Ibidem, pp. 47 – 49. 14 Ibidem, pp. 133 – 135. 15 Idem. The Non-darwinian..., op. cit., p 114. 16 Ibidem, pp. 140, 172. 17 Malinowski, Bronisław. Prawo, zwyczaj, zbrodnia w społecznościach dzikich, trans. Józef Obrębski. Warszawa: De Agostini Polska Sp. z o.o., 2001, pp. 134 – 136. 18 Bateson, William. Materials for the study of variation treated with special regard to discontinuity in the origin of species. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., 1894, pp. 79 – 80. 19 Bowler, Peter J. Life’s splendid drama. Evolutionary biology and the reconstruction of life’s ancestry 1860- 1940. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 3. 47 Michał Wagner

A similar interpretation was proposed by historian Robert A. Jones, who also analysed phenomena of research on totemism as a consequence of the evolutionist paradigm20. As he states, studies on totemism were aimed not so much at explaining the phenomena occurring in ʻexotic’ cultures, but rather showing the sources of social phenomena visible in the Victorian culture. In terms of Thomas Kuhn’s philosophy, they proposed solutions to the ʻriddles’ that bothered social sciences, such as: Where did religion come from? Was it related to magic? Was it associated with any specific social system? Of course, these questions could only be answered in the paradigm that focused on historical reconstruction – in this case, a social theory that was based on the 19th century ‘developmental evolutionism’21. Recognizing paradigm as a source of creation of false category does not explain diverse opinions among social scientists about totemism. In his research, Robert Jones tries to reconstruct the intellectual context of each major totemism scholar through books they read, opinions, and other influences (i.e., create ‘intellectual biography’ of a scholar) that could explain differences in opinions22. However, I would argue that we cannot merely reconstruct the creation of particular theory by looking at the biography of its author. In this case, we are reducing scholars of totemism to passive agents whose opinions were shaped by circumstances that they could not influence, which is not valid. Nor should we treat their theories only as an expression of certain paradigms. As Kuhn stated, acceptance or rejection of opinions, assumptions, etc. is based on the paradigm in which scholars work23. If paradigm determines what scholars accept, then it dictates also how their ‘intellectual biography’ looks like. In the end, we are left with circulus vitiosus where paradigm creates totemism, differences in opinions about totemism are created by ‘intellectual biographies’, and differences in ‘intellectual biographies’ are created by paradigm. Bowler argued against such simplification (at least in case of Darwin), claiming that all the elements that could influence a scientist were mere starting points from which new ideas were born24. We should make similar assumptions while studying theories of totemism.

20 Jones, Robert A., The Secret of the totem. Religion and Society from McLennan to Freud. New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 2005, pp. 1 – 4. 21 Ibidem, pp. 304 – 305. 22 Ibidem, pp. 5 – 7. 23 Kuhn Thomas. Dwa bieguny. Tradycja i nowatorstwo w badaniach naukowych, trans. Stefan Amster- damski. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1985, pp. 427 – 439. 24 Bowler, Peter J. Charles Darwin. The man and influence,Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1990, pp. 7 – 9. 48 MASKA 40/2018

2. James G. Frazer ‘conceptional’ theory of totemism

According to the above interpretation, research on totemism was important for the 19th-century scholars because their main focus (as dictated by ‘developmental paradigm’) was to reconstruct the evolution of human culture. In biology reconstruction of the evolution of specific phyla was based on so-called ‘evolutionary scenarios’. This method, created by Darwin, consisted of creating hypothetical situations that could cause the evolution of certain adaptive traits and in consequence lead to the creation of new species, genus, phylum, etc.25 As Bowler notes, using this method in anthropology caused the creation of theories with story-like nature, making them similar to cosmogonic myths26. a similar structure can also be noticed in theories of totemism. The most obvious example of the usage of ‘evolutionary scenario’ method can be found in ‘conceptional’ theory of totemism27 proposed by James G. Frazer. Frazer built his theory based on Baldwin Spencer’s and Francis Gillen’s book Native tribes of central Australia, especially their description of ʻtotem centres’ – particular areas that aboriginal tribe Arunta thought were dominated by certain animal or plant spirit. Arunta believed that these spirits caused pregnancy. When female started to feel a child in her womb, she knew that spirit from the nearest totem centre impregnated her28. Frazer was fascinated by the antiquity of the Arunta belief system and stated that it represents the most primal form of totemism29. In Frazer’s interpretation, the origin of this belief came from the wrong interpretation of pregnancy itself. Because savages did not understand cause-effect relations, they were not able to accurately interpret any natural (and organic) phenomenon. In the end, Frazer creates ‘evolutionary scenario’ where a savage pregnant woman does not understand her condition, and her ‘savage mind’ interprets it as a supernatural influence of spirits of nature. Eventually, she recognises an animal or plant that was nearest the place where she felt a child in her womb as a child’s father30. In this way, the tribe becomes convinced that animals are their ancestors and protective spirits31.

25 Idem. Life’s splendid drama, op. cit., pp. 7 – 11. 26 Bowler Peter J. Non-darwinian revolution, op. cit., p. 146. 27 Frazer created three different theories of totemism, because of limited space I focus on the last one. 28 Jones, Robert A. The Secret of the totem, op. cit., pp. 169 – 170. 29 Frazer, James G. Totemica. A supplement to Totemism and Exogamy, London: MacMillan and Co. ltd, 1937, p. 3. 30 Totemism and exogamy. A treatise on certain early forms of superstition and society. Vol. IV. London: Mac- Millan and Co. ltd, 1910, pp. 158 – 162. 31 Ibidem, pp. 61 – 64. 49 Michał Wagner

This explanation is consistent with Frazer’s historiosophy32 which he established earlier in the second edition of his famous book Golden Bough33. According to him, the evolution of culture can be divided into three stages: magic, religion, and science. The transition from one stage to another is due to the development of mental capa- bilities – primarily these related to logical reasoning. Magic in this view is understood as a product of logical fallacy that is caused by a false impression of the possibility to control laws of nature by spells and rituals34. Every subsequent stage represents a pro- gression in reasoning abilities, i.e., religion phase starts when people take notice that magic is not valid35, and science – when they find out how to adequately explain and use forces of nature36. In this logic, it is easy to understand why, in the context of Fraz- er’s evolutionary theory based on the development of mental abilities, totemism was treated as a product of fallacy in reasoning. If the development of culture depended on the improvement of human understanding of nature, the whole process should start with an attempt to explain natural phenomena. ‘Conceptional’ theory assumes precisely this ‘evolutionary scenario’.

3. The sociological approach of Émile Durkheim

Similarly to Frazer, Émile Durkheim also hypothesised that psychological factors could explain the origins of totemism. As he writes, among the Australian tribes’ life is divided into two consecutive phases. The first is the phase of scattering when people in small independent groups devote themselves to their own activities, and each family lives separately. After it follows the second phase – the clan gathers on the occasion of holidays. As a member of a primitive society readily gives in to emotions, the moment of such gatherings is a potent stimulus for him. Since life during the first phase is deprived of such substantial factors, emotions accompanying the moment of the congregation are so strong that they convince him of the existence of two realities – one with which he identifies feelings he experienced while in the group, and calm unremarkable everyday life. The first became thesacrum and the second – the profanum. Moreover, since during these gatherings, a man was surrounded by the emblem of his clan, he was finding the source of divine power in it – in this way totem gained religious significance. Totem then became a physical expression of what

32 I am using the term “historiosophy” for every theory that conceptualise and hypothesise about course, final goal and meaning of the history of humanity. 33 Jones, Robert A. The Secret of the totem, op. cit., p. 155. 34 Idem. Złota gałąź. Studia z magii i religii, trans. Henryk Krzeczkowski. Kraków: Vis-a-vis Etiuda, 2012, pp. 14 – 18. 35 Ibidem, pp. 50 – 52. 36 Ibidem, pp. 496 – 498. 50 MASKA 40/2018 connects society, of feelings that arose in the individual being part of the community. The choice of an animal or plant itself was not essential and probably depended on the species that occurred in the vicinity near these gatherings37. The idea that society has a transformative influence on its members Durkheim established in his earlier works. To him, people were under constant pressure that came from traditions, customs, and beliefs that were established by their culture and which molded their behaviour38. This reasoning is closely linked to Durkheim’s historiosophy, according to which the evolution of societies can be divided into two stages that can be differentiated by the type of solidarity among their citizens. Mechanical solidarity is characteristic for primitive societies where all the members share similar values and thus feel close to the whole community. The biggest crime in this kind of society is either the offense of the values professed by other members or the direct manifestation of individuality. Therefore, the legal system is focused on punishing such attempts to shake up the internal cohesion of society39. Because the social life of primitive peoples focused on religion, this law was expressed in the dogmas of faith40. When society grew in number and got more advanced technologically, people became more self-absorbed, and thus individualities could be accepted41. Primal societies’ members were sharing the same consciousness; every social act appeared to them as something unexplainable. This extraordinary feeling that came from being part of a group becomes later recognised as supernatural and on this basis, religion is created. In the end, God is a reflection of society itself, and religion is an activity in which people are praising their community. In Durkheim’s historiosophy, the evolution of societies can be seen as a change of relationships between social agents and their community. When reconstructing ‘evolutionary scenario’ that led to the creation of totemism, Durkheim assumed that crucial moment was when human for the first time felt the power that came from being a part of a community – the moment of gathering. Thus, the transformative power of community was the main reason for which not only totemism existed, but also for which societies were formed.

37 Durkheim, Émile. Elementarne formy życia religijnego. System totemiczny w Australii, trans. Anna Za- drożyńska. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2010, pp. 187 – 192. 38 Idem. Zasady metody socjologicznej, trans. Jerzy Szacki. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2011, p. 33. 39 Idem. O podziale pracy społecznej, trans. Krzysztof Wakar. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2012, pp. 135 – 141. 40 Ibidem, pp. 175 – 181. 41 Ibidem, pp. 337 – 334. 51 Michał Wagner

4. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical interpretation

Durkheim started studying totemism long after he established the methodology of his sociology and evolutionary structure of development of societies. Some scholars of Durkheim treat his later works (i.e., religious studies) as an application of previously worked out solutions to new problems42. It is safe to assume that same as Frazer’s – Dur- kheim’s explanation of totemism was also rooted in his previous sociological theories. However, the most obvious example of the extension of individual research perspective to totemism are the studies of Sigmund Freud. Freud’s explanation undoubtedly bor- rows a lot from the evolutionary paradigm. Freud treats totemism as the beginning of social evolution, occurring just after the stage of the ʻprimitive horde’ – an idea he took from Darwin43. Most of his theses, however, are based on the psychoanalytic method he developed. As we read in Paweł Dybel’s Freuda sen o kulturze, ethnographic data was attractive to the father of psychoanalysis “only in so far as they can be properly blended into his version of events, thus authenticating its ‘scientific’ character”44. Therefore, the whole theory of totemism is nothing more than a transfer of the gains of psychoanalysis to anthropology. Thus, Freud assumes that social evolution is a reflection of the model of ontogeny he developed in his research. According to his theory, human life is strongly determined by the primary sexual urges that are manifested in early childhood. The most critical stage of a child’s development is the appearance and solution of the Oedipus complex associated with the abandonment of autoeroticism for another sexual object. In the case of boys, it is their mother. Because of the prevailing taboo of incest, the boy cannot vent his desires, so he devotes himself to autoeroticism. In this situation, the father is a rival for the boy and hates him as a competitor, wishing him death. But the father is also an ideal for the boy whom he loves. This ambivalence of feelings produces guilt in the child. In this way, guilt creates Superego, or internalized paternal authority – a set of rules passed on to the child by a parent45.

42 E.g. Margul, Tadeusz. Sto lat nauki o religiach świata. Książka i Wiedza: Warszawa, 1964, p. 114, and Turner, Jonathan H. Struktura teorii socjologicznej, trans. Grażyna Woroniecka, Jacek Szmatka and others. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2012, pp. 408 – 409. 43 Freud, Sigmund. „Totem i tabu. Kilka zgodności w życiu psychicznym dzikich i neurotyków,” trans. Marcin Poręba, Robert Reszke. S. Freud. Dzieła. Tom IV. Pisma Społeczne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2009, p. 148. 44 Originally: „Jedynie o tyle, o ile dają się odpowiednio wtopić w jego własną wersję wydarzeń, uwia- rygodniają w ten sposób jej «naukowy» charakter.” Dybel, Paweł. Freuda sen o kulturze. Warszawa: Instytut Kultury, 1996, p. 114. 45 Siniugina, Larysa. Pasje poskromione. Freuda teoria kultury. Warszawa: Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1985, pp. 37 – 43. 52 MASKA 40/2018

Similarly, the society is also built on repressing primal urges46 and subliming them into socially acceptable forms47. The creation of culture and society is caused by the first act of repression of these urges. According to Freud, the analysis of the characteristics of totemism – exogamy, the cult of the ancestors, and the totemic feast – leads to the following founding myth: in the beginning there was a primitive horde in which there was one alpha male who controlled all the females and did not allow other males to approach them. His sons had contradictory feelings towards him – on the one hand, they hated him as a rival; on the other, they loved and admired him. One day, the brothers decided to join forces and overthrow their father, and as a result, they killed him. When they gave free rein to their hatred, they remembered the love they had for the parent and wanted to cancel their deed. They tried to do this by introducing two characteristic taboos of totemism – exogamy and the prohibition of killing a totem. The highlighted place of the totemic animal came from the fact that the feelings that the primitive people had to their father were transferred to a totemic animal. The prohibition of incest is also an attempt of repenting of the crime, although practical motives are also involved. Despite the overthrow of paternal authority, the brothers are still forced to compete for women, but this time among themselves. The new community built on such a foundation had to break down quickly. To prevent this, brothers were forced to give up a rivalry between themselves. The only way to do this was to renounce the women they had fought for before. The next law they introduced was the prohibition of fratricide. By securing the state of peace within the community, the original horde transformed into a clan of brothers48. The founding myth of Freud’s totemism is a social equivalent of the Oedipus complex. Similarly, the belief in a relationship with a totemic animal finds its coun- terpart in Freud’s psychoanalytic experience, recalling the phenomenon of children’s irrational fear of animals, which he interprets as one of the ways to solve the Oedipus complex – by transferring fear from father to beast. Therefore, as he explains, the cult of the totemic animal is characterized by the ambivalence of feelings combining fear with love49. From a methodological perspective, Freud’s reconstruction of origins of totemism is created in the same manner as Frazer’s and Durkheim’s – he also assumes that causes which led to its creation are the same that would become crucial for his later studies. If in his theory, culture is a way to sublime primal urges, then totemism is caused by repression and sublimation.

46 Freud, Sigmund. „Przyszłość pewnego złudzenia,” trans. Robert Reszke. S. Freud. Dzieła. Tom IV. Pi- sma Społeczne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2009, p. 127. 47 Idem. „»Kulturowa« moralność seksualna a współczesna moralność”, trans. Robert Reszke. S. Freud. Dzieła. Tom IV. Pisma Społeczne. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2009, p. 14. 48 Idem, „Totem i tabu”, op. cit., pp. 360 – 364. 49 Ibidem, p. 353. 53 Michał Wagner

Conclusion: totemic research as a justification for methodology and historiosophy

In all three cases, we can see that explanations of totemism origins were always consistent with general views of scholars who proposed them. This conclusion is pretty evident and consistent with other analysis on this topic (i.e., Jones). However, the critical question here is as follows: Why are they so different? As we have seen above, in Jones’ interpretation all differences are caused by intellectual biographies, but this explanation can cause some logical problems (i.e., circulus vitiosus fallacy) if we want to integrate it with Kuhn’s philosophy of science. The more efficient way is to treat both intellectual biography and developmental paradigm as starting points of the creation process of theories. In this approach, we can keep the idea of a rational agent whose works are not just a reflection of a paradigm or cultural background but who can also generate new, innovative ideas. Moreover, Kuhn’s philosophy can provide such an explanation. In order to fully understand this framework, I must first explain what Kuhn understands by ‘solving puzzles’ – as he calls scientific research. He argues that each scientific community has a pattern according to which it tries to explain the encountered phenomena. Conducting research is therefore limited to the application of the formula provided by the paradigm to the chosen problem. In this sense, the paradigm does not give any opportunity to apply any innovative solutions because they were all provided by the applied formula50. According to Kuhn, paradigm sets a specific range of solutions that will be compatible with it and which are creating specific rules for solving the puzzle51. In the case of the authors discussed above, we can say that they only applied previously formulated theories to a new phenomenon – or, in other words, that they already had a formula thanks to which they could solve a puzzle of the genesis of totemism. However, according to Kuhn’s theory, the paradigm has no absolute influence on the way the researcher perceives reality – not all phenomena can be pulled under interpretations imposed by the paradigm – such phenomena are anomalies52. The problem, however, is that totemism could not be an anomaly because it did not exist. Without having a designate in the social reality of the studied tribes, it could be freely interpreted. This meant that scholars could assign any characteristics to it without fear that they would not be consistent with current knowledge. When analysing the history of research on totemism, one major question occurs – how scholars decided which vision of totemism was correct? Goldeweiser argued that to-

50 Kuhn, Thomas. Struktura rewolucji naukowych, trans. Helena Ostromęcka. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Alatheia, 2009, pp. 71 – 83. 51 Ibidem, pp. 76 – 77. 52 Ibidem, p. 153. 54 MASKA 40/2018 temism was only a name given to several elements seen in ‘savage’ cultures that never really co-existed. So scholars who were investigating totemism could create their version of it by focusing on some elements and ignore others. In the context of Kuhn’s philosophy, we can see what determined the decision on what elements of totemism should be highlighted. All scholars mentioned above created their theories of totemism after establishing their general views on the evolution of society. These historiosophies were not only products of particular methodology that they developed but also the assumptions of explanatory schemes that they used in ‘solving puzzles’. Also, these explanatory schemes were, in the end, dictating on what elements of totemism they should focus on. That is why Freud stressed the role of exogamy, Durkheim – its social aspects, and Frazer – beliefs of the totemic tribes. Similarly, historiosophy was also influencing how they solved the riddle of totemism. In all three theories, the man goes from the state of savagery to totemism. However, the way in which this transition takes place depended on the theory that imposed interpretation. For Freud totemism appears as the result of guilt about murdering father, for Durkheim – it is the transformation in the individual’s psyche caused by the feeling of being a part of a group, and in Frazer’s theory – it is the use of a mental scheme to recognize (incorrectly) first dependencies occurring in nature. These explanations not only confirmed the explanatory possibilities of the solving schemes that they used but also confirmed the assumptions that laid in the foundation of their theories of culture. We should remember that according to Kuhn, the influence that paradigm has on its agents is mostly unnoticed by them. Because it is so deeply rooted in their worldview, they cannot differentiate between their ideas and paradigms. This twofold influence of the rules of solving the puzzle on the studied phenomenon, i.e., selection of these features of the studied subject whose analysis would be possible and shaping it as a confir- mation of the adopted historiosophical assumptions, indicates the strength with which the paradigm affects researcher’s perception of reality. In the case of totemism research, it is not a case of one single paradigm influencing all of three mentioned scholars. It is true that they accepted evolutionist worldview that could be recognised as a part of ‘developmental paradigm’ – but the most important factor was their perspectives. Because they created explanatory schemes which they used in their research (in case of Freud and Durkheim they later became part of new paradigms in their respective fields), we can say that these perspectives functioned in the same way as Kuhn’s paradigms. In the case of these three, we can see how one’s perspective can impact research in a similar way as working within the scientific community and its paradigm. Totemism, as a non-existent subject of the study, shows this dependence more clearly because the individual perspective (as well paradigm) is not so much indicative of the possible range of solutions of the puzzle but imposes its solution. In this way, totemism becomes a mirror reflection of the philosophical and methodological assumptions of a given scholar.

55 Michał Wagner

Bibliography

Bateson, William. Materials for the study of variation treated with special regard to discontinuity in the origin of species. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., 1894. Boas, Franz. “The Origin of Totemism.” American Anthropologist, XVIII(1916)3. 319–326 Bowler, Peter J. Charles Darwin. The man and influence. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1990. Bowler, Peter J. Life’s splendid drama. Evolutionary biology and the reconstruction of life’s ancestry 1860-1940. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1996. Bowler, Peter J. The non-darwinian revolution. Reinterpreting a historical myth. Balti- more, London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Durkheim, Émile. Elementarne formy życia religijnego. System totemiczny w Australii, trans. Anna Zadrożyńska. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2010. Durkheim, Émile. O podziale pracy społecznej, trans. Krzysztof Wakar. Warszawa: Wy- dawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2012. Durkheim, Émile. Zasady metody socjologicznej, trans. Jerzy Szacki. Warszawa: Wy- dawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2011. Dybel, Paweł. Freuda sen o kulturze. Warszawa: Instytut Kultury, 1996. Frazer, James G. Totemica. a supplement to Totemism and Exogamy. London: MacMil- lan and Co. Ltd, 1937. Frazer, James G. Totemism and exogamy, Vol. I (in four volumes). New York: Cosmio, 2009. Frazer, James G. Totemism and exogamy. a treatise on certain early forms of superstition and society. Vol. IV. London: MacMillan and Co. Ltd, 1910. Frazer, James G. Totemism. Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1887. Frazer, James G. Złota gałąź. Studia z magii I religii, trans. Henryk Krzeczkowski. Kraków: Vis-a-vis Etiuda, 2012. Freud, Sigmund. „»Kulturowa« moralność seksualna a współczesna moralność”, trans. Robert Reszke. S. Freud, Dzieła. Tom IV. Pisma Społeczne, Warszawa: Wydawnic- two KR, 2009. 5–24 Freud, Sigmund. „Przyszłość pewnego złudzenia”, trans. Robert Reszke. S. Freud, Dzieła. Tom IV. Pisma Społeczne, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2009. 121–162 Freud, Sigmund. „Totem I tabu. Kilka zgodności w życiu psychicznym dzikich I neu- rotyków”, trans. Marcin Poręba, Robert Reszke. S. Freud, Dzieła. Tom IV. Pisma Społeczne, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR, 2009. 241–376 Goldenweiser, Alexander. “Totemism, an Analytical Study.” The Journal of American Folklore XXIII(1912)88. 179–293 Jones, Robert A. The Secret of the totem. Religion and Society from McLennan to Freud. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

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Kuhn, Thomas. Dwa bieguny. Tradycja I nowatorstwo w badaniach naukowych, trans. Stefan Amsterdamski. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1985. Kuhn, Thomas. Struktura rewolucji naukowych, trans. Helena Ostromęcka. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Alatheia, 2009. Levi-Strauss, Claude. Totemism, trans. R. Needham. London: Merlin Press, 1991. Malinowski, Bronisław. Prawo, zwyczaj, zbrodnia w społecznościach dzikich, trans. Jó- zef Obrębski. Warszawa: De Agostini Polska Sp. z o.o., 2001. Malinowski, Bronisław. Wierzenia pierwotne I formy ustroju społecznego. Pogląd na ge- nezę religii ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem totemizmu. Kraków: Akademia Umie- jętności, 1915. Margul, Tadeusz. Sto lat nauki o religiach świata. Książka I Wiedza: Warszawa, 1964. Siniugina, Larysa. Pasje poskromione. Freuda teoria kultury. Warszawa: Krajowa Agen- cja Wydawnicza, 1985. Spencer, Herbert. “Origin of animal worship.”, H. Spencer, Recent discussion in Scien- ce, Philosophy and Morals. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1873. 31–56 Turner, Jonathan H. Struktura teorii socjologicznej, trans. Grażyna Woroniecka, Jacek Szmatka and others. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2012. Tylor, Edward B. “Remarks on Totemism, with Especial Reference to Some Modern Theories Respecting It.”The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 28(1899) ½. 138–148

Summary

Question of the origin of totemism has a double meaning for a historian. On the one hand, it can relate to the question of the genesis of religion, which between the 19th and 20th century occupied minds of such influential thinkers as James Frazer, Émile Durkheim, and Sigmund Freud. For these scholars, totemism was a first, primordial religion, so the explanation of its origins could shed light on the beginnings of human culture. On the other hand, it can refer to the fact that totemism never existed. Therefore the question of its origin is more of a question of how this phenomenon was created in the minds of 19th and 20th-century scholars. The article will explore both of these topics by reconstructing theories of totemism of the three thinkers mentioned above and also by showing how their philosophical presuppositions influenced their studies, leading them to accept the reality of this non-existing religion.

Natalia Zajączkowska The Origin, Roles and Social Evaluation of the Caste System. A Case Study in Rural North India1 Faculty of International and Political Studies, University of Lodz

Introduction

The elaborate institution known as the caste system among the Hindus in India may almost be said to be without a parallel in the world, although there is hardly a country where classes or orders of the society or grades of social distinction of some kind or another are not found. Yet, it is India’s caste system, which is among the world’s oldest and most distinctive forms of the surviving social stratification system. There is enough research material to indicate that caste associations remain strong and noticeable feature of rural India today.2 This article offers a multidisciplinary approach, including social sciences, cultural and political anthropology, to a study of social aspects of casteism from the Indian perspective. It engages with a field of research that yet remains insufficiently explored in the Polish academia. In this paper, I attempt to provide illuminating insights into social aspects of varṇa and jāti systems, including the socio-philosophical context. I shortly address the Dumontian concept of the caste to contextualize my workings. Based on the gathered data, the caste system still exists in everyday life of the Indian society even though its egregious elements, such as untouchability, were outlawed over 60 years ago by the Indian constitution.3 Then, the question remains: Is it possible to reconcile the centuries-old Hindu social stratification with the modern

1 I gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from theRector of the University of Lodz in preparing this article. 2 See: Dirks, 1989; Johnson & Karlberg 2005; Srinivas 2012, Jodhka, 2015. 3 “Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of Untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.” — Article 17 59 Natalia Zajączkowska equality-oriented system following the example of Western democracies? While studying such a multi-faceted issue I address a question whether the ancient philosophy is to be treated as a brake on development, a symbol of social backwardness or quite the reverse — it can be a fount of wisdom and universal values prevalent in the Indian society. I also target such a question to my Indian respondents. In order to address the nature of the problem, it is essential to analyze the caste concerning the history of jāti and the distinctive socio-political model of India. Given that it is an intrinsic part of the cultural heritage and bedrock of Indian tradition, the role of the caste system may well not be entirely discarded and forgotten. This study argues that caste, still being an all-pervasive social institution within India, might have had both positive and negative aspects. Most importantly, this article raises an overarching question of how far the caste system is still on and what is the sole perception of it among Indians — the ‘insiders’ of this phenomenon. The article consists of three sections. The first one deals with the genesis of the Indian caste system and its philosophical provenance. The second section discusses the highly influential Dumont’s treatise on caste, which is acknowledged to have revolutionized the perception of it. The third section encompasses the ethnographic fieldwork conducted in 2017 and 2018. The study was preceded by an in-depth overview of a significant number of caste theories, concepts, and various perspectives, making a reliable baseline for this paper. It is also worth noting that at present, the dominant descriptions of the caste system, to a great extent, reflect the Europocentric point of view. They reflect- Eu ropean experiences and thinking about the Indian culture and society much more than the realities on the ground or Indian understandings of the caste. The purpose of this study is to examine the perspectives on and approaches to the caste system among selected rural Indian societies. With my article, I intend to extend it to new findings. My interpretation is based on spending four months doing fieldwork in the north-western Indian villages 150 kilometers away from Mumbai.

Abolition of Untouchability, Part III Fundamental Rights, Constitution of India, 1950; Untouchabi- lity (Offences) Act, 1955; Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. 60 MASKA 40/2018

Genesis and Philosophy of Varṇa4 and Jāti5

The wordcaste derives from Latin castus, which means pure. The term was coined and loosely employed by the Portuguese to denote the Indian social stratification referring to the Sanskrit word jāti. However, the nature of the caste system is so complex that no satisfactory definition is possible.6 There is voluminous literature on the origin and antiquity of the caste system in India, to some of which the reference will be made in the bibliography. But still, the exact origin of varṇa and jāti system is complicated to trace. The fact is that the systems are said to have originated in India.7 Plenty of theories regarding the provenance of these two systems, such as the traditional theory, political theory, occupational theory, racial theory, guild theory, religious theory, and evolutionary theory have been formulated so far. In this section, I discuss the traditional theory of varṇa and jāti system, which is directly associated with ancient Indian literature. It refers to the divine provenance of the system. Also, it carries strong philosophical connotation. According to Vedic literature, castes were created by Lord Brahma, the creator god in Hinduism, to make people perform various social functions essential for the existence of society; like organs in the body, each performing specific functions that are necessary to the maintenance of the whole. Jāti, on the other hand, refers to a birth group and provides Hindus with a more explicit rank or status in society.8 It usually determines one’s profession, dietary habits, ritual allowances, and interactions with members of other castes.9 The traditional theory ofvar ṇa and jāti derives from the Manusmṛti, Purāṇas, Rāmāyana, and Mahābhārata. Although its classification explicitly under law seems to be doubtful, The Laws of Manu (i.e., Manusmṛti)10 used to be called “the most

4 Varṇa literally means colour, description, explanation, interpretation, form, etc. – Apte, Vaman S. Sanskrit-Hindi Dictionary, p. 901; The varṇa system is a four-fold structure of values and functions which provide both the social and personal justice. It is based upon the moral principle of karma (the sum of person’s actions). It is believed that everyone is born with peculiar leanings, temperament and abilities encapsulated in his varṇa. – Sharma, Rajendra K. Indian Society. Institutions and Change. Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2004, p. 13. 5 Jāti literally means a birth, people, descent or family; group of clans, tribes, communities and sub- -communities in India. The caste system, as it actually works in India is called jāti. Each jāti typically has an association with a traditional job function or tribe. Nowadays there are perhaps more than 3000 jātis in Indian society – Encyclopaedia Britannica. 6 Dutt, Nripendra K. Origin and Growth of Caste in India. Michigan: Trubner & Company, Limited, 1931, p. 1. 7 Samuel, Geoffrey. The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 83–89. 8 Macdonell, Arthur A., “The Early History of Caste.”The American Historical Review.Vol. 19, No. 2, Oxford University Press, 1914. p. 238. 9 Ibidem, p. 231. 10 Byrski, Maria K. Manusmṛti (translation). Warsaw: State Publishing Institute PIW, 1985. 61 Natalia Zajączkowska authoritative and influential text of ancient Indian laws”11 Indeed, in a sense, it is a philosophical explanation of varṇa and jāti. The scripture is dated between 200 BCE to 200 CE.12 According to historian Barbara Ramusack, “it represents the effort of brāhmaṇas to impose their ideals as the dominant practice in Hindu society.”13 Hinduism is created of a caste, jāti system, and class, varṇa system.14 According to the Hindu myth Manusmṛti, the fourfold varṇa system consists of brāhmaṇas, kṣatri- yas, vaiśyas, and śūdras originated from the body parts of a mythical deity, Puruṣa.15 Brāhmaṇas, originating from the head of Puruṣa, are the highest class that is priests, teachers, and protectors of sacred knowledge across generations, while kṣatriyas, originating from the torso and arms of Puruṣa, are commanded to be the rulers, warriors, and administrators.16 Vaiśya varṇa, which originated from his legs, was composed of people who work in agriculture, trade, and commerce. Finally, śūdras originating from Puruṣa’s feet are said to be impure.17 They are supposed to serve the upper varṇas.18 The oldest extant passage in which the idea of varṇa occurs is Puruṣa Sūkta (90.12) of the tenth book of Ṛgveda which is considered to be amongst the earliest religious scriptures estimated to date back to around 1200–1000 BCE.19 According to Majum- dar, “there are glimpses in the Ṛgveda of a threefold or fourfold division of the people, corresponding to the well-known three upper or all the four divisions of the caste system.”20 While the term varṇa finds frequent mention there, it does not necessarily mean the formalization of the caste system. As pointed out by Max Müller and reiterated by numerous Indologists, the Puruṣa hymns were a late addition and might

11 Bhatia, Vijay K., Rajesh Sharma “Language and the Legal System.” Language in South Asia. Ed. Braj B. Kachru, Yamuna Kachru and Shikaripur N. Sridhar. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. p. 363. 12 Avari, Burjor. India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 B.C.E. to AD 1200. Routledge, 2007. p. 142. 13 Ramusack, Barbara N. “Women in South Asia.” Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History. Ed. Bar- bara N. Ramusack, Sharon Sievers. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. p. 29. 14 Rodrigues, Hillary P. “Divine times: Goddess worship in Banaras” Studying Hinduism in Practice. Ed. Hillary Rodrigues. New York: Routledge, 2003. p. 132. 15 Macdonell, Arthur A. op. cit., p. 240. 16 Bühler, Georg “The Laws of Manu” Sacred Books of the East, Ed. Müller, F. Max. Oxford University Press, 1886. p. 419. 17 Davis, Marvin. Rank and Rivalry: The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal. Cambridge: Cambrid- ge University Press, 1983. p. 52. 18 Bühler, Georg., op. cit., p. 429. 19 This chronology was suggested by German Orientalist Max Müller. As stated by himṚ gveda could have been formulated even earlier. Nevertheless, according to many other scholars, this dating may be rather early — Flood, Gavin D. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. pp. 37–39. 20 Majumdar, Ramesh C. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Vedic age. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. p. 391. 62 MASKA 40/2018 seem dubious as they are not cogent with the rest of Ṛgveda21. The emergence of the fully-fledged caste system remains, therefore in question. The caste system gains wide circulation in Dharmaśāstras (Manusmṛti) and Purāṇas. Yet, it would be naive to presume that this was the only theory about the origin of varṇa and jāti system based on sacred books of Hinduism. There are other theories as well, though, they did not gain much publicity and certainly got secondary priority.

According to Manu (…), many castes or jātis were produced by a series of crosses first between members of the four varnas and then between the descendants of these initial unions. Thus arose 1. Murdhavasikta (Brahman and Kshatriya). 2. Mahishya (Khatriya and Vaisya). 3. Karana (Vaisya and Sudra). 4. Ambastha (Brahman and Vaisya). 5. Nishada or Parasava (Brahman and Sudra).22

Although it is not crystal clear whether this is an initial stage of the particular jāti system, the old society description given above may refer to it, as well as to the pratiloma marriages (which refers to hypogamy form of marriage).23

Apart from that, numerous castes came into existence by degradation from the original varṇas on account of non-observance of sacred rites. These are calledVratyas. 24

The caste system could also be explained according togu ṇas25 , which are interpreted in terms of two sets gotrika26 and nāmika.27 Gotrika quality refers to heredity. It means that one inherits attributes and qualities, which are commonly found among all other consanguineous kins. The second one, nāmika, is concerned with the individual’s defining characteristics. Hence, thegotrika appears to assign a person to a particular

21 Müller, Max F. Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 570; Muir, John. Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, Their Religions and Institutions. Vol. 1, Amsterdam Oriental Press, 1967. 22 Dutt, Nripendra K., op. cit., pp. 7–8. 23 Pratiloma — against the hair or grain, inverted; a type of marital practice in which a man of lower class/caste/varna marries a girl of higher class/caste/varna. Such cases of Shudra-Aryan connections are also recorded in the Vedic texts. 24 Dutt, Nripendra K., op. cit., p. 8. Vratya faithful, engaged in a religious observance but also out-caste. 25 Guṇa — depending on the context means string, thread, or strand, or virtue, merit, excellence, or quality, peculiarity, attribute, property (Monier Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany). There are threegu ṇas, according to key concepts of Hinduism. These three gunas are called: sattva (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas (passion, active, confused), and tamas (darkness, destructive, chaotic) (Widgery, Alban “The principles of Hindu Ethics.”Inter - national Journal of Ethics. Vol. 40, No. 2, 1930. pp. 234–237). 26 Gotra — lineage; a segment within an Indian caste that prohibits intermarriage by virtue of the members’ descent from a common mythical ancestor, an important factor in determining possible Hindu marriage alliances. — Encyclopedia Britannica 27 Nāmika — relating to a name. 63 Natalia Zajączkowska group and determine his ascriptive status. The ascriptive status, though, indeed ap- points a particular jāti background. Thus, being two separate strikingly different things, varṇa is somehow connected with jāti.28 It happens that a particular jāti is likely to be a part of the varṇa. Never- theless, Professor Hillary Rodrigues provides an alternative perspective on it, saying that “sometimes, these designations that jāti groups make to be a part of a varṇa class are not supported by fellow Hindus.”29 Thus, at least the roots of the former varṇa system seem to be somehow linked with the latter jāti system. According to Indian sociologist Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas:

The varṇa scheme has certainly distorted the picture of caste but it has also enabled ordinary men and women to understand and assess the general place of a caste within this framework throughout India. It has provided a common social language, which holds good in all parts of In- dia. This sense of familiarity, even when not based on real facts leads to a sense of unity amongst the people.30

It must be noted that varṇa and jāti systems are related to each other only to a limited extent. As a matter of fact, we cannot equate one to another. As claimed by Srinivas:

Idea of caste as the fourfold division of society represents a gross oversimplification of facts. The real unit of caste system is jāti denoting an endogamous community with more or less defined ritual status and occupations traditionally linked to it.31

These considerations bring us to the revolutionary — showing caste in a whole different light — theory, to which I now turn.

Dumont’s Theory of Caste

One of the most critical debates in Indian Sociology concerns the arguments of French scholar Louis Dumont who attempted to move away from Western, exoge- nous concepts of social class to understand caste as a total social fact. His concept has become a canonic formulation to this view of the caste system, setting many of the terms of discourse and debate about Indian society that continue to the present day.32

28 Marriott, McKim “Varna and Jati.” The Hindu World. Ed. Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby. New York: Routledge, 2004. pp. 357–358. 29 Rodrigues, Hillary P. “Hinduism — The Ebook.”Journal of Buddhist Ethics. Online Books, Ltd, 2006. pp. 103–104. 30 Srinivas, Mysore N. Caste in Modern India and other essays. Michigan: Asia Publishing House, 1962. p. 69. 31 Srinivas, Mysore N. India: Social Structure. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation, 1980. pp. 1–10. 32 Dirks, Nicholas B. Autobiography of an Archive: A Scholar’s Passage to India. Columbia University Press, 2015, pp. 85–86. 64 MASKA 40/2018

Thus, it is worth highlighting his theory of caste proposed in 1966. He was probably the first to adopt a thoroughly holistic approach by researching the caste system. In his monumental treatise on caste Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Impli- cations he offers easy access to several new perspectives about operating nature of social structure in Indian society and the vast body of ethnographic data on caste. Dumont’s contribution is found to be critical and extraordinary in its conception, approach, and conclusions. In this respect, this publication differs substantially from others “as it begins with a cardinal explanatory principle — hierarchy — and wholly sets out to build a model.”33 The notions of ideology and tradition are intrinsic parts of his paradigm. Dumont holds that the religious domain encompasses the political and economic domains of social life in India. According to Dumont, we are not allowed to deal with the caste system without taking into consideration the varṇa division, to which Hindus frequently attribute the castes themselves. In his Homo Hierarchicus Dumont recognizes two different types of society: traditional and modern ones. India is presented as an ideal type of traditional society. Dumont raises a fundamental question: “can anyone of one particular society completely delineate himself from within the cultural and conceptual framework that he understands and legitimately study another entirely different society?”34 In a nutshell, Dumont’s theory is based on a division: a traditional society is characterized by a holistic attitude, whereas a modern society is highly individualistic. The former one attaches particular importance to the idea of society, whereas the latter one ac- cords the highest moral value to the individual. In the popular discourse hierarchy used to be perceived in terms of inequality. Consequently, any hierarchy or inequality would be viewed as exploitation and discrimination. Throughout centuries the Indian society was divided into unequal, hierarchic castes based on the purity and impuri- ty rules. Certainly, homo hierarchicus seems to be a sharp antithesis of homo aequalis today. According to Dumont, it is highly inappropriate to analyze this phenomenon selectively. To understand caste ideology properly, it needs to be viewed as a whole, including all the aspects and contexts. He argues that traditional societies like India do not attach their significance to the concept of equality. The principal virtue of such an approach appears to be the preservation of society and culture itself. As a matter of fact, in traditional society, the hierarchy may be considered a virtue. Dumont crit- icizes the practice of imposing a foreign value system of individualism to the study of traditional societies. He argues, quite strongly, that the modern mind is frequently

33 Mondal, Puja “Louis Dumont: Biography and Contribution to World Sociology.” Your Article Li- brary. n.p. n.d. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/louis-dumont-biography-and-contribution-to-world-sociology/35021. 3 May 2018. 34 Viner, Vikram “Dumont’s Theory of Caste.” Scribd. n.d. n.p. https://pl.scribd.com/document/30380 3022/Dumont-s-Theory-of-Caste. 5 Aug. 2017. 65 Natalia Zajączkowska closed-minded as it is caught within its own system of values, making it at any cost universal for everyone.35 Dumont considerably emphasizes the importance of the caste perception as reflected in the ancient texts of Hinduism. He has brought Indological and “structuralist” framework to bear upon his study of the caste and social structure of the rural society in India. Indeed, Dumont regards Indian sociology as a special- ized branch, which stands at the confluence of Indology and sociology. It is the right type of mix, prerequisite which enables a better understanding of the Indian society.36 The focus in the social change study, according to him, should be on “the reaction of Indian minds to the revelation of Western culture” such as individualism or freedom.37 The contrast in the Indian and western cognitive systems lies in the holistic character of the former and the individualistic attribute of the latter; this contrast also poses the nature of the tension between traditions and modernity in India.38 Over the years, Dumont’s theory brought about a heated discussion and has been bitterly criticized on various grounds. Firstly, an Indian sociologist39 alleged that Du- mont’s understanding of the hierarchy is critically faulted in his application of the term to the caste system. The other objection is that Dumont’s work largely derives from the ancient sacred texts of Hinduism. The features of the caste system, as pro- jected by Dumont, seem to be unchanging, whereas many claim that the caste system has undergone numerous transformations over time. What is more, Dumont’s perception is that Indian society appears to be almost stagnant, since he emphasizes the integrative function of the caste system.40 As noted by Yogendra Singh,41 Dumont’s approach to sociology rules out the study of a host of crucial social facts of the Indian life, such as formal organizations, the indus- trial system, labour, and agrarian social movements, etc. Finally, American anthropologist Gerald Berreman disagrees with Dumont about his crucial concept, the definition of hierarchy calling it basically “a lure, the superior castes conception of the social system.” Whether or not one agrees with his viewpoint, Dumont’s work Homo Hierarchicus provides a significant input to the worldwide debate on the caste system. Triloki Nath Madan stressed Dumont’s role with these words:

35 Dumont, Louis. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press, 1980. 36 Ibidem, pp. 1–3. 37 Mann, Rann S. Social Change and Social Research. An Indian Perspective. New Delhi: Concept Pu- blishing Company, 1988. p. 48. 38 Singh, Yogendra. Modernization of Indian Traditions: A Systemic Study of Social Change. Michigan: Thomson Press (India), Publication Division, 1973, pp. 20–22. 39 Dipankar Gupta (2001). 40 Dirks, Nicholas B. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton University Press, 2011, pp. 3–6. 41 Singh, Yogendra. “For a Sociology of India.” Contributions to Indian Sociology. Vol. 4, 1970. pp. 140–144. 66 MASKA 40/2018

(…) we have in our hands the most significant contribution to Indianist studies by a scholar of international renown who is equally at home in the domains of sociology, social anthropology and Indology (…)42

This might have been the first attempt to unpack the concept and gain a proper understanding of the caste system seen as a pan-Indian institution vigorously rejecting its Western prism. Hence, the Dumontian theory was a source of inspiration for my field research exploring the pure Indian perception of the caste system with respect to roles it used to serve in the past.

Research Report

There is a growing body of researchserving as a vital background for the study of casteism and providing indications of how the caste system has been permeating many sections of Indian mind over the years. The following section presents the findings of my research project that aims to examine the approaches and perceptions of the caste system in rural areas of Maharashtra.43 The study investigates common attitudes to the caste system prevailing among Indians. The project is based on three months of fieldwork in India in 2017/2018, during which I worked as a volunteer in Vishwatmak Jangli Maharaj Ashram in Kokamthan village in India. For the whole period of my fieldwork, I lived inside ashram, where I was deeply engaged in its community life and countless informal conversations, which allowed me to conduct participant observation daily. I gathered a substantial amount of textual data, such as books, documents (e.g., school caste certificates), one dissertation in social sciences and invaluable articles in Hindi concerning the caste system written by ashram inhabitants. I conducted sixty interviews with respondents from rural areas of Maharashtra between the age of 18 and 64; both men and women were interviewed in their houses and workplaces. The sample included members of major caste groups (Hindu Maratha, Goud Saraswat Brahmin (GSB), Rajput, Bania Maheshwari, 96 Kuli Maratha, Hindu Mali, Hindu Dhangar, Hindu Kunbi, Bud- dhist/Dalits, etc.) and represented various socio-economic levels. I used a snowball sampling technique where participants recruit other participants for further study. I used qualitative methods such as participant observation, interviews, and a questionnaire to collect data about people and their opinions. Background information such as age, sex, educational level, family’s income, and others were also obtained. Only two of them refused to indicate their caste category. The questionnaires and

42 Madan, Triloki N. “On Understanding Caste.” Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 6, No. 34, 1971. pp. 1805–1808. 43 Maharashtra is a state in north-western India with Mumbai as its capital. 67 Natalia Zajączkowska interviews were held both in English and Hindi language. Although the state of Maharashtra is a Marathi-speaking region, all respondents were bilingual and spoke both Hindi and Marathi. Out of sixty interviews, 25 were held in English and 35 in Hindi. In the case of 8 Hindi language interviews, I used the help of a research assistant, whereas 27 I conducted entirely on my own. The vast majority of participants completed a questionnaire. To minimize the reading and writing demands, I read the questions to older respondents and was authorized to fill out the answer sheet for them. The rest of the participants read and responded on their own.

Results

Questions assessed explicit attitudes toward caste system. The role of the caste system in Indian respondents’ everyday lives was the major theme of the research. Interview- ees were asked about the provenance of this social institution and how do they understand and evaluate the system today. The central question was if they see any ad- vantage of the caste system and find it valuable. At the end of the questionnaire, the respondents were asked about the future of the caste system. Even though we operate within the Indian cultural circle and its ancient traditions, the gathered data shows high relevance of rejection the idea of the caste system, especially among young individuals. As reflected in abovementioned research cases, the vast majority of young respondents rejected the idea of casteism and adopts more Western patterns when talking about the caste today. For instance 24–year–old student from Maharashtra describing it this way: “Certainly, the caste system causes a lot of problems in the country and gives rise to some unforgivable actions by those ranked higher up in the system”. Also 37–year–old Dilip who claimed that “It’s a discriminatory system promoting fractures in the social fabric of the society, oppression of the underprivileged and a crime against the fundamental right to equality and dignity of human beings.” The next part involved the issue of the actual presence of the caste/varṇa system in India?44 None of my respondents doubts that the caste system is still very present in India; more than 90 per–cent of them were convinced that it would be challenging to eradicate it from rural areas. A 34–year–old farmer and businessman P. Hanumant from a small village answered: “Yes, the caste system is present all over India, it’s like blood – in each and every vein and tissue.” In 40–year–old Parag’s view, reiterated by many other respondents, “caste is still very much visible in governmental and public sectors. You might easily come across it at the time of school admissions (especially engineering and medical colleges) or during job interviews when candidates are often

44 De jure caste discrimination was abolished in 1950. – Article 15 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste (…), Part III. Fundamental Rights, Constitution of India, 1950. 68 MASKA 40/2018 asked about such things”. Yet, a significant majority of participants admitted that the caste system made sense in the past and at that time was absolutely justified. A 26– year–old Priya acknowledged that, in fact, it was fruitful in the past, and at that time it was required, and according to 38–year–old S. Sharma there were also advantages of the caste system in India — “it maintained peaceful coexistence of people and nur- turing the growth under occupation. With time, when everyone has the right to compete openly, it has become meaningless”. Therefore, a conclusion may be drawn that younger respondents with higher education, academic degrees understand the historical meaning of the caste system far better and is able to point its assets too. According to 40–year–old University teacher, “the whole debate should be finished, and people should learn the positive meaning of varṇa and jāti (…), its rich cultural and intellectual heritage. Positive understanding and de-politicising, it can solve the debate”. Importantly, the research indicates that regardless of the level of education, almost all participants do not have any idea where the caste system derived from. While interviewing, I also asked about the ancient scripture Manusmṛti, which is believed to have laid the foundations for the caste system. Among respondents, this question was considered to be archaic, and so was the caste system. The interesting exception was the cohort of older people. A 64–year–old housewife (belonging to Brahmin Hindu Maratha caste) tried to convince me that there is no other world than caste- or hierarchy-oriented. In her opinion, people belonging to particular jātis have different social roles and mentality. She also emphasized the role of the caste as a part of Indian identity. Finally, she admitted that we are all equal, but at the same time, she would not let her daughter have a Dalit husband.

Summary

The vast majority of respondents declared that the caste system is no longer necessary and should be eradicated. Over two-thirds claimed that caste system does not play any vital role in their lives and declaratively favoured equality over casteism, but at the same time, many of them feel uncertain about having a Dalit as a family member. This difference may be more an indication of the hypocrisy than the true pro-equality statement, as it is seen in the research. For instance, one respondent, although she claimed to observe principles of equality and praised Western life patterns, she also suggested that “things like that simply don’t happen. If I’m a brāhmaṇ, I am not going to marry a Dalit boy. Even if he’s well educated, the mentality gap between us is a fact and it’s far too huge.” Obviously, the most common argument that young metropol- itan anglicized people are supposed to be more liberal can be somewhat misleading. We should bear in mind that the claim that caste is not relevant anymore among

69 Natalia Zajączkowska youngsters may be nothing but a rhetorical figure. What else can young people considering themselves modern, supposed to say? As stated by Fritzi-Marie Titzmann in her Ph.D. thesis Der indische Online-Heiratsmarkt. Medienpraktiken und Frauenbilder im Wandel,45 even if they believe they are beyond casteism, their choice of a potential husband is somehow continuously caste-bound.46 At the beginning of this article, a vital research question was addressed about the roles of the caste system and what is precisely the Indian perception of it today. The answer to this question was reliably supported by a research study involving people living in rural areas of Maharashtra. The following conclusions may be drawn from this article: 1. Subjects from rural settings vary in their caste prejudice due to the difference in caste affiliation. 2. Caste prejudice prevails in the area of getting married, education, governmental employment, and reservation system. 3. Old individuals’ way of thinking is more caste-oriented compared to young. 4. The subjects of higher caste-groups are more caste prejudiced compared to low caste-groups. 5. Individuals who show a better understanding of the origin and previous roles of the caste system are able to point out its virtues existing in the past. 6. Respondents claim they reject the idea of caste discrimination nowadays. 7. There is a severe rift between opinions and attitudes/behaviour of the subjects; declarative statements do not go hand in hand with the practice of everyday life My questionnaire concluded with a question about the future of the caste system. It seems that it is likely to keep on changing as well as taking new forms and meanings in Indian society. To end with, I quote one of my respondents: When education and spirituality are given the highest focus – the jāti will still exist as an identification division, but it would no longer be a problem in the form of discrimination. As the motto of the Indian Constitution and the best social system is “unity in diversity.”

45 The Ph.D. thesis was based on interviews of girls who use Indian matrimonial websites (e.g. shadi.com) to find a husband. 46 Titzmann, Fritzi-Marie, Der indische Online-Heiratsmarkt. Medienpraktiken und Frauenbilder im Wan- del, Frank & Timme Verlag für wissenschaftliche Literatur, 2014. 70 MASKA 40/2018

Academic survey 2017/2018 - University of Lodz

I understand that the survey is not anonymous and fully agree that my personal data can be used for research & publishing Please do modify my personal data for publishing Signature: ……………………………………… NAME नाम: AGE उम्र: PLACE OF RESIDENCE निवास की जगह: OCCUPATION काम/व्यवसाय: EDUCATION/QUALIFICATION पढ़ाई: ORIGIN, CASTE जाति:

1. Do you think that caste/varna system is still present in India? क्या आपको लगता है कि आजकल भी भारत में जाति और वर्ण व्यवस्था मौजूद है? 2. In which areas and age groups does this caste point of view emerge more often? Give some examples. कहां-कहां और किस आयु वर्ग में यह जाति व्यवस्था की दृष्टिकोण (न焼रिया) सबसे उजागर है? उदाहरण दीजिए। 3. How do you understand the caste and the varna system? Could you explain it? आपके विचार से जाति और वर्ण व्यवस्था क्या है? क्या आप यह समझा सकते हैं? 4. What do you think about it? How do you evaluate this system? जाति और वर्ण व्यवस्था के बारे में आपका क्या विचार है? आप इसका मूल्यांकन कर सकते हैं? 5. Is it in your opinion a valuable heritage of Indian culture and philosophy? क्या आपके विचार में यह भारतीय संस्कृति की एक अनमोल विरासत है? 6. Are there (or were there in the past) any advantages of hierarchic society with castes and varnas? क्या आपके हिसाब से जाति और वर्ण आधारित व्यवस्था में कोई अच्छाइयां भी थीं? 7. Do you know the caste and varna of your relatives, friends or neighbors? Is it obvious to know such things in India? क्या आप अपने रिश्तेदारों, दोस्तों और पड़ोसियों की जाति जानते हैं? क्या ये जानकारी मालूम होना स्वाभाविक है? 8. Isn’t it anachronic to talk about castes/varnas in the XXI century? क्या 21वीं सदी में जाती/वर्ण की बात उठाना और इसके बारे में चर्चा करना सही है? 9. Do you think that the caste system will soon entirely disappear from Indian soil? क्या आपके विचार से जाती/वर्ण व्यवस्था कुछ दिनों में भारत से पूरी तरह तो गायब न हो जाएगी?

71 Natalia Zajączkowska

References

Apte, Vaman S. Sanskrit-Hindi Dictionary. 901 Avari, Burjor. India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 B.C.E. to AD 1200. Routledge, 2007. 142 Bhatia, Vijay Kumar and Rajesh Sharma. “Language and the Legal System.” Lan- guage in South Asia. Ed. Braj B. Kachru, Yamuna Kachru, and S. N. Sridhar. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 361–376 Byrski, Maria K. Manusmṛti (translation). Warsaw: State Publishing Institute PIW, 1985. Davis, Marvin. Rank and Rivalry: The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 52 Dirks, Nicholas B. Autobiography of an Archive: A Scholar’s Passage to India. Columbia University Press, 2015. 85–86 Dirks, Nicholas B. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Prin- ceton University Press, 2011. 3–6 Dumont, Louis. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Dutt, Nripendra K. Origin and Growth of Caste in India. Michigan University, 1931. 1 Flood, Gavin D. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 37–39 Macdonell, Arthur A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review. Vol. 19, No. 2, Oxford University Press, 1914. 230–244 Madan, Triloki N. “On Understanding Caste.” Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 6, No. 34, 1971. 1805–1808 Majumdar, Ramesh C. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Vedic age. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. 391 Mann, Rann S. Social Change and Social Research. An Indian Perspective. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1988. 48 Marriott, McKim. “Varna and Jati.” The Hindu World. Ed. Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby. New York: Routledge, 2004. 357–358 Bühler, Georg. “The Laws of Manu”Sacred Books of the East, Ed. Müller, F. Max. Oxford University Press, 1886. 419–429 Singh, Yogendra. “For a Sociology of India.” Contributions to Indian Sociology. Vol. 4, 1970. 140–144 Singh, Yogendra. Modernization of Indian Traditions: A Systemic Study of Social Chan- ge. Michigan: Thomson Press (India), Publication Division, 1973, pp. 20–22. Srinivas, Mysore N. India: Social Structure. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corpora- tion, 1980. 1–10

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Srinivas, Mysore N. Caste in Modern India and other essays. Michigan: Asia Publishing House, 1962. 65–69 Titzmann, Fritzi-Marie. Der indische Online-Heiratsmarkt. Medienpraktiken und Frau- enbilder im Wandel, Frank & Timme Verlag für wissenschaftliche Literatur, 2014. Ramusack, Barbara N. “Women in South Asia.” Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History. Ed. Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon Sievers. Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1999. 15–76 Rodrigues, Hillary P. “Divine times: Goddess worship in Banaras.” Studying Hin- duism in Practice. Ed. Hillary Rodrigues. New York: Routledge, 2003. 83–146 Rodrigues, Hillary P. “Hinduism — The Ebook.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics. Online Books, Ltd, 2006. 103–104 Widgery, Alban. “The principles of Hindu Ethics.”International Journal of Ethics. Vol. 40, No. 2, 1930. 234–237

Web page

Heninger, Noah. “Changing Attitudes Regarding the Indian Caste System.” Maha- vidya. n.p. 2006. http://www.mahavidya.ca/2008/04/14/changing-attitudes-regarding-the-indian-caste-system. 5 Aug. 2017. Mondal, Puja. “Louis Dumont: Biography and Contribution to World Sociology.” Your Article Library. n.p. n.d. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/louis- -dumont-biography-and-contribution-to-world-sociology/35021. 3 May 2018. The Constitution of India, 1950. https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf. 1 April 2019. Viner, Vikram. “Dumont’s Theory of Caste.”Scribd . n.p. n.d. https://pl.scribd.com/ document/303803022/Dumont-s-Theory-of-Caste. 5 Aug. 2017.

73 Natalia Zajączkowska

Summary

Recent debates regarding the inclusion of caste in 2011 Census have raised questions about whether caste still matters in modern India. Ethnographic studies of the mid-20th century identified a variety of dimensions along which caste differentiation occurs. Using an anthropological approach that takes into account the symbolic and material aspects of caste, this article focuses on the role, functions and social evaluation of the caste system in rural North India. It is the concept of caste which is considered to be a root cause of prejudice and social misuse leading to the dreadful exploitation of low-caste people, as well as a rich, enduring cultural heritage of In- dia. This article contributes to the understanding of the complexity of it having included explanations derived from ancient times and its philosophical grounding. My research is to explore whether opinions about caste are generally consistent within villages or whether there are marked differences in attitudes depending upon age, gender, education background or particular jātis. The rationale is also to examine manifold opinions about the caste system, its origin, and roles in history. Although, the caste system has undergone a sea change, also in the eyes of Indian society, the question remains whether it still plays a functional role in maintaining the village social system. In this article, I define some functions performed by the caste system throughout the years. The overarching question of this project is how deep the caste system reaches and what kind of values it brings. To understand the phenomenon of the Indian caste system, one should contextualize it in the light of previously adopted perspectives and methods. It is necessary to approach it in a holistic manner taking into consideration all the aspects and historical circumstances. It needs to challenge the common Europocentric interpretations of caste and explore different perspectives of it prevailing among the Indian community. The empirical basis for this article draws on four months of fieldwork conducted in a few villages 150 kilometers away from Mumbai at intervals between January 2017 and March 2018. Krzysztof Trnka The Origins of a State. a Legal Perspective Uniwersytet Wrocławski

Introduction

Participants of the modern discourse tend to relegate the question regarding the origins of states into the distant past. When asked about the origins of a state, Polish people instinctively think about the year 966 AD, when prince Mieszko, having united multiple tribes into what would eventually become the Polish nation, adopted the Christian faith. Faced with the same question, an Englishman might think about the battle of Hastings, which took part in 1066 AD, or an even earlier sequence of events – the conquest of Britain by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, which began in the sixth century AD. Greeks, Chinese or Indians could boast about the ancient origins of their civilizations, which had already been thousands of years old when most Eu- ropean countries were just beginning to take shape. However, the formation of new states is not solely a matter of the past. States continuously emerge in the present and will, in all likelihood, continue to emerge in the future. This may be difficult to grasp for the denizens of the European Union, accustomed to political stability, but it remains a feature of politics in Africa, Asia and many other regions of the world, with the founding of South Sudan in 2015 serving as a perfect example. For this very reason, it is essential to analyze the origins of states from multiple angles, utilizing the achievements of various humanities other than history, chiefly sociology, political science, economics, and legal science. This paper is going to focus on the last of the abovementioned perspectives. Its goal is to try to provide answers to questions relating to the legal side of the origins of states: Is there a legal definition of a state? What are the elements necessary to constitute a state? Is it possible to examine the legality of a state’s founding? What are the ways to found a state?

75 Krzysztof Trnka

What is a state?

Unfortunately, there is no universally binding treaty, spelling out the definition of a state. In its 1949 Yearbook, the United Nations International Law Commission wrote, that the term “state” is used by the Commission in a “universally accepted sense,” stopping short of explaining this sense. However, it is demonstrably false to claim, that there is no such definition. States are primary subjects of public international law, which is, in essence, a set of rules regulating inter-state relations.1 Therefore, it is logical, that the public international law system contains the definition of a state, much like the domestic legal systems define natural and juridical persons. Otherwise, public international law would be impossible to apply. Such a definition should arise in the process of interpreting legal norms. Definitions proposed by legal scientists and the international judiciary are valid insofar they constitute an interpretation of existing law.2 Some public international law documents contain the terms “country,” “power,” or “nation.” These should be treated as synonymous with “state.” For an example, the Convention of 18 August 1948 concerning the regime of navigation on the Danube stipulates in article 44, that the term “Danubian country” ought to be understood as a state, the territory of which encompasses at least one bank of the river in question.3 It is also worth mentioning, that in the context of public international law, ”state” does not mean a part of a federal state. We shall begin our deliberations with the definition of a state, attributed to Georg Jellinek. This renowned legal scholar defined states as compulsory territorial organizations, comprising of three elements: government, population, and territory. a similar position was taken by the Germano-Polish Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, presiding over the Deutsche Continental case. In 1929, the Tribunal ruled, that a state is com- prised of territory, population, and a government, exercising effective power over the two.4 This stance was further reinforced by the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia, which, in its Opinion no. 1, enumerated government, population, and territory as three elements constituting a state.5 a fourth prerequisite was added by the 1933 Montevideo Convention, which added the ability to maintain

1 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik prawa międzynarodowego. Warszawa: LexisNexis, 2013, p. 13. 2 Antonowicz, Lech. Rzecz o państwach i prawie międzynarodowym. Lublin: Innovatio Press Wydaw- nictwo naukowe, 2012, p. 13. 3 Gelberg, Ludwik. Prawo międzynarodowe i historia dyplomatyczna. Wybór dokumentów, t. III. Warsza- wa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1960, p. 328. 4 Bierzanek, Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Warszawa: LexisNexis, 2002, p. 120. 5 Shaw, Malcolm. Prawo międzynarodowe. Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza, 2011, p. 145. 76 MASKA 40/2018 inter-state relations.6 Even though the Convention is only regionally, not universally binding, this idea is widely accepted by scholars. In order for a state to exist, government must exercise effective power over the territory and its population.7 Stable and effective in its functioning government guarantees the state is capable of complying with the duties levied upon it by public international law. a government is not able to exist in permanent separation from its territory and population. However, a temporary loss of control over part or even the entirety of territory does not break the continuity of a state.8 During both the first and second world wars, several governments went into exile (Belgium, Montenegro, Serbia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, Yugoslavia, Luxembourg, Norway). Despite this, they remained recognized by the international community as legitimate representatives of their respective states. a state whose territory is occupied by a foreign power may continue to function, as long as there exists an effective government (in exile or underground).9 Professor Białocerkiewicz enumerates the following criteria of an effective government in exile/underground government: communication between the in-exile and national structures, armed resistance against the occupier, possessing substitutes of representative bodies, performing judicial and legislative powers, sending and receiving inter-state representatives and compliance with public international law.10 The Polish government in London during the second world war met all of those criteria, so the notion of the continuity of the Polish state during the period of occupation is well-founded. Sovereignty is a necessary attribute of a state. Non-sovereign organizations, even if they do possess territory and population under government, cannot be considered states.11 State sovereignty is protected under the United Nations Charter, which man- dates conducting international relations based on the principle of sovereign equality of states and prohibits meddling in the internal affairs, as well as using force or the threat of the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.12 State sovereignty is the ability to make decisions independently and to maintain international relations the state in question deems appropriate.13 Due to the process of glo- balization and political and economic integration between states, some level of factual

6 Gelberg, Ludwik. Prawo międzynarodowe i historia dyplomatyczna. Wybór dokumentów, t. II. Warsza- wa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1958, p. 356. 7 Bierzanek, Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. op.cit., p. 120. 8 Ibidem. 9 Ibidem. 10 Białocerkiewicz, Jan. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Zarys wykładu. Toruń: TNOiK Dom Organi- zatora, 2007, p. 131. 11 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik…, op.cit., p. 15. 12 Dz.U. 1947 nr 23 poz. 90. 13 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik..., op.cit., p. 15. 77 Krzysztof Trnka dependence on others is unavoidable.14 Therefore, only formal dependence, stemming forth from treaties or other acts of public international law, should be examined.15 Sovereignty is not absolute in nature. Independent decision-making by states should be conducted in the framework of public international law. In particular, compliance with duties levied by the law is not a breach of a state’s sovereignty. The territory of a state may be significantly varied, encompassing land (both sur- face and the underground), water (fresh and saltwater) and air.16 Some legal scholars liken the shape of a state’s territory to a cone, stretching upwards and narrowing downwards, which is due to the elliptical shape of our planet.17 The territory of a state extends down to the nucleus of the Earth and up to the fringes of the stratosphere.18 There is no minimum amount of territory required for a state to be founded. Let the Principality of Monaco, with its territory encompassing a mere 1.95 square kilometer, serve as an example. Lack of territorial continuity is also not required. Multiple states possess territory overseas (e.g., United States of America and Alaska). Up until 1971, Pakistan consisted of two halves comparable in size, separated by the entirety of India. The borders of the territory do not have to be precisely delineated.19 Lack of precise delineation and even ongoing border or territorial disputes do not preclude the existence of a state. Israel was admitted to the United Nations in 1949, despite the claims to its territory by neighboring Arab states. Similarly, the international community recognized the independence of Poland following world war one, even though border and territorial disputes between Poland and its neighbours, namely Germany, Russia, Lithuania, and Czechoslovakia, continued for several years. In some instances, proper delineation may prove to be impossible, or at least incredibly difficult, due to dense woods, inaccessible mountain ranges, deserts or areas prone to flooding covering the border region. This is especially true with some African and South American states. Each state exercises exclusive and complete authority over its territory. It should be understood as the ability to engage in any activity, provided that it does not violate public international law.20

14 Ibidem, p. 44. 15 Shaw, Malcolm. op.cit., p. 147. 16 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik..., op.cit., p. 98. 17 Berezowski, Cezary. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1969, p. 192. 18 Idem. Zagadnienia zwierzchnictwa terytorialnego. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1957, p. 164. 19 Czubocha, Kamil. Pojęcie państwa i procesy państwotwórcze we współczesnym prawie międzynarodowym. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, 2012, p. 43. 20 Berezowski, Cezary. Prawo…, op.cit., p. 173. 78 MASKA 40/2018

Recognition by the international community

Concerning the ability to maintain relations with other states, an important question arises: Is recognition by the international community necessary for a state to exist? In other words, is an organization comprising of population and territory subject to a government but utterly unrecognized by already existing states, a state or not? In this context, recognition should be defined as a legal act, through which the state or an international organization acknowledges the existence of specific facts and their legal consequences.21 Among legal scholars, there are four different theories regarding the legal effect of recognition. The declarative theory states that a state is a subject of public international law from its inception, and recognition by other states has an only declarative effect. Rec- ognition does not create a state and does not place it within the international community. On the other end of the spectrum are the proponents of the constitutive theory, claiming, that without recognition, a state can only exist on the factual plane, but it cannot become a subject of public international law.22 The abovementioned 1933 Montevideo Convention seems to be embodying the declarative theory, as it only requires from a prospective state the potential to maintain international relations it deems appropriate, not recognition from other states, as a result of those relations. The author of this paper considers the declarative theory to be worthy of approval since conditioning the existence of a state on the recognition of the international community (the will of other states in essence) would prevent peoples from exercising their right to self-determination. It would also lead to the disintegration of the international community (in which there are often differences of opinion regarding the recognition of particular states, vide Kosovo). The constitutive theory was criticized convincingly by the Supreme Court of the Republic of South Africa, in its 1989 ruling in the S. v. Bophuthatswana case. The court expressed the view that the constitutive theory had been utilized as a political tool, which had resulted in the lack of recognition for multiple organizations possessing all objective attributes of statehood.23 Taking the abovementioned arguments into account, it is not surprising, that the declarative theory is the most widespread among legal scholars.24 There is an additional noteworthy theory - the eclectic theory, adherents of which claim, that the recognition granted to a state has a declarative effect for the state being recognized, and constitutive for the recognizing state. According to this theory, a state remains a subject of public international law since its inception, but other members of the international community are bound to respect its legal rights only after they have

21 Białocerkiewicz Jan. op.cit., p. 128. 22 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik..., op.cit., p. 69. 23 Wierzbicki, Bogdan. Prawo międzynarodowe. Materiały do studiów. Białystok: Temida 2, 1998, p. 284. 24 Antonowicz, Lech. Rzecz..., op.cit., p. 96. 79 Krzysztof Trnka recognized it.25 This theory, while based on a true premise, that public international law does not apply itself, but is applied by states26 should not be considered a valid interpretation. Giving the states the right to choose, when they wish to be bound by law, and when they wish not to, would lead to anarchy and the collapse of the international rules-based order. Recognition may be granted collectively (by a group of states) or individually, explicitly or implicitly (per facta concludentia, i.e., by establishing factual relations, not preceded by formal recognition).27 However, recognition cannot be presumed solely based on membership in the same international organization or participating in the same international conference as the unrecognized state.28 Unfortunately, the matter of recognition for newly-formed states has been a subject of political games, resulting in premature or belated recognition, depending on the particular political interest of the recognizing state, not on objective legal criteria.29 In many instances, the international community has been divided over the recognition of new states, with Kosovo, Abkhazia and Southern Ossetia serving as excellent examples. However, it does not seem appropriate, even on the grounds of the constitutive theory, to require the recognition from all states comprising the international community. It would mean reducing the requirement of international recognition ad absurdum. Legal scholars have debated, whether there is an obligation to recognize as states organizations possessing all the relevant attributes. On the one hand, states are sovereign, which translates into the freedom to arrange their relations with other subjects of public international law as they see fit.30 On the other hand, if an organization meets the legal definition of a state, refusing to recognize it could potentially be seen as unlawful.31 Under the latter view, the freedom of inter-state relations would apply to engage in factual relations with a recognized state, but would not include questioning the status of this state as a subject of public international law. The debate remains not concluded. However, there has been at least one instance, in which recognizing a particular state was deemed unlawful. Such was the case of Southern Rhodesia between 1965 and 1980. The United Nations forbade its member-states from recognizing Rhodesia as an independent state, as this country’s political system was based on apartheid and denying the native population their right to self-determination.

25 Białocerkiewicz, Jan. op.cit., p. 126. 26 Berezowski, Cezary. „Niektóre zagadnienia uznania międzynarodowego.” Księga pamiątkowa ku czci Juliana Makowskiego z okazji 50-lecia pracy naukowej. Ed. Tadeusz Cieślak, Ludwik Gelberg and Woj- ciech Morawiecki. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1957, p. 37. 27 Bierzanek, Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. op.cit., p. 138. 28 Białocerkiewicz, Jan. op.cit., p. 129. 29 Ibidem. 30 Bierzanek Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. op.cit., p. 139. 31 Antonowicz, Lech. Rzecz..., pp. 101 – 102. 80 MASKA 40/2018

Is it possible for a state to be founded in unlawfully?

Having presented a legal definition of a state and considered all its elements, we should turn our attention to the question of examining a state’s legality. The opinions of legal scholars are varied. Janusz Symonides expressed the view that the legality of a state’s founding and existence cannot be examined, as it constitutes an extralegal fact.32 An opposing view was expressed by Jerzy Tyranowski, who believes, that it is possible to examine a state’s legality, but the only criterion for doing so is the principle of self-determination of peoples33. Lech Antonowicz came to a conclusion that an organization meeting the definition of a state cannot be considered one if it came about unlawfully.34 Professor Antonowicz is, therefore, an adherent of the doctrine of legitimism, pitting the idea of a lawful state against an unlawful one, which cannot be considered a primary subject of public international law. Traditionally, public international law was considered a mere witness of “birth” and “death” of a state.35 However, it is difficult to accept this view in the present. Public -in ternational law regulates the issues of self-determination, decolonization, debellatio (territorial changes as a result of war, forbidden by the United Nations Charter). It is a common practice among the international community to refuse the recognition of a would-be state established illegally (e.g., Northern Cyprus). Considering the above arguments, the notion, that a state’s founding’s legality may be examined, is well-founded.

What are the ways to found a state?

Legal scholars enumerate several modes of founding a state: unification of two or more states, gaining independence by a colony or a protectorate, division of an already existing state into two or more.36 The division of a state can take the form of either secession or disintegration. Secession occurs, when a portion of a state’s territory gains independence and becomes a separate state. Disintegration, on the other hand, means that a state ceases to exist and is replaced with two or more successor states, occupying its former territory.37 A distinction has to be made between unification and incorporation (annexation). Unification results in the emergence of a new state, replacing the two or more states which chose to unify. Incorporation enlarges merely the territory of the annexing state,

32 Bierzanek Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. op.cit., p. 115. 33 Tyranowski, Jerzy. Integralność terytorialna, nienaruszalność granic i samostanowienie w prawie między- narodowym. Warszawa-Poznań: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1990, p. 219. 34 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik..., op.cit., p. 15. 35 Białocerkiewicz, Jan. op.cit., p. 117. 36 Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik..., op.cit., p. 64. 37 Ibidem, pp. 66 – 67. 81 Krzysztof Trnka while the annexed state ceases to exist as an independent entity. Examples of annexation include the incorporation of the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Repub- lic of Germany in 1990 and the incorporation of the Republic of Vietnam into the Dem- ocratic Republic of Vietnam in 1976. Both of those events are unifications in a colloquial sense, but not in the legal sense. An example of unification is the founding of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922 by Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Transcaucasia. Unification and division of a state can have a profound legal effect called legal succession. According to the 1978 Vienna Convention on a succession of states concerning treaties,38 succession occurs, when one state takes over the legal obligations of another state, stemming forth from treaties. The transferred legal obligations are associated with a particular territory, which the successor state takes over. In case of unification, the successor state is bound by all treaties the unifying states have entered into. This rule applies both to unification and incorporation. a state founded in the way of secession is bound by treaties which the state it broke off from had entered into, provided those treaties applied to its entire territory, or the fragment of the territory it took over. This rule applies even if the previous state ceased to exist. Un- fortunately, as of today, merely twenty-two states remain parties to the Convention. The spread of the convention would prevent much of the potential legal confusion and uncertainty accompanying the rise and fall of states. The Convention only applies to territorial changes made in accordance with public international law, the United Nations Charter in particular.39 Secession is the mode of founding a state particularly deserving of deliberation, as it was at the basis of South Sudan’s and Kosovo’s independence. The former is universally recognized, including by Sudan, the latter is recognized by roughly half of the international community. The matter of the legality of secession is not settled. Both the international community and legal scholars remain divided, with some taking the stance, that the principle of the territorial integrity of states outweighs the right of peoples to self-determine their political status, others permitting secession in specific circumstances (severe persecution or disenfranchisement of a minority), finally, there are those who believe, that the principle of territorial integrity only protects from violations perpetrated by other states, and thus secession is lawful. No universally binding public international law document explicitly prohibits or allows secession. The interpretation limiting secession to a narrow catalog of circumstances seems to be the more prevalent one. All the more reason, why the 2010 International Court of

38 Przyborowska-Klimczak, Anna. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Wybór dokumentów. Lublin: Lubel- skie Wydawnictwo Prawnicze, 2006, pp. 6 – 82. 39 Czapliński, Władysław. Zmiany terytorialne w Europie Środkowej i Wschodnie i ich skutki międzynaro- dowoprawne (1990-1992). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe „Scholar”, 1998, p. 46. 82 MASKA 40/2018

Justice advisory opinion on Kosovo, stating the legality of its secession, turned out to be a surprise for the international community.

The curious case of the Principality of Sealand

As the last part of this paper, the author would like to apply the concepts and theories described above to a real-world case and determine, whether the criteria for statehood have been met. Few political entities are more notorious for trying (and failing) to secure international recognition as a state, than the Principality of Sealand. The story of Sealand begins in 1943 when the British military constructed Fort Roughs, a platform resting on two concrete pillars, permanently anchored in the sea- bed off the coast of Suffolk. The purpose of this battlement and its more than a hundred-soldiers-strong garrison was to protect sea lanes along the coasts of Britain against enemy aircraft. The military abandoned the fort in 1956. For a few years, it changed hands between various groups of squatters and pirate radio broadcasters (at the time, the United Kingdom only claimed a territorial sea of a 3-mile breadth, leaving Fort Roughs in international waters). In 1967, a former British army major by the name of Patrick Roy Bates seized the platform and declared its independence as the Principality of Sealand. He ruled as a prince until his death in 2012. His son Michael succeeded him on the throne. Sealand has had a thrilling history, including a failed invasion by a group of German and Dutch mercenaries in 1978 (which fortunately claimed no lives) and the establishment of a government in exile, led by a German businessman, who considers himself to be a claimant to the royal throne. The ruling family lives in Suffolk, where they run a fishing business. The platform itself is said to be permanently occupied solely by two caretakers. Let us begin with the matter of recognition. While the complete lack of it certainly does not bolster Sealand’s case for statehood, it also does not hinder it. On the grounds of the dominant, declarative theory, recognition is not required in order for a state to exist, merely the ability to maintain international relations. It is worth considering whether utter lack of recognition precludes an entity from forming relations with other members of the international community, but it is the author’s opinion, that such interpretation would be too restrictive and merely constitute an attempt at rebranding the constitutive theory. Regardless, Sealand had demonstrated its capacity to enter into relations with states at least once, when it negotiated with the envoy of the German government the terms of releasing one of the invaders captured in the 1978 battle. Sealand is a constitutional monarchy. Its prince holds the executive, legislative and judicial power. Passports, titles of nobility, license plates, coins, and postal stamps have been issued by Sealand at various moments in its history, usually for a fee. a Sealandic

83 Krzysztof Trnka court rendered at least one conviction. The effectiveness of this government has been demonstrated by its ability to repel an external military threat. The territory of Sealand is unusual because of its artificial nature. Some states, like the Netherlands, have increased their territory by accretion, which is a process of creating new land where the sea used to be, either by building dams and pumping the water out or by dumping massive amounts of sand, rock, and similar materials. Both territories created by accretion and installations like Fort Roughs are human-made objects, which purpose is to provide a firm footing for human beings, away from the ravages of the ocean. It would be difficult to find a qualitative difference between them, other than the fact that the territory resulting from accretion is a direct continuation of the shore. However, the territory of a state does not have to be continuous. It can encompass islands, exclaves and overseas possessions. Since the UN Conven- tion on the Law of the Sea came into effect, the United Kingdom claims a 12-mile territorial sea around its coast, which would encompass Fort Roughs. Territorial disputes do not preclude a state from existing, even if it is infrequent to be locked in a dispute pertaining to the entirety of one’s territory. The requirements of effective government, territory and the capacity to maintain -in ternational relations seem to have been met, or at least a good case may be made in favour of Sealand. However, things do not look equally promising with the matter of population. The issue is not its minuscule size, but its non-permanent character. The platform itself is occupied only by a couple of caretakers. Furthermore, the prince and his entire family permanently reside in the UK, where they run a business. They also possess British citizenship. According to the principle of effective citizenship, a person who holds the citizenship of two or more states is presumed to be the citizen of the state with which their livelihood is associated. The permanent population seems to be the missing requirement and the reason why the Principality of Sealand may not be considered a state.

Closing thoughts

Nowadays, there is an unsettling trend among the leading powers in the international community to treat the law instrumentally or to ignore it altogether. This turn of events is unfortunate, as the law is the most objective way of settling international disputes. It is the hope of the author that this paper provided the Reader with rudimentary information regarding the legal side of the origin of states. The legal perspective is indispensable in discussing geopolitical developments. The word “state,” often carelessly thrown around by pundits and politicians commenting on events around the world, has a specific legal meaning, which the informed public should know and utilize, especially in the current era of geopolitical uncertainty.

84 MASKA 40/2018

Bibliography

Antonowicz, Lech. Podręcznik prawa międzynarodowego, Warszawa: LexisNexis, 2013. Antonowicz, Lech. Rzecz o państwach I prawie międzynarodowym, Lublin: Innovatio Press Wydawnictwo naukowe, 2012. Berezowski, Cezary. „Niektóre zagadnienia uznania międzynarodowego.” Księga pa- miątkowa ku czci Juliana Makowskiego z okazji 50-lecia pracy naukowej. Ed. Tade- usz Cieślak, Ludwik Gelberg and Wojciech Morawiecki. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1957. Berezowski, Cezary. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Warszawa: Państwowe Wy- dawnictwo Naukowe, 1969. Białocerkiewicz, Jan. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Zarys wykładu, Toruń: TNO- iK Dom Organizatora, 2007. Bierzanek, Remigiusz and Janusz Symonides. Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. War- szawa: LexisNexis, 2002. Czapliński, Władysław. Zmiany terytorialne w Europie Środkowej I Wschodnie I ich skutki międzynarodowoprawne (1990-1992). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe „Scholar”, 1998. Shaw, Malcolm. Prawo międzynarodowe, Warszawa: Książka I Wiedza, 2011. Tyranowski, Jerzy. Integralność terytorialna, nienaruszalność granic I samostanowienie w prawie międzynarodowym. Warszawa-Poznań: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Na- ukowe, 1990.

Summary

The geopolitical order remains in flux. States rise and fall. It is of utmost importance to find objective criteria, allowing to determine, whether a particular entity is a state or not. Public international law fills this role perfectly. The goal of this paper is to try to provide answers to questions relating to the legal side of the origins of states: Is there a legal definition of a state? What are the elements necessary to constitute a state? Is it possible to examine the legality of a state’s founding? What are the ways to found a state?

Raiany Silva Romanni The Myth of European Secularization – Origins and Aftermath1 Comparative Literature, Dartmouth College

Chapter 1 – When the Old Continent Awoke

In 1883, when the old continent awoke with the disquieting news that God was dead and we had been the ones who killed Him, Europe was yet to discover its unsacred fate. Forcefully naive, the continent slept for another hundred years, hoping that the God it once created would be the same to reinvent its metaphysical doctrines. In this paper, we shall attempt to grasp the authenticity of the European ethos in the 21st century through a deconstruction of Europe’s schisms, while examining the concept of a secular Europe, how it developed and what it inadvertently wakes in the cornerstones of a largely unforeseen European cultural renaissance, urged by a devastating Refugee Crisis. At the very turn of the 20th century, Europe’s perhaps most revolutionary thinker, Friedrich Nietzsche, had passed away, taking along with him a life of mental illness and plethoric angst. By the year of 1900, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche would have jolted the entire continent with not only doubt but for the first time, unclouded and relentless certainty. Such had been his legacy for a troubled and romantic nineteenth century: the allure to worldly madness at its purest, and its finest. Forevermore, Eu- rope would not be the same. Though a shadow of the Gods that passed away should linger for thousands of years to come, as foreseen by The Madman in ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’2 – all too gracefully, in a most philosophical rejection of Philosophy in its very self, Friedrich Nietzsche would give birth to a brand-new form of divine per-

1 It is an adapted, shorter version of BA diploma dissertation thesis. Supervisor: Dr. hab. Garry Robson, Prof. UJ. Original version: 43 pages. 2 Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus spoke Zarathustra. Chemnitz: Verlag von Ernst Schmelzer, 1883, p. 36. 87 Raiany Silva Romanni ception: untouched and heretic, it lied within the very core of the miraculous human heart, readily mindful of its fleshly matter. The death of God (or its supposed announcement), along with the unforeseen birth of an Uebermensch, would trigger not only a set of pivotal paradigm shifts in the spectrum of European Ontology but the outbreak of unrequested and unprecedented bloodshed for the sake of pursuing its misemployed logic. For all wars Europe had fought in the framework of religion, or the lack thereof; for all men killed by other earthly men who thought themselves holy–for all fields burned down on the epithet of a single, devout God: more wars would be fought, more men killed, and more fields burned down in the name of yet another omniscient Truth. The Second Great War came in an accordingly primitive fashion. Adolf Hitler could use nothing more than a hearty name to carry his very magnified version of the Uebermensch, and Nietzsche held just the exact amount of inebriated heartiness the Nazi needed in order to justify their most recently advertised dogmas adversely. In the name of Positive Christianity, millions were tortured and killed. Entire nations were left crippled, wrecked and unaided. Long since, the political scenario in Europe has struggled to reconstruct itself with the primary and quintessential goal of avoidance of war, at all costs3. In doing so, however, the most vital mechanisms would gradually be perceived as neutrality and tolerance; which almost inevitably evolved into a toxic form of political correctness, haphazardly inflamed by the self-imposed cultural Marxism present in Europe today; which benefits neither the foreign cultures it so lumberingly aims to protect, nor the ones it (ever so timidly) censors. Among the rising quarrels introduced by absurd tendencies within the evolve- ment of Human Rights, Europe had intrinsically found itself benumbed; a continent whose voice had been effectively subdued by its own people. For the sake of harmony in an exceedingly lopsided Union, Europeans had, essentially, hidden away their pride and their right to patriotism, in exchange for the promise of an almost full century bared with the uncanny sentiment of a quasi-artificial concept of peace; whereas most countries in the European Union today only ever entered such a supranational level of delirium not to dismiss their hardly-earned sovereignty, but to safeguard it. In abiding to their own national traumas, then, European nations most ingenuously forged a system of differentiation between the (newly-assembled) Europe- an-self and ‘the unfamiliar other’ reminiscent of a domino effect, with nearly all countries in its European Neighborhood Policy (which promises certain benefits to developing countries bordering the EU in exchange for political, economic or cultural reforms) having gone through revolutions that resulted in barbaric and unnecessary genocide more often than in any positive development. Lybia, Egypt, Syria, Georgia,

3 Schuman, Roland. The Schuman Declaration, Paris, 1950, p. 3. 88 MASKA 40/2018 and Ukraine are only some of the unfortunate ‘neighbors’ that the European Union so heedlessly aims to help; even if for the sake of its hefty conscience alone. Yet, as Europe’s prime fault, perhaps, one may note the projection of its own enlargement success into an expanding model beyond its cultural or geographical sphere; carelessly incorporating epitomes where epitomes had not been welcomed. As the result of moderate politics having been ostracized in a wave of nearly militant ‘tolerance and neutrality’ (where EU secularism finds its birthplace), stunned popula- tions in the West, only now discovering the inexcusable shortcomings of Democracy, watch as existing extremist parties are haphazardly empowered. In further understanding what today defines ‘the West’, however, to account the path dependencies of European integration to a single institution should be to deny the waves of global context and to perceive the European Union internally– from within, rather than from without–once more telling a euro-centered version of a global story, untold. The United States of America largely financed the reinvention of peace in post-war Europe and the mechanisms that would cope with its existence4. As it was of America’s best interest to maintain democratic governments throughout the world, it played a substantial part in fueling Europe’s, otherwise, empty dreams. As the lesson has been perhaps half-learned, however, exporting American values (since cultural heterogeneity in the U.S. was very clearly a prerequisite for there to be a country) into unconditionally distinct cultures and expecting an American-like result on foreign soil is of ludicrous coherence. As Angela Merkel and a good lot of her compatriots have noted, with untraditional neglect to punctuality, for European once homogeneous societies, ‘this Multicultural approach has failed; utterly failed.’5 Now, because Multiculturalism is not merely an optional trend for European steadily shrinking societies, but a vital one, it is imperative that this approach be reinvented, even if by neo-Nazis concerned with the longevity of their own national syndromes (which they would, most certainly, call otherwise). Meanwhile, however, the countries covered by the ENP, as well as the blameless men who arrive at Euro- pean shores in reaction to Europe’s latest ego-insufficiency, must unjustly suffer the spill-over effects of a truly grotesque misunderstanding; one largely shrouded by the pacifist, however endlessly specious character of a union whose quintessential goal was ‘to make war not only unthinkable, but materially impossible.’6

4 In the Structural Realist view, the EU was only able to succeed due to the unnatural state of affairs under which it found itself, with NATO as a stabilizer of regional tensions, canceling an otherwise natural need of concern for security in every European state and thus fundamentally shaping the character-building of the EU. 5 Merkel, Angela. Potsdam Conference. Potsdam, 2010, p. 1. 6 Schuman, Roland., op.cit., p. 3. 89 Raiany Silva Romanni

The Age of Enlightenment indeed very gracefully served as a forerunner to the after-born concept of Laïcité in Europe, but it was only with the need for neologisms such as ‘Secularism’7 and ‘Agnosticism’ in the late 19th century that a new era of Eu- ropean Ontology would emerge. The notion of Secularism present in the European Union, however, appears to have very dissimilar associations with the development of essential questions in European Philosophy, but rather, it may be more judiciously linked to the apologetic political mindset of a peace-promoting, capitalist organization (the EU), willing to deploy Europe’s prime values in exchange for a transgovern- mental form of factitious political stability. As Europe’s nationalistic fever simultaneously awakes and is sedated, the integrity of peace today may hold as fragile a structure as it did when the Soviet Empire fell, and History was thought to have been determinately written.8 With the destabiliza- tion of Europe’s buffer zone to the east, the unfading fear of History echoing itself yet a third time within the scope of a hundred years is most rationally revived. Russia, sold as the irrational pin to a much larger game of ideologies, serves as the poking bear that forcefully unites an unwilling Europe; while America continuously supports the idea of a status quo political symmetry; neglecting thus the very magnitude of such an accomplishment.9 As a spin-off to an immoderate promotion of tolerance in the world’s perhaps most intolerant continent (whose blood is shared by a decent part of present-day America’s voting population), European Secularism, in its dogmatic form, unveils itself as a mere by-product to the unique generation of self-imposed European insouciance; and Europe, once more unwillingly, slowly learns the potentiality for warfare entrenched in its original ethos.

Chapter 2 – From Myopia to Dystopia: Cultural Renaissance in Europe

Having meticulously freed itself of its estranged, yet long guarded nationalistic tab- leau, the concept of European identity in the 21st century–if at all allowed the luxury of self-recognition–most ingenuously achieves a fragmentary form of censorship to its own primordial pulse, as it unwittingly manufactures the most nullified political image ever found within History’s fabled lines.10 In preserving barely any of its natural yearnings, the dim concept of post-war European identity finds its ethos in a selfless motion to the once

7 Holyoake, John. The Origin and Nature of Secularism. New York: Watts, 1896, p. 42. 8 Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992, p. 125. 9 Sakwa, Rudy. The Death of Europe? Continental Fates after Ukraine.New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2015, p. 1. 10 Arouet, François-Marie. Jeannot et Colin, Paris, Flammarion, 1764, p. 34. 90 MASKA 40/2018 animated consciousness it possessed; bearing so a most unnatural motive for civic cam- ouflage, quenched between dusky remains of a mirrored kinesthesia to something that once was, but is no longer. Naturally, then, is Europe assigned with the most unfeasible of tasks: to sustain an inebriated version of its only semi-organic self (one avowed to reach but its heroic virtues, mostly mystified by the exhilarant oratory of Pan-Europeanism). The mechanisms used to forge such a selfless self-portrait, then, are not only thoroughly aware of each EU member states’ national biases and historical complexes, but also ever ready to deform these very fragile Weltanschauungen into instrumental weapons to their favor, with the grand goal of silencing the disruption of a state’s natural longings–a stream all the more noticeable, though inconspicuously launched as just the noblest tendency in the post-modern era of European journalism. Having, thus, deliberately and only semi-consciously allowed for its own beheading, Europe finds itself in an unnatural state of affairs, if at any systematic level; where each state is urged to mimic its most philanthropic neighbor in the ultimate but phony quest for becoming truly European (bearing an all-too-splendid oneness of the term), whereas none of the characteristics most recently adhered to in Europeanism can be logically attributed to either pre-war European identity or its contemporary mindset, first crippled and then celebrated within most societies throughout the continent. The avowedly European, someplace between extreme nationalism and permissive self-denial, became the outright taboo; and Europe, as a forthcoming shadow to its own chaotic body mass, rested in–lo and beheld–perhaps the single, most unique idiosyncrasy that makes one Europe: at last succumbing to its endless habit of ide- alization. In idealizing, par excellence, its organic presence had been briefly puzzled. The fleeting promise of utopia in the crude wake of a most cataclysmic dystopia did indeed present an all the more satiating appeal to a generation that had lived through the vilest expression of human nature. The substantial presence of two consecutive, eerie wars merged with the disorientating crisis of a forbidden ego only to evolve into an almost voluntary process of cultural psychosis. Tolerance and neutrality, then, reigned as the most fundamental, if not vital ingre- dients for societies only now discovering the limits of their liberally suppressed youth. Notwithstanding, in the three-fold Hegelian dialectic, one may find the next aftermath to Europe’s identity crisis not to be so dreadful as it may appear. Heinrich Moritz Chalybaeus, a German philosopher greatly devoted to understanding Hegel’s theories, finds that for Hegel11 (who so gawkily expressed his own brilliance) a dilemma most often comprises three dialectical stages of development, before possibly achieving bal-

11 Hegel, Georg. The Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976 (first published 1807), p. 258. 91 Raiany Silva Romanni ance: ‘a thesis, giving rise to its reaction, an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis, and the tension between the two being resolved by means of synthesis.’12 If such an analogy permits us to incorporate the thesis as the European prime nationalist character, unrestrained (as it was in the two great wars), and the antithesis as the delusional momentum in which Europeans suddenly decided Pacifism defines them; then, finally, the synthesis should ideally achieve an authentic and as yet unenjoyed balance in how Europeans understand and tolerate their very selfhood. The fault in such fallaciously guided logic, however, lies in that one may never know precisely just how many times the Hegelian dialectic as a cycle has emerged in the European rhetoric, and at just what juncture each of the three vital stages to a denouement was encountered before being heedlessly canned into political theories or all-too-perfect metaphors that only ever function on a ghostly parallel. We may, however, turn to a more obvious wave of incitement, as Europe slowly awakens to the cornerstones of its own self-intolerance. If papers such as The Occi- dental Observer (concerned with “white identity” in an allegedly non-chauvinistic manner)13 have been timidly arising in the voids of a brimming spring, it means not only that Europe began surpassing the supposed antithesis, but that the synthesis itself (whatever the path towards its result may be) is on the countdown to an upsurge. In promoting tolerance to all cultures, Europe most unwittingly lost touch with its own; being thereafter incapable of fully discerning whatever culture from a definite standpoint, as it had borne qualm to its own compass; an accidental prey to its inherent arms. In Zygmunt Bauman’s brilliant approach to Europe’s ills in “Quo Vadis, Europa?”, the Polish sociologist candidly grasps the sores of Europe, while also classifying the nature of their antidotes:

Viewed from one side, the EU is seen as a protective shield sheltering the aggregate of individual states, many of them much too wan and tiny to dream of meeting the stern demands of sovereign existence. Viewed from the other side, that Union is seen as a satrap of foreign invaders, an ‘enemy within’ – and all in all a vanguard of forces conspiring to erode and to render null and void both the nation’s and the state’s chances of sovereignty: a perception as unscrupulously as duplic- itously exploited by the siren voices of the neo-nationalists offering the phantom of national/ territorial sovereignty as a cure for the ills of which their reality is a cause.14

In the Theaterplatz in Dresden, a square once named after Adolf Hitler, in 2016 it is at the very least alarming to observe nationalistic protests in response to millions

12 Chalybaeus Moritz, Heinrich. Historische Entwicklung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel. Leipzig: Arnoldische Buchhandlung, 1860, p. 75. 13 MacDonald, Kevin, The Occidental Observer – Mission Statement, 2010, p. 1. 14 Bauman, Zygmunt. “Quo Vadis, Europa?” June, 2014 www.opendemocracy.net (Accessed: 20.02.2016). 92 MASKA 40/2018 of refugees being haphazardly allowed into the European Union15. Lutz Bachman, chairman to the Pegida (Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of Europe) movement, justifies the protests in an interview to ABC News: ‘Islam is not a religion, it is an ideology, a fascistic ideology–and the outcome [of this Refugee Crisis] is going to be civil war in Europe’. This is especially meaningful when analyzing the scope of influence of Europe’s shy but reanimated ex-Christian self, face to a new ideology (or religion, depending on where one stands) that, though most unwittingly, challenges the very shadows of European Christianity. Although Christianity was indeed inherited from West Asia, for at least a millennium and a half, Europe has been virtually the equivalent to Christian culture. The course of nearly all European art, philosophy, literature, music and science has been long steered by the holy grail of metaphysics, even when religion is used merely as an object for mockery (as did many Existentialists in the 19th and 20th century), proving therefore that the rhetoric of Christianity was, and clearly remains, dignified as a noble literary quest. The immersion of Christian values (such as ‘The Ten Commandments’, present in both Protestantism and Catholicism in slightly different versions) into the blurry concept of a European identity guarantees that however no longer devotedly Christian16, the workforce of European societies today has largely been raised by biblical Christians; a fact which must, even if at some subliminal level, shape Europe’s standpoint in what now resembles the hyperboles of a Huntingtonian novel. The concept of a post-Christian Europe must, then, be very carefully dismantled, especially when face to such fundamentally opposing doctrines. While the Christian church as an institution is widely credited to have rendered its own share of heresies, to dissimulate those from its benevolent preach is to find Europe’s wille‘ zum Leben’17 (or will to life) in a nutshell. It is how Europe survives; how it unjustly reckons its own faults and is the judge of others–how it prevails, within the lingering demarcation of a non-Christian-self and a more familiar kin, forevermore ratifying its purpose as the feigned sophist to all of mankind; all in all, an inculpable masquerader fooled by his own naïveté. Accordingly, this is how we shall find–irreverently and with some disbelief–the unrequested and unprecedented revival of God; in a divine replica of the spirit avant-garde.

Chapter 3 – Refugee Crisis: Europe and Post-Colonialism

15 OECD International Migration Database www.oecd.org (Accessed: 20.01.2016). 16 PEW Research Center, 2012: 75% of Europeans consider themselves Christians www.pewresearch.org (Accessed: 20.02.2016) 17 Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. New York: Dover Publications, 1958 (first published 1818), p. 126. 93 Raiany Silva Romanni

To observe the outgrowth of Europe’s Pragmatic Idealism as an evanescent wave of transient structure, willingly self-conscious and courageously virtuous, is to undermine the everlasting humor of European grandeur heedlessly; a rare insight into a quasi-authentic ‘European’ quirk, lost between insobriety and self-transgression. Europe, insofar as Europe by its own creative token, could never abide itself to the holistic tenet of a sacrosanct reality–its essential habitat dwells primarily on a room to inventiveness, and its choral ego thrives most on the disguise of myth-telling. On the origins of European science and philosophy, Joseph Needham wrote:

Europeans suffered from a schizophrenia of the soul, oscillating forever unhappily between the heavenly host on one side and the “atoms and the void” on the other, while the Chinese, wise before their time, worked out an organic theory of the universe which included Nature and man, church and the state, and all things past, present, and to come. It may well be that here, at this point of tension, lies some of the secret of the specific European creativeness when the time was ripe.18

The 21st century, as a symptomatic apotheosis to Europe’s latest muddled rituals, looms as an avalanche of challenges to a European Union whose fragility has only recently been unveiled. From the tensions of a conceivable Brexit (following the agitation of a rather inconceivable Grexit), to the Syrian War along with the fear of terrorism (which poses undermined threat to EU cohesion) up until the Russian view on foreign borders and America’s equally unwestphalian stance–all of which are intrinsically and clandestinely intertwined; one is almost tempted to discover whether these denouements reveal the inherent ills of a doomed European system incapable of dealing even with its own imbalances or whether such deviations upsurge merely through axiological waves of a global structure, forever wayfaring sans frontières. With the emergence of European-made terms such as ‘Islamophobia’19, not only does Europe furtively legitimize its (almost desperate) need for nationalism, but it also validates the process of stigmatization nearly self-induced by a particularly short- sighted part of the European intelligentsia, to which European cultures, in abiding by their artless state of dogmatism, often find themselves the rightless foe. As Soren Kierkegaard found out much sooner, men, all over the world, aimlessly ‘demand freedom of speech as a compensation for the freedom of thought which they so seldom use’20. In Europe, today, one may find it difficult to encounter either type of freedom, as one has willfully consumed the other.

18 Needham, Joseph. Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue Between East and West. London: Routledge, 1969, p. 44. 19 The Runnymede Trust (a race equality think tank, generating intelligence for a multi-ethnic Britain) first used the term ‘Islamophobia’ in 1996. 20 Kierkegaard, Soren. The Living Thoughts of Kierkegaard.New York: New York Review Books, 1952, p. 32. 94 MASKA 40/2018

For every one million ‘refugees’ arriving in Germany today, an estimate of roughly 8 billion dollars is spent to merely cope with their survival21 (in contrast to Jordan’s expenditure of roughly $2 billion with the same number of refugees22). As of 2015, poverty in Germany is the highest it has ever been since German Reunification in 1990, accounting to roughly 12.5 million Germans classified as poor23 and by 2020, Germany expects to have spent roughly 94 billion euros24 on the managing of the current Refugee Crisis. This accounts to slightly less than two times the amount of Cro- atia’s (the newest EU member state) entire nominal GDP of 57 billion as of 2014, or nearly three times the amount of Mongolia’s nominal GDP of 36 billion as of 201525. To view a global Refugee Crisis as European millstone by essence exposes one to the very contemptible fault of Euro-centrism; though to argue that Europe stands today at the edge of an age of insignificance in International Relations would be to underestimate the maladies of a systemic syndrome: although the EU’s soft power leanings and irresolute foreign policy models come bearing the tendencies of an almost desperate middle-power, Europe’s embryonic core remains unchanged, though barely ever tangible. The first decade of this muddling century–the first half exceedingly enthusiastic and the second bearer to a merely benign form of euro-skepticism– in the timeframe of barely another half century, may very fairly resemble but a mild headache over quarrels between stubborn cousins, each unable to agree upon just who remains l’enfant terrible. The proxy wars happening in Syria today can be, in their majority, traced back to the Sykes-Picot Agreement, when in 1916 Britain and France took mandate of (among other territories) Iraq and Syria, respectively, and the Middle East’s political scenario saw its foundations be built on ill-fated lines carelessly drawn by European powers (with assent of the Russian Empire), yet to defeat the Ottoman Empire in 1918. A pact widely forgotten in the West, the Sykes-Picot Agreement, having been plotted in conspiracy-like secrecy, remains an object of much resent for peoples in the Middle East, who (with relatively consistent logic) continue to blame their misfortunes on the everlasting impositions of European leaders, that in drawing lines in the past century were unable to fathom the effects of families being violently separated, and religious or territorial conflicts that were already hardly managed, soon become unmanageable.

21 Bruton, F. Brinley. Germany to Spend $6.6 on 800,000 Refugees and Migrants, “The Guardian” Septem- ber, 2015 theguardian.com (Accessed: 20.02.2016). 22 Jordan Population and Housing Consensus, UNICEF, 2015. www.unicef.org (Accessed: 20.02.2016). 23 ‘Poverty Rate: Germany, OECD, www.oecd.org (Accessed: 20.02.2016) 24 “Der Spiegel”, as cited by the Draft from the Federal Finance Ministry for negotiations with Germa- ny’s 16 states (BMF), 2016 (Accessed: 30.05.2016) 25 GDP around the world, nominal, World Bank, data.worldbank.org (Accessed 24.03.2016). 95 Raiany Silva Romanni

In the 21st century, as the West invaded Syria, Russia, finding itself an outsider both to Europe and to global politics, watched as its own position was, beyond challenged, truly mocked. The necessity for a ‘wider Europe’ (the one factor that seemed to grant relevance to the argument of a Russian place in the post-modern political system of the old continent) was curiously fulfilled by the United States; and so, however most inadvertently, the world’s largest nation-state had been, once more, deemed a replaceable asset.26 From then on, be the political opportunism to irresponsibly repopulate shrinking societies, the strategic bargaining among global leaders or yet the purely instinctive will to atonement of societies lavished by pathological anathemas, Angela Merkel’s fault in claiming ‘No limits to refugees’ has been, at best, to echo the demands of a people whose priority remains redemption for its 1933-1945 history. Within the lines of ‘Merkiavelian’ politics, Das Deutsche Europa27 fed itself on the premise that ‘the end of Euro was the end of Europe’, and for an instant, its purpose seemed legitimate, with 19 out of 28 member states using the common currency. However, if the Germans profited from this promptly manufactured version of Reconciliatio et Paenitentia, how are other (equally dysfunctional in their own national syndromes) European cultures to find reward along the margins of such a paradoxically quixotic variant of a black despondency? To fully grasp the inadvertency of this unorganized process, we may first visit the definition of a nation by Benedict Anderson as an ‘imagined community’, which grants citizens the sense of a shared identity with no empirical proof of its existence. Nationalism, however, feeds itself on the estrangement of one’s culture in reference to a non-self–it is stirred by the myth of a common origin, through the very essentialistic feeling of a wide-range, collective identity, which has ‘no fixed ontological structure, being a permanent stage of becoming, upon which the concept of society itself is based.’28 For the European Union as a hybrid system, at times capable of encompassing all edges of a super-culture, the reality of a joint, consolidated supra-nationalism is infinitely more complex. While together, smaller member states should ideally reach the same level of impact on a shared European identity as do Germany or France alone, these countries very rarely withstand for the same ideals, and even more rarely

26 Richard Sakwa describes Russia as a ‘neo-revisionist’ power, which, contrary to a ‘revisionist’ power, seeks only to assert its rightful position in global politics, and when disregarded or allienated, wishes to demonstrate it is still a power to be reckoned with (what he recalls as ‘Russia’s Weimar Syndrome’). Sakwa, Richard., op.cit., pp. 49 – 52. 27 Beck, Ubel. Das deutsche Europa – Neue Machtlandschaften im Zeichen der Krise. Berlin: Suhrkamp Verlag, 2012, p. 99. 28 Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah, Giesen, Bernhard. The Construction of Collective Identity, “European Journal of Social Theory.” Paris, 1995, p. 23. 96 MASKA 40/2018 understand themselves or are understood as single bodies. Germany’s large number in parliamentary seats (or its great impact on the Euro’s stability), then, provides it with not only broader jurisdiction, but a pulling mechanism which grants incontest- able value to, much more than its structural position, the entire aesthetics of its contemporary doctrinism. Other larger member states, such as France or Great Britain, appear so reluctant or incompatible to the EU narrative in certain areas, that they become almost inescapably divorced from a homogenized identity of the European Union–which, more often than not, resembles merely a meteoric reflection of something in itself nonexistent. While Germany concerns itself with Poland’s democracy, three former judges of the German court describe the migration policy in Germany as anti-constitutional29. Hans- Olaf Henkel, member of the European Parliament in the representation of the ALFA (Alliance for Progress and Renewal) political party, described the European Commis- sion’s attitude towards Poland as an ‘inquisition.’ From breaking the Growth Stability Pact to overlooking the Dublin Convention and failing to consult with German federal states before unilaterally claiming unlimited asylum for refugees, the German government (which, as has been established, has a larger impact on the EU’s architectural body than proportionate to its parliamentary seats), remains a charitable masquerader. Meanwhile, a phenomenon very brilliantly described as ‘The Witch Hunt’30 rises in the East. While Poland’s previous government (Civic Platform) had agreed to receive up to 7000 asylum seekers31, so far, only a few hundred were relocated into Polish soils, and even fewer have remained. Yet, the country is undergoing a lively refugee dispute. What some describe as the result of a ‘historical amnesia’ may be, perhaps, more accurately understood through the hereditary lines of Social Constructiv- ism. In 1931, only 68.9% of the Polish population was Polish. Historically, Poland as an empire had been a land of mixed nationalities and religions, and until the Second World War, its population (now exceedingly homogenized) was host to the ‘second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world’s Jews residing within Polish boarders.’ 32 History repeats itself, incontestably. And Poland’s scarce youth, while failing to perceive its own logical fallacies in attributing to an experiential echo–very fanatically so, acts on the curves of effect to the only path dependency they have ever systematically and fundamentally been exposed to: serving to the unwitting creation, yet again,

29 Another German Judge Decrees Merkel’s Migrant Policies Unconstitutional, “Breitbart” 2016, www.breitbart.com (Accessed: 30.05.2016). 30 Kozlowska, Agnieszka. Poland’s refugee problem, Warszawa, QZ Publishing, 2015. 31 Malek, Katarzyna. Poland Axes Promise to Take in 7,000 Migrants. Gazeta.pl, March 2016 (Accessed: 30.05.2016). 32 Davies, Norman. God’s Playground, New York, Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 77–78. 97 Raiany Silva Romanni of an unnecessary arsenal to an unnecessary war. As Matthew Kott noted, ‘a fundamental problem with the current structure of the EU is that it remains a confedera- tion of national states that retain so much sovereignty, that common actions required to meet today’s [2015] problems are almost doomed to fail acrimoniously.’33 At the same time, in paradox, the rhetoric over sovereignty oppression in most member states is so fervent, and so easily anesthetizing to severely aching popula- tions, that the concept of a political union remains legitimized almost uniquely by the ideological framework of the union’s pseudo-self alone. This phenomenon may well be observed in the rejection of Montesquieu’s division of power within the Union’s systemic design, or more individually in the Greek nationalistic enthusiasm post- 2008, which quickly lost its vehemence once Greek dependency on the European model was recognized. Primarily, Europe’s awakening trauma lies in that there may no longer be applied a simple, clear-cut division model between West and East: as the West only grievously grows conscious of its own underestimation of sheer nationalism, today’s Ostpolitik emerges as a much valuable extension to the range of the EU’s cultural identity, whence the concept of an Iron Curtain once again descending over Europe (this time, in a divide of Multiculturalism) gradually appears to have been merely a short-lived elucidation. The New Eastern Europe, quite uniquely, in its natural impulse to battle any im- position, finds itself holding a vital key to understanding Europe’s root identity, having preserved under permafrost, throughout communism and beyond, many of the social chapters of what it means to be European.34 One may find that Central-East- ern European conservatism (from its cautious reluctance to the Neoliberal model since its thriving era in the 1990’s to the very instinctive feeling of protecting one’s sense of nationhood) may hold just the unorthodoxy Europe needs in order to balance its own anomalies: or yet the fueling rhetoric to a full-blown European cultural renaissance, which shall expose the peaceability of its character in the coming decades. The vindictive embryo of this crisis, then–if one may find its living nucleus among drifting bits of war-torn porcelain–most irreverently condemns the European Union a self-designated martyr, as it suffers from a Shahid-like civilizational metamorphosis. In Jordan, a Muslim nation of 9 million currently composed of roughly 2 million refugees, only 34% of aid to cope with their arrival is being funded by the international community. With a nominal GDP of only 31 billion (in contrast to Germany’s 3.5 trillion) and camps often in no shape to cope even with the survival of men fleeing their bombarded homes, it is indeed difficult to accept how billions of euros are being

33 Kott, Matt. A Struggle for Ideals, April, 2016 www.neweastereurope.eu. 34 Bowden, Joyce. The European Grammar of Self-Intolerance. London: Counter Currents, 2012. 98 MASKA 40/2018 recklessly spent in Europe, while the cost of maintaining refugees in the Middle East itself is significantly lower, whereas thousands of lives could be spared by avoiding sea deaths alone, at the same time broadly alleviating political unrest within the Europe- an Union itself. In conclusion, it is fair to state that Europe stands today at the edge of its own pitfall. Face to a set of cultures that, though most involuntarily, challenge even the ves- tiges of an ex-Christian European self, the European Union finds itself the unwitting architect to a hostile system neither the idealist founders of the Union nor its contemporary working force had dreamt of building; and everlastingly, Europe remains the foremost thief to the developing world’s destiny: as is of prime European tradition, at the risk of tempering both with European stability and international peace. As Europe undergoes a clash of civilizations largely unforeseen by the dominant narrative of its intelligentsia (and yet, curiously, widely fueled by it), the potentiality of a third world war timidly emerges in the framework of an only synthetically hu- manitarian 21st century. While the EU’s soft power tendencies expose the manners of an almost desperate middle power, Europe’s embryonic core remains unchanged, though barely ever tangible. Western state-sponsored terrorism, however, remains as ghastly as does terror in any of its forms; and what one finds, unwillingly, is that the real culprit in this crisis might lay in the brimming essence of an only halfheartedly lenient human nature. Having suppressed the authenticity of its own ethos, then, while en route towards an uncontainable cultural metamorphosis, Europe learns that for its once anathemized self, whose prime religious and political traditions had been deemed fundamentally inappropriate, the revival of European nationalism comes as a natural, yet involuntary response to the utopian rhetoric of Pan-Europeanism. This Refugee Crisis, along with its puzzling raisons d’être, do share, with those who wish to see it, a magnetizing glimpse of the grimmest spirit of man. As ancient cultures vent themselves to merciless and unnecessary self-sacrifice and peace only impassively exhausts its pant once more–as Existentialism takes away the last breath of the last human; the world divides itself in preemptive eruption, and Europe, who so immaculately finds shelter in its quasi-secular psyche, at last reluctantly comprehends it is yet to have fought its last war paved by religion.

99 Raiany Silva Romanni

Books and Secondary Sources

Arouet, François-Marie. Jeannot et Colin. Paris: Flammarion, 1764. Bauman, Zygmunt. “Quo Vadis, Europa?.” June, 2014 www.opendemocracy.net (Acces- sed: 20.02.2016) Beck, Ubel. Das deutsche Europa - Neue Machtlandschaften im Zeichen der Krise. Berlin: Suhrkamp Verlag 2012. Bowden, Joyce. The European Grammar of Self-Intolerance. London: Counter Cur- rents, 2012. Berger, Andrew. Religious America, Secular Europe. London: Ashgate Publishing, 2008. Breitbart, Bass. Another German Judge Decrees Merkel’s Migrant Policies Unconstitutio- nal, 2016 www.breitbart.com (Accessed: 30.05.2016) Brinley, Bert. Germany to Spend $6.6 on 800,000 Refugees and Migrants. September, 2015 theguardian.com (Accessed: 20.02.2016) Chalybaeus Moritz, Heinrich. Historische Entwicklung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel. Leipzig: Arnoldische Buchhandlung, 1860. Davies, Norman. God’s Playground, New York. Columbia University Press, 2005. Eagleton, T., Culture and the death of God, London, Yale University Press, 2014. Der Spiegel, as cited by the Draft from the Federal Finance Ministry for negotiations with Germany’s 16 states (BMF), 2016 (Accessed: 30.05.2016) Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah., Giesen, Bernhard., The Construction of Collective Identity, European Journal of Social Theory. Paris: 1995. Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press, 1992. Hegel, Georg. The Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976 (first published 1807). Higgins, Andrew., A More Secular Europe, Divided by the Cross. June, 2013 www.nyti- mes.com (Accessed: 20.01.2016) Holyoake, John. The Origin and Nature of Secularism. New York: Watts, 1896. Kierkegaard, Soren. The Living Thoughts of Kierkegaard.New York: New York Review Books, 1952. Kissinger, Henry., Diplomacy, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1994. Kott, Matt. A Struggle for Ideals, April, 2016 www.neweastereurope.eu Kozlowska, Agnieszka. Poland’s refugee problem, Warsaw, QZ Journal, 2015 MacDonald, K., The Occidental Observer – Mission Statement, 2010 Malek, Katarzyna. Poland Axes Promise to Take in 7,000 Migrants, March 2016, www. gazeta.pl (Accessed: 30.05.2016) Marx, Karl. The Communist Manifesto.Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1848. Merkel, Angela, Potsdam Conference. Potsdam: 2010.

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Needham, Joseph. Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue Between East and West. London: Routledge, 1969. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Wanderer and his Shadow. Chemnitz: Verlag von Ernst Schmelzer, 1878. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus spoke Zarathustra. Chemnitz: Verlag von Ernst Schmelzer, 1883. Rousseau, Jean Jacques. The Social Contract.New York: Peter Eckler Publisher, 1899 (first published 1762). Sakwa, Richard. The Death of Europe? Continental Fates after Ukraine. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2015. Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. New York: Dover Publi- cations, 1958 (first published in 1818). Schuman, Roland. The Schuman Declaration, Paris, 1950. The Runnymede Trust (a race equality think tank, generating intelligence for a multi-ethnic Britain) first used the term ‘Islamophobia’ in 1996. Zielonka, J., Europa as Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 Primary Sources

OECD International Migration Database www.oecd.org (Accessed: 20.01.2016) PEW Research Center, 2012: 75% of Europeans consider themselves Christians www. pewresearch.org (Accessed: 20.02.2016) UNICEF – ‘Jordan Population and Housing Consensus’ 2015 www.unicef.org (Acces- sed: 20.02.2016) OECD ‘Poverty Rate’ Germany www.oecd.org (Accessed: 20.02.2016) World Bank: ‘GDP around the world, nominal’. data.worldbank.org (Accessed 24.03.201) UNHCR - Report on Sea Deaths, Report on Arrival through the Mediterranean Sea www.unhcr.org (Accessed: 30.05.2016)

101 Raiany Silva Romanni

Summary

This article contains three intertwining analyses regarding the rise and fall of Euro- pean nationalism. First, a deconstruction of Europe’s schisms is set forth, alongside a contemplation of the origins of European secularism and its authenticity. Second, a phenomenon herein termed “cultural renaissance” is examined, with focus on a more profound quest for the awakening of Europe’s merely dormant ex-Christian self, in the context of its confrontation with a belief system (namely Islam) that challenges the very shadows of Christianity and incites an unannounced revival of God. Finally, in scrutinizing the aftermath of post-colonialism in Europe, the article addresses the consequences of a reconstructed and redesigned European ethos, while analyzing the origins of the current Refugee Crisis and Europe’s pivotal role in it. Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola Politics, Theatre and Echoes of Separatism in Nigeria Department of the Performing Arts, University of Ilorin Department of Theatre, University of Victoria

Introduction

We live in ‘post-normal’ times characterised by war, chaos, contradictions, global financial crises, cultural looting, neoliberalism, capitalism, etc1. Globally, unpopu- lar places are becoming home for people of diverse nationalities and orientations. Against the backdrop of the emergence of populist agendas, in the face of declining trust in our key institutions, there has been a trend towards increasing protection- ism, separatism, and anxiety about migration worldwide. In some countries, national identities and co-existence are being threatened with agitations from federal units to secede from the state. From the United Kingdom in Europe to Catalonia in Spain and Biafra in Nigeria, there is a constant struggle to create new government structures and nation-states that will govern the people effectively. These agitations are not baseless. Instead, they are results of marginalisation and political gimmicks. The need to continually provide safe and positive spaces to present an alternative narrative highlighting the benefits of diversity, openness and inclusiveness in our ever-evolving society is therefore fundamental. The nation-state called Nigeria has over one-hundred and eighty million population, two hundred and fifty tribes, thirty-six states including the Federal Capital Territory, and six-geopolitical zones. Governing this diverse society is a challenging task, and the constant social decadence and politico-economic mishaps in the country serve as the rationale behind many agitations and ethnic tensions because the citizens groan in prolonged pain and penury caused by the political class and elites looting of the national treasury.

1 Sardar, Ziauddin. “Welcome to Postnormal times.” Futures (42) 2010, pp. 435 – 444. 103 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola

The search for innovative ways to close gaps and build bridges through a community-based approach and creative means to foster dialogues for a critical conversation that is full of care, empathy, and hope becomes imperative. Art and creative expressions serve as one of the media to engender such ideals. We believe that history is vital in understanding any society’s given present times, and it is essential in casting future vision, especially so that past mistakes can be avoided. Thus, in this article, we historicize and present the potential of theatre in fostering peaceful co-existence. We are concerned with tracing moments in history when the theatre was engaged in restoring peace and community cohesion or addressing socio-cultural and politico-economic dilemmas. The article has three subsections: Echoes from the Past, the Present Ethos, and the Future Nigeria Vision. We focus on the Biafra agitation as a reference point to separatist discourse in this paper.

Echoes from the Past: Theatre of Commitment

From its inception, the theatre had taken various forms, shapes, and served various purposes. The Greek theatre of the 5th Century B.C.E. was not only rooted in its religious, ritual, and entertainment functions, but it also served as a medium for the edification of the Greek citizens. The tragic dramas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, with the cathartic effect on their audience, made them better people. In his classic drama titled Lysistrata, Aristophanes creates a drama of peace and harmony, nay, a dramaturgy of conflict resolution. Beyond the gender discourse explicated in this play, Aristophanes’ construction was at the time of the Peloponnesian War. While the Roman theatre, with the performances of Terence and Plautus, enter- tained and informed their audiences, in the medieval era theatre was in the service of God. Hence, drama was a tool for religious proselytisation, the propagation of the Christian gospel. The culture of Renaissance which enveloped Europe from the 14th century through the 16th century, saw the rebirth, nay the reconstruction of classi- cism to fit into the orientation of the times. As Oscar Brocket wrote in The Essential Theatre, theatre in this era explicates the rebirth of knowledge and humanism2. The modern eras witnessed the birth of theatres. Among theatre cultures of the modern era were, among others, Futurism, Absurdism, Dadaism, Theatre of Cruelty, or Ex- pressionism. These theatres are all placed under the larger umbrella of the theatre of the avant-garde. In the postmodern era, eclecticism became predominant as different styles were brought together in single theatrical performances. Postmodernism presupposes that there is not just a single interpretation of a text, but the consumer of a text (audience) automatically becomes the author of the text, instead of a mere

2 Brockett, Oscar. The essential theatre.New York: Wadswworth Publishing, 2004. 104 MASKA 40/2018 superfluous consumer of the text. The text in this context is the theatrical performance placed on stage. The audience’s experience, therefore, is what is most important in postmodern theatre3. Postmodern theatre includes the application of drama in solving complex societal issues. African indigenous theatres, especially festivals, also played a role in the development of societal and community cohesion. The Ekuechi festival of the Ebira people of Kogi State Nigeria, attests to our submission. Sunny Ododo notes that their Eku masquerade performance is not a religious masquerade but serves the purpose of organising the social system and improving the environment4. Thus African festivals not only re-organised the social system and the environment but also performed legislative and judicial functions, depending on the content and context of the performance. In the same vein, Rasheed Musa, in his article titled The theatre of healing: Ehoro Iba Masquerade festival of Agbeyeland as a paradigm, articulates that Ehoro Iba masquerade of Agbeyeland cannot only heal the sick, but also fosters unity among the populace. These submissions of the above theatre scholars are evidence of the role of traditional African festivals in the development of communal cohesion5. The role of theatre in building peace and the promotion of societal ethos is also evidenced in the dramatic and operatic performances of Hubert Ogunde. One of his most famous plays which advocates peace, cohesion, and harmony, is Yoruba Ronu. This play is a commentary on the feud between Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola, two juggernauts of the politics of Western Nigeria, during the time of the First Republic. The play communicates peaceful coexistence and unity would facilitate an increase in the development of the Western region of Nigeria. Furthermore, modern and postmodern African theatres have been used to conscientise communities on prevalent issues. Postcolonial African theatre fought against neocolonial elements and the emergent socio-political corruption that bedeviled Af- rican societies. For instance, the radical writer cum dramatist, Ngugiwa Thiong’o, sees drama as a weapon for socio-political awareness. Solomon Ejeke, in his seminal paper titled Drama and Socio-Political Emancipation in Africa, submits that:

Drama creates and recreates experiences; it generates a firm socio-political awareness in the people. Such socio-political awareness forms the basis of dramatic conflict in Ngugiwa Thiong’o and MicereMugo’s The Trials of Dedan Kimathi… Udenta states that Ngugiwa Thiong’o views

3 Okpadah, Stephen. “From Marxist Ukala to postmodern Adeoye and the politics of experimental theatre in Nigeria”. Portals: A journal in comparative literature, 2018, pp. 29 – 42. 4 Ododo, Sunny. Facekuerade Theatre: A Performance Model from the Playing and Technical Aesthetics of Ebira-Ekuechi Festival in Nigeria. An unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Per- forming Arts, University of Ilorin, Nigeria, 2004. 5 Musa, Rasheed. “The theatre of healing: Ehoro Iba Masquerade festival of Agbeyeland as a paradigm”. The Abuja Communicator: Abuja Journal of Culture and media arts, 2002, pp. 111 – 122. 105 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola

drama especially in its theatrical orientation, as the crucial and most decisive stage in the struggle against galvanizing the broad masses towards radical socio-economic changes6

Drama and theatre play a mediatory role in conflict resolution. One play that stands out in the pedestal of conflict resolution and conflict management is Iyowruese Hagher’s Lamp of Peace. As a social construct, it is an advocate of peace, unity, and cohesion. The play attests that in conflict resolution drama could be an alternative medium to warfare, arbitration, and amnesty. The dialectical nature of theatre as a weapon of both mass destruction and mass construction, a gift and poison, is evidenced in the ban placed on the theatres of Hubert Ogunde in the 1950s and 1960s, as well as that of Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. Many a time, the latter was imprisoned by the colonialists for his commitment to using drama to fight against colonial oppression and neo-colonial suppression. He also used his Kamirithu Community Educational and Culture Centre at Limuru as an integrated rural development program which used theatre to raise consciousness. The multi-functionality of drama, therefore, cannot be overemphasised. Theatre for Development, the Nigerian equivalent for Community Theatre, has served not only educational and informational function, but it has also been a tool in the hands of the masses. It became a functional transformative tool for conflict resolution, community empowerment, and development. Theatre practitioners such as Jimi Solanke, Bayo Oduneye, and others, have practically utilised this theatre model in sensitising rural dwellers on socio-economic and political issues. Theatre for development is, therefore, a problem-solving theatre. Against this backdrop, Ifeanyi Raphael submits that:

Theatre for development functions as a tool for conscientisation. Through this, the people are made aware of their predicaments, and are able to identify and analyse them towards finding solutions. Such awareness, therefore, becomes a prelude for positive action7

Theatre for Development, otherwise known asT FD, is then a solution finding a theatre. It creates awareness that will, in turn, facilitate overt action. The commitment of drama in societal reformation and reconstruction is, therefore, vital.

6 Ejeke, Solomon. “Drama and socio-political emancipation in Africa.” Music scholarship, culture and performance challenges in the 21st Century Africa; A critical resource book in honour of Emurobome Idolor. Ed. Ken Eni, Ben Binebai and Solomon Ikibe. Lagos: Tahiti and Balila Publishers, 2016, pp. 469 – 470. 7 Raphael, Ifeanyi. The Medium of Theatre as an Alternative Conflict Resolution Mechanism: A Case for the Niger Delta (2009). Web. 28 November. 2017. From http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/mar- tin_archives/peace_journal/Post%20Last%20Last%20Copy_of_THE_MEDIUM_OF_THE- ATRE_%5D%5B1%5Dtank3%5B1%5D1.htm 10 6 MASKA 40/2018

The Present Ethos: Separatism in Nigeria

The politics of separatism became monumental in the wake of the 21st Century. Over the decades, separatist movements across the world have garnered support or, at least, pseudo-support from various nations and international bodies. South Sudan, which is undoubtedly the youngest nation in the world, is a product of decades of agitation for nationalism, as well as of socio-political instability, and even war. One salient feature of separatism is that some of the deprived, marginalised, and suppressed groups seek alternative measures to separatism. They believe that integration and negotiation are imperative to peaceful co-existence and harmony. In Nige- ria, anti-separatists include Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Yakubu Gowon, Kaduna Nzeogwu and others. In recent times, some prominent personalities in Southeastern Nigeria have also called for restructurisation which would unify – not disintegrate – Nige- ria. While Odumegwu Ojukwu was pro-Biafra, Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka were critical of the ethnic cleansing meted on the Biafrans, a prominent separatist group in Nigeria. The point of intersection of all separatist movements is that they are in a struggle for independence and nationalism. However, these agitations do not emerge from the void. Factors responsible for this process include second class treatment, marginalisation, subjugation, economic opportunities, cultural differences, or political grievances of the separatist8. In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria for instance, the marginalisation of the region by the Nigerian federal government (which has led to the underdevelopment of the region and the destruction of the natural environment by crude oil exploration by multinational oil companies) resulted in the agitation for succession from Nigeria. Separatist tendency held sway in the Nigerian political landscape from the pre-independence era. This could be located in the politics of ethnicity indulged in by Nigerian nationalists such as Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Sir Ahmadu Bello, and Tafawa Balewa in the First Republic. Chief Obafemi Awolowo had proposed an alliance with Dr. Nanamdi Azikiwe in their bid to capture power at the federal level. However, the NPC did threaten that if the Southern parties allied to capture power at the federal level, the North would secede9. Thus Northern Nigeria made a threat on seceding if she loses power to the South. The born to rule mentality of Northern Nigeria10 further came to play in the second coup. After the death of

8 Boyle, Katharine and Englebert, Pierre. “The primacy of politics in separatist dynamics”. 2016: 1. Web. 22 December. 2018. From http://cega.berkeley.edu/assets/miscellaneous_files/wgape/10_Englebert.pdf 9 Ademoyega, Adewale. Why We Struck: The Story of the First Nigerian Coup. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Limited, 1981, p. 6. 10 Okpadah, Stephen. “The film medium and the born to rule mentality in Nigerian politics.” The Post- graduate Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, Vol 14, No. 1, 2016, p. 40. 107 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola

Major General Aguiyi Ironsi, Gowon made it clear to Brigadier Ogundipe that his group (the North) wanted nothing short of secession of the North from the remain- der of Nigeria11. From the preceding, it is pertinent to note that Northern Nigeria, with the NPC oligarchy, attempted secession before any other group in Nigeria. The first practical proclamation at secession was the initiative of Major Jasper Adaka Boro who recruited about 40 men into an organisation known as the Niger Delta Volunteer Force12. The late 1950s and early 1960s had seen the Niger Delta, specifically places where crude oil was first discovered, in a state of economic and environmental turmoil. The discovery of crude oil led to the politics of internal colonialism, marginalisation of the inhabitants in the region, and environmental colonialism. In his Ph.D. thesis, Phillip Aghoghovwia thesis, titled Ecocriticism and the Oil Encounter: Readings from the Niger Delta, corroborates the above assertion that the endemic state of the region:

Pitched the minority Niger Delta against the Nigerian state. It led to the first “oil war” instigated by Isaac Adaka Boro on 2 February 1966. Adaka Boro was an undergraduate student of chemistry at the University of Nigeria. Together with some 150 Ijaw youth, he declared secession from the Nigerian state and named the region, the Republic of the Niger Delta13.

However, this revolution, led by the Kaiama indigene, lasted only twelve days. The Aguiyi Ironsi who led federal government quelled the revolutionaries. They were tried in court and sentenced to death. However, the militants were granted freedom by the subsequent regime of Yakubu Gowon. Isaac Boro’s quest was to speak for his people that had been subjugated by the crude oil multinational companies and the Nigerian federal government. This attempt at secession was followed by the threats mentioned above at secession by Northern Nigeria. The emergence of a Northern element, in place of Ogundipe, the most senior officer in the Nigerian military, turned the table after the counter-coup in 1966. This did not only energise the spirit of separatism in the Igbos group, but it also culminated in the Nigerian civil war. Separatism, therefore, cannot be divorced from the politics of power play, the quest for relevance, and the tendency to speak. The foregoing conclusion portends that Eastern Nigeria’s recent struggle for independence (I mean here the present activities as well as recent agitations by MASSOB, IPOB and other separatist movements in the South East geo-political zone), has its

11 Ademoyega, Adewale, op.cit., p. 121. 12 Olowu, Ayodeji and Ariyo, Samuel. “Niger Delta restiveness in Nigeria: A Multimodal discourse analytical study of cover pages of selected editions of Tell Magazines”. New Media and mass communication, Vol 29, 2014. 13 Aghoghovwia, Phillip. Ecocriticism and the oil encounter: Readings from the Niger Delta. A Published Ph.D Thesis submitted to Department of English, Stellenbosch University. 2014, p. 17. 108 MASKA 40/2018 foundation in the politics of the First Republic, nay, the Lugardian exercise (the formation of Nigeria). It is pertinent to state then that the British Colonial government laid down the structure for separatism in Nigeria. Adewale Ademoyega, in his book titled Why We Struck: The Story of the First Nigerian Coup, submits that:

Nigeria’s political problems sprang from the carefree manner in which the British took over, administered, and abandoned the government and people of Nigeria. British administration did not make any effort to weld the country together and unite the heterogeneous groups of people. When the British came, they forcibly rubberstamped the political state of the ethnic groups of Nigeria, and maintained that status quo until they left. Upon their departure, nearly a hundred years later, the people resumed fighting for their political rights14

There is no doubt then that the British colonial masters laid down the structure for separatist agitation in Nigeria. Besides being sympathetic to the North and critical of the South (Western, Eastern, and Mid-western Nigeria) at all times, Great Britain was the first to read ethnic meaning to the first coup, led by Major Kaduna Nzeogwu. Suffice to state that apart from Biafra, there are also low-key agitations for nationalism in some other regions in Nigeria. Jideofor Adibe articulates that:

Agitations around Biafra have drowned out other separatist agitations, giving the wrong impression that Biafra is the only separatist threat in the country. The truth is that there is separatist agitation in virtually every area in the country underlying the fact that the foundation for Nige- ria’s nationhood remains on shaky ground. Among the Yoruba, for instance, echoes of separatism come in different forms from a direct call for Oduduwa Republic to those championing a Sover- eign National Conference to decide if the federating units of the country still want to continue to live together, and, if so, under what arrangements. In the north, there are intermittent demands for Arewa Republic, while some talk of the north as if it is a country within a country. In the Ni- ger Delta, apart from the demand for Niger Delta Republic, shades of separatism are embedded in the demands for “resource control” by regional activists15

Adibe is right in his articulation since it is evident that Nigeria is polarised. The Kaduna declaration of June 6, 2017, in which a group of northern youths under the aegis of Coalition of Arewa Youths gave the Igbos time until October 1, 2017, to leave the 19 northern states16, is ample evidence of polarisation of Nigeria. In recent times, the agitation for a sovereign state of Biafra has gained prominence. This struggle, championed by Nnamdi Kanu who led Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), with its supporters in the Diaspora, has become a bone in the neck of the Nigerian federal government. Kanu made the people of Southeastern Nigeria critically conscious of the fact that they have been situated as the ‘other’; hence, they must stand and speak

14 Ademoyega, Adewale. op.cit. 15 Adibe, Jideofor. Separatist agitations in Nigeria: Causes and trajectories. Kaduna: Gamji, 2017. 16 Ibidem. 109 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola for themselves. He established a radio station Radio Biafra in London, where he championed the cause of the independence of Biafra. Despite his arrest, he continued to speak for his people. His arrest by the Nigerian federal government only deified him, as he gathered more popularity among his people, both home and abroad. Although various negotiations and methods have been applied in an attempt to eradicate and obliterate echoes of separatism, the separatist syndrome persists. Thus, this article argues that the medium of theatre, especially applied theatre, is imperative in realising the eradication and obliteration of politics of separatism (especially the struggle for Biafra) in Nigeria.

Theatre’s Commitment against Separatism

Following diverse ethnic tensions, contentions, as well as secession agitation and threats, there have been campaigns, deliberations, and strategies conceived around the need to embrace Nigeria as one nation. We believe that theatre can be engaged to push forward further this agenda. We do refer to the theatre as a constructive channel to engender useful feedback from the citizenry and gain an understanding that will deepen policies and strategies for a better, unified nation. Theatre has always been a tool for development. As a communicative art, it can also engineer a positive change in the political landscape of any country. Raphael attests to the functionality of the theatre in his article titled The Medium of Theatre as an Alternative Conflict Resolution Mechanism: a Case for the Niger Delta. He submits that:

The functionality of theatre is no longer in doubt, as many people have come to realize the potency of the theatre in development. It has the power to influence thought and opinion, and can serve as a popular and effective means of political propagation, economic empowerment and culture diffusion17

With the agitations of autonomy and nationalism by various ethnic nationalities in Nigeria, the theatre could play a mediatory role in sensitizing the populace to the need for peaceful co-existence, cooperation, and unity. Paulo Freire also submits that theatre can bring the community together, build community cohesiveness, raise important issues by creating a forum for discussion of problems, and stimulating group action18. Various forms of applied theatre, such as community theatre, theatre for prison, theatre for schools and so on, have the capacity to galvanise people towards action, and thereby, transforming them into better people with the view to making them reflect on the adverse effect of social vices, political instability, and other socio-economic and

17 Raphael, Ifeanyi, op.cit. 18 Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Penguin Books, 1972, p. 14. 110 MASKA 40/2018 cultural vices. This reflection will thus culminate into a transformative change in the attitude and thought patterns of the people. Drama/theatre can explore salient and pressing issues of separatist agitation in Nigeria, especially of the struggle for the sovereignty of Biafra. In this case, the reasons for the agitations would be looked into and evaluated, with the view to appeas- ing aggrieved parties to desist from activities that promote disunity. In fact, Stanley Obuh submits that one of the agents of socio-political change is drama/theatre. Dra- ma is the most economical mode of experience, which conveys an idea that can be accepted as accurate. Drama’s impact is also direct and more immediate than of other forms of expression19. The communicative power of drama can, therefore, propel transformative change, garner peace, unity, national cohesion, and quell politics of separatism in Nigeria. Community theatre is interactive and collaborative in nature. It can be used as a model to resolve various shades of conflicts. Hence, Raphael avers that:

The argument for theatre as a medium for conflict resolution in the Niger Delta region is one that places it as a tool for remedial, non-formal education to conscientise the people (using the words of Augusto Boal), and make them aware of their potentials of harnessing their individual energies, collectively towards addressing the myriad of problems they are faced with, and not pick-up arms that will cause further destruction to lives and properties. Specifically, the performances will be used to stimulate the awareness among the contending forces to an understanding that lasting solutions to their problems can be achieved through constructive dialogue, understanding and trust in their ethnic struggle20

Awareness and critical consciousness of socio-political and critical issues of the audience is a salient preoccupation of applied theatre, especially community theatre. The community theatre artist or the facilitator of the performance process becomes a healer by raising issues that are located in conflicts, separatist struggle. As Sam Ukala states, a creative artist has the attributes of a healer. He concocts. Also, if his concoction is efficacious, it heals the diseases of society21. Theatre for development, a form of applied theatre, has been instrumental to the mobilisation and critical awareness of the populace. It addressed such issues as female genital mutilation, drug abuse, and many others. The Samaru experiment in Kaduna State is a right paradigm and could be replicated in the struggle for national integration.

19 Obuh, Stanley. “Drama as Instrument for Mass Mobilisation: A Critical Analysis of some MAMSER Drama Programmes in Nigeria.” Theatre and Politics in Nigeria. Ed Jide Malomo and Saint Gbileeka. Ibadan: Caltop Publishers Ltd, 1992, p. 138. 20 Raphael, Ifeanyi, op.cit. 21 Ukala, Sam. African theatre: beast of no gender? Abraka: Delta State University Press, 2007. 111 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola

Furthermore, in Stephen Okpadah’s Theatre for Development as a Model for Trans- formative Change in Nigeria22 and Taiwo Afolabi’s Participatory theatre and the Mil- lennium Development Goals Crusades in Nigeria23, the authors have articulated theatre’s functionalities and ways to engage theatre for social good. Consequently, we further propose that practitioner’s new vision and understanding of what theatre can do and what it cannot do is essential in determining and setting limits and boundaries as to the use of theatre in various development and communication settings and functions. Researchers and practitioners need to deconstruct some ideas around the applied theatre and critically investigate their roles. Practitioners’ claims about theatre need to be challenged because this will further help in developing innovative ways, methods, strategies, and avenues to engage and disengage theatre in the conversation.

Conclusion

We had accounted for times in the past when art forms, especially theatre, served as a mean to fostering anti-oppressive movements. Theatre as a socially-engaged art form was garnered to liberate people and project diverse voices. We conclude that the subject of separatism could be explored as thematic preoccupation, with the view to sensitising the masses to the resultant effect(s) of the Nigerian civil war which was a product of disunity, disagreement and ethnic hate, with the view to making them see reasons for national integration and cohabitation of the various federating units in Nigeria. Finally, since we live in post-normal times, there is a need to deconstruct the notion of disintegration constantly and to foster liberatory and critical research tradition grounded in the hope for change and explore innovative ways in which a multi-dialectical nation like Nigeria could live in peace and unity.

22 Okpadah, Stephen. “Theatre for Development as a Model for Transformative Change in Nigeria”. Teaching Artist Journal 15:1, 2017, pp. 3 – 8. 23 Afolabi, “Taiwo. Participatory Theatre and the Millennium Development Goals Crusades in Nigeria”. Makurdi Journal of Arts and Culture, 2018, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2018, p. 89. 112 MASKA 40/2018

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Afolabi, Taiwo. Participatory Theatre and the Millennium Development Goals Crusa- des in Nigeria. Makurdi Journal of Arts and Culture, 2018, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2018. 87–105 Ademoyega, Adewale. Why We Struck: The Story of the First Nigerian Coup. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Limited. 1981. Adibe, Jideofor. Separatist agitations in Nigeria: Causes and trajectories. Kaduna: Gamji, 2017. Aghoghovwia, Phillip. Ecocriticism and the Oil Encounter: Readings from the Niger Delta. a Published Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the Department of English, Stel- lenbosch University. 2014. Binebai, Ben. Identity politics in Niger Delta Drama: Nationalism of separatism in Ambakederemo’s Isaac Boro. Ameh, Akoh and Stephen. Inegbe (eds.). Arts, culture & communication in a Postcolony: a Festschrift for Lawrence Olarenle Bamidele. Uni- ted Kingdom: Alpha Crownes Publishers 2013. 427–428 Brockett, Oscar. The essential theatre.New York: Wadsworth Publishing, 2004. Boyle, Katharine and Englebert, Pierre. The primacy of politics in separatist dynamics. 2016 Retrieved 22nd December, 2018 from http://cega.berkeley.edu/assets/miscel- laneous_files/wgape/10_Englebert.pdf Ejeke, Solomon. Drama and socio-political emancipation in Africa. In: Ken, Eni, Ben, Binebai and Solomon, Ikibe (eds.). Music scholarship, culture and performance challenges in the 21st Century Africa; a critical resource book in honour of Emurobome Idolor. Lagos: Tahiti and Balila Publishers, 2016. Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Penguin Books, 1972. Musa, Rasheed. The theatre of healing:EhoroIba Masquerade festival of Agbeyeland as a paradigm. The Abuja Communicator: Abuja Journal of Culture and media arts, 11, 2002. 111–122 Ododo, Sunny. FacekueradeTheatre: a Performance Model from the Playing and Technical Aesthetics of Ebira-Ekuechi Festival in Nigeria. An unpublished Ph.D thesis submitted to the Department of Performing Arts, University of Ilorin, Nigeria, 2004. Obuh, Stanley. Drama as Instrument for Mass Mobilization: a Critical Analysis of some MAMSER Drama Programmes in Nigeria in: Jide. Malomo and Saint. Gbi- leeka (eds.) Theatre and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan: Caltop Publishers Ltd, 1992. Okpadah, Stephen. From Marxist Ukala to postmodern Adeoye and the politics of experimental theatre in Nigeria. Portals: a journal in comparative literature, 15, 2018. 29–42 Okpadah, Stephen. The film medium and theborn to rule mentality in Nigerian politics. The Postgraduate Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. Vol 14, No 1, 2016. 34–46 Okpadah, Stephen. Theatre for Development as a Model for Transformative Change in Nigeria. Teaching Artist Journal 15:1, 2017. 3–8 113 Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Taiwo Afolabi Okunola

Olowu, Ayodeji., and Ariyo, Samuel. Niger Delta restiveness in Nigeria: a Multimo- dal discourse analytical study of cover pages of selected editions of Tell Magazi- nes. New Media and mass communication vol (29), 2014. 1–50 Raphael, Ifeanyi. The Medium of Theatre as an Alternative Conflict Resolution Mechanism: a Case for the Niger Delta. 2009. Retrieved 28th November 2017 from http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/martin_archives/peace_journal/Post%20Last%20Last%20Copy_ of_THE_MEDIUM_OF_THEATRE_%5D%5B1%5Dtank3%5B1%5D1.htm Sardar, Ziauddin. Welcome to Postnormal times. Futures, (42) 2010. 435–444 Ukala, Sam. African theatre: beast of no gender? Abraka: Delta State University Press, 2007. Vallins, Gordins. Drama and Theatre in Education.Drama and the Theatre with Ra- dio, Film and Television: An Outline for Students. Ed. John Russell Brown. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971. 161–184

Summary

This study argues that the medium of theatre, especially applied theatre, is imperative in realising the eradication of politics of separatism as evident through agitations from different quota in Nigeria and beyond. We suggest theatre is a viable platform to create safe and positive spaces to foster dialogue around diverse perspectives of peaceful co-existence and an effective tool to achievethe integration of the various federating units in the country. Using descriptive and historical methodologies, the study reveals that separatist agitations are responses to marginalisation and oppression of the voiceless. Our vision for this article is to bring to the fore through history the potency of theatre to engender inclusion, integration, and participation, which are imperative to finding solutions to the uprising national disintegration. This article concludes that the subject of separatism could be explored as a strategy for a national resurgence with the view to sensitising the masses on the resultant effect(s) of the Nigerian civil war which was a product of disunity, disagreement and ethnic hate. We believe that history is essential in understanding the present political dispensation and fundamental in forecasting future vision of any nation. Thus, engaging theatre in innovative ways to undertake this mission is cardinal to garner national quorum on issues of integration and cohabitation among cultures and ethnic groups. We used theatre, theatre for development and applied theatre interchangeably to mean a socially-engaged art form. Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham Remembering the origins. Everyday life of Polish Jewish refugees’ children in Shanghai under Japanese occupation The children’s fate as depicted in Polish-language newspapers “Echo Szanghajskie” and “Wiadomości” published in East Asia

Institute of the Middle and Far East, Jagiellonian University Independent researcher, Oxford

Introduction

In 2015 out of the 244 million people who were living outside their country of birth all over the world 31 million were children1. These data show how significant is the problem of child migration, even if it is not raised that often as a common issue of different kinds of migration. One type of migration is the forced one, caused by the political situation (war), or less frequently by national and/or religious issues. In the 1940s, war atrocities and fear of the Holocaust caused thousands of Polish citizens, including many children, to flee their homeland and ultimately find safety in East Asia. This kind of forced migration was a group movement. It was a consequence of the issuing of transit visas in 1940 by Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Lithuania, and a written guarantee from Jan Zwartendijk, a Dutch diplomat in Kaunas, that they would receive visa documents on the journey, promising free entry to the Dutch colony of Curacao. The survival of this group of war refugees was helped by the efforts of the Polish Ambassador to Japan, Tadeusz Romer, who took care of the refugees from Poland and guaranteed them the diplomatic protection and assistance. In October 1941, the Polish Embassy in Japan was closed by the Japanese authorities2, its staff as well as

1 “Migration.” Unicef. Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women. 01.2017. Web. 20.07.2018. 2 During the World War II, Japan and Poland were members of the hostile camps. However, the frien- dly relations from the prewar period resulted in preserving for more than two years after the outbreak of World War II in Europe the Polish diplomatic mission in Tokyo. 115 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham the refugees still remaining in Japan, were moved to Shanghai, then under occupation by Japanese military forces. In Shanghai, the refugees, as a result of German pressure, were instructed to relocate into the designed area, called ghetto in 1943. Nonetheless, the term ‘ghetto’ in the case of the Jews who survived in Shanghai cannot be missed with the ghettos that were established in Central Europe by Nazi occupants. The restricted area in Shanghai was established to control foreigners, who could not leave the city after the outbreak of the Pacific War. The aim of this article is to analyze the beginning of the ‘life path’ of refugee children in a completely alien environment and to verify the importance of this situation for their development of Polish-Jewish roots in later life. The most important source of information for this study is “Wiadomości” (“The Tidings”)3, a Polish language4 newspaper published in wartime Shanghai by the refugee community5. Despite a plan to publish it as a separate paper, for financial reasons, it became a supplement to the “Shanghai Echo” [“Echo Szanghajskie”], a newspaper already being published by the Polish community in Shanghai from the mid-1930s. Using materials from “The Tidings” gives an accurate description of what childhood, the most significant beginning of each person’s life, was like for the Polish refugee children in Shanghai under Japanese occupation. We claim that the importance that parents attached to the education of their children, in particular to the learning of Polish, helped confirm their origins in an inherently multilingual environment, one of the other language being Yiddish. Without the Polish element, these children would be rootless, having originated somewhere in eastern Europe but without any further knowledge or understanding. To investigate these ideas, we posed the following questions: What was the situation of the Pol- ish-Jewish children in wartime Shanghai? What were the everyday duties of refugee children? What was the attitude of the children towards education? What were the parent’s activities to preserve the remembrance of the origins while staying in exile? To answer those questions, the authors used the existing newspapers published in wartime Shanghai, archives and additional sources which they developed, such as interviews conducted by the authors. The unique character of this article devoted to the history of Jewish refugees in Shanghai lies in two aspects of the research. First of all, among the published research papers, little can be found about the situation of the children6. Secondly, the newspapers on which this study is based (mainly “The

3 In case of Echo Szanghajskie and Wiadomości, both names of the newspaper (supplement), Polish and English, will be used interchangeably in the text to preserve the style of expression. 4 The first issue was also published in Yiddish. 5 The author of the English translations given as the citations in this article fromWiadomości is Anna Kostka. 6 Among Polish researchers of the topic of Jewish refugees the following works should be referred: Barba- siewicz, Olga. “Konsul Sugihara Chiune a polscy Żydzi w Kownie w okresie 1939–1940”, Sprawy Narodo- 116 MASKA 40/2018

Tidings”), were considered by most researchers to be non-existent having been de- stroyed7. Therefore, the analysis of their content did not appear in previous studies. The parts of the newspaper articles cited in this paper were translated from Polish to English. Therefore, it gives a more in-depth view of the situation of the Jewish refugees, expressed in their native language. The authors also faced several limitations while conducting the research: First of all, not only was contacting the persons, (who were children during the war, and who appeared in the sources used for the analysis) hard. But also, an especially difficult part of the research was the identification of the children serving as a main characters in the sources, which was from time to time impossible, due to the different spelling of their names in Polish, Yiddish and Eng- lish, as well as in different types of documents used for the papers. The authors also managed to find in archives the Polish-language documents of the Polish diplomatic missions, but once again, the data provided in different sources were not identical, probably due to wartime rush and hurry. Nonetheless, this article focuses on the selected sources, providing a comprehensive view of the situation of the Polish-Jewish children – war refugees in Shanghai during the first half of the 1940s.

Shanghai children in the statistics of the Polish diplomatic mission

On the 20th June 1942, before the evacuation of the Polish consulate from Shanghai, the diplomatic mission published the document titled Statistics of war refugees from Poland staying in Shanghai8 in which they made a register of all Polish citizens, who had escaped from Nazi-occupied Poland and who were waiting in Shanghai for evacuation. Among all the records, the accurate information concerning children was provided. The status of these refugees was dated on the 1st of June 1942. The following analysis of the statistical information if entirely based on the records cited at the beginning of this chapter.

wościowe 36 (2010), pp. 167 – 187; Guzik, Joanna. Stosunek Japonii do kwestii żydowskiej w 1932–1945. Kraków: WUJ, 2013; Pałasz-Rutkowska, Ewa. Polityka Japonii wobec Polski 1918–1941. Warszawa: Nozomi, 1998. 7 For example Irene Eber claimed that the Shanghai Echo, to which The Tidings were the supplement, is virtually unknown. See: Eber, Irene. Voices From Shanghai. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008, p. 97. At the same time Eber did not decipher the initials under the poem, which she quotes in her publication, citing the author’s anonymity. The poemSzpilki! Not for me was written by Adam [Abraham] Świsłocki, the editor of The Tidings, which was discovered by Barbara Abraham. Moreo- ver, David Kranzler, mentioned that The Tidings were burned by the editors because of the fear of being discovered by the Japanese authorities. See: Kranzler, David. Japanese, Nazis & Jews: The Jewish Refugees in Shanghai, 1938-1945, New York: Yeshiva University Press, 1976, p. 367. 8 Statystyka uchodźców wojennych z Polski przebywających w Szanghaju, Archive of New Files, 800/42/0/- /528: Refugees. 117 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

In Shanghai, there were 97 children (under eighteen years old) mostly living with parents9. Only 5 of them were travelling alone, but all of the members of this small group almost reached the adolescence on the day of registration for statistical reasons. When analyzing the specific data, they were just before their eighteen birthday. Dawid Lew, who came to Shanghai as a yeshiva student from Warsaw, was about to turn 18 in July 1942. In the same time, Chaim Gulewski a student of the yeshiva from Kleck10 became an adult. Soon after, in September, a university student Leon Land- shardt had his eighteenth birthday. He was staying in Shanghai with his elder brother Izak11, who was at that time twenty years old. The next Lubavitch yeshiva student, Szymon Goldman from Otwock (Warsaw suburb) reached adolescence at the very beginning of 1942. The only female among those almost adult refugees was Maria Lifszyc (married name Klain), who was the youngest one, and was nearly seventeen years old when the statistics were prepared. She was a member of Bund, staying in Shanghai with her older brother Rubin12, who was twenty-two years old. Together with the persons depicted above, there were 33 recorded children aged from eleven to eighteen years old – 10 females and 23 men. The biggest number of children was aged five-ten years, consisting of 44 persons, half of them boys and half of them girls. There were 20 children up to four years old – 14 girls and 6 boys. Statistics provided by the Polish diplomatic mission identified 60 full families with both father and mother and one father with a child. These statistics are in- complete and contain some inaccuracies. Deleted information recorded one further family. Handwritten amendments to the number of the families listed in this article, showed one child missing from the statistics (statistics referring to children are type- written). Here the records show 90 children in full families, 5 children staying alone in Shanghai and one child with a father. Nonetheless, despite these minor incompat- ibilities, we can state that there were almost 100 Polish children in wartime Shanghai, being encouraged by their parents to study hard and also to learn Polish, the language of their origins. This was achieved by the organization of additional lessons in the canteen, as well as by the publication of children’s creative activity. This creativity was revealed in the special issue of “The Tidings” from June 194413, which will serve in this

9 This number is given in the official statistics of the Polish Consulate in Shanghai. Most of the refugees were single, that is why around 10% of the group were children. 10 Polish town of Kleck was a parish (gmina) centre in Nieśwież county (powiat) of Nowogródek Vo- ivodeship. After World War II it became the part of the Soviet Union and now it is a town in Belarus. 11 Spelling provided in the official papers of Polish mission. 12 Rubin Lifszyc later became one of the bravest RAF pilots, who died in a plane crash on the day of Hitler’s capitulation while his mission from London to Brussels. See: “Opowiem ci o Mani Kac” [I will tell you about Mania Kac], Gazeta Wyborcza, 19.04.2008, Web. 23.07.2018. 13 Wiadomości. No. 10. 1.06.1944. 118 MASKA 40/2018 paper on depicting the children’s everyday life, joys and sorrows of they stay in the exile.

Polish press in Shanghai. “Shanghai Echo” and “The Tidings” as a source to depict children’s faith in exile

In 1935 Związek Młodzieży Polskiej w Chinach (The Union of Polish Youth in Chi- na) started a board newsletter, which later became first a bi-weekly publication and from 1937 a bi-weekly magazine “Echo Szanghajskie” (Shanghai Echo). It was partly financed by the Polish Consulate and the Polish Union in Shanghai in order to deliv- er the international and local news to the Polish speakers living in China14. In the Autumn of 1941, approximately 90015 Polish Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai from Japan. Among them were several intellectuals: teachers, lawyers, and journalists16. The outbreak of war between Japan and the USA and its allies in December 1941 caused the suspension of Echo’s publication17. The first issue of the “Echo” after the break was published on the 15th of September 1942. The newly appointed editorial team invited all interested parties to contribute to the “Shanghai Echo”:

The Union of Poles in China and in particular its Cultural and Educational Section, on whose shoulders the work of publishing is now falling, appeals to all members of the Polish Colony with an interest in publishing their work. They should facilitate the work of the above-mentioned section by sending materials to the Editorial Office.18

Since the number of Polish Jews was relatively high after moving from Japan, the invitation was followed by the first publications of poems and articles by Jewish poets (i.e. Stefan Gołąb) and other writers. One of the most active contributors was Adam / Abraham Świsłocki, a journalist associated with the satirical magazine “Szpilki” (“The Pins”) 19; he was also the publisher of a fashion magazine and the owner of an advertising agency. We can assume that Polish journalists had understood the need to create a publication aimed at communicating important information for Polish refugees who

14 “Jak powstało i rozwijało się Echo”. Echo Szanghajskie. No. 7-8/44, pp. 2 – 3. 15 Kranzler, David. op. cit. p. 347. 16 The full list is provided in Statystyka uchodźców wojennych…, op.cit. 17 Echo Szanghajskie, No. 14. 15.09.1942, p. 1. 18 Ibidem. 19 Szpilki was Polish satirical magazine with its first issue published in December 1935. Swislocki was also a chief editor of another bi-weekly magazine – Współczesny Pan [Modern Man], being published in Warsaw from 1931 till 1939. 119 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham were newly arrived in Shanghai. Świsłocki, with his background and experience in publishing, was a member founder and the editor in chief of “Wiadomości” (“The Tidings”), which appeared for the first time as an independent paper on December 8, 1941, in a bilingual edition - in Polish and Yiddish. Under the title “What we strive for”, the editorial team of “Wiadomości” formulated the goals of the newspaper for Polish refugees in Shanghai. The editors emphasized the importance of the unity of all Poles regardless of their political and religious beliefs for a joint struggle for the liberation of their homeland20. The editors undertook to impart information impar- tially and to support language and vocational education in preparation for emigration from Shanghai`: this was also directed towards the children who had to be prepared for the postwar coming back to their homeland Poland. The editors claimed:

No matter how long we stay in one place or another, we should not limit ourselves to the role of passive ‘passers-by’ and unnecessary ‘guests’. We must feel like people who appreciate their high value and do not lose their own dignity in a heavy tulle. We must be ready to work productively and be spiritually and culturally motivated as long as objective conditions permit.21

When on 18th of February 1943 Japanese authorities officially proclaimed establishment of a “designated area”- a ghetto, the situation of the refugees became harder, what had a great influence onto their publishing activity and also the content of the newspapers. The situation of the Polish magazines was depicted in the following message from the editors to the refugees reading the newspaper.

The first attempts to create a Refugee Association in Shanghai less than 18 months, did not come about due to technical difficulties. The conditions in which Polish refugees Polish Citizens live, have changed since that time. However, the need to possess a newspaper discussing our issues remains. Tidings, presently published in a shortened format, try - despite technical and financial obstacles- to fill the void in our present life in exile. Tidings are an unofficial paper, bipartisan, a paper which counts on the efforts of the refugees not only as its readers, but as its co-workers. 22

In July 1943, “Shanghai Echo” was enlarged by launching a permanent supplement called “Wiadomości” - “The Tidings”, devoted especially to refugees’ affairs, which was led by the editor Adam Świsłocki. Meeting the specific needs of the war refugees in China the editorial board of Echo agreed to publish the supplement “The Tidings” giving readers a choice of a subscription with or without the supplement. “Wiadomości” was meant to be an open forum for all refugees and was an example of symbiotic relationships in Polish-speaking community.

20 “Do czego dążymy.” Wiadomosci. No. 1., 8.12.1941, p. 1. 21 Ibidem, p. 2. 22 “Od Redakcji”, Wiadomosci. No. 1.07.1943., p. 1. 12 0 MASKA 40/2018

Since the discovery of original copies of “Wiadomości” in the private family archive of Norbert Świsłocki,23 we gained access to the descriptions of everyday life of Polish Jewish war refugees and their children. Especially, the second page of the “Wiadomosci” published in June 1944, which was edited by the refugees’ children and became, a great source of information, will be analyzed in this article in order to provide a broader knowledge about the everyday life of Polish-Jewish kids in the wartime Shanghai.

Children’s life in occupied Shanghai depicted in the supplement to the Polish newspaper “Shanghai Echo” and “The Tidings”

Apart from the memories of people who were children in wartime Shanghai, the most important source of information about everyday life is the Polish language press published in exile by Polish refugees. From the analysis of the content of the “Shang- hai Echo” and “Wiadomości” we can judge that the care for the children’s future was the priority for the refugees (as well as the care for everyday survival). In each issue of “Wiadomości”, the editorial team posted information about the progress of children who started their education at schools in Shanghai. As a result of the interest of young readers of their parents’ newspaper, the editors also decided to create a special edition devoted to children’s work. One example showing this care of the children’s future is found in the first number of “Wiadomości” published in July 1943. In a short article titled Polish Children Study the Hardest the importance the Polish refugees placed on the education of the next generation is strongly emphasized. This article states:

What astounds school teachers in Shanghai, is that the intellectual and intelligence level of refugee school youth. As you can see, the best pupils in the “Jewish School” are children of Polish refugees. They quickly learned the lecture’s language and receive the best scores from general subjects. They study better than Russian and German children. Polish children attending the French school “Ecole Remi” also received certificates of Excellence; they are also amongst the top students in the set very good schools, “Peter Pan” and so on.24

The paper is full of pride at the achievements of Polish children in schools in Shang- hai, despite their difficulties with the English or French language of instruction. With this optimistic accent, the editors finished the first issue of “Wiadomości”, as a supplement to “Shanghai Echo”.

23 Norbert Świsłocki’s archive, accessed in New York, 2014. 24 “Dzieci polskie uczą się najlepiej.” Wiadomosci. No. 1.07.1943., p. 2. 121 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

The children were not devoid of worries resulting from the political situation and problems encountered by adult refugees. In the article entitled Current Pictures,25 the feelings in their lives of refugees of all ages in after resettlement in the so-called “ghetto” were reflected, where a ghet- to there were restrictions on freedom of movement26. In the story The Children Are Waiting, the author describes a situation where the child is unable to understand that “Everyone is allowed but not me! I want to go there like others.”27 The school was outside the ‘district’ and the children were daily witnesses of the unfair treatment of the Jewish residents of the Shanghai “Designated Area” – it was a square mile in Hongkew district known by the refugees as the “ghetto”. Even though this paper is devoted to Polish children - war refugees28, the situation of children who came from other European countries should be emphasized, as the editors of “Wiadomości” also focused on their history. The third issue of ‘Wiadomoś- ci’ ends with a moving story about an ill, German orphan girl, whose father died in Germany and whose mother, a German refugee, died after a serious illness in Shang- hai. In an article titled Polish refugees adopt an orphan, the story of Teodor Łabenski29, and his wife Margareta is provided. They decided to take care of the child and to apply to the local authorities for formal adoption. The journalists depicted this story in the following article:

(…) During the school visit, the Łabędzki couple paid attention to the neatly dressed little girl who during the break ate a greasy potato. The superior, when asked who she is a starving child, told the tragic story of an (…). The child was looked after by the committee. Shaken by this story, Łabędzki’s married couple decided to take the unhappy girl and take care of her. In addition, formal adoption is to be carried out by the administrative and judicial authorities in China30

In June 1944, the editors of “Shanghai Echo” decided to create a special issue of “The Tidings” edited by children. The date was probably chosen due to the celebrations of the Children’s Day in Poland annually on the 1st of June. This issue can provide us with a great picture of the children’s lives. The purpose of creating such a number was described in “The Tidings” published in

25 “Obrazki aktualne.” Wiadomosci. No. 3., 09-10/1943, p. 2. 26 Refugees could not go without a pass beyond the area designated by the Japanese authorities as a ‘district’. 27 “Obrazki aktualne.” op.cit. 28 Only Polish Jews were officially the citizens of the Republic of Poland and the care was provided by the Polish authorities in exile. The other Jews who found the shelter in Shanghai were stateless. 29 A Polish journalist born in Warsaw in 1905 as given in Polish Consular Records [PCR] p. 122/975. The spelling of the surname differs – in the PCR is spelt ‘Łabenski’ in theWiadomości – ‘Łabędzki’. 30 “Uchodźcy polscy adoptują sierotę.” Wiadomosci. No. 3. Op.cit. 12 2 MASKA 40/2018

Children also wanted to have their own newspaper. They asked the Editorial Body of Tidings to establish a special Children’s Corner. (…) We managed to gather quite a bit of material and found that, instead of a few lines in the newspaper, the children received a whole page (…).31

One of the “editors” of the children’s corner was Rysio, (Ryszard Flantz born in 1936 in Warsaw – based on the authors’ research). His father, Benjamin Flantz, was the owner of the advertising business. Like all children spending their childhood in Shanghai, he came from a multilingual family of Polish war refugees. At the age of eight, he was able to read in Russian and translate to English, read ‘Wiadomosci” with his parents in Polish and even to make his own business of publishing his paper. The silhouette of Rysio is shown in “The Tidings,” and he appears both as a brilliant boy and as a future businessman:

The youngest editor in Shanghai was Rysio [Richie]. At only 8 years old, he had been publishing for the past year a daily newspaper which had the smallest circulation in the world – a single copy. We asked Rysio [Richie] where he got his news from for his magazine. It turned out that he drew information from the Russian press. His newspaper cost 1 USD and was in the format of one notebook sheet (…)32.

Children living in the atmosphere of tomorrow’s uncertainty matured quickly. They treated even “play”, like Rysio, very seriously as a potential source of income in the future. The psychological term “play to believe” had a very different meaning in the reality in which refugee children grew up. Norbert Świsłocki33, the son of the Editor of “Wiadomości,” provides us with the picture of missing his homeland while publishing in the “Children Corner.” Norbert decided to embed a riddle into the children’s part of the newspaper:

Noruś [Norby] asked for a riddle. He was very glad to learn that we put one together. He asked for it to be published in the children’s supplement. WHAT IS THIS? It’s white in winter In the summer, it’s blue It looks like an “S” Begins with “W”. Everyone can easily guess that it is the Wisla [the Vistula river]. In winter it appears white (because it is covered with a white ice sheet), in the summer, blue (azure waters) winding like an “S” (take note what sort of curve the Vistula creates on the map: it flows out of the southern mountains, creates a bend in the form of the letter “S” and has its mouth into the Baltic Sea), in

31 “Dzieci uchodźców robią gazetę.” Wiadomosci. No. 10., 01.06.1944. p. 2. 32 “Najmłodszy redaktor.” Ibidem. 33 Born in Warsaw on January 10, 1936 was eight years old at the time of the publication of “Children Corner”. 123 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

Polish, it begins with “W” (Wisla). Norus [Norby] translated the riddle into English and gave it to his teacher and colleagues to solve at school. (…)34

It is difficult to think that he could have memories of his home town Warsaw and of the Vistula river, which was depicted in his article published in Shanghai because as a child he had escaped with his mother at the age of three from the Nazi-occupied Polish capital. His choice of making his riddle was probably the result of an education he was receiving from his parents’ nostalgic memories of their lost home. From the results recorded in his school record, we learn that he was an outstanding and conscientious pupil35. Education was a vivid topic not only in the parents’ attitude towards their children’s future but also in memories of the people who were kids during their stay in Shanghai. The interview which was taken in November 2015 with Norbert Świsłocki, the author of the abovementioned riddle, can be an example of the vitality of memories. His recollections depict not only the eager of studying hard by the refugees’ children but also the great hardship of facing education in a foreign country, with all the language barriers. Norbert Świsłocki recalls:

I first started going to an English speaking school In Shanghai, and it was sort of a traumatic experience, because I didn’t understand any English. (…) I was sitting in this class next to another Polish boy, also refugee, and he was supposed to tell me what the teacher was saying in English, but he didn’t know much more than I did – and I knew nothing. And so I kept talking to this boy and clearly disturbing the teacher, so he came back to me and said ‘put out your hand’ and I didn’t know what that meant. I turned to a boy next to me and said ‘co on mówi36?’ and so the boy put out his hand like this (flat on the table, palms down) and the teacher slapped him with a ruler. So then I knew what put out your hand meant(…)37.

“The Tidings” is also a testimony of thedepth of emotional relationships and feelings between refugee children. During an illness of a girl called Ada, her friends prayed for her recovery and in the article wishing her “good luck. The kids reported:

Ada suffered from measles for many weeks, after which there were complications, and her situation became very serious. During the time of [major] crisis, Ada’s friends and colleagues prayed for her health. Fortunately, Ada recovered and is quickly regaining her strength. We congratulate her and wish her good luck.38

34 “Zagadka.” Wiadomosci. No. 10. Op.cit. 35 Norbert Świsłocki’s archive, accessed in New York, 2018. 36 What is he saying? In Norbert Świsłocki’s testimony he used Polish language when referring to the events from his childhood in Shanghai, when he had contact with other Polish children. 37 The interview with Norbert Świsłocki by Olga Barbasiewicz and Barbara Abraham, Warsaw 2015. The recording in possession of the authors. 38 “Dzieci uchodźców…”, op.cit. 124 MASKA 40/2018

The author of the story titledDelegates 39 is Jankiel ( Jozef ) Hirsz Fiszman, known as Józek. Since he used real names of Polish refugees, it was possible to trace some of them40 from researching the Polish Consular Records and Microfilms in the Polish Archives the Hoover Institution. It is probable that the editor translated his article from Yiddish. We can find the information that Jozef Fiszman, although relatively young in prewar Poland, has already worked in magazines devoted to children and youth. The story Delegates, published in our newspaper’s supplement for children, is based on reliable sources and [was written] not without humour. (as translated by Adam Swislocki). Fiszman depicted the events from the life of the following children: Ada, Dinka, Janek, Sarenka41, Rubin, and Artur42. The heroes of the story are the children of refugees living in the Ghetto. The story is written in the spirit of a moral lesson, very similar to the stories published in children’s magazines before the war43. The choice of the Yiddish language indicates not only the bilingual character of the author but also the fact that the story was intended for Jewish children from various European countries. Adam Świsłocki translated “The Delegates” into Polish to make Fiszman’s work available to the public. We can conclude from the context of the story, that in the community of Polish refugees’ families, who were coming from various economic and social strata, there had to be many conflicts. The children had to observe that in many cases the best solution to the problems was a direct conversation. The story tells about one spring afternoon when after returning from school, the children met to play football. They forgot about everyday problems during play and were utterly absorbed in fun. The unbridled energy of youth and a small “pitch” made the ball fly into the neighbor’s window. Their reaction in the attempt to regain the ball is an image of how children, observing the methods of solving everyday problems, looked at their parents and were able to adapt to the conditions of life in the ghetto. The turn of events was as follows:

(…)Suddenly the seven-year-old Sarenka steps forward and asks to speak. She has an idea. Everyone falls silent. They know that Sarenka is not one to use idle words. At home, her father is constantly talking about social matters and Sarenka often hears the word “delegation” [being thrown around]. (…)- We have to form a delegation.

39 “Delegaci.” Wiadomosci. No. 10., op.cit. 40 Children were registered under Jewish first names and often used nicknames or the Polish ones. 41 Sara Elbaum from Warsaw. Her father, Bajruch Elbaum was a journalist. 42 Artur Czyż, a school friend of Norbert Świsłocki. 43 Bar-El, Adina. “Children’s Literature: Yiddish Literature.” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Eu- rope. 27 June 2011. Web. 28 July 2018. 125 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

- (…)When people want to do something in a committee, they send a delegation. My dad’s friends always do visitations with delegations. (…) But who should go. Everyone agrees that Ada should go. But who should go with Ada? (…) Votes were taken. Arthur won. (…) Ada and Artur- went up to knock on the evil gentleman’s door. The door opened, swallowed up the two candidates and slammed shut. (…) Ten minutes passed and still no trace of the delegates.. (…) After a longer while, the children run up to the evil window and, standing on their toes, look into the room. (…) - The delegates are having cakes with tea! (…) Suddenly, the window opens, (…) and the evil gentleman throws the captive ball onto the yard.(…) - He’s a good man, a very good man. (…)44”

The children presented in this story imitated the behaviour of their parents in seeking solution to difficult situations. We can assume that adults used this procedure frequently and that became for the children a pattern of blatant play acting when faced with a new problem. In the cited in this paper a part of a special issue of “The Tidings” titledYounglings’ Chronicle, as, in almost every regular issue, the successes of refugee children are emphasized. Moreover, the will to study more, even though the summer season is clearly visible in June’s use:

Holidays are coming. The Editors of Tidings are organizing a Polish language course for the youngest students. Which mother will offer her room three times a week – for one hour? Please submit applications/signatures to A. Swislocki.45

The care for preparing the children to the coming back to their homeland was above the holiday break. It also resulted in the very high grades gained by children in Shang- hai’s schools. The editors inform in the last issue of “The Tidings” that was published in Shanghai, that “Polish children in Shanghai are doing very well at schools”46. The anonymous author proudly emphasizes the success of Polish children in winning competitions and in taking first places in the “Jewish School” and other schools. Their advances are admirable, both in science, despite the severe material conditions, and their unfamiliarity with English (the language of instruction in the majority of schools, as it was depicted in the interview with Norbert Świsłocki). The author considered the effect on the children’s future; the quality of schools in exile did not match the level of Polish schools. We could also consider what the author saw as the future for children in after returning to Poland. The author claimed that the parents “are interested in what future our society will have for them since

44 “Delegaci.” op.cit. 45 Wiadomości. No.10., op.cit. 46 “Czy dzieci zdały egzamin?” Wiadomości. No. 13. Nov/Dec 1944, p. 1. 12 6 MASKA 40/2018 they can hardly write in Polish and do not know the history of the country they come from.”47 He emphasized that in the last two years a course for the youngest was successfully run, adding that it would be worth organizing language, literature and history courses for the students of the older classes. Examining these and other examples of articles and features in the “Shanghai Echo” and its “Tidings” supplement, we can conclude that there were many difficulties encountered by young people through displacement, resettlement and an uncertain, wandering life. Apart from the more obvious effects on the fate of Polish refugees, the process of maturing children proceeded very quickly. Many of the refugee children presented a maturity above their chronological age. They adopted from their parents’ mature patterns of behavior, which included conflict resolution and the flex- ibility of living with people of different religions and cultures. Their progress in school gave further proof of the importance parents attached to more fully comprehensive education, and recognition of the values of maintaining a sense of personal identity linked to culture and homeland. The children’s contributions to the “Shanghai Echo” and its supplement, suggest that their parents’ enhanced attitude to education had affected the attitudes and abilities of these young people. Their generation bore witness to the invaluable inclusion of identity and culture into a young person’s education, no matter where they are made to live their lives.

Conclusion

The aim of this article was to analyze the beginning of the “life path” of Polish refugee children in Shanghai who, despite being stuck in a completely alien environment kept taking care of their future in a postwar domicile, wherever that might be. Even though the situation there changed completely, and they ultimately found their future homes in foreign countries, thereby leaving Poland forever, the importance of their stay in Shanghai for the future development of Polish Jewish roots in later life was enormous. Using the example of articles, we can conclude that in the difficult situation of a wondering life the maturation of the children went very quickly. From their parents, they assimilated patterns of behavior, conflict resolution and ability to share life with people of different religions and cultures. Their progress in schools is proof that the importance which parents attached to comprehensive education did indeed affect the attitude of the young generation to the inestimable value of education, no matter what their destiny might be.

47 Ibidem. 12 7 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

Each of the stories of almost 100 children – Polish nationals at the time of their stay in Shanghai, should be worth mentioning. The children had their worries and struggles in preparation to attain better days in postwar reality. We can definitely argue, that the vision of coming back to their homeland and securing their origins was the critical issue in the children’s reality in the exile. The beginning of their lives, although shaped by the reality of wartime, became baggage of experience for their future lives. Nonetheless, despite forgetting about their origins, this article reminds us of two issues: firstly, the children’s efforts in keeping the level of Polish education, secondly, the relevance of the access to the Polish press published in wartime Shanghai. Both problems, almost forgotten in future research, give us a broad perspective and insight into the heritage of the refugees.

12 8 MASKA 40/2018

Bibliography

Barbasiewicz, Olga. “Konsul Sugihara Chiune a polscy Żydzi w Kownie w okresie 1939–1940”, Sprawy Narodowościowe 36 (2010). 167–187 Bar-El, Adina. “Children’s Literature: Yiddish Literature.” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. 27 June 2011. Web. 28 July 2018. Eber, Irene. Voices From Shanghai. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. Guzik, Joanna. Stosunek Japonii do kwestii żydowskiej w 1932–1945. Kraków: WUJ, 2013. Kranzler, David. Japanese, Nazis & Jews: The Jewish Refugees in Shanghai, 1938-1945. New York: Yeshiva University Press, 1976. Pałasz-Rutkowska, Ewa. Polityka Japonii wobec Polski 1918–1941. Warszawa: Nozomi, 1998. “Czy dzieci zdały egzamin.” Wiadomości. No. 13. 11.12.1944. 1 “Do czego dążymy.” Wiadomosci. No. 1. 8.12.1941. 1 “Dzieci uchodźców robią gazetę.” Wiadomosci. No. 10. 01.06.1944. 2 Echo Szanghajskie. Nr 14. 15.09.1942. “Jak powstało I rozwijało się Echo.” Echo Szanghajskie. No.7-8. 07-08.1944. 2–3 “Migration.” Unicef. Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women. 01.2017. Web. 20.07.2018. “Obrazki aktualne.” Wiadomosci. No. 3. 10/11.1943. 2 “Od Redakcji.” Wiadomosci. No. 1. 07.1943. 1 “Opowiem ci o Mani Kac.” [I will tell you about Mania Kac]. Gazeta Wyborcza, 19.04.2008, Web. 23.07.2018. Polish Consular Records. Web. N.d. The Library of Congress. Web. 1.07.2018. Statystyka uchodźców wojennych z Polski przebywających w Szanghaju, Archive of New Files, 800/42/0/-/528: Refugees “Najmłodszy redaktor.” Wiadomosci. No. 10. 01.06.1944. 2 “Uchodźcy polscy adoptują sierotę.” Wiadomosci. No. 3. 10/11.1943. 2 Wiadomości. No. 10. 1.06.1944. “Zagadka.” Wiadomosci. No. 10. 01.06.1944. 2.

12 9 Olga Barbasiewicz, Barbara Dzien-Abraham

Summary

In this article, we describe the experiences of Polish war refugee children, isolated in Shanghai between the years of 1941-1945. Our research has studied a wide range of archival material, including original documents relating to the transportation of Polish Jewish families to China, their settlement in Shanghai, the publication of a newspaper, and the education of displaced children to retain their original identity, preparing them for eventual return to their homeland. Combining archival and documentary research with personal interviews of survivors of the Shanghai ghetto, this article provides a testament to the lives of war refugee children in general by describing in detail the lives of interned Polish Jews. Marcin Hanuszkiewicz An Origin of Unknown Origin: On Unfamiliarity and Making Strange Institute of English Cultures and Literatures, University of Silesia

Offspring of endless Night, thou hast no power O’er me or any man who sees the sun.1

The words cited above come from Oedipus, who, in Oedipus the King, utters them to Teiresias – the blind prophet – whose insights he rejects, believing them to be a part of a conspiracy against him. Regardless of the ancient play’s plot, however, what is of interest to us here – in the beginning of our text – is the interplay of metaphors that resonates within the quoted passage. It has to be pointed out that we subscribe to the understanding of metaphor as the basic cognitive apparatus employed in our conceptualizations of reality, and as the building block of language.2 When read with such an understanding in mind, the above-cited excerpt presents this essential and revealing nature of metaphor rather vividly, for two powerful metaphors serve as its fertile soil: “to see is to know” and “light is good” (the latter being connected with “knowledge is good”), or, as George Lakoff and Mark Johnson put it, “understanding is seeing; ideas are light-sources; discourse is a light-medium.”3 Oedipus’ renunci- ation hinges on these notions regardless of the fact that it also alludes to Teiresias’ lack of sight. It would hold none of its rhetoric sway without being grounded upon these deeply ingrained preconceptions about the world. It thus seems that Occiden- tals are already in these age-old words diagnosed as ocularcentric, self-proclaimed followers of light (of reason; in other words, westerners ascribe an enormous amount

1 Sophocles. Oedipus the King. Trans. F. Storr. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1912. Web. 16 July 2018. https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/PLAYS-OF-SOPHOCLES.pdf. 2 Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. London: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. 3 Ibidem, p. 49. 131 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz of meaning to being diurnal animals). Let us explore this diagnosis and dive into the metaphorical dynamic of light and darkness. We will attempt to perceive it through its connections with the tension between the known and the unknown, and with the notion of origin – in other words, our purpose here will be to analyse the meshing of conceptualisations – light/familiarity and darkness/unfamiliarity – while treating the idea of a genesis as a point of reference. Western metaphysics have always aspired to trace humankind back to a luminous origin. This is obvious in both Hebrew and Greek traditions. Even gnostic strains of mystical thought place within our evil skin-bags of flesh the good spark of divine, immaterial light.4 As the positive valorisations of knowledge and light intersect, the certainty associated with things being brought to light, disclosed, unveiled or simply shown appears5 (comes into view6). Those who see the Sun – antithetical to whom is the “Offspring of endless Night” – attain what could be described in Heideggerian poetics as the shining forth of truth.7 And in extreme cases, those who find themselves at the very edge of knowledge, that is to say, seized by a revelation, become blinded, scorched by a light too bright for the human eye. This, shall we say, light-motif is again easily retraceable back to the empires and enterprises of our ancestors: Semele, Dionysus’ mother, was immolated when Hera tricked her into asking Zeus – the god of lightning, of all things – to show her his true, unearthly form; during the conversion of Saul of Tarsus into Paul the Apostle, the light that struck him from the skies blinded him for three days (one can only imagine the after-images). Thomas Pynchon drew precisely upon this motif (and played with it subtly through the poetics of photography) when he wrote:

Oedipa wondered whether […] she too might not be left with only compiled memories of clues, announcements, intimations, but never the central truth itself, which must somehow each time be too bright for her memory to hold; which must always blaze out, destroying its own message irreversibly, leaving an overexposed blank when the ordinary world came back.8

4 Runciman, Steven. „Gnostyckie tło.” Trans. Alicja Domańska. Literatura na świecie, nr 4 (213). Ed. Eu- geniusz Kabatc. Warszawa: 1989, pp. 14 – 35. 5 Marzec, Andrzej. Widmontologia. Teoria filozoficzna i praktyka artystyczna ponowoczesności. Warszawa: Fundacja Bęc Zmiana, 2015, pp. 73 – 125. 6 Harper, Douglas. “appear (v.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/appear#etymonline_v_15496 7 Heidegger, Martin. Poetry, Language, Thought. Trans. Albert Hofstadter. New York: Harper Perennial, 2001. 8 Pynchon, Thomas. The Crying of Lot 49. New York: Harper Perennial, 1986, p. 95. Oedipa, the aptly named protagonist of the book, quests for truth about a secret, yet seemingly omnipresent organization, but, as the novel unfolds, finds herself entangled in a network of uncertain links and connections ephemeral enough to make her question her own sanity. In other words, Oedipa is a character led as if by fate towards a tragic denouement, but is at the same time consistently denied any form of resolution. 132 MASKA 40/2018

“All ‘mystical knowledge’ is founded on the belief in the revealing value of ecstasy,” 9 in the instructive potential of the “compiled memories of clues, announcements, intimations.” When systems of this belief are established (whether one calls them mythical or religious is of no importance here), they extend the light-based certainty beyond the boundaries of singular existence. Indeed, they extend life beyond life itself and into what Georges Bataille portrays as the continuity of death (which he opposes to the discontinuity of individual life; both remain, however, two modi of being).10 The continuum of being acquires from the perspective of an individual form of life its first seam at the moment of birth – which is itself unknown to the birthed one – and its last at the time of death – the unknown par excellence. Outside the limits of this frail chronology the unknowable stretches infinitely, and our experience of this unknowable is non-knowledge.11 And yet, mythology encroaches on these dark domains – myths serve humanity as semiotic vehicles of both cosmogony and eschatology.12 Thus, as they try to shed light on the unknowable (we shall be making frequent use of Bataille’s thought), they only ever make known the previously unknown; the unknowable remains impervious to knowing. And yet (again), mythology, being the adaptable parasite13 that it is, evolved into “objective”14 science (“a knowing;”15 “the new nobility!”16 ) the inner workings of which are connected with the movements that turn the world, entity by entity, into what Heidegger calls the “standing reserve.”17 A deeper investigation into the issue of this evolution is, however, beyond our current interest. Let us now take a few steps back and return to myths understood as vehicles that discourse (in the etymological sense “of running here and there, comings and goings, measures taken, ‘plots and plans,’”18 of going to and fro) through time (“[…] many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased” Daniel 12:4, KJV).

9 Bataille, Georges. Inner Experience. Trans. Leslie Anne Boldt. Albany: State University of New York, 1988, p. 73. 10 Idem. Erotism: Death and Sensuality. Trans. Mary Dalwood. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1986. 11 Idem, Inner Experience. 12 Napiórkowski, Marcin. Mitologia współczesna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskie- go, 2013, pp. 302 – 305. 13 Barthes, Roland. Mitologie. Trans. Adam Dziadek. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Aletheia, 2008, pp. 237 – 296. 14 Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson, op. cit., pp. 186 – 223. 15 Harper, Douglas. “science (n.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/science 16 Rimbaud, Arthur. “A Season in Hell.” Rimbaud. Complete Works, Selected Letters. Trans. Wallace Fow- lie. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2005, p. 267. 17 Heidegger, Martin. The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays. Trans. William Lovitt. New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc., 1977. 18 Barthes, Roland. A Lover’s Discourse: Fragments. Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001, p. 3. 133 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz

As the limitations of individual existence – birth and death, beginning and end – are imposed upon being, upon time itself, the original act of creation and the purpose of this act become formulated. In other words, myths play the role of fortifying a lodgement, of spearheading a familiarizing move into the unknown which precedes everything as darkness. This we can see acknowledged in the opening of Ovid’sMetamorphoses :

Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball, And Heav’n’s high canopy, that covers all, One was the face of Nature; if a face: Rather a rude and indigested mass: A lifeless lump, unfashion’d, and unfram’d, Of jarring seeds; and justly Chaos nam’d. No sun was lighted up, the world to view; No moon did yet her blunted horns renew: Nor yet was Earth suspended in the sky, Nor pois’d, did on her own foundations lye: Nor seas about the shores their arms had thrown; But earth, and air, and water, were in one. Thus air was void of light, and earth unstable, And water’s dark abyss unnavigable. No certain form on any was imprest; All were confus’d, and each disturb’d the rest. For hot and cold were in one body fixt; And soft with hard, and light with heavy mixt.19

In the mythic framework, the fate of this “unstable” and “dark abyss” “void of light” was to become systematised: fragmented, partitioned and regulated. From a human’s viewpoint, pure indifference, a seamless continuity of one, coalescent being of beings was “the chaotic and fluid stage, formless and vague, of which he was part before divine beings or ancestral heroes arrived to bring him order, dimensions, stability, and regularity;”20 or rather of which he was not a part, but which he indistinguishably was up to the point of being thrust onto life’s shores, like a piece of debris, as an ipse21 – a birthed subject. After all, “[t]he coming of order into the world did not happen at one stroke, but was itself accomplished in orderly fashion.”22 Hence, time as an axis, a mathematically detailed axis: between any two given points a weird infinitude takes place and happens. By using the word “weird” we mean to allude to its etymological relation to “wyrd” – fate (and to the Fates that hold in their hands

19 Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. Sir Samuel Garth, John Dryden, et al. Web. 23 July 2018. http://classics. mit.edu/Ovid/metam.mb.txt 20 Caillois, Roger. Man and the Sacred. Trans. Meyer Barash. Glencoe: The Free Press of Glencoe, Illino- is, 1959, p. 24. 21 Bataille, Georges, op.cit. 22 Caillois, Roger, op. cit., pp. 110 – 111. 134 MASKA 40/2018 the “‘thread of life’ [that] symbolises human destiny,”23 a thin, fragile thing), a meaning that has all but evaporated in modern speech by way of the following semantic shift:

The sense “uncanny, supernatural” developed from Middle English use of weird sisters for the three fates or Norns (in Germanic mythology), the goddesses who controlled human destiny. They were portrayed as odd or frightening in appearance, as in “Macbeth” (and especially in 18th and 19th century productions of it), which led to the adjectival meaning “odd-looking, uncanny” (1815); “odd, strange, disturbingly different” (1820).24

It is somewhat ironic that it was through art that this change occurred, making the word simultaneously more shallow and broad. Becoming less terrifying and sacred (that is to say, less bound with “the cosmic force that tends to avenge every attack upon the universal law”25), it became paradoxically regular. This alteration – the passage from terrifying to regular – is the operation of knowledge which makes even the restless questioning – “Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?”26 – seem as if it was answered. Just as “formless is not only an adjective having a given meaning, but a term that serves to bring things down in the world, generally requiring that each thing have its form,”27 so to name something a “mystery” or even a “mysterium” is, too, an instrument of relegation:

In naming an object or a being, it is evoked and forced to appear and almost to obey, for it is constrained to present itself. To name is always to call, already to order.28

What is ordained into a “mystery” becomes closed shut,29 available only for the legendary creature known as the mystic (and perhaps for the ingenious detective). For ordinary citizens,

virtue consists in remaining in the order, keeping in one’s own place, not leaving one’s station, keeping to what is permitted, and not approaching what is forbidden. Having done this, one also keeps the universe ordered.30

23 Eliade, Mircea. Images and Symbols. Trans. Philip Mairet. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1961, p. 114. 24 Harper, Douglas. “weird (adj.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/weird 25 Caillois, Roger, op. cit., p. 85. 26 Gauguin, Paul. Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? 1897. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Chiara Donn, Paul Gauguin, Wielcy Malarze, nr 3. Warszawa: Eaglemoss Polska, 1998. 27 Bataille, Georges. Visions of Excess. Selected Writings, 1927-1939. Trans. and ed. Allan Stoekl. Minne- apolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986, p. 31. 28 Caillois, Roger, op. cit., p. 94. 29 Harper, Douglas. “mystery (n.1).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/mystery 30 Caillois, Roger, op. cit., p. 96. 135 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz

Cosmos – order31 – withers nonetheless, its nature demands it. Thus is instigated the looming threat of entropy making the world “resolve into a tonic of darkness and the final absence of all motion.”32 According to Roger Caillois, this threat is staved off by the festival understood as the re-enactment of the times in which the dawn of order was rising above the black vastness of primordial disorder, times of matter receiving stable forms through divine handiwork, times of feats to be remembered and immor- talised in ritual and myth.33 Let us invoke here two of Mircea Eliade’s findings on the procedures of myth-telling: firstly, that to re-member through myth is to gain en- trance into the sacred time of the origin of an ordered reality which is experienced, as it were, timelessly; secondly, that through a set of sacramental gestures an emulation of the cosmogonic narrative is attainable.34 Should we consider all this while bearing in mind the tension between the known and the unknown, it becomes possible to perceive these myths of origin as an an- chorage that prevents our world from drifting away into the unfathomable, into the unknowable that terrifies due to being truly, profoundly unfamiliar. By restraining ourselves to the familiar, we sentence our conduct to automatisation, we begin to regard even the most arcane and occult (concealed in secret35) subjects as self-evident, as clearly visible, as certain as the light that was in the beginning. The consequence is dire. As Viktor Shklovsky put it,

[t]his is how life becomes nothing and disappears. Automatization eats things, clothes, furniture, your wife, and the fear of war.36

Furthermore, perhaps most importantly, even this does not evade the ceaseless devouring:

This infinite improbability from which I come is beneath me like a void: my presence above this void is like the exercise of a fragile power, as if this void demanded the challenge that I myself bring it, I – that is to say the infinite, painful improbability of an irreplaceable being which I am.37

31 Harper, Douglas. “cosmos (n.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/cosmos 32 Pynchon, Thomas. “Entropy.” Slow Learner. New York: The Penguin Press, 2012. E-book. 33 Caillois, Roger, op. cit., pp. 97 – 127. 34 Eliade, Mircea, op. cit., pp. 57 – 59. 35 Harper, Douglas. “arcane (adj.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/arcane; Harper, Douglas. “occult (adj.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 23 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/occult 36 Shklovsky, Viktor. “Art, as Device.” Trans. Alexandra Berlina. Poetics Today, 36:3. Sep. 2015. Web. 24 July 2018, p. 162. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/undergraduate/modules/ fulllist/first/en122/lecturelist2017-18/art_as_device_2015.pdf 37 Bataille, Georges, op.cit., p. 69. 13 6 MASKA 40/2018

The miraculous fact – we exist as ourselves – is taken for granted in spite of (in contempt of38) this: the further we gaze into our past, the more our memory dissipates, and the fragmentary recollections of our childhood shrink and sink into nothingness, a nothingness indistinguishable from the formless void that precedes us. It is obvious, it is banal – but it is so only if one experiences one’s enshrouded origin as something regular instead of facing with terror the tenebrous lineage that binds one with the unknowable. But what about the world and its origin? How can we experience its unfamiliarity? Shklovsky’s seminal notion of “enstrangement” offers itself as an answer to this question. In his classic text entitled “Art, as Device” the Russian scholar wrote that

this thing we call art exists in order to restore the sensation of life, in order to make us feel things, in order to make a stone stony. The goal of art is to create the sensation of seeing, and not merely recognizing, things; the device of art is the “enstrangement” of things and the complication of the form, which increases the duration and complexity of perception, as the process of perception is, in art, an end in itself and must be prolonged.39

Of course, this approach has its limitations. Shklovsky himself acknowledged the fact that, with time, the enstranging potential of a work of art deteriorates.40 Getting used to strangeness annihilates it, hence the aforementioned irony of the semantic shift of the word “weird.” Nevertheless (and this is also acknowledged by Shklovsky41), whether we experience something – an object, a phenomenon, anything – as art – as more or less saturated with the “coefficient of art”42 – is up to us (Arthur Rimbaud, for instance, wrote: “I liked stupid paintings, door panels, stage sets, back-drops for acrobats, signs, popular engravings, old-fashioned literature, church Latin, erotic books with bad spelling, novels of our grandmothers, fairy tales, little books from childhood, old operas, ridiculous refrains, naïve rhythms;”43 Ivan Chtcheglov, in turn, wrote of a “poetry of the billboards”44). In short, what has already become a common- place of little or no interest for one person can suddenly enthrall another.

38 Harper, Douglas. “spite (n.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 24 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/spite 39 Shklovsky, Viktor, op. cit., p. 162. 40 Ibidem, pp. 161 – 163. 41 Ibidem, pp. 158 – 159. 42 Duchamp, Marcel. “The Creative Act.”The Essential Writings of Marcel Duchamp. Ed. Michel Sanouil- let and Elmer Peterson. London: Thames and Hudson, 1975, pp. 138 – 140. Wright, Stephen.Toward a Lexicon of Usership. Eindhoven: Van Abbemuseum, 2013. Web. 25 July 2018. http://museumarteutil. net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Toward-a-lexicon-of-usership.pdf 43 Rimbaud, Arthur, op. cit., p. 285. 44 Chtcheglov, Ivan. Formulary for a New Urbanism. Trans. Ken Knabb. 1953. Web. 25 July 2018. http:// www.bopsecrets.org/SI/Chtcheglov.htm 137 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz

How does the enstrangement of the world’s origination work in a piece of art, then? Let us consider “The Age of Genius,” a short story by Bruno Schulz. This oneir- ic wordsmith was beyond any doubt a master in making things take a strange turn. The operation of enstrangement is skilfully executed in this description of a shaft of light falling into a room:

The window facing the sky swelled with those endless ascents, the curtains stood in flames, smok- ing in the fire, spilling golden shadows and shimmering spirals of air. Askew on the carpet lay a quadrilateral of brightness that could not detach itself from the floor. That bar of fire disturbed me deeply. I stood transfixed, legs astride, and barked short, hard curses at it in an alien voice.45

The improbability of being echoes in this passage, only this time it is the incredi- ble, incredulous nature of photic phenomena that is brought to the fore through the narrator’s experience (light is made luminescent, to paraphrase Shklovsky’s “making a stone stony”). It is quite fitting that a paragraph later an account is given of his family’s lack of understanding for his bedazzlement, for there are always those for whom light is too familiar to be enlightening. Later on in the text, an amiable trickster character, Shloma, is introduced. The narrator – Joseph – invites him to his home, where he wants to show Shloma the drawings he made in a flash of inspiration enkindled by the “bar of fire.” Upon seeing the pictures, the trickster expresses the following opinion:

“One might say,” he said, “that the world has passed through your hands in order to renew itself, in order to molt in them and shed its scales like a wonderful lizard. Ah, do you think I would be stealing and committing a thousand follies if the world weren’t so outworn and decayed, with everything in it without its gliding, without the distant reflection of divine hands? What can one do in such a world? How can one not succumb and allow one’s courage to fail when everything is shut tight, when all meaningful things are walled up, and when you constantly knock against bricks, as against the walls of a prison?”46

This is a thoroughly gnostic lamentation, but this should come as no surprise: Schulz’s writings are rife with mystical references which are sometimes subtle, and sometimes overarching (as shown in Władysław Panas’ analysis of cabbalistic undercurrents running through Schulz’s oeuvre47). But it has to be noted that the excerpt above sounds like a paraphrase of Shklovsky’s statements about enstrangement and the deautom-

45 Schulz, Bruno. “The Age of Genius.”Sanatorium Under the Sign of the Hourglass. Trans. Celina Wie- niewska. Boston and New York: Mariner Books, 1977. E-book. 46 Ibidem. 47 Panas, Władysław. Księga Blasku. Traktat o kabale w prozie Brunona Schulza. Lublin: Ośrodek Brama Grodzka – Teatr NN, 2009. Web. 28 July 2018. http://biblioteka.teatrnn.pl/dlibra/Content/66970/ Ksiega_blasku_Traktat_o_kabale.pdf 13 8 MASKA 40/2018 atizing powers of art. Additionally, art seems here to perform the function Caillois ascribed to the festival and Eliade to myth: it restores the world and bestows upon its inhabitants a possibility to return to the world’s original, paradisiac state. Thus, a reinvigoration of even the most sacred energies appears to be achievable through enstrangement (one has only to think of the bewildering grandeur of Gothic cathe- drals to imagine this process at work). Alas, the familiar clutches remain closed upon us: mythical objects of desire are merely different versions of the known. Things have to become stranger, or rather – one must become a stranger to things. Two paragraphs later, the narrator offers to explain the secret of the drawings to Shloma – he is in possession of the tattered remains of “the Original,” the book of which every other book in the world is a mere imitation. However, when the narrator opens the drawer in which he keeps hidden the invaluable volume, he has to dig it out from beneath other items, first of which belong to the young housemaid, Adela: a silk dress, ribbons, and high heels. Before the narrator manages to show Shloma the Original, the trickster becomes bewitched by the girl’s shoes.

“God did not say anything of the kind,” he said, “and yet my conviction is total. I cannot find any arguments to the contrary. These lines are irresistible, amazingly accurate, and final, and like lightning illuminate the very center of things. How can you plead innocence, how can you resist when you yourself have been bribed, outvoted, and betrayed by your most loyal allies. The six days of Creation were divine and bright. But on the seventh day God broke down. On the seventh day he felt an unknown texture under his fingers, and frightened, he withdrew his hands from the world, although his creative fervor might have lasted for many more days and nights. Oh, Joseph, beware the seventh day. ...”48

Has he mistaken Adela’s footwear for the Original? Or has the importance of the Original been outweighed by the menacing significance of the shoe? It is uncertain. The answer notwithstanding, a different matter interests us here, namely, the “unknown texture” that repelled God from the world he himself brought into existence. Through the text(ure), we experience our own world (connected with the world of the text by the biblical/gnostic origin story) as an abandoned creation haunted by something alien (something that is beyond49). We feel this alien presence lurking in the enfolded depths of the world’s genesis, we feel the unsettling proximity of an unknown stranger (the sound of someone’s breath when we thought we were alone); the world itself becomes alien through the enstrangement of its origin.

48 Schulz, Bruno, op. cit. 49 Harper, Douglas. “alien (adj.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 28 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/alien 13 9 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz

The fright does not last long, though. Soon, the instincts of exegesis kick in and the unfamiliar turns familiar: the unknown texture is rigorously sewn into the fabric of the known, the alien presence becomes a symbol (of devilish forces, of eroticism, or of something altogether different), and the unknown stranger is manacled to the chains of signification with which we have entwined the world. Indeed, it is precisely due to the modus operandi of signification – facing faces only, and, in the end, effacing the faceless – that we could not have succeeded in breaking free from the familiar clutches. Bataille wrote:

If poetry introduces the strange, it does so by means of the familiar. The poetic is the familiar dissolving into the strange, and ourselves with it. It never dispossesses us entirely, for the words, the images (once dissolved) are charged with emotions already experienced, attached to objects which link them to the known.50

An indispensable addendum:

The most inner images of poetry – and those which cause the greatest loss – […] reserve, at the same time that they overflow, a feeling of ownership, the persistance of an “I” relating everything to itself.51

Again, this predicament is semiotic in nature – signs do not sing in the void, it is always in relation to someone that they reverberate with meaning. Enstrangement as a literary device alone cannot suffice, therefore it must be applied to experience; experience must become “a voyage to the end of the possible of man,”52 a dolorous exercise in “reaching the unknown by the derangement of all the senses”53 that gives us nothing, is of no practical use. Experiences that are erotic in all three senses of the word delineated by Bataille – physical, emotional, and religious54 – lead to “fusion, all barriers gone”55 (“[d]ream of total union: everyone says this dream is impossible, and yet it persists. I do not abandon it”56). At the height of their intensity, their unfamiliarity, they elevate (in the depth of their sway, their strangeness, they cast down) the experiencer beyond fission and into “the fusion of object and subject, being as subject non-knowledge, as object the unknown,”57 back into the undifferentiation that precedes us and towards the amorphia in which we are solved, dissolved. To reiterate: it is a relation to […], a re-

50 Bataille, Georges, Inner Experience, p. 5. 51 Ibidem, p. 143. 52 Ibidem, p. 7. 53 Rimbaud, Arthur, “A Letter to Georges Izambard, Charleville, 13 May 1871.” Op.cit., p. 371. 54 Bataille, Georges. Erotism: Death and Sensuality. 55 Ibidem, p. 129. 56 Barthes, Roland, A Lover’s Discourse: Fragments, p. 228. 57 Bataille, Georges, Inner Experience, p. 9. 14 0 MASKA 40/2018 lationship that “resists description, definition, language, which ismaya , classification of Names”58 – a relationship “without discourse”59 – that tears down all distinction, all distinguishment, and “communicates ecstasy”60 (“removal from the proper place”61). With the indispensable help provided by Georges Bataille’s considerations of the known/unknown dynamic, we have questioned, as it were, the addiction to familiarity that underlies origin stories. It has been posited through the course of this questioning that our true origin lies in the unknowable darkness that precedes life and a meaningful existence led on the leash of language. Furthermore, driven by the premise that trying to experience the unknown is a desirable endeavour, we have conducted an investigation – albeit a necessarily short one – into the powers of enstrangement possessed by art: they are limited due to art’s unshakeable dependence on familiar forms (even the most avant-garde and experimental works ultimately either rely on a certain protocol of approaching art or are reduced to it). The conclusion is thus as follows: the little chance we have of glimpsing the night that surrounds us – the night out of which we have woken – before we return to its slumbering halls forever, exists, as Bataille has written, in eroticism, and in eroticism’s close relation with death. At the peak of experiencing an Other – of experiencing pure enstrangement – the totality of what one is collapses and in a blink of time the void is there. It is now – at the end of our text – that we can bite our tail and return to Oedipus, who was so sure of his supremacy over “endless Night,” so certain of his illustrious origin, and who, in the end, entered the “endless Night” himself. By unknowingly transgressing against the taboo of incest, he unknowingly transgressed on all three levels of eroticism. Thus, when he came to know the unknown – through an agoniz- ing enstrangement of his origin – it became known only to dissolve in a weird, fatal (“decreed by fate”62) experience of the unknowable. In other words, Oedipus, having gouged his eyes out, found himself in what Bataille calls the “blind spot of understanding.”63 Jocasta, however, surpassed her son. Her not-knowing was, so to speak, more not-knowing, and her coming to knowledge took her further: her consequent descent into the unknowable was complete, total.

58 Barthes, Roland, A Lover’s Discourse: Fragments, p. 35. 59 Ibidem, p. 36. 60 Bataille, Georges, Inner Experience, p. 52. 61 Harper, Douglas. “ecstasy (n.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 30 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/ecstasy 62 Harper, Douglas. “fatal (adj.).” Online Etymology Dictionary. Web. 29 July 2018. https://www.etymonline.com/word/fatal 63 Bataille, Georges, Inner Experience, pp. 110 – 111. 141 Marcin Hanuszkiewicz

Like an ant that has lost its way among the numerous branches of a monstrous tree, subjects of tragedy experience “the labyrinthine constitution of being.”64 Such is the lot of those who think themselves to be, like the butterfly, creatures of the sun, but are in truth, like the moth (from whom the butterfly originates), creatures of the night – they emerge from the dark and, possessed by flickering lights that spell death, succumb once again to the dark that spawned them.

64 Ibidem, pp. 83 – 84. 142 MASKA 40/2018

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Summary

The article is a pondering over the notion of origin in terms of the opposition between the known and the unknown, the familiar and the unfamiliar. The text’s main foundation is Inner Experience, a book by Georges Bataille in which this very dualism is discussed at length and the movement towards the known and familiar inherent to our culture is contested. In this article, we have tried to focus this contestation on cosmogony. Viktor Shklovsky’s notion of enstrangement in art is introduced as a possible method of giving oneself up to the unknown and applied to Bruno Schulz’s “The Age of Genius” as an illustration of both the method at work and the limits resulting from restricting its usage to works of art. It is then applied to experience and combined with Bataille’s work on eroticism. Marcin Kosman Humble beginnings or youthful arrogance: Vladimir Nabokov’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland1 Chair for Translation Studies and Intercultural Communication, Jagiellonian University

Introduction

This paper is an analysis of a translation of Lewis Carroll’sAlice’s Adventures in Won- derland by Vladimir Nabokov. This is one of his first translations, so his creed might have not been developed properly. Carroll’s book has been widely regarded as one of the greatest achievements as far exploring the boundaries of English and is unequivo- cally hailed as a masterpiece of children’s literature. The story has been constantly seen as a challenge, as it is difficult to find a translation that could be considered definite; in Poland alone to this day nine official translations of the book have been published and chances are that we may expect more versions to come2. In addition to the aforementioned factors, in language typology Russian is classified as a synthetic language, while English has many properties of an analytic language. What I found particularly interesting is the way such phenomena as sarcasm, puns and wordplay, which are, naturally, instrumental for Alice’s success, would be conveyed in a different language and culture. Also, translation of culture-bound elements and proper names were also analyzed in order to broaden the analysis further. Thus, the paper investigates Nabokov’s beginnings as a translator and how he dealt with numerous challenges that the story poses. The first Russian translation of the book was published in 1879 by an anonymous author and it considerably varied from the original story. The author changed the title into Соня в царстве дива (Sonya in the Kingdom of Wonder; Sonya v carstve diva)

1 The article is based on the author’s BA thesis “Translation strategies in selected Russian versions of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. The case of Vladimir Nabokov and Boris Zakhoder.” 2 Malina, Dorota. “Pojedynek gigantów, czyli “Alicja” numer dziewięć.” Zeszyty Naukowe Towarzystwa Doktorantów Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Nauki Humanistyczne 6, 2013, pp. 170 – 171. 14 5 Marcin Kosman and introduced numerous alterations to the plot itself. As a result, the story devi- ates from the original plot and it was heavily criticized by literary scholars. The way Alice’s dream was told was compared to gibberish3 and the overall story was seen as inconsistent. What is more, numerous poems were not translated and many jokes and puns were omitted. Also the ending was reduced to a single paragraph, so the final moment of realization is not reflected properly in this version. The case of the first rendition of the book into Russian is actually similar to the first Polish translation of Carroll’s book. Adela S.’ translation (the true identity of both translators is still shrouded in mystery) was seen as an example of retelling the story rather than an appropriate translation. Throughout the decades Carroll’s book has been discussed by numerous scholars active in the field of translation studies, and despite the fact that there have been more than twenty Russian translations of Alice, scholars still argue if it is possible to say whether one of them distinguishes itself from the rest in terms of either quality or public recognition just like in the case with Zakhoder’s Винни-Пух и все-все-все (Winnie-the-Pooh and All-All-All; Vinni-Pukh i vse-vse-vse)4. Judith Inggs tentatively states that the versions by Nina Demurova and Alexander Shcherbakov can be considered the most widely adequate5. She also notes that since 1992 at least eight new translations have been published and many new versions still appear on the Internet. Intriguingly, among writers who tried to give a new meaning to Carroll’s stories were Mikhail Chekhov, Anton’s nephew, and Samuil Marshak6 – a writer and editor known for his political activities7. Before we start to explore the peculiarities of Nabokov’s Alice, we shall examine the term ‘children’s literature’ and establish its significance as far as translation studies are concerned. The origins of children’s literature date back to Ancient Greece and such writers as Aesop. Seth Lerer mentions that it is difficult to imagine Defoe’sRobinson Crusoe or Dickens’ A Christmas Carol if it was not for the Greek influence8. Despite genre’s rich history, the actual studies on literature for kids did not begin until the modern era.

3 Демурова, Нина Михайловна. “О переводе сказок Кэрролла.” http://lib.ru/CARROLL/car- rol0_10.txt, 1991,. Date of access: 10 May 2018. 4 Kosman, Marcin. “Kubuś Puchatek w ZSRR: o strategiach tłumaczeniowych Borysa Zachodera.” Words- Ideas-Interpretations. Ed. Katarzyna Jasiewicz, Nowy Sącz: State Higher Vocational School, 2016, p. 16. 5 Inggs, Judith. “Translation and Transformation: English-Language Children’s Literature in (Soviet) Russian Guise.” International Research in Children’s Literature, 2015, p. 12. 6 Marshak’s most controversial contribution to the heritage of Russian literature are his renderings of Robert Burns, where he completely eradicated any mention of God from Burns’s poetry and put a greater emphasis on creating an idealized image of peasants and beggars. 7 De-you, Yang. “On Marshak’s Russian Translation of Robert Burns.” Studies in Scottish Literature, 22.4, 1987, pp. 10 – 11. 8 Lerer, Seth. Children’s Literature: A Reader’s History, from Aesop to Harry Potter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009, p. 4. 14 6 MASKA 40/2018

Dorota Malina points out that Children’s Literature Translation Studies emerged as a separate branch relatively late, during the final decades of the 20th century9. This aspect is significant, particularly when we take into account the fact that theoretical works on the topic of translation have been proposed since antiquity10. Not surpris- ingly, children’s literature translation theories came into their own during the age when translation theory became more concerned with cultural differences and an- thropology11. Furthermore, scholars do not agree as to the name itself. Some of them see children’s literature as the works written exclusively for that particular audience12, but some strongly disagree with that notion. Gabriel Harvey advocates that children and adults “live side by side”, therefore it may be futile to suggest establishing certain boundaries between the two literatures. He argues that the values cherished by adolescents and kids are interconnected and this thought dates back to medieval Europe13. Thus when Nabokov began his translation ofAlice, many of the papers and books as regards the branch of translation studies which pertain to children’s literature that are now considered canonical had not been formulated yet. This lack of a paradigm may have influenced Nabokov’s choices to a considerable degree.

Vladimir Nabokov and his creed

Aside from Nabokov’s impressive achievements as a writer, one might want to take a closer look at his career as a translator, which began shortly after he published his first stories. Brian Boyd mentions that Nabokov’s source of inspiration as to why he became interested in the field of translation was the moment when Nabokov was confronted with the first English translation of one of his novels. Boyd points out that the author was apparently so struck by the inaccuracies that he thought that in order to correct them, it would actually be more convenient if he began rewrit- ing these works from scratch14. Since that experience Nabokov’s translation heritage expanded considerably, even though Nabokov himself remained very suspicious towards translators of his works and he often questioned their competence15.

9 Malina, Dorota., op.cit., p. 169. 10 Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility. A History of Translation. Second Edition. London: Rout- ledge, 2004, p. 314. 11 Ibidem. 12 Salzman, Jack. American Studies: An Annotated Bibliography Volume II. Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 1222. 13 Lerer, Seth., op.cit., p. 72. 14 Boyd, Brian and Stanislav Shvabrin. Verses and Versions: Three Centuries of Russian Poetry. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Publishing, 2008, p. 9. 15 Rothermel, Paulina. “Vladimir Nabokov: A Case Study of Multilingualism and Translation.” Styles of Communication 6.1, 2014, p. 134. 14 7 Marcin Kosman

In addition to him being responsible for bringing such authors as Pushkin, Fet or Tiutchev into the attention of English-speaking audience, he also introduced Byron, Keats and Tennyson to the Russians. As a French philologist, Nabokov naturally achieved mastery in French, and thus also translated numerous works by Rimbaud, Rolland and Baudelaire16. Some of his works, however, were published in his homeland only after the Soviet Union was disbanded, as was the case with Anya in the Land of Wonder (Аня в стране чудес; Anya v strane chudes). Anya in the Land of Wonder was published a few years before Nabokov began his self-translation practices. In fact, Carroll’s book was one of the very first works that Nabokov translated. Thus, we may assume that while working on Russian version of Alice Nabokov’s ideas as to what it takes to appropriately translate a book had not evolved. Furthermore, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland is the only book written for children that Nabokov ever translated and he is not seen by scholars as an influential figure among the theorists on children’s literature. Despite the fact that he produced many essays and books devoted to the art of translation, Nabokov mentions surpris- ingly little about this genre. Nabokov’s principles had not been formulated when he began working on Car- roll’s translation. It is then a risky task to compare the results of this particular Nabok- ov’s work to what he wrote about the art of translation nearly twenty years after Anya was published. Second, his thoughts often varied, and he did not always stick to the rules he himself formulated. Kimmel observes this conundrum when he compares Alice in Wonderland with Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin17. He states that while later in his career Nabokov eschews free translation and is very cautious in getting his message across (hence the annotations in Pushkin’s piece), he does not necessarily follow his own advice in the rendition of Carroll’s book. In the essay called The Art of Translation Nabokov mentions three requirements which are an absolute necessity for successful translators. The first of them is talent: the definition of talent itself is not provided but Nabokov states that the talent of the translator should to be roughly equal with the talent the author possesses. As a point of reference Nabokov uses Poe and Baude- laire. The second principle refers to possessing knowledge of the nations involved; obviously it refers to the fact that a translator should not only be fluent in a given language but also aware of target culture and history. The last requirement is the gift of mimicry, which he defines as “being able to act, as it were, the real author‘s part by

16 Vid, Natalia. “The Challenge of Translating Children’s Literature: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland Translated by Vladimir Nabokov.” ELOPE: English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries, 5(1-2), 2008, pp. 220 – 223. 17 Kimmel, Leigh. “Nabokov as Translator. An examination of his changing doctrine of translation.” http://www.geocities.com/Athens/3682/nabokov2.html.. Date of access: 28 June 2018. 14 8 MASKA 40/2018 impersonating his tricks of demeanour and speech, his ways and his mind, with the utmost degree of verisimilitude.18” Natalia Vid also mentions19 the other end of the spectrum: three fundamental mistakes that unskilled translators are prone to make due to which their translations are incompatible with the original stories. Nabokov also classified them in terms of damage they do to the interpretation of the text. Thus, the first and the least dangerous of them is misunderstanding. This refers to a translator not being able to properly see the essence of the text, most likely due to his linguistic shortcomings. However, when these mistakes stem from deliberate omission of the material, which was perceived by a translator as potentially offensive, then we may talk about the second sin. Finally, Nabokov proceeds to the most crucial mistake which is improving the original story to cater for the reader’s needs. This line of thinking was prevalent during the early days of the Soviet Union when the art of translation was seen as another tool that would strengthen the Soviet propaganda. Nabokov, as an artist who thought that the decline of Russian literature of the early 19th century is attributed to the Soviets, did not conform to the rules of writing imposed on authors during the Soviet years20. Aside from that, Nabokov developed a typology of translators. The first one,ученый муж (“a learned man”), is defined as an educated scholar whose main intention is share his genius with the world. The second one, добросовестный литературный подёнщик, is seen as a “good-willed literary craftsman” (the literal translation of the word подёнщик is “a dayworker”) who, despite good intentions, ultimately often falls short in producing a proper translation due to his limitations. Finally, there is профессиональный писатель (“a professional writer”) who should be at least equal to properly convey the message and style of the original author21.

Аня в стране чудес

Now let us analyze the translation of Alice into Russian. Before the story begins, Anya in the Land of Wonder features an introductory chapter which is not present in the original version. In Nabokov’s case this it rather forms a statement rather than an actual explanation. In his foreword, titled К Читателю (To the Reader), he observes that the fairy tale is well-known among children all around the globe and he acknowledges that the actual author of the story is Lewis Carroll. However, Nabokov does not justify his choice to

18 Nabokov, Vladimir. “The Art of Translation.” https://newrepublic.com/article/62610/the-art-translation. Date of access: 20 June 2018. 19 Vid, Natalia., op.cit., p. 219. 20 Cohen, Walter. “The Making of Nabokov’s Fiction.” Twentieth Century Literature 29.3, 1983, p. 334. 21 Набоков, Владимир Владимирович. Лекции по русской литературе. Независимая Газетa, 1998, pp. 393 – 398. 14 9 Marcin Kosman turn Alice into Anya; instead, he laconically states that by becoming Anya, the girl started life afresh. Scholars observe that his ambivalent methodology may only contribute to the translation being more ambiguous22, which renders the foreword effectively useless. Another problematic issue is the language spoken in Wonderland. When Alice talks with the Dodo and the Eaglet, she observes that the Mouse does not seem to understand what the characters are saying. In order to express her doubts she utters the following sentence:

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘Perhaps it doesn’t understand E n g l i s h’23 Может быть, она не понимает п о - р у с с к и . (It is possible that she does not understand Russian)24

For Carroll it was natural that the protagonist would speak English but for the Rus- sian translators this proved to be quite a conundrum. Judging from their principles, one could suspect that Vladimir Nabokov would be the one who may try to make the reader, to echo the thoughts of Lawrence Venuti, travel abroad25. The translator explicitly communicates to the reader that characters use Russian as their native language. Nabokov’s decision seems questionable as it is unlikely that the characters living in a fantasy world would actually use Russian as their lingua franca. There is one more reference to language in the story: in Chapter 3 the Eaglet and the Dront start to quarrel and the Eagle, frustrated with his friend using ambiguous language, says the following sentence:

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘Speak E n g l i s h !’ said the Eaglet, ‘I don’’t know Говорите п о - р у с с к и , - крикнул Орленок. the meaning of half those long words and, what ’s Я не знаю и половины всех э т и х д л и н н ы х more, I don’t believe you do either!’ с л о в . (Speak Russian, cried the Eaglet. I don’t know the meaning of half those long words)

As regards Nabokov’s version, the translator decided to resort to the word-for-word approach in the second part. However, the characters still use Russian as theireans of communication and the Eaglet is rendered as an angrier person because Nabokov

22 Чарычанская, Ирина Всеволодовна. “„В чем вольность В. Набокова как переводчика «При- ключений Алисы в стране чудес»”. Вестник Воронежского государственного университета. Серия: Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация, 5, 2005, pp. 81 – 82. 23 The emphasis in this paper is marked by the author. 24 Translations from Russian, if not stated otherwise, are provided by the author. 25 Ed. Lawrence Venuti. 15 0 MASKA 40/2018 uses the verb крикнуть (to cry) in the past tense, which means ‘to cry’ or ‘to shout’, even though in the original version Carroll uses a more neutral said. In some cases, Vladimir Nabokov complies to the original version. For example, the title of the first chapter, Down the Rabbit Hole, is rendered as Нырок в кроличью норку, which is virtually a literal translation. The same thing can be said about chapter twelve, as Alice’s Evidence is conveyed into Показание Ани (Anya’s Testimony) or Advice from a Caterpillar which turns into Совет гусеницы (a literal translation). However, Nabok- ov is rather inconsistent as far as the rest of the titles are concerned. Chapter two, The Pool of Tears, is rendered by Nabokov into Продолжение (Continuation). Further- more, for no apparent reason, the chapter named Pig and Pepper uses a diminutive form Поросенок и перец (Piglet and pepper). Thus, we may observe that on the whole Nabokov’s strategy when it comes to translating the titles of chapters varies.

Translating proper names

Proper names and their rendering have often proved problematic for translators. Some scholars even argue that proper names are not to be translated at all26. General- ly speaking, while translating a text which is rooted in a different culture, a translator is confronted with two choices: he or she ought to decide whether to find equivalents present in the translator’s target language or to leave them intact. What is particularly interesting about the translation is the way Nabokov approaches gender in their renditions. Russian is a language which is more overt with regard to gender than English.27 Thus it might be more difficult for translators to show ambiguity as regards gender in Alice. An example of this would be Piegon, who is seen as a male by Nabokov and a female by Boris Zakhoder, another prominent translator. In the original story, its gender is not explicitly revealed. For example, when Alice and Piegon begin a conversation, the animal replies to the girl in the following way:

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘‘And just as I’’d taken the high- - Змея! - отчаянно к р и ч а л а - Змея! - ш и п е л Голубь. est tree in the wood,’’ continued Голубка. (A serpent! Pigegon (A serpent! Pieegon hissed) the Pigeon, raising its cried desperately) v o i c e to a shriek.

The pronoun does not suggest gender. We may assume that this character is either male or female. However, taking the context of the encounter into consideration, we

26 Wolnicz-Pawłowska, Ewa. “Nazwy własne w przekładzie. Zarys problematyki.” Poznańskie Spotkania Językoznawcze 27, 2014, p. 204. 27 Corbett, Greville. Gender. Cambidrge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 62. 151 Marcin Kosman might assume that Alice talks with a female bird because the characters talk in the nest of Pigeon who is busy hatching the eggs and warns Alice of serpents who want to eat Pigeon’s children. Since it is usually female birds who take care of their offspring, it is possible that Carroll’s character is not masculine. Boris Zakhoder renders Pigeon as a female, as the past tense of the verb кричать (to cry) signifies that the character is female. In Nabokov’s version the past tense of the word шипеть (to hiss) suggests a male character. A similar contrast can be seen as regards Caterpillar, who is male in Zakhoder’s rendition but female in Nabokov’s interpretation. Again, the character is referred to by the pronoun “it” which may be ambiguous with regard to its true gender. However, there are some fragments in Alice which are helpful in solving the problem of the character’s gender:

Lewis Carroll (2000) Boris Zakhoder (1971) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

For some minutes i t puffed - Твой нынешний размер тебе - Кто ты? - с п р о с и л а away without speaking, but at нравится? - с п р о с и л Червяк. Гусеница. (Who are you? Cater- last i t unfolded i t s arms, took (Do you like your current size? pillar asked.) the hookah out of i t s mouth The Worm asked.) again, and said, ‘‘So you think you’’re changed, do you?’ ’ ‘‘I’m afraid I am, s i r,’’ said Alice.

Alice uses the form sir in order to address Caterpillar. This is undoubtedly a sign that she talks with a male character. Also, in film adaptations of the story, Caterpillar is rendered as masculine. The suffixл used to end a verb in the Russian language in past tense suggests that the character who utters the sentence is male. Conversely, the verb ending ла implies feminine gender. Interestingly, Nabokov does manage to translate the name more accurately, as the word гусеница literally means ‘a caterpillar’; Zak- hoder’s more general worm may project a different image. Nabokov is bizarrely inconsistent in terms of whether to russify English names or look for equivalents in Russian. Lory the Parrot has an English sounding name in the 1923’s version (Лори – Lori), Hhowever, the three little sisters mentioned in the Dormouse story – Elsie, Lacie and Tillie – are rendered by Мася, Пася and Дася (Masya, Pasya, Dasya). At first glance they seem to be a deviation fromAlice , but their structure does convey an important aspect: they rhyme. Nabokov also russifies the name Mary Ann into Маша (Masha). Also Mabel is translated by Nabokov into Ася (Asya). One of the merits of Nabokov’s translation is, on the other hand, the fact that the names seem to be very accessible and easy to pronounce for a native speaker

152 MASKA 40/2018 of Russian28 which seems to be particularly significant as regards children’s literature. This point is proved by other scholars: Julian W. Connolly observes that the name of Bill the Lizard – Яшка-Ящерица (Jashka-Jashherica) – gives a vibrant feeling to the text29. Therefore one might notice that Nabokov mostly concentrated on a phonetic aspect of the names. Their actual meaning or their similarity to the English versions were not as important to him. Even though Nabokov usually tries to find Russian equivalents of the names used by Carroll, we may still encounter some instances in which he does the opposite. On the other hand, he puts a bigger emphasis on the me- lodic aspect of language; some of his renditions read well and are based on a similar notion as in the original story. He adapts the names to the Russian environment. Still, some of his choices are questionable in this regard. He inexplicably changes the characters’ gender, which is a considerable deviation from Carroll’s concepts. The name substitutions are particularly bizarre, as Nabokov would later criticise Lippert for his changing Onegin’s Tatiana into Johanna30.

Humour and puns

Undoubtedly, humour is one of the most significant traits of Alice’sAdventures in Wonderland. Lewis Carroll relies a great deal on ambiguity and homophones, which makes it difficult to convey this aspect into a different language. One of the most conspicuous examples of Carroll’s sense of humour is to be found in chapters 3 and 9, which will serve as the source as material for analysis. In chapter 3 the main joke relies on the homophony of the words ‘tale’ and ‘tail’. The Mouse explains to Alice its hatred towards cats and dogs, but the girl, seemingly unaware of the ambiguity, interprets the story as to be about the Mouse’s tale. This leads to a series of misunderstandings, as Alice wonders why a body part can be sad. Nabokov renders this as:

Да, он, несомненно, очень длинный, – заметила Аня, которой послышалось не “прост”, а “хвост” (Yes, it is, indubitably, very long – noticed Anya who misheard easy as tail).

As we can see, the original concept is preserved in Nabokov’s tale. However, due to the fact that there is no direct homophony between прост (easy – prost) and хвост (tail – chvost), the pun does not seem to resonate properly with the reader. Further, by

28 Corbett, Greville. Gender. Cambidrge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 62. 29 Ed. Vladimir E. Alexandrov. 30 Venuti, Lawrence., ed. The Translation Studies Reader, Second Edition., op.cit., New York: Routledge, 2004, p. 122. 153 Marcin Kosman saying that the protagonist misheard the words, Nabokov creates a different image – the one present in Anya relies on making a language mistake rather than ambiguity. The translator is also faced with a similar conundrum as regards rendering what a historical figure “found advisable”.

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘Found what?’ said the Duck. ‘Found it,’ the когда же их отношения обострились... Mouse replied rather crossly. - В каком отношении? - перебила Утка. - В отношении их отношений, - ответила Мышь довольно сердито. - Ведь вы же знаете, что такое “отношенье”.

(”When their relations intensified… “In what sense? The Duck interrupted. In the sense of their affairs, answered the Mouse quite crossly. Don’t you know what a relation is?”)

In Nabokov’s translation the humorous aspect is again centered around a different phenomenon in comparison to the original story. The Russian wordотношение can have more than one meaning. In its noun form it refers to a relation (between people or countries). However, when it functions as a verb (относиться), it means ‘to refer’ or ‘treat’. Some of the jokes are also omitted. The wordplay on a phonetic similarity between the words ‘lesson’ and ‘lessen’ is preserved in Nabokov’s translation; in his version the pun revolves around three words: укор (a reproach), урок (a lesson) and укорачивать (to shorten). The Russian addressee is able to grasp the idea and at the same time the original idea of the author is preserved.

Translating the culture-bound elements

Culture-bound elements pose a considerable problem for translators due to a plethora of factors. They are responsible for placing the story in a defined context, place, and time.. Thus culture-bound elements play a vital role in proper understanding of the text and a translator should be aware of their significance for his or her translation to be successful. Krzysztof Hejwowski defines them as these elements of the text that are specifically linked with the culture of a given country. The definition includes words connected with political and cultural life, customs and cuisine. Hejwowski also mentions quotations and innuendos which pertain to literature or history31. It comes

31 Hejwowski, Krzysztof. Kognitywno-komunikacyjna teoria przekładu. Warszawa: PWN, 2014, pp. 71 – 73. 154 MASKA 40/2018 as no surprise that translators are faced with a difficult task when confronted with a book so full of references to British culture.Lewis Carroll does mention some his- toric figures in the book. When first confronted with the Mouse, Alice utters the following sentence:

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘I daresay it’s a Fr e n c h m o u s e , come over with Вероятно, это французская мышь, William the Conqueror.’ оставшаяся при отступлении Н а п о л е о н а (Probably it is a French mouse who stayed here during Napoleon’s retreat.)

The protagonist’s intention is to highlight two aspects of the Mouse: the fact that it is French and also that it has been there for a long time. In the original story this is a reference to the Battle of Hastings which paved the way for the rule of the French in Britain. Vladimir Nabokov introduces some changes. In the context of Russian culture, Napoleon’s retreat probably refers to his unsuccessful campaign aimed at Russia when he laid siege to Moscow but ultimately failed to conquer the city. The reference is no longer purely British. Indubitably, the reference is clearer to the Russian reader, as William the Conqueror is a fairly obscure name for him; Napoleon’s name is universally recognized and his war with Russia was the subject of many classic books of Russian literature (Tolstoy’s War and Peace). As we can see, Nabokov opts for making culture-specific elements more familiar to the reader. On the other hand, Per Ambrosiani points out that Nabokov’s choice to change the name to Napoleon may be justified32. He notes that this change is present in many other translations, for example in Italian or Dutch. Further, he argues that Na- poleon’s significance to the history of England is as high as William the Conqueror’s. Plus this choice actually intensifies the Mouse’s Frenchness. Thus Nabokov’s choice should not be seen as a failure or an error; rather, a sign of preference of domestication as a strategy. This strategy is further magnified in the third chapter, when the Mouse continues its story and it mentions Edwin, Earl of Mercia and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, who also participated in the war against the Normans.

32 Kemppanen, Hannu, Marja Jänis, Alexandra Belikova, ed. Domestication and Foreignization in Trans- lation Studies. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 2012, p. 90. 15 5 Marcin Kosman

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

William the Conqueror, whose cause was После смерти Мономаха Киев достался favoured by the pope, was soon submitted to by не братьям его, а сыновьям и обратился, the English, who wanted leaders, and had been of таким образом, в семейную собственность late much accustomed to usurpation and conquest Мономаховичей. После старшего сына (...) Edwin and Morcar, the earls of Mercia and Мономаха, очень способного князя Northumbria, declared for him; and even Stigand, Мстислава...” (After the death of Monomakh, the patriotic archbishop of Canterbury, found it Kiev was not under the rule of his sons but his advisable. brothers. Therefore, it was a property of the Monomakhs. After Monomakh’s older son, a very talented prince Mstislav...)

In Alice the Mouse’s story is coherent, first it talks about William the Conqueror and then it proceeds to talk about two figures who lived in the same age as Wil- liam. Moreover, the fates of all three were interconnected. By substituting Edwin and Morcar with Monomakh and Mstislav, the Mouse’s story in Nabokov’s version does not make much sense, as Napoleon and the two Rurikids are separated from one another by approximately six hundred years. Thus, while the names of the princes are definitely more likely to be recognised by the Russians, the fact that Nabokov changed this part so much forces us to think that this strategy of his pertains strongly to adaptation. Further, the rendition of honorific expressions also signals another peculiarity, as Nabokov omits the title sir (сэр) completely. English units of measurement are an example of another culture-specific item that underwent a series of modifications. However, as we might observe, the translator is not particularly consistent when it comes to the strategies of rendering them.

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

‘All persons more than a m i l e h i g h to leave the Все лица, чей рост п р е в ы ш а е т о д н у court is rendered by the two in a similar fashion.’ в е р с т у, обязаны удалиться из залы суда (Every person whose height exceedes one verst is obliged to leave the court).

‘I wonder h o w m a n y m i l e s I’ve fallen by this Хотела бы я знать, с к о л ь к о в е р с т сделала time.’ я за это время (I wonder how many versts I’ve fallen by this time)

And so it was indeed: she was now only t e n Действительно: она теперь была не выше inches high. десяти дюймов росту (Indeed, she was now no taller than ten inches high)

15 6 MASKA 40/2018

Lewis Carroll (2000) Vladimir Nabokov (1923)

worth a hundred pounds он его за тысячу рублей не отдаст (he wouldn’t part with him for thousands rubles)

and reduced the answer to shillings and pence. 44 копейки. (44 kopecks)

A verst (верста), an obsolete Russian unit of length, in Nabokov’s version substitutes a mile. Conversely, Nabokov decides to translate inches as дюймы, which is a Russian word that denotes this particular unit of measurement. While in this case Nabokov’s strategy is probably more appropriate, it is clear that he is not consistent in his choices. The currency in the Russian Wonderland also proves to be problematic. However, in this case, I was able to at least identify the consistent principles of the Nabokov, as he adapts the currencies to the Russian environment. An interesting and subtle example of such adaptation is the treatment of the daisy flower. Nabokov substitutes it with ромашка (camomille). This type of a flower resonates much more with Russian culture, as not only is ромашка considered one of the symbol of Russia but День белой ромашки (White Camomille Day) is a day of remembrance of the victims of tuberculosis, which has been celebrated in Russia since 190833.

Cocluding remarks

The most interesting fact about Nabokov’s translation is that the translation strategies implemented by him contradict the principles he later formulated. The translator who was usually against domesticating names or deviating from source-culture concept, many a time went against his principles. Namely, he inexplicably changed the gender of certain characters (the Pigeon, the Mock Turtle), made names more familiar to the Russian reader, substituted historical figures relevant for Britain with those more known for the Russians and he used the Russian measurement system. However, there are still some instances in which Nabokov seems to reject adaptation, which is a testament to his inconsistency in his choices. I believe that Nabokov being inconsistent largely stems from the fact that Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland is a problematic book to translate, and it has proven to be a challenge even for modern-day translators. Another important aspect that somewhat justifies Nabokov’s inconsistencies is the fact that translation principles regarding children’s literature were not developed in the 1920s. Given Vladimir Nabokov’s overall impressive career in the field of translation, we might conclude that Anya

33 Перельман, И. Михаил, Виктор А. Корякин, and Ирина В. Богадельникова. Фтизиатрия. Учеб- ная литература для студентов медицинских. вузов. Москва, pp. 18 – 19. 15 7 Marcin Kosman can be treated as a youthful exercise. The principles mentioned in the paper had not existed yet (at least in written form) and Nabokov was just at the beginning of his career as a literary man. Further, he was not exactly known for translating children’s literature. One might suggest that the 1923 translation should not be therefore seen as a relevant part of his legacy as a translator. Therefore, while the book is probably not the best example if one is interested in studying Nabokov’s style, it still can be treated as an interesting experiment, as it has a plethora of merits in their own right. Thus, Nabokov’s beginnings as a translator were rather humble but one could already see glimpses of genius.

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15 9 Marcin Kosman

Заходер, Борис Владимирович. Алиса в стране чудес. http://lib.ru/CARROLL/ alisa_zah.txt. Date of access: 15 April 2018. Набоков, Владимир Владимирович. Аня в стране чудес. http://lib.ru/CAR- ROLL/anya.txt. Date of access: 13 April 2018. Набоков, Владимир Владимирович. Лекции по русской литературе. Издатель- ство: Независимая Газетa, 1998. Перельман, И. Михаил, Виктор А. Корякин, and Ирина В. Богадельникова. Фти- зиатрия. Учебная литература для студентов медицинских. вузов. Москва. Чарычанская, Ирина Всеволодовна. “В чем вольность В. Набокова как перевод- чика «Приключений Алисы в стране чудес»”. Вестник Воронежского государ- ственного университета. Серия: Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуни- кация 5, 2005. 80–83

Summary

The paper is an attempt at analyzing Vladimir Nabokov’s Anya in the Land of Won- der, a translation of Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland into Russian. The paper includes an overview of translation strategies implemented by the Russian, including the socio-cultural environment of that time. Due to the fact that Anya in the Land of Wonder was one of Nabokov’s first works, his choices differ from what we wrote later about the art of translation. Vladimir Nabokov claimed that domestication and adaptation are detrimental to the essence of the original. However, the example of his translation of Alice shows that Nabokov seems to violate their own translation principles. What is more, Nabokov is rather inconsistent in his choices. In my paper I refer to the changes in the original book introduced by Nabokov and explain their validity from a cultural perspective. Justyna Dąbrowska Created by Men and Reborn into a New World. Disability and Displacement in Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney Institute of English Studies, University of Łódź

Born in Omagh, Co. Tyrone in Northern Ireland, Brian Friel is one of the most renowned contemporary Irish playwrights, whose works are highly acclaimed all over the world. As some critics have noted, disability is a common motif in his oeuvre. Ruth Niel stresses the fact that various forms of disability

permeat[e] the plays like a leitmotif . . . [and] like other motifs in Friel’s work, which may not be particularly obtrusive within the individual plays, where other issues are larger and more immediate, but which take on a wider implication in the context of the drama as a whole1.

It is hard to fully agree with Niel, as there is a play by Friel which largely engages with disability and its main character’s impairment is central to the plot. The play in question is Molly Sweeney, whose eponymous character is visually impaired. As Friel once admitted, the drama is based on the true story described by Ol- iver Sack in “To See and Not See”2. Christopher Murray also stresses that at the time when the idea for the play emerged, Friel himself underwent a cataract operation, which “no doubt reinforced [his] personal interest in the topic and helped him explore its symbolic facets”3. The play, which consists of retrospective monologues delivered by three characters: Molly, Frank and the ophthalmologist Mr Rice, tells

1 R. Niel. Disability as Motif and Meaning in Friel’s Drama. In: Brian Friel’s Dramatic Artistry ‘The Work Has Value’, ed. D. E. Morse, C. Bertha, M. Kurdi, Dublin 2006, pp. 205 – 206. 2 Playbill, 96.3 (March 1996), p. 27. In: C. Murray, Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney and its Sources. A Po- stomodern Case History, “Études irlandaises”, 1998, no. 23-2, p. 82. Web. http://www.persee.fr/doc/ irlan_0183-973x_1998_num_23_2_1456, [11.06.2016]. 3 C. Murray, Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney and its Sources. A Postomodern Case History. “Études irlandaises”, 1998, no. 23-2, p. 82, [online:] http://www.persee.fr/doc/irlan_0183-973x_1998_num_23_2_1456, [11.06.2016]. 161 Justyna Dąbrowska the story of the eponymous character who is a visually impaired person, which does not stop her from swimming, riding a bike, and working as a massage therapist at the local health club. She is married to Frank, an unfulfilled scientist and a jack of all trades, who has an idea that Molly should undergo an operation which may restore her sight. Molly is unsure if the procedure will succeed but eventually agrees to it. Frank finds an ophthalmologist, Mr Rice who performs the operation, which results in partial success. Later, however, the protagonist develops a condition called blind-sight, which renders her completely blind and deprives her of her former ways of experiencing the world, using her other senses. This leads to her mental breakdown and she is sent to a mental institution. Thus, as Katarzyna Ojrzyńska observes, “[t]he thematic concept of Molly Sweeney is based on a paradox: what is believed to be a remedy, in reality, brings about only destruction”4. Molly loses her independence, withdraws from friends and ends up alone and institutionalised. This article analyses the play through the prism of critical disability studies and the notions of impairment and disability, as discussed by Tom Shakespeare. More- over, using the notion of “compulsory able-bodiedness” coined by Robert McRuer, it examines Molly’s change from an independent female subject to a disabled object and her displacement from the well-known land of blindness to the unfamiliar able-bodied world. To this aim, Friel’s play will be juxtaposed with the myth of Pyg- malion and its echoes in such eminent works as George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion and Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Birthmark. As will be argued, initially, Molly is a “person with an impairment” rather than a “disabled person”. I have borrowed these terms from critical disability studies. As Tom Shakespeare explains the distinction between impairment and disability,

[t]he former is individual and private, the latter is structural and public. While doctors and pro- fessions allied to medicine seek to remedy impairment, the real priority is to accept impairment and to remove disability5.

In line with critical disability studies, the term “a disabled person” refers to a person who experiences certain social barriers, often in the form of social prejudice or inaccessible public space. While impairment is an individual biological trait, disability is structured by the social perceptions of human variety. Leading a fully satisfying social and professional life, Molly is hardly a disabled woman, yet Frank sees her as

4 K. Ojrzyńska. One, Mad Hornpipe: Dance as a Tool of Subversion In Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney, “Text Matters”, 2011, no. 1, p. 253. Web. https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/texmat/1/1/article-p252.xml, [7.11.2016]. 5 T. Shakespeare. The Social Model of Disability. In: The Disability Studies Reader 2nd Edition, ed. L. J. Davis, New York 2006, p. 198. 162 MASKA 40/2018 a person who is in need of being fixed as she does not comply with all of the bodily standards enforced by an able-bodied society. Robert McRuer calls these standards “compulsory able-bodiedness”6. He stresses that society exerts pressure on everyone to fit in with the so-called “norm”, in other words, to be heterosexual, white, and fully able-bodied, while those who do not fit into these categorizes are labelled as different and abnormal7. This is what happens to Molly, who, due to her blindness, Frank perceives as abnormal and thus insists that she undergo the surgery. Friel’s representation of disability possesses a feminist touch when examined in the context of the myth of Pygmalion, to which it strongly alludes, and more contemporary literary texts that recycle the original myth, such as G.B. Shaw’s play Pyg- malion and Hawthorne’s short story The Birthmark. It is interesting to note that there are similarities between the representations of gender identity in Hawthorne’s text, class identity in Shaw’s drama, and disabled identity in Friel’s Molly Sweeney. As will be demonstrated, these identities are depicted as socially constructed and enforced by the privileged male members of society, which results in the fact that the female characters are deprived of their true identities, because of their gender, class affiliation or disability. The representatives of these categories (i.e. disability, class, and gender) are all constructed as “the other”, in other words, as faulty and lacking and thus in need of being fixed so as to fit in with the “norm”. In Friel’s play, this fixing is depicted in terms of displacement, as the male characters dislocate Molly from the world she knows very well to a new, hostile place – the able-bodied world. Molly challenges the traditional perceptions of disability. The first meeting with doctor Rice already shows that she does not fit in the conventional, ableist model of a disabled person who must rely on other people’s help, which surprises the doctor, who recalls:

I liked her calm and her independence; the confident way she shook my hand and found a seat for herself with her white cane. And when she spoke of her disability, there was no self-pity, no hint of resignation8.

Yet, Molly’s husband perceives her as imperfect. He treats her like an object of scientific study, wanting to make her anew and enable her to experience the world in the same way as able-bodied people do.

6 R. McRuer. Crip Theory, New York 2006, p. 2. 7 Ibidem, p. 2. 8 B. Friel. Molly Sweeney, London 1999, p. 458. 163 Justyna Dąbrowska

As David Bolt observes, in Friel’s work “control is passed over to the sighted characters”9. Molly agrees to undergo the operation, surrendering to the pressure exerted by her husband. Still, she seems to have doubts about whether she should follow his guidance. At one point, she asks: “Why am I going for this operation? None of this is my choosing”10. She allows Frank and doctor Rice to determine her future life, which leads to a disaster. After the surgery, Molly becomes, in many respects, a different person. She is no longer independent; she withdraws from her friends and seems to be completely lost in the new world of partial sight. Frank and doctor Rice force Molly into what McRuer calls “compulsory able-bodiedness, which in a sense produces disability”11. This is exactly what happens to the eponymous character. In order to examine Molly’s change from a person with impairment into a disabled person, let me focus on the way in which the male characters influence and, in a sense, create Molly even before the operation. As has already been suggested, from the beginning of the play, Friel’s protagonist is an extremely independent and self-reliant person. However, she often recalls her father, who was an important figure in her life and who taught her everything. In fact, he monopolised Molly’s education as he did not take her to a blind school and home-schooled her, instead. She recalls how her father tested her on her knowledge of the flowers and herbs she already knew “[a]nd [that] to have got it right for him and to hear the delight in his voice gave [her] such pleasure”12. This shows that in her early life Molly was accustomed to male authority and the fact that she should satisfy her father’s expectations towards her, which was something she should herself be proud of and pleased with. As Ruth Niel posits,

Marilyn Throne argues that “It is clear ... that Friel is emphasizing not the parents’ role, but rather the father’s role [and] ... that in all of the plays the children are presented as actually or psycho- logically crippled by their fathers” (163) – mothers often being absent, dead or without influence. In general, father figures have no real authority any more, but most fathers still act out of a need for dominance over their offspring13.

The protagonist is, in many respects, obedient to male authority. When she was a child, she spent most of her time with her father, while her mother was either busy at home preparing meals for them or away at a mental institution. Molly’s father tended to undermine the mother’s position. When Molly’s mother called them for

9 D. Bolt. Looking Back at Literature. A Critical Reading of the Unseen Stare in Depictions of People with Impaired Vision. “Disability and Society”, 2005, no. 20-7, p. 7. Web. https://disability-studies.leeds. ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/library/bolt-Bolt-Looking-Back-at-Literature.pdf, [01.10.2016]. 10 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 473. 11 R. McRuer, op. cit., p. 2. 12 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 456. 13 R. Niel, op. cit., p. 210. 164 MASKA 40/2018 dinner, while they were talking about the plants in the garden, he said: “Even scholars must eat. Let us join your mother”14. This suggests that the mother could not be a scholar, as only Molly and her father used to go to the garden to talk about the plants and get to know natural science. This suggests that the man considers his wife as too simple to teach Molly. Such a patriarchal father figure to some extent explains the protagonist’s future compliance with her husband’s and doctor’s decision that the eye surgery is the right option for her. As has already been mentioned, before the surgery, Molly is an independent visually impaired woman who copes very well with her everyday life. Yet, Frank suggests that the operation will give her a new chance in life and, in the worst case, she will not lose anything. Yet, the situation turns out to be different. At the very beginning, Mr Rice foresees that Frank will probably lose interest in Molly, if the operation is not as successful as he imagines: “her blindness was his latest cause . . . it would absorb him just as long as his passion lasted. And then, I wondered, what then?”15. It is evident that for Frank Molly is just another case study, when he talks about her, then switches to his project of breeding Iranian goats in Ireland, only to realize that he initially intended to talk about Molly: “How in God’s name did I get into all that? The goats! Engrams!”16. This clearly shows that he quickly shifts from one scientific undertaking to another. Molly’s surgery can be seen as an act of the male creation of her new identity through forcing the model of “compulsory able-bodiedness”17 on her. McRuer explains: “to be able-bodied is to be »free from physical disability”18 and states that “compulsory able-bodiedness functions by covering over, with the appearance of choice, a system in which there is actually no choice”19. Also Molly is left with no choice. Despite the fact that she is an autonomous woman, the protagonist is tricked by men into thinking that the operation is a good choice. Even though she has doubts which are conspicuous in the question she poses: “It [the possibility of seeing] certainly excited Frank . . . But why should it be frightening?”20, she agrees to undergo the procedure. The night before the surgery, Molly says:

And then with sudden anger I thought: Why am I going for this operation? None of this is my choosing. Then why is this happening to me? I am being used. Of course I trust Frank. Of course I trust Mr Rice. But how can they know what they are taking away from me? How do they know what they are offering me? They don’t. They can’t. And have I anything to gain? Anything?

14 B.Friel, op. cit., p. 457. 15 Ibidem, p. 460. 16 Ibidem, p. 464. 17 R. McRuer, op. cit., p. 2. 18 Ibidem, p. 8. 19 Ibidem. 20 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 465. 165 Justyna Dąbrowska

Anything? And then I knew, suddenly I knew why I was so desolate. It was the dread of exile, of being sent away. It was the desolation of homesickness21.

In this fragment, it is evident that Molly is reconsidering the operation. She is afraid of being displaced, exiled from the familiar world. At the same time, she is afraid that if she does not go through with the operation, she will be ostracized by other people. In other words, she is afraid of “the dread of exile” from friends and society. This demonstrates a paradox: Molly is afraid that she will be exiled, if she does not comply with Frank’s advice, but this does not save her from experiencing displacement and disability after the surgery. Karen Elizabeth Jung argues: “[r]ather than focus on »fixing« people with disabil- ities, disability rights activist and feminist disability studies scholars direct attention to the disabling effects of a normalizing society”22. The “normalizing society” depicted in Friel’s play imposes the need to change on Molly and thus displaces her from the world she knew and understood. As Karen Beauchamp-Pryor notes,

visually impaired people are able to do things, but not in the same way as sighted people: »we do them differently. Inability and ability become collapsed under this rubric of difference«23.

Friel suggests more than that. When Molly describes her physical experience of swimming, she suggests that non-disabled people could be envious of her sensations:

I really did believe I got more pleasure, more delight, from swimming than sighted people can ever get . . . and . . . if they only knew how full, how total my pleasure was . . . they really must envy me24.

After the operation, all of these personal experiences that impairment opened up before Molly suddenly and dramatically cease to exist. As Rosemarie Garland-Thomson observes, “the pronouncements in disability studies of what we need to start addressing are precisely issues that feminist theory has been grappling with for years”25. She thus accentuates the general similarities between disability studies and women’s studies. In Friel’s play the feminist and the

21 Ibidem, p. 473. 22 K. E. Jung. Chronic Illness and Educational Equity. The Politics of Visibility.In: Feminist Disability Stu- dies, ed. K. Q. Hall, Bloomington, Indiana 2011, p. 266. 23 K. Beauchamp-Pryor. Visual impairment and Disability. A dual approach towards equality and inclusion in UK policy and provision. In: Routledge Handbook of Disability Studies, ed. N. Watson, A. Roulstone, C. Thomas, Abingdon, Oxon 2012, p. 179. 24 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 466. 25 R. Garland-Thomson, Integrating Disability, Transforming Feminist Theory. In: The Disability Studies Reader 2nd Edition, ed. L. J. Davis, New York 2006, p. 257. 166 MASKA 40/2018 disability threads are closely intertwined. The male characters who first cast their patriarchal constraints on the female mind and then on her body in order to change it are the ones who cause tragedy in the play. As Murray argues, “Molly’s gender makes her, in Friel’s construction of the character, passive and malleable. The idea for the operation is not hers but that of her recent husband Frank”26. Yet, when Frank and Molly first come to the doctor, she seems to be a stronger and more resilient person than he is. Doctor Rice observes:

She had a full life and never felt at all deprived. She was now forty-one, married just over two years, and working as a massage therapist in a local health club . . . They were fortunate they had her earnings to live on because he was out of work at the moment27

Approached from a traditional, patriarchal perspective, the situation seems to be a peculiar one, as Frank, who boasts about his pseudoscientific research, preservation of endangered species, and being an avid reader of manifold articles dealing with different fields of science, is not the bread winner of the family. Thus, it seems para- doxical that Molly complies with everything that Frank ordains is best for her in the same way as she complied with everything her father told her when she was a child. However, Molly’s attitude to male authority is more complex than it seems. When doctor Rice describes his first meeting with Molly, who came to his office together with her husband, he recalls that Frank was very excited about the prospect of Molly regaining her eyesight as he constantly interrupted Molly, asking: “So there is some vision, isn’t there? So there is hope, isn’t there, isn’t there? . . . we must take it, mustn’t we? . . . She has nothing to lose, has she?”28. Frank treats Molly as yet another of his case studies, and yet Molly “would wait without a trace of impatience until he had finished and then she would go on”29. She passively accepts and fully abides by her husband’s wishes. This suggests that she wants to undergo the operation in order to satisfy Frank’s desires. Yet, it is clear from the play that she also wants to experience new sensations. As she explains, “Yes, I did want to see. But that wasn’t an expecta- tion, not even a mad hope. If there was a phantom desire, a fantasy in my head, it was this30. This demonstrates that Molly is a seeker of adventure who wants to explore new ways of being in the world. Thus, it can be argued that she agrees to undergo the surgery partly out of curiosity and partly to give some satisfaction and a sense of achievement to the two unsuccessful men: the unemployed Frank and Mr Rice, who

26 C. Murray, op. cit., p. 86. 27 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 459. 28 Ibidem, p. 459. 29 Ibidem. 30 Ibidem, p. 483. 167 Justyna Dąbrowska

is a divorcé disabled by his wife’s desertion, a man with a drink problem, a doctor running to seed and desperately on the lookout for the medical case which might reconstruct a shattered career31.

This situation is, in a way, similar to the one presented in G. B. Shaw’s Pygmalion. In the play, Eliza Doolittle, a poor flower girl, whom Mr Higgins, later accompanied by his friend Colonel Pickering, decides to change from a “savage” girl into a proper, well-behaved lady. Like in Molly’s case, Liza’s mother is absent from her life, which may be why she eagerly accepts the situation in which two strangers help her rise above her class. The main point of comparison between Shaw’s and Friel’s plays is that Mr Higgins is only interested in the result of his new project. He wants to teach Liza to speak and behave like a lady, but ignores the fact that she is a human being who has her own feelings. When his servant Mrs Pearce asks Higgins what will happen with the girl after the experiment is finished, he replies: “Well, when Ive done with her, we can throw her back into the gutter; and then it will be her own business again, so thats all right”32, to which Liza herself reacts with indignation: “Oh, youve no feeling heart in you you don’t care for nothing but yourself . . . you ought to be ashamed of yourself, you ought”33. Such a relationship between an abusive male creator and his female creation also has some resonance in Molly’s story. Similarly to Liza, Molly is aware of her creators’ flaws and knows that they are not fully the men they pretend to be. Still, she wants to fulfil their dreams. She is more resolute than the men around her and yet she agrees to being treated like a specimen in their experiments. In her book on feminist literary studies, Krystyna Kłosińska critically analyses some prominent academic works in the field, including Judith Fetterley’s The Resist- ing Reader: a Feminist Approach to American Fiction. She refers to the literary texts mentioned by Fetterley, such as The Birthmark by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Kłosińska mentions that it is a story of a man named Aylmer, a scientist devoted to enriching his knowledge, who also has a beautiful wife34. After their wedding, he discovers the eponymous birthmark which his wife has on her cheek and which becomes his obses- sion35. This leads to the fact that Aylmer wants to cure his wife of it on his own, which leads to her untimely death. Kłosińska observes that the obsession transforms into hostility towards his wife and women in general, which has its source in their ideal- ization36. Kłosińska refers to Fetterley’s interpretation in which the latter posits that

31 C. Murray, op. cit., pp. 86 – 87. 32 G. B. Shaw, Pygmalion, Harmondsworth 1916, p. 44. 33 Ibidem. 34 K. Kłosińska, Feministyczna krytyka literacka, Katowice 2010, p. 70. 35 Ibidem, p. 70. 36 Ibidem, p. 71. 168 MASKA 40/2018

Aylmer probably sees the birthmark as a sign of female physiology and sexuality37. He is disgusted by the mark and all that it represents, and thus wants to cure it at all costs38. Kłosińska and Fetterly argue that the reason behind Aylmer’s obsession is not the “imperfection” that a woman allegedly has, but “men’s disease”, which is called the Pygmalion syndrome39. As Kłosińska argues, such behaviour results from men’s envy of the creative powers of nature which are embodied by female sexuality40. Kłosińska observes that Aylmer cannot stand his wife’s otherness, and, at the same time, her biological, creational power, which he himself lacks41. The situation is similar in Molly and Frank’s case. Frank does not have a job, his only alleged achievements are the ones he mentions himself. Thus, he may feel intim- idated by such a powerful female figure as Molly. He may be seen as a person who is overwhelmed by her otherness and the way she perfectly copes with it and, therefore, may want to change it – mend her impairment and create a new, non-impaired version of his wife which will fit in the so-called “norm”. As Davis comments, “we live in a world of norms. Each of us endeavours to be normal”42. Thus, Frank does not fully understand his wife’s otherness and wants to restore her back to “normal”. This, similarly to Shaw’s Pygmalion or Hawthorne’s The Birthmark, leads to the woman’s dete- rioration and exclusion from the world. Moreover, the female characters’ identities in all of these works are negated and fixed, because the male characters are not able to cope with the way the women display their strength. After the procedure, Molly finds herself in a different world. Her condition starts to deteriorate, as she develops blind-sight. This neurological phenomenon limits the ways in which she can experience her environment and eventually leads to her depression. This form of displacement is an instance of something that Frank has already done before when he unsuccessfully tried to breed Iranian goats in Ireland43. After Molly’s operation, when it is evident that her condition has deteriorated and she does not resemble the self-reliant and courageous Molly from before the procedure, Frank busies himself with yet another undertaking. He accepts his friend’s proposition to move two badgers from their original habitat which will soon be flooded. Franks explains that it involved “digging two badgers out of their sett. Dug for two-and-a-half

37 Ibidem. 38 Ibidem. 39 Ibidem. 40 Ibidem, p. 72. 41 Ibidem. 42 L. J Davis. Constructing Normalcy. The Bell Curve, the Novel, and the Invention of the Disabled Body in the Nineteenth Century. In: The Disability Studies Reader 2nd Edition, ed. L. J. Davis, New York 2006, p. 3. 43 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 461. 169 Justyna Dąbrowska hours. Then flung old fishing nets over them to immobilize them”44. He then recalls that the badgers, which were transported away from the lake, were “banging into rocks and bumping into each other and sliding and rolling and tumbling all over the place”45. The badgers, which, as Frank describes them, are half-blind, returned to their original habitat. This shows that the goats and the badgers were displaced from their natural environment in the same way as Molly was thrown into the world of sighted people. She finds herself in a strange and unfamiliar place, which turns out to be disabling for her and which she cannot navigate using other senses, such as smell or touch. Molly is thus deprived of her ability to experience and understand the world. The idea of displacement is mentioned by Molly herself when she reveals her true yearning concerning the operation. She treats the procedure like “a brief excursion to [the] land of vision”46 and also says that it would be ideal “not to live there – just to visit”47. She later adds that going to the hospital for the operation is like going back to school after holidays and that she is “getting dressed up for the annual excursion”48. This shows that Molly only wants to visit the new place and come back, but what she experiences instead is permanent displacement into an unfamiliar world. When, after her breakdown, Molly is sent to the mental hospital, Frank writes her a letter in which he describes his new undertaking – the African bees which, as he believes, “would do particularly well in Ireland”49. This shows that Frank first displaces the Iranian goats from their natural habitat, then embarks on displacing Molly form her world of non-sight, and then does a similar thing to the badgers and the bees. Molly can thus be seen as a colonized subject “restrained and trapped like an animal netted by hunters”50. This similarity is most visible when Mr Rice visits Molly in the mental hospital and mentions that “the wayward hair that had given her so much trouble now [is] contained in a net”51. One may argue that metaphorically Molly was caught in a net and displaced like the badgers, as a result of which she has lost her freedom and identity. Summing up, Molly Sweeney is a play about a visually impaired woman who is not disabled in any sense of the word. She functions independently, works as a massage therapist and has time for hobbies and friends. Yet, her life is changed by men, and especially her husband Frank who wants to satisfy nobody but himself. Both he and

44 Ibidem, p. 502. 45 Ibidem. 46 Ibidem, p. 483. 47 Ibidem. 48 Ibidem. 49 Ibidem, p. 508. 50 E. Aston. An Introduction to Feminism and Theatre, London 2005, p. 131. 51 B. Friel, op. cit., p. 506. 170 MASKA 40/2018

Rice are unsuccessful in their lives and professional careers and thus they instrumentally use Molly in order to assert themselves as true men by mending a person who does not fit in the norms of ableist society and whom they perceive as lacking. In his play, Friel shows that disability, much like gender, is a social construct which may have a disastrous effect on those who are labelled as disabled and are thus seen as deficient and lacking. The Irish playwright examines these ideas, taking recourse to the motif of displacement. Molly is reborn into the new world of sight which does not welcome her the way it was advertised by men and where she feels lost. At the end of the play, Molly is left with no friends, no loving husband, and nobody to support her. She turns from an independent person into a dependent disabled subject in constant need of help. Molly describes her circumstances in her final monologue in the following way:

I think I see nothing at all now. But I’m not absolutely sure of that. Anyhow my borderline country is where I live now. I’m at home there . . . And why should I question any of it any more?52.

She is no longer curious about the world. Completely resigned, she does not have the power to raise objections to what happened to her. She is completely displaced by her “creators” and reborn into a strange, unfamiliar and unwelcoming world of total blindness, trapped by her newly-acquired disabling condition – blind-sight.

52 Ibidem, p. 509. 171 Justyna Dąbrowska

Bibliography

Aston, E. An Introduction to Feminism and Theatre, London 2005. Beauchamp-Pryor, K. Visual impairment and disability. a dual approach towards equality and inclusion in UK policy and provision. Routledge Handbook of Disability Stu- dies, ed. N. Watson, A. Roulstone, C. Thomas, Abingdon, Oxon 2012. 178–192 Bolt, D. Looking Back at Literature. a Critical Reading of the Unseen Stare in Depic- tions of People with Impaired Vision. “Disability and Society”, 2005, no. 20-7. Web. https://disability-studies.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/library/bolt- -Bolt-Looking-Back-at-Literature.pdf [01.10.2016]. 1–31 Davis, L. J. Constructing Normalcy. The Bell Curve, the Novel, and the Invention of the Disabled Body in the Nineteenth Century. The Disability Studies Reader nd2 Edition, ed. L. J. Davis, New York 2006. 3–16 Friel, B. Molly Sweeney, London 1999. 447–509 Garland-Thomson, R. Integrating Disability, Transforming Feminist Theory. The Disa- bility Studies Reader 2nd Edition, ed. L. J. Davis, New York 2006. 257–274 Jung, K. E. Chronic Illness and Educational Equity. The Politics of Visibility. Feminist Disability Studies, ed. K. Q. Hall, Bloomington, Indiana 2011. 263–286 Kłosińska, K. Feministyczna krytyka literacka, Katowice 2010. McRuer, R. Crip Theory, New York 2006. Murray, C. Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney and its Sources. a Postomodern Case Histo- ry. “Études irlandaises”, 1998, no. 23-2. Web. http://www.persee.fr/doc/irlan_ 0183-973x_1998_num_23_2_1456, [11.06.2016]. 81–98 Niel, R. Disability as Motif and Meaning in Friel’s Drama. Brian Friel’s Dramatic Ar- tistry. ‘The Work Has Value.’ Ed. Donald E. Morse, Csilla Bertha, and Maria Kurdi. Dublin 2006. 205–227 Ojrzyńska, K. One, Mad Hornpipe: Dance as a Tool of Subversion in Brian Friel’s Molly Sweeney. “Text Matters”, 2011, no. 1. Web. https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/texmat/1/1/article-p252.xml [7.11.2016]. 252–267 Shakespeare, T. The Social Model of Disability. The Disability Studies Reader. ed. L. J. Davis. New York 2006. 197–204 Shaw, G. B. Pygmalion, Harmondsworth 1916.

172 MASKA 40/2018

Summary

Molly Sweeney by Brian Friel is a play about a woman who is visually impaired, but functions properly in society. Yet, her husband and, later, her doctor want to restore her sight and thus introduce the protagonist to the new, non-disabled world. After the surgery, she is “reborn” into this new world which, however, is very different from the one that she imagined. Taking recourse to critical disability studies, and especially Robet McRuer’s notion of “compulsory able-bodiedness”, the feminist reading of Hawthorne’s The Birthmark and G.B. Shaw’s Pygmalion, and the notion of displacement, this article examines the way in which the male characters in Friel’s play render Molly disabled and change her from a self-reliant person with an impairment into a dependent and helpless patient of a mental institution.

Dominika Ciesielska The birth of a contemporary myth – fan fiction as a myth-making practice accompanying the Harry Potter phenomenon1 Jagiellonian University

Myth as a practice

A myth is something we usually associate with ‘the old times’ and the beginnings of civilisation or a belief that is based on wrong assumptions. Even some of the important scholarly theories support that association – according to Mircea Eliade’s definition of myth from 1963 (which is still often being brought up), it “tells the sacred story, recounts an event from primordial times, the legendary times of the »beginnings”2. In this paper, however, I would like to argue that myths can emerge from modern (pop)culture, grounding my reasoning in Véronique Gély’s mythopoethics. She bases her theory on the tradition of studying literary myths – the ancient stories used in literature for centuries3, as opposed to Eliade’s notion of hierophanies or Northrop Frye’s belief in seriousness of myths4 that could also apply to Gaston Bachelard’s

1 I present this subject in more detail in my unpublished MA thesis entitled Writing fan fiction as a modern way of telling the myth on the example of the subject of war in literary works of “Harry Potter” fans. It is available to read in Polish upon request: [email protected]. 2 “…le mythe raconte une histoire sacrée; il relate un événement qui a eu lieu dans le temps primordial, le temps fabuleux des « commencements ”; Eliade, Mircea. Aspects du mythe. Paris: Éditions Galli- mard, 1963, p. 16; translation: D.C. 3 According to Marcin Klik, Pierre Albouy in his Mythes et Mythologies dans la littérature française (1969) was the first to study myths within the literary theory and not as legends or motifs. Vide: Klik, Marcin. Teorie mitu. Współczesne literaturoznawstwo francuskie (1969‒2010). Warszawa, 2016, pp. 221 ‒ 230. 4 Frye argued that myths are serious in the sense that they are meant to be believed in when it comes to either the events they present or certain phenomena they explain, however he notices that some mythical subjects are transferred to art. Vide: Frye, Northrop. “Myth, Fiction, and Displacement.” Daedalus. Vol. 90, No. 3, Evolution and Man’s Progress (Summer, 1961), p. 598. 175 Dominika Ciesielska theory of myths as the predecessors of science5. The literary myth researchers argue that myths are stories not necessarily to be believed in or used to explain the world in a para-scientific way but rather well-known ancient tales that survived centuries by being retold and presented in new ways in literature and art. They study myths’ presence and functioning in literature, observing, for example, one character, like Pierre Brunel studied Electra6, or trying to define the core of the myth by finding constant elements appearing in every telling of the story as Claude Lévi-Strauss did7. Gély, however, pro- poses that myth is a phenomenon rather than a text or certain story. As she says in Pour une mythopoétique: quelques propositions sur les rapports entre mythe et fiction:

The myth is neither an essence nor an idea: it exists as a phenomenon. There is no possibility of ontology of myth, only a necessity of the “phenomenology of the reception of the myth”8.

For this reason she does not look for myths in literature or mythical origins of it, she rather seeks to examine how the myth works, how it is made and used. In her understanding, mythopoethics

does not postulate neither anteriority nor exteriority of myths in relation to literature. It focuses instead on studying how a piece “makes” a myth and how a myth “makes” a piece: not only what “work” the myths are actors, agents of […] but also of what “work” are they the result, the product, the fact…9

Gély argues that stories become myths in reception – it is the readers that make the myth by engaging with the story, having emotional response to it, using it to communicate with one another and to make sense of their reality, retelling it and using merely parts of it to tell something entirely new or to show known elements in a different perspective. I would like to look at the phenomenon of Harry Potter and the fan fiction it inspired as myth-making practice corresponding to Gély’s theory of myth.

5 Vide: Klik, op. cit., pp. 13 ‒ 15, 46, 75 ‒ 77. 6 Pierre Brunel, Le Mythe d’Électre, 1971; Pour Électre, Paris, A. Colin, 1982; Le Mythe d’Électre, Paris, Champion, 1995. Quoted after: Gély, Véronique. “Pour une mythopoétique: quelques propositions sur les rapports entre mythe et fiction.” VoxPoetica, 21.05.2006. Web. http://www.vox-poetica.org/sflgc/ biblio/gely.html#_ftnref63 [17.07.2018]. 7 Lévi-Strauss, Claude. “The Structural Study of Myth.”The Journal of American Folklore. Vol. 68, No. 270, Myth: A Symposium (Oct. ‒ Dec. 1955), pp. 428 ‒ 444. 8 “Le mythe n’est pas une essence ni une idée : il existe en tant que phénomène. Il n’y a aucune possi- bilité d’ontologie du mythe, mais une nécessaire «phénoménologie de la réception du mythe».” Gély, Véronique. op. cit.; translation: D.C. 9 “Une mythopoétique ne postulerait, quant à elle, ni antériorité, ni extériorité des mythes par rapport à la littérature. Elle s’attacherait en revanche à examiner comment les œuvres « font » les mythes et comment les mythes « font » l’œuvre : non seulement de quel « travail » les mythes sont les acteurs, les agents (...) mais aussi de quel « travail » ils sont le résultat, le produit, le « fait »...”; Ibidem; translation: D.C. 176 MASKA 40/2018

Although a few of her ideas have appeared as well in some form in other researchers’ studies, she provides a coherent and novel understanding of myths in modern culture. She does not differentiate, however, between ancient and contemporary myths. She sees the same patterns of creating them, even though the times have changed.

Common place

According to Gély, myths have always been a “common place”, a reference meant to be understood by “everybody” (provided they had certain social background, education etc.), a way to connect over a familiar story or explain a problem using examples known to all parties. Nowadays most people still easily recognize ancient Greek heroes, but we might rather start a conversation about Batman than Menelaus and it is modern pop culture that usually takes the role of that common place. In my opinion a significant part of it is the wizarding world created by Joanne Kathleen Rowling. Her books about Harry Potter have quickly gained popularity across the globe and since the first book was published in 1997, the Potter universe has expanded broadly. On top of the main seven novels, we now have eight movies, video games, fictional books written by Rowling under pseudonyms that are names of their fictional authors, the whole website devoted to gather fans and share additional stories, Pottermore, as well as theatre play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child that premiered in Palace Theatre in London on the 30th July 2016 and first two movies of planned five10, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald, to name the most important ones. Harry Potter’s popularity does not show only in numbers of sold books or tickets – it has become a sort of language. Studying internet culture lets us see how people use Rowling’s creations to communicate. They describe themselves or others using Hogwarts houses’ names and traits that are associated with them. Instead of describing someone’s character you may just say “they’re a Hufflepuff ” and your interlocutor would understand the mix of loyal, caring and sensitive. There is a lot of posts on Tumblr, for example that comment on conversations with house names which is supposed to explain in a way who are the people involved or why they reacted in certain way11. Originating in the septology, the names became commonly understood epi- thets and elements of identity for some people. Harry Potter vocabulary went beyond the magical universe and fans’ conversation and seeped into the everyday language

10 Vide: Guerrasio, Jason. “The »Fantastic Beasts« producer explains why there are 5 movies in the franchise.” Business Insider, 10.11.2016. Web. http://www.businessinsider.com/fantastic-beasts-and-where- -to-find-them-jk-rowling-5-movies-2016-11 [12.07.2018]. 11 For example this Tumblr post saved to a meme gathering site: https://me.me/i/1021girl-snickerdoodlesandsausages-eniolrasactual-in-love-with-my-bed-the-winchesters-creed-avellowstateofmind- -imagine-stabbing-someone-with-19287893 [12.07.2018]. 177 Dominika Ciesielska of those at least a little bit pop culture savvy. Moreover, Rowling’s books inspired not only merchandise made specifically for devoted fans, but a plethora of designs available in serving a variety of clients high street stores and souvenirs shops. People are using Hogwarts-themed suitcases and beach towels and teach their phones to respond to magic spells12, welcoming magic into their everyday life. We can also find references to the wizarding world in popular TV series, such as How I Met Your Mother, Two and a Half Man, The Office13 etc. Those are not necessarily targeted at the same audience that Rowling’s books are; the magical universe is supposed to be recognized by “an average viewer”. It proves that Harry Potter became broadly possessed knowledge and as such serves, I would argue, the purpose of a common place Gély mentions as a myth feature.

Scandal

Myths are stories that are remembered, that are a part of a common memory. Gély refers to Marcel Détienne’s notion of memory and scandal. For something to be remembered, Détienne argues, it has to be either vital, quizzical or serious, but myths, although they contain those features, are also scandalous enough to not only be remembered, but to become a part of collective consciousness. They elicit strong emotions, a mixture of fascination and uneasiness resulting from reading (or watching, listening etc.) an unfamiliar story and a hero that a reader feels somehow close to. That concoction makes the story sensational, makes it disconnect from its original author; it starts being a part of its readers’ consciousness. For the last twenty years Harry Potter fans had plenty to excitedly wait for: people all over the world took part in book and movie premieres, crowding bookshops and cinemas, very often wearing costumes. After the seven books and their film adaptations have been published, the “pottermania” has not subsided; Cursed Child and Fantastic Beasts have been welcomed with the same enthusiasm, as has last year’s novelty, mobile game Hogwarts Mystery. New releases are met with unfading interest, invariably causing a stir in mass media. They are not, however, the only reason behind the audience’s emotional engagement. There are numerous examples of fans who are involved in the series so much they still cry over events from books published over ten years ago. Tumblr user bravelittlelily says, for example, that they almost had a car accident because of the feelings a Harry Potter related thought

12 You can change voice commands on your devices (smartphones or household goods if connected) to Harry Potter spells, so that Siri or Google Assistant can, for example, turn on the smartphone’s flashli- ght when the owner says “Lumos”. Vide: Markowitz, Ben. Web. https://twitter.com/bpmarkowitz/ status/1015303601839837186 [14.07.2018]. 13 Vide: profanityandshit. „Harry Potter References in TV shows”. imalivewireofdrfeelgood: We all fall out of the wagon sometimes. Web. http://imalivewireofdrfeelgood.tumblr.com/post/39526308844/harry- -potter-references-in-tv-shows [13.07.2018]. 178 MASKA 40/2018 caused14 and jagerik puts the sentiment this way: “how is this book series still fucking me up. Its been years. When will i have my freedom back joanne? When????”15. Ethical judgement of Severus Snape’s or Albus Dumbledore’s actions, the complicated ways magic may work, the problem with race and queerness – and many, many more – still cause heated discussions, making Harry Potter a work that certainly has its place in collective consciousness.

Inspiration

A story that elicits such strong emotional response is bound to inspire. Popularity of myths and them being a significant part of culture and everyday life make them appealing to authors. Mythical themes have always been used by artists of all kinds and Gély argues that contemporary works may inspire in the same way. As I have shown before, there is a lot of elements that make the franchise, but Harry Potter inspired also a multitude of amateur and non-commercial fan work16. Fans create art based on the books (or other media), they draw, they paint, they sing, cosplay, vid, knit, embroider, sculpt etc., but I would like to focus on their writing. In fan fiction, the literary section of fan creativity, we can observe how fans are using the source (mythical) text to tell their own stories. It is an important part of Harry Potter fandom’s activity – Harry Potter holds the first place in both AO3’s and FanFiction.net’s lists of the most popular source texts17. Fanfics may be a way to complete the original story – to fill in the blanks, to -im agine what happened before or after the described events, to add to the presentation, colour the circumstances, deepen the character portrayal. For Harry Potter it may mean the stories about the Marauders or Harry’s children, as well as LavenderBrown’s Ron and Hermione: Missing Moments series18 and the like. Authors may also want to

14 Vide: bravelittlelily, NOT A FREAK. Web. http://bravelittlelily.tumblr.com/post/105432545282/do- -you-ever-think-about-the-fact-that-because-of [14.07.2018]. 15 jagerik, Pteropus. Web. http://jegerik.tumblr.com/post/124962890397/sendmethemoon221b-platypusplayhere [14.07.2018]. 16 There is also a lot of Harry Potter inspired art that is made by professionals, fan artists who make requested pieces or people not necessarily interested in Harry Potter specifically but who are a part of creative media culture fandom and some of them do not even read/watch the source text before, for example, writing a fanfic, knowing the convention so well they do not need details (which is something they might be condemn for by the fan community, if caught). For the sake of this short paper, I will call all the creators “fans”. 17 Both of the biggest internet platforms devoted to fan fiction listHarry Potter as the book with the most works based on it: the older one (created in 1998) FanFiction.net has 791,000 of them (https:// www.fanfiction.net/book/; 15.07.2018) and Archive Of Our Own, launched in 2009, over 171,000 (https://archiveofourown.org/media; 15.07.2018). 18 One of the series: LavenderBrown. Resolution. Web. https://www.fanfiction.net/s/2508296/1/Resolution [22.07.2018]. 179 Dominika Ciesielska tell the same story from a different perspective – focus on a minor character19, only one event or change the setting. Fan writers examine the story very closely, drawing attention to some parts of it, making sense of it, explaining, understanding every little detail. More often than not, however, fan fiction strays from the canon, subjecting it to all sorts of transformations20. What exactly is canon – the original story, the source text – may differ amongst fans. For Harry Potter it is definitely the seven novels, but whether to count movies, games, Pottermore or Rowling’s additions on Twitter and in interviews is still debatable. Fans have simultaneously a lot and very little respect for the canon. On the one hand, as a fan fiction author you should know it well and a mistake may cause a re- buke from the readers, on the other – you can change or omit whatever you like if it suits your story, as long as you do it on purpose and with regard to canon. Usually there is a warning at the beginning of a fanfic or a tag (on AO3) “non-canon”. Fan fiction writers transform the original story in many ways. They put the plot in alternative universes (AUs), often making crossovers with other sources, they change events or their meaning, they modify the rules of the reality, they alter characters’ personalities, they can even turn around the whole plot while technically staying “in canon”. In Harry Potter fan fiction everything can happen: Voldemort is a protagonist, Harry is a vampire, the wizard’s war has never happened, Molly Weasley is evil, all characters are ponies, Hogwarts is in Peru etc. It may seem ridiculous and sometimes it is (crack fics21) but in most cases, those transformations, whether subtle or significant, serve a purpose of challenging the story. Fanfics’ authors, not always intentionally, ask questions about how the fictional world is constructed, what is its politics, ethics, how the society works, what does it mean? Harry Potter fans are curious for example about war22 – was there blood and guts? Has a teenager killed someone? Did the “good guys” torture people? Who exactly is in the right? Has the Hogwarts castle survived? Are Death Eaters Nazis? Are they all inherently evil? Did Harry suffer from PTSD? How did they rebuild the whole wizarding world after the war? Fan fiction is a source of numerous answers to those and many other questions, showing how engaged fans are with Harry Potter, how it inspires them to reflect, to investigate and to create. It

19 Sometimes a character that is mentioned in canon only once gains a whole biography in fandom – that is what happened with Dorcas Meadowes, a character that within the seven books is mentioned only in a half of a sentence, but in fanon (fan canon) she has a backstory and personality and a lot of fanfics devoted to her. 20 Henry Jenkins provides a set of transformation methods used by many fan studies scholars, although in some cases (e.g. for some fandoms) the list could be expanded or modified. Vide: Jenkins, Henry.Textual poachers: television fans and participatory culture. London, New York: Routledge, 1992, pp. 165 ‒ 182. 21 Crackfic, in short, is a humorous, absurd piece of writing, meant not to be taken seriously. Vide: https://fanlore.org/wiki/Crack#Crackfic [15.07.2018]. 22 Detailed analysis of the subject can be found in my MA thesis. 180 MASKA 40/2018 means not necessarily that Harry Potter itself is a myth, but rather that fans are making it one with their involvement, curiosity and creativity. Furthermore, besides studying the source text, fans are also simply using it for their own projects. Some fanfics have little in common with canon, their authors took a piece of it to create something entirely new. Just as ancient myths, contemporary pop culture works may be a source of characters, subjects, ideas, solutions etc. for new authors to choose from and use to tell their own stories.

Relevancy

One of the reasons myths are so popular is that they are always relevant – or, rather, they are made relevant. A myth can be a story that is fitting in all circumstances, that carries truths apposite to changing times and geographical, political and cultural situation. It can also be something that can be modified according to variable conditions, that is pliable in a way, that can easily be subjected to transformations and can be not just told, but used. Myth is a matter for new tales, from which you can pick what fits your story and change or discard what does not. For fan fiction writers,Harry Potter plays the same role. They choose from an abundance of motives, taking whatever they please to tell their own story. They often make it relevant to their beliefs, experiences and broadly understood position in the world: spatial, political, cultural, social etc. Fan fiction may act as a commentary to current political events – there are for example fanfics referring to Donald Trump’s presidency, such as KittenKisses’Professor Trump in which “After being kicked out of America, ex-president Donald Trump joins the Hogwarts faculty and starts the long, and often painful task of taking over wizarding Britain”23. KittenKisses mocks Trump’s megalomania, paraphrasing Amer- ican president’s words in their character’s welcome speech which, coincidentally, is similar to the one Dolores Umbridge, the most hated of Rowling’s characters, gave in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Some fans want to adjust the original story to their surroundings, relocating the School of Witchcraft and Wizardry to various parts of the world or enriching the plot with their religious beliefs or cultural traditions. It results in stories about wizarding schools in India or Egypt instead of/beside the Scottish one and characters that are black, mixed raced, Muslim, Jewish etc24. Some authors change or add such background to Rowling’s characters, and others present their own original characters (OCs).

23 KittenKisses, Professor Trump. Web. https://archiveofourown.org/works/10775088/chapters/23898609 [16.07.2018]. 24 It is easy to find examples on AO3 because the change of the setting or race and religion are usually mentioned in the tags, so if fan fiction reader imagines Hermione as Black or wants the story to include Asian characters, all they have to do is search “Black Hermione Granger” or “Asian Characters” within the tags. 181 Dominika Ciesielska

Fan fiction is also a way to express opinions on some contemporary problems, for example civilizational diseases connected to mental health. Characters with anxiety, depression, eating disorders etc. are relatively common in fan writing. It may be an attempt to add diversity to the original story or the way for authors to deal with their own issues or problems their family and friends experience. Similarly, the motifs devoted to discovering one’s identity occur often in fan fiction. It can be, amongst others, existential crises, uncertainty about what the future holds or struggles of being LGBTQ+25, trying to define oneself, dealing with reaction of those surrounding you, learning to be yourself. Fan fiction writers are makingHarry Potter relevant to them and their readers, using mythical matter of it to discuss contemporary issues, adjusting the story to their view on reality they live in and their personal experiences.

The creation of Harry Potter myth in fan practise

Myths understood as broadly engaging stories, used by many artists and writers, just how Gély sees it, do not have to originate from the primordial times – they can be born in our contemporary culture. A popular book can become a world phenomenon, as we can observe in Harry Potter’s case, because of its readers. A myth is born in the reception of the story, it is the audience that makes a myth, it is how they understand it, how they engage with it and how they use it. Harry Potter is a cultural phenomenon; it is more than the books and even other pieces based on them, movies, games etc. But what makes it a myth is how it became incorporated in use of everyday language and is a platform of communication, a way to connect and to better understand one another. It serves as a tool to convey thoughts not only by using certain words, but through referring to the whole experience of being a Harry Potter fan, which we can see in the practice of writing fan fiction.Harry Potter is a mythical matter that can be drawn from to share a story with somewhat like-minded people, to better present an interpretation, a comment, a confession. It elicits emotions that grant it a place in common consciousness, inspiring to tell new stories, keeping the original one ever relevant. The story is creatively used by the engaged audience and thus becomes a myth.

25 Fan fiction can be seen as a safe space for learning about sexuality and discovering identity, especially for young people, vide: Tosenberger, Catherine. “Homosexuality at the Online Hogwarts: Harry Pot- ter Slash Fanfiction.”Childrens Literature, vol. 36, 2008, pp. 185 ‒ 207. 182 MASKA 40/2018

Bibliography

Archive Of Our Own, https://archiveofourown.org/ KittenKisses. Professor Trump. https://archiveofourown.org/works/10775088/chapters/23898609 [online: 16.07.2018]. Eliade, Mircea. Aspects du mythe. Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1963. FanFiction.net, https://www.fanfiction.net/ LavenderBrown. Resolution. https://www.fanfiction.net/s/2508296/1/Resolution [online: 22.07.2018]. Fanlore, https://fanlore.org/wiki/Crack#Crackfic [online: 15.07.2018]. Frye, Northrop. “Myth, Fiction, and Displacement.” Daedalus. Vol. 90, No. 3, Evo- lution and Man’s Progress (Summer, 1961). Web. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20026675 [22.07.2018]. Gély, Véronique. “Pour une mythopoétique: quelques propositions sur les rapports entre mythe et fiction.”VoxPoetica , 21.05.2006. Web. http://www.vox-poetica.org/ sflgc/biblio/gely.html#_ftnref63 [17.07.2018]. Guerrasio, Jason. “The »Fantastic Beasts« producer explains why there are 5 movies in the franchise.” Business Insider, 10.11.2016. Web. http://www.businessinsider.com/fantastic-beasts-and-where-to-find-them-jk-rowling-5-movies-2016-11 [12.07.2018]. Jenkins, Henry. Textual poachers: television fans and participatory culture. London, New York: Routledge, 1992. Klik, Marcin. Teorie mitu. Współczesne literaturoznawstwo francuskie (1969‒2010). Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2016. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. “The Structural Study of Myth.”The Journal of American Folklo- re. Vol. 68, No. 270, Myth: A Symposium (Oct. ‒ Dec. 1955). 428‒444 Markowitz, Ben. Web. https://twitter.com/bpmarkowitz/status/1015303601839837186 [14.07.2018]. Tosenberger, Catherine. “Homosexuality at the Online Hogwarts: Harry Potter Sla- sh Fanfiction.”Children’s Literature, vol. 36, 2008. 185‒207 Tumblr posts bravelittlelily, NOT A FREAK, http://bravelittlelily.tumblr.com/post/105432545282/ do-you-ever-think-about-the-fact-that-because-of [online: 14.07.2018]. https://me.me/i/1021girl-snickerdoodlesandsausages-eniolrasactual-in-love-with- -my-bed-the-winchesters-creed-avellowstateofmind-imagine-stabbing-someone-with-19287893 [online: 12.07.2018]. jagerik, Pteropus, http://jegerik.tumblr.com/post/124962890397/sendmethemoon221b- -platypusplayhere [online: 14.07.2018].

183 Dominika Ciesielska profanityandshit. „Harry Potter References in TV shows”. imalivewireofdrfeelgood: We all fall out of the wagon sometimes. http://imalivewireofdrfeelgood.tumblr.com/ post/39526308844/harry-potter-references-in-tv-shows [online: 13.07.2018].

Summary

The aim of this article is to show fan writing as a practice that transforms a pop culture text into a myth using the example of Harry Potter phenomenon. According to Véronique Gély, a myth is made by the audience; it is a story that elicits strong emotional response, becoming a part of collective consciousness and inspires new creative work. Harry Potter became a myth because it is popular across the globe, it resonates with the audience, causing heated discussions and inspiring new art, a part of which is fan fiction, where the original story is retold, supplemented and modified to curate its readers’ needs. Joanna Ruczaj Suicidal Career: The Specifics of the Emergence of Suicidal Tendencies in the Life Span Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University

Introduction

The term “suicidal career” was used by Ronald Maris in his work of 19811, in which he draws attention to the need to make a change to the applied methodology of suicide research that would allow to take into account the dynamics of the prevalence of this phenomenon. Maris wrote: Virtually everyone engaged in suicide research agrees that it is time to move from static, structural, descriptive profiles of self-destructive behaviors to dynamic developmental models. Suicidal lethality (the probability of committing suicide) varies over time and among different types of individuals (and groups). It is argued here that the suicide’s biography or “career” is always relevant to his or her self-destructive reaction to crises and that it is precisely this history, individual or group, which tends to be neglected.2 The author justifies the stance he puts forward by emphasising the specificity of the occurrence of suicidal tendencies at specific stages in life. Although it has been nearly 30 years since the publication of that paper, the vast majority of studies dedicated to studying the suicide phenomenon are cross-sectional3. Longitudinal studies on the development of suicidal tendencies, both in individuals and groups, are very rare in the literature4.

1 Maris, Ronald. Pathways to Suicide. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1981. 2 Ibidem, p. 9. 3 Eg. Raymond, Judy. “Suicide in Later Life.” Journal of Religious Gereontology 13.3-4 (2003): 117 – 128. Web. 20 Oct 2008. 4 Cf. George Vaillant’s (1977) studies (cited in: Leenaars, Antoon A., ed. Life Span Perspectives of Suicide. New York: Springer, 1991, p. 26). 185 Joanna Ruczaj

Referring to the significance of presenting suicidal tendencies as a phenomena of a procedural character (which was highlighted in Maris’ works), in this article the selected theories of suicidal tendencies are discussed in relation to human development at various stages of life. A detailed analysis of statistical data proposed in this paper, referred to reports from preliminary studies in suicidology, aims to provide an outline of the dynamics of this phenomenon and to indicate moments of increased risk of suicidal tendencies in the life span. The aim of the analysis of the specificity of developmental tasks of individuals in determined stages of life, combined with a se- lective review of the theories of suicidal tendencies which exist in the literature is to provide a choice of concepts that would allow to describe the characteristics of the occurrence of suicidal behaviours at specific stages of life in the most adequate way. The scale of the problem and the dynamics of this phenomenon may be point- edly illustrated by statistical data concerning the number of suicides in Poland. The dynamics of suicides in Poland is reflected by the statistical data provided by the General Police Headquarters (KGP) and Statistics Poland (GUS). KGP and GUS statistics (collected data from 1999 to 2017) indicate an upward trend in the number of suicides. According to the KGP and GUS data collected from 1999 to 2017, about 6000 Poles commit suicide every year . When analysing statistical data from our country, one should stress age-related variations among suicides. However, it should be noted that most studies dedicated to learning about the specificity of suicidal tendencies in particular stages of life are focused on describing far ends of the age groups: suicidal tendencies among teenagers5 or people in their late adulthood6. The deficit of studies focusing on people in their mid-adulthood is even more alarming given that, statistically, so-called ‘middle aged’ individuals most frequently commit suicide7.

Statistics

When analysing the statistical data from our country, one should note a rapid growth in the number of suicides in the group of people older than 15 years of age. The number of suicides determined for specific age groups remains equally high for the age group of 19 – 50 years. An in-depth analysis of the General Police Headquarters (KGP) from the last 18 years shows a significant rise in the number of suicides among individuals aged 19 – 24 years, which is followed by a slight fall for the age group of 25 – 34 years.

5 Cf. King, Robert A., Apter, Alan, ed. Suicide in Children and Adolescents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 6 Cf. Roff, Sherri. “Suicide and the Eldery.”Journal of Gerontological Social Work 35.2 (2001), pp. 21 – 36. Web. 11 Oct 2008. 7 Balance, Walters D.C., Leenaars, Antoon A. “Suicide in Middle Adulthood.” Life Span Perspectives of Suicide: Time-Lines in the Suicide Process. Ed. Antoon A. Leenaars. New York: Springer, 1991, p. 138. 186 MASKA 40/2018

When examining the causes of the slight drop in the number of suicides among people aged 25 – 34, one should refer to the conclusions presented in Filipiak’s study8, which assessed the value system represented by people after a suicide attempt. When testing Polish population, Filipiak noted that only people aged 25 – 34 years, after a suicidal attempt do not experience a valuation crisis, i.e. they exhibit no disruption in their determined hierarchy of values, which might point to their outstanding stability at this stage of life. Researchers910 draw attention to the fact that a stable representation of a value system may be one of the key factors that prevent a person from taking his or her own life. When referring to the data obtained from KGP statistics, a rise in the number of suicides among people aged 40 and older should also be noted. In 1999, a rise in the number of suicides was observed among people over 40, however, an analysis of the statistical data shows that this moment of significant rise in the number of suicides manifests a tendency to shift systematically, and at present, it is noted for people between 50 and 60 years of age (KFGP collected data from 1999 to 2017). In order to justify the dynamics of these changes, Hołyst11 draws attention to systemic changes and social mechanisms, i.a. a different situation in employment systems, longer economic activity and the connected process of evaluating one’s life that follows; a greater possibility to undertake replacement activities that allow people to compensate for their possible experience of absent relations for a longer time. Ringel12 draws attention to the key significance of participating in satisfying relations for preventing suicide, which is said to pertain particularly to late adulthood. Based on the conducted preliminary analysis of statistical data, three distinct moments in the course of life can be distinguished in which the dynamics of the occurrence of suicidal tendencies changes notably: 1) a rapid growth in the number of suicides after 15 years of age; 2) a repetitive yet minor drop in the number of suicides between 25 and 34 years of age, and 3) a significant rise in the number of suicides at about 50 years of age. In accordance with the models of development present in the literature, individuals at specific stages of life vary significantly in terms of, i.e. cognitive competences13, the ability to establish interactions with society14, and applied problem-solving

8 Filipiak, Sara. “Zaburzenia procesu wartościowania w etiologii prób samobójczych,” Suicydologia 4.1. (2008). 9 Frankl, Viktor E. Lekarz i dusza. Warszawa: Czarna Owca, 2017, p. 81. 10 Ringel, Erwin. Gdy życie traci sens. Szczecin: Glob, 1987, p. 70. 11 Hołyst, Brunon. Suicydologia. Warszawa: LexisNexis, 2012, p. 545. 12 Ringel, Erwin., op.cit., p. 123. 13 Cf. Jean Piaget’s (1952) cognitive theory of human development. 14 Cf. Albert Bandura’s & Richard Walters’ (1963) learning theory of human development. 187 Joanna Ruczaj strategies15. Importantly, the level of the skills indicated determines to a significant extent the way in which an individual copes with an existential crisis. In his studies, David Lester16 refers to the model of development proposed by Erikson. He observes that Erikson, describing particular tasks that an individual confronts during his or her life, also draws attention to more fundamental conflicts he or she may be experiencing at the time. Erikson’s analysis of the existential crises experienced at specific stages of life seems particularly significant in the case of the analysis of the specificity of the occurrence of suicidal attempts in a life span. In reference to the observations made in the course of the preliminary analysis of statistical data provided by KGP and GUS, the distinct moments of the altering dynamics of the occurrence of suicidal behaviour impel us to carry out a detailed analysis of the specificity of developmental tasks faced by adolescents, those at the turn of mid-adulthood and those at the turn of late adulthood. Then, referring to the theory of Erik Erikson, this article will present key developmental tasks that teenagers, as well as people of from early to middle age, are confronted with. The identification of key -de velopmental tasks people face in these periods, aims to provide yet another selection of theories of the emergence of suicidal tendencies, which will most adequately depict the connection between the deficits experienced and the probability of suicidal thoughts.

Erikson’s theory of psycho-social development17

When analysing the specificity of experiences in adolescence (12-18 years old18), Erik- son stresses the importance of experiencing a crisis, understood as a conflict between gaining a sense of one’s identity and experiencing dispersion19. He notices that the main task at this stage of development is to determine one’s identity and choose one’s career path. This struggle is oftentimes accompanied by distress due to a need to make decisions and choices that will significantly affect the future of a given individual. It is a period of ongoing confrontation of one’s predispositions with his or her own expectations and those of one’s environment. Based on an assessment of the results of the undertaken attempts, a sense of one’s own competence forms in teenagers, together with a subjective assessment one’s self-worth. Moreover, initial categories that determine the way in which a person defines him- or herself emerge.

15 Cf. Erik Erikson’s (1950) psychosocial stage theory of human development. 16 Lester, David. “A Brief Introduction to the Stages of Development.” Life Span Perspectives of Suicide. Ed. Antoon A. Leenaars. New York: Springer, 1991, p. 24. 17 Cf. Erikson, Erik. Tożsamość a cykl życia. Poznań: Wyd. Zysk i S-ka, 2000, pp. 46 – 96. 18 This particular attribution of age categories to various stages of psychological development of human beings proposed by Erikson is based on: Lester, David., op.cit., p. 18. 19 Cf. Erikson, Erik. op.cit., pp. 84 – 90. 188 MASKA 40/2018

According to Erikson, individuals in early adulthood (19 - 40 years old) confront the need to resolve the intimacy-isolation conflict20. Prominent tasks of this stage include creating and maintaining satisfying professional and social relations (including romantic ones). Active participation in social and professional life is linked to the need for the implementation of selected values a given person considers particularly important. Marcia21 emphasises the meaning of the autonomous character of this decision. The avoidance of decision-making or surrendering to suggestions of others limits one’s possibility of engaging his or her existence, while a lack of the internalisation of undertaken decisions prevents them from shaping the individual’s coherent identity. According to Erikson, people seek to resolve the generativity-stagnation conflict in late adulthood (40 – 65 years old)22. Due to the dynamics of changes in the developmental stage, it is proposed in the literature23 that this stage should be analysed with respect to two phases. In phase one (40 – 50 years old), the characteristic element is a tendency to make preliminary evaluation of the degree to which previous life tasks have been implemented. The sense of meaning is then conditioned on the content of conclusions drawn from the analysis of one’s previous experiences. A subjective sense of fulfilment (success in private or professional life) and respect and recognition experienced in close relations confirm the effectiveness of efforts taken so far and motivates to undertake new actions (generativity) that significantly determine the meaning of life among people in this stage of life. In phase two (50 – 65 years old), individuals are characterised by a broader perspective on how they perceive their own existence, which is manifested in their unlimited self-projection into the future. These people’s strive for self-transcendence is implemented through spiritual growth or takes the form of a yearning for a transmission of values (individually internalised during previous stages of life) between generations. What is characteristic of these people is their desire to make values addressed to their loved ones reality. In this period of life, another important task is to give the acquired goods and skills to future generations. In reference to these observations, a systematic review of theories that aimed to explain the genesis of suicidal tendencies was done. With due consideration of an individual’s stage of development and the assumption of the analysed model, three theories were chosen whose relevance to particular age groups is verified in this article by means of reference to the analysis of case studies of individuals who committed suicide. The specificity of the occurrence of suicidal behaviours in adolescence will be presented by means of reference to the theory of the loss of a sense of self development

20 Ibidem, pp. 90 – 92. 21 James Marcia’s theory (1980) cited in: Lester, David., op.cit., p. 22. 22 Cf. Erikson, Erik. op.cit., pp. 92 – 93. 23 Harwas-Napierała, Barbara, Trempała, Janusz, ed. Psychologia rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa: PWN 2009, p. 15. 189 Joanna Ruczaj by Michael Chandler24. In order to present the model of the origin of suicidal tendencies at the turn of mid-adulthood, a concept of psychological pain (psychache) proposed by Shneidman25 will be employed, whereas characteristic of suicides committed by individuals at the turn of late adulthood is described by means of a reference to the Baumeister’s concept of escape from self26.

Michael Chandler’s theory of a loss of a sense of self

Michael Chandler27 claims that suicidal tendencies (particularly in the case of adolescents) may appear as a result of a loss of sense of self. This observation also finds support in reports from other authors’ research28. In his work, Chandler focuses on analysing the developmental meaning of the process of restructuring an individual’s identity structure. According to the Author, the process which is characterised by a normative course aims to promote the development of a given person by attaining a higher and more complex identity structure. Chandler notes that the occurrence of complications in this process may create in a given individual a distorted sense of per- manence and continuity of the construct of his or her identity in time. This is caused by lacking experience of being connected to his or her past experiences and lack of sense of impact on his or her future. Chandler observes that when self-destructive behaviours analysed in this context (particularly often reported among teenagers) cease to be referred to this very individual (i.e., they lose the personal meaning), this makes them more accessible as a potential way of addressing experienced crises. Importantly, the choice of constructive strategies for coping with one’s problems is usually related to the will to invest in the future (i.e., it has a prospective meaning). In cases where an individual loses the sense of the continuity of his or her identity, and thus becomes ‘detached’ from the obligation with respect to future, at the same time this person loses the need for investing in his or her future. By making a detailed analysis of the process of restructuring the identity structure, Chandler identified three basic types of distortions in this process: 1. Transition from one stage to the other may be delayed or the person may stop at a given stage of development of his or her identity.

24 Chandler, Michael. “Adolescent suicide and the loss of personal continuity.” Disorders and dysfunctions of the self. Ed. Dante Cicchetti, Sheree L. Toth. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1994, pp. 371 – 390. 25 Shneidman Edwin S. Suicide as psychache: A clinical approach to self-destructive behaviour. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc, 1993. 26 Baumeister, Roy F. “Suicide as escape from self.” Psychological Review 97.1 (1990), pp. 90 – 113. 27 Chandler, Michael., op.cit., pp. 371 – 390. 28 Cf. Ringel, Erwin., op.cit., p. 283. 19 0 MASKA 40/2018

2. A regression may take place from a more advanced and complex stage to a previous and less advanced one. 3. The identity development process may become distorted, resulting in a distorted progressive hierarchy of subsequent stages. The process-oriented approach in the system of restructuring one’s identity will become distorted. In this event, a total system breakdown takes place, leaving the individual without any means that would allow him or her to retain a sense of own identity in the face of changes that take place in its life. In sum, according to Chandler, suicide becomes a possibility people take into account when they lose the sense of identity (including its permanent character and continuity in time), as a result depriving them of the experience of a connection with their own future. A negation of one’s own future follows and suicidal tendencies emerge. A reference to the presented theory indicates that the experience of one’s identity is correlated with the probability of occurrence of suicidal tendencies. However, the rationale behind the transition from losing one’s sense of identity to self-destructive acts and then suicidal attempts requires the analysis of case studies that correspond to the assumptions of a given model. In reference to Chandler’s theory, David Lester29 analyses entries from a journal kept by an 18-year-old man (Alan) who committed suicide. Based on selected entries from this diary, this article will attempt to show the coexistence of increasing lack of self-identity with the development of suicidal tendencies:

Now including … I hate a lot, I love a lot, I’m suicidal. I’m happy. I’m fighting myself. I can’t think clearly. (27th April)

I still cannot get my act together … Not enough of me exists or works right for me to rely on myself completely … (12nd August)

I am writing this to clear some things up and possibly make some things easier. I have decided to kill myself (…) There is no one to blame, because this destructive element that I possess has been with me and growing since the beginning of my existence. … (26th September)

Referring to the quoted entries of the diary, it could be seen how the lack of self-identity affects the development of Alan’s suicidal thoughts. The lack of a clear experience of himself depicted by the adolescent results in internal conflict, i.e. a conflict between coexisting feelings and values. Non-integrated parts of this man’s identity do not allow for a unified, coherent image of the self to clarify. This significantly determines his

29 Lester, David. “An Essay on Loss of Self versus Escape from Self in Suicide: Illustrative Cases from Diares left by those who died by Suicide.” Suicidology Online 4 (2013), pp. 17 – 18. 191 Joanna Ruczaj way of perceiving the surrounding world. Alan’s description of the internal conflict he is experiencing causes a sense of chaos and lack of support in his own experience. As a result, the person loses his sense of autonomy and trust in the soundness of the decisions he makes, as he no longer feels a guarantor of his own decisions. The identity-related turmoil and lack of support in a world of one’s own experiences results in a search for a reference in the external world. Then, keeping a journal oftentimes has a therapeutic dimension30, since it allows a person to work through, i.e. experienced contradictory emotional states. When analysing the content of the last mentioned entry, written shortly before Alan’s suicidal death, there should also be taken into account his belief of the primitiveness and continuity in time of this ‘debilitating part’ of his identity. This observation may constitute a premise support- ing the soundness of application of the model for studying the occurrence of suicidal tendencies, which takes due account of their potential development in the life span (i.a. Maris’ theory of suicidal career31).

Edwin shneidman’s theory of psychological pain (psychache)

In his theory, Shneidman accentuates the meaning of the experience of frustration of the need to undertake suicidal behaviour. In analysing the nature of needs, he identifies main needs (pertaining to the physiology of the body), secondary needs (related to the psyche, such as ambition, feelings) and modal needs (allowing to determine the personality) and life needs (significant for existence)32. He stresses the thesis put forth by Roy Baumeister, that the deprivation of needs is the cause of experiencing psychological pain (psychache), whereas psychological pain, which is secondary to unfulfilled life needs, may encourage a person to make the decision to commit suicide. He notes that undertaking suicidal actions aims primarily to reduce psychological pain and not necessarily to end life. The emergence of suicidal tendencies is a secondary phenomenon to the experience of the frustration of needs, among which Shneidman stresses the meaning of the following needs: 1) love, acceptance and belonging; 2) sense of control and agency; 3) positive self-evaluation, avoidance of shame and hu- miliation, and 4) creating satisfying relations with significant ones33.

30 Cf. Blauner. Susan R. How I Stayed Alive When My Brain Was Trying to Kill Me. HarperCollins e-books, 2003, pp. 137 – 141. 31 Basic concepts of this theory are presented, among others in: Maris, Ronald. “The Developmental Perspective of Suicide.” Life Span Perspectives of Suicide: Time-Lines in the Suicide Process. Ed. Antoon A. Leenaars. New York: Springer, 1991, pp. 28 – 33. 32 Cf. Shneidman, Edwin S. Definitions of Suicide. New York: John Wiley, 1993. 33 Cf. Idem, Comprehending Suicide: Landmarks in 20th-century suicidology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001. 192 MASKA 40/2018

In reference to Erikson’s concept of psycho-social development, the turn of mid-adulthood is the time of active engagement in social and professional life, which is related to a particularly intensely experienced need for making specific values a person autonomically considers significant34. The inability to fulfil significant needs and values which are of major significance to the person, may lead to a state of frustration which, in line with Shneidman’s theory, is the reasoning behind suicidal tendencies. In reference to the theory of psychological pain, personal notes and entries from the 30-year-old man’s journal (Arthur) will be analyzed35.

I need you to be happy that I’m out of pain (addressed to sister).

I beg you to celebrate for me that I can be free of pain.

Oh do I wish I was in a simple world where my only needs were food, shelter and clothing, and not some deep spiritual satisfaction.

When analysing Arthur’s statements, quoted in Shneidman’s paper, it may be noted that the man directly calls his mental experiences an experience of pain, which may be indicative of the validity of the interpretation of the origin of occurrence of his suicidal tendencies using the categories of Shneidmann’s theory. Moreover, it should be noted that the man directly refers to his unfulfilled needs, including the presently prevailing need to break free from his experienced psychological pain. He also points to the link between the experienced frustration and the inability to fulfil his key values on his own (he mentions unfulfilled “spiritual needs”). The state of deprivation of needs of key importance in this period of life results in the experience of internal conflict, and thus identity-related turmoil and the experience of psychological pain, which according to Shneidman, is responsible for the emergence of the suicidal tendencies that follow.

Roy Baumeister’s theory of escape from self

Roy Baumeister36 proposed a theory of escape from the self, according to which suicidal behaviour is a form of escape from one’s experienced psychological pain. In line with the stage model developed by Baumeister, an individual originally experiences a series of contradictions between his or her expectations and the obtained results.

34 James Marcia’s theory (1980) cited in: Lester, David. “A Brief Introduction to the Stages of Deve- lopment.” Life Span Perspectives of Suicide: Time-Lines in the Suicide Process. Ed. Antoon A. Leenaars. New York: Springer, 1991. p. 22. 35 Shneidman Edwin S. Autopsy of a Suicidal Mind. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. pp. 12 – 13. 36 Baumeister Roy F., op.cit., pp. 90 – 113. 19 3 Joanna Ruczaj

This causes an experience of frustrated needs. By making an evaluation of one’s actions, the person carries out internal attribution. Perceiving one’s immanent traits of character as the reason for failure generates a mental burden (psychological pain) that drives the person to escape from the self (to undertake a suicidal attempt or to commit a suicide). Baumeister described the development of suicidal tendencies by classifying them into the following six stages: 1. Occurrence of experiences that are evaluated as diverging from the predetermined standards. 2. Internal attribution 3. Destructive way of perceiving oneself 4. Negative emotions 5. Escaping from obsessive thoughts into a state of cognitive and emotional numb- ness (intentional inhibition. 6. Reduction of intentional inhibition of obsessive thoughts, resulting in a greater capacity to undertake suicidal behaviour. When analysing the assumptions of Baumeister’s theory, it should be noted that this model significantly correlates with the ongoing evaluation of one’s previous experiences that precede the escape from the self. When considering the link between the occurrence of an individual’s suicidal tendencies and a stage of life he or she is presently in, it should be noted that the tendency to summarize is characteristic of later stages of life (particularly the turn of late adulthood37. The aim of consequently repeated assessment of the effectiveness of the implemented tasks is the final attain- ment of a sense of fulfilment (i.e. a success obtained in the private and/or professional sphere), which is to a significant degree reflected in the assessment of one’s self-worth. With due consideration of mechanisms depicted it may be noted that the characteristics which may predispose one to decide on the escape from self are per- fectionism and the tendency to experience excessive shame. Both are related to the occurrence of large discrepancies between the represented ‘real Self ’ and the vision of the ‘ideal Self ’ one holds (…). According to Baumeister, the lack of consent for the inability to meet predetermined standards or an everlasting fear of compromising oneself, may lead an individual to take a decision to commit suicide. In reference to Baumeister’s theory, Lester38 analyses entries made in a journal of an adult man, a researcher who failed to withstand the imposed pressure of expectations (his own and those of his environment) and the fear of compromising himself

37 Erikson’s theory presented in: Balance, Walters D.C., Leenaars, Antoon A., op.cit., p. 140. 38 Lester, David. “An Essay on Loss of Self versus Escape from Self in Suicide: Illustrative Cases from Diaries left by those who died by Suicide.” Suicidology Online 2013, 4. 19 4 MASKA 40/2018 in both professional and private life decides to commit suicide. Based on selected entries from his journal, Lester examines in what way does the experience of the man subjected to ongoing assessment in the face of determined expectations, prevents him from attaining the sense of fulfilment, the lack of which finds reflection in the significant discrepancy between his ‘real Self ’ and ‘ideal Self ’. The growing tension results in frustration, a personal disillusionment, increases fear of compromising oneself, strengthens the belief that he has failed and destructs his self-worth39:

“again” she [his wife] tolerates me, that she is “putting up” with me ‘til something better comes along, that I’m no good really and I can’t prove to her (or anyone else) that I am, that I’m a poor schnook in her eyes, that I’m to be pitied... This experience has left me with less of the feeling that I am a useless cog in society, that I don’t count, (…) that my case is hopeless... that I’m not a blot on the societal world (…) ... I was brought to [the university] as a joke … A great joke, he’s nothing but a small town jerk. And it’s time he found it out.

When reading fragments of the man’s journal, attention is drawn to the characteristic susceptibility of the subject to opinions of others and the tendency to evaluate previous achievements, which is a recurring theme in his statements. The analysis of descriptions of the man’s experiences allows to study his way of confronting the generativity - stagnation conflict characteristic of this stage of life. In Erikson’s view, the fundamental task at this stage is to approach assessment of one’s life in a reflective manner, in the form of initial summaries40. Acceptance of the effectiveness of actions taken in the course of life is significantly correlated with the assessment of the degree to which values, which the individual decided to pursue during previous stages of his or her life (particularly in early adulthood), are fulfilled. One may notice the degree in which the manner of overcoming crises characteristic of previous stages of life may influence the capacity to confront conflicts characteristic of later stages of life. When analysing the content of the first note from the journal, it should be noted how difficulties in resolving the intimacy-isolation conflict (which is specific for early adulthood) find reflection in the man’s currently formed relation with his spouse. When making an initial evaluation of his private life, the man notices that the image of their bond diverges from the standards he has set up. He then makes an internal attribution of reasons for the occurrence of difficulties in their relationship, which, in line with Baumeister’s model proposed for this case study, leads him to destructive self-perception and the experience of negative emotions. Low self-esteem additionally

39 Ibidem, p. 19. 40 Cf. Erikson, Erik. Tożsamość a cykl życia. Poznań: Wyd. Zysk i S-ka, 2000, pp. 92 – 96. 19 5 Joanna Ruczaj determines the way he perceives his achievements in professional life and outlines his perceived low position in social life, as indicated by the content of other entries.

Conclusions

The analysis of case studies and the performed review of research reports may point to the specificity of occurrence of suicidal tendencies in specific stages of life. This provokes a question whether the observed differences in the genesis of suicidal behaviours are dictated primarily by the age of suicides? If so, the choice of an adequate model to describe the specificity of the occurrence of suicidal behaviours would depend on the assessment of the stage of development in which a given individual exhibits suicidal tendencies. When considering this possibility, the adequacy of Chandler’s model of loss of sense of self was presented with regard to the specificity of occurrence of suicidal thoughts among adolescents, Shneidman’s theory of psychological pain was presented in reference to suicides made at the turn of mid-adulthood and, finally, Baumeister’s concept of escaping from self was introduced to analyse suicides at the turn of late adulthood. However, the possibility that individual suicidal tendencies evolve over the course of life together with an individual’s development and his or her needs for fulfilling new life tasks and undertaking new social roles should also be given due account. Maris41, when stressing the temporal aspect of the phenomenon of suicide, points out that suicide is often a long-term process subjected to modifications throughout the life span. He stresses that the analysis of the occurrence of self-destructive behaviours requires that cause-and-effect correlations are related to the specificity of a given individual’s development in the course of her or his life. The aim of the proposed theory is to identify both the direct and the indirect correlations that could drive an individual to suicide. Taking into account the course of development of a given individual during the process of diagnosing his or her suicidal tendencies allows for the adoption of a broader perspective on his or her behaviour and for the acquisition of a more in-depth understanding of the meaning given to self-destructive acts. The analysis, which takes into account the nature of needs that are of key importance in a given stage of development and the influence of the experiences’ deficits in the specific areas of functioning, might translate into increased effectiveness of proposed therapeutic methods and, in long term, a decrease in the reported number of suicides.

41 Cf. Maris, Ronald. Pathways to Suicide. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. 19 6 MASKA 40/2018

Bibliography

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197 Joanna Ruczaj

Summary

The aim of this article is to present selected theories of the formation of suicidal tendencies. In the first part of this paper, based on the theory of Erik Erikson, the author presents the statistics on the number of suicides in Poland in the context of human development through the life span. Furthermore, the author describes the theory of a loss of a sense of self, following the findings of Michael Chadler, and the particular emphasis is put onits adequacy to the description of teenagers’ suicidal behaviours. In the third part of the text, Shneidman’s concept of psychological pain (psychache) is presented in reference to suicides committed at the turn of mid-adulthood. Finally, Baumeister’s concept of escaping from self is proposed as a tool to analyse suicides at the turn of late adulthood. Magazyn antropologiczno-społeczno-kulturowy „Maska” (numer ISSN: 1898-5947) to czasopismo naukowe powstałe przy Katedrze Porównawczych Studiów Cywiliza- cji UJ, które zrzesza studentów oraz doktorantów szeroko rozumianych nauk kulturowych I społecznych, m.in. antropologii, socjologii, filozofii I orientalistyki. „Maska” ukazuje się co 3 miesiące w formie papierowej oraz na bieżąco w formie elektronicznej. Artykuły przyjmowane do czasopisma muszą być powiązane z tema- tem numeru (podanym każdorazowo z kilkumiesięcznym wyprzedzeniem) I opatrzone recenzją pracownika naukowego ze stopniem co najmniej doktora. Artykuły na stronę internetową przyjmowane są na bieżąco, nie muszą być opatrzone recenzją naukową, a ich tematyka dotyczyć powinna badań kulturowych I społecznych. O zamieszczeniu artykułów w czasopiśmie bądź na stronie zawsze decyduje Redakcja „Maski”. Od roku 2013 „Maska” znajduje się w wykazie czasopism punktowanych Mini- sterstwa Nauki I Szkolnictwa Wyższego (Lista B). Za publikację w „Masce” można obecnie otrzymać 7 punktów. Wszystkie teksty I materiały ilustracyjne (jeśli nie podano inaczej) udostępniane są w trybie otwartym z zachowaniem praw autorskich w użyciu niekomercyjnym.

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strona internetowa: www.maska.psc.uj.edu.pl e-mail: [email protected]

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