Building the ‘Sri Lankan nation’ through education: The identity politics of teaching history in a multicultural post-war society Mihiri Saritha Warnasuriya St. Edmund’s College Centre of Development Studies University of Cambridge This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2018 Name: Mihiri Warnasuriya Dissertation Title: Building the ‘Sri Lankan nation’ through education: The identity politics of teaching history in a multicultural post-war society Abstract Driven by the overarching objective of promoting reconciliation through education, this thesis strives to unpack the first national goal of education set out by the Sri Lankan Ministry of Education, which involves nation building and the establishment of a Sri Lankan identity through the promotion of social cohesion and the recognition of cultural diversity in Sri Lanka’s plural society. Within education, history teaching in secondary school acts as the main focus of the research, due to the relevance of this goal to the subject of history as well as the ability of history to shape the attitudes and perceptions of youth. As such, the original contribution of this thesis is the development of an understanding of how the goal of nation building is being carried out through the Sri Lankan education system by focusing on the subject of history, which in turn facilitates an analysis of the identity politics of teaching history in a multicultural post-war society. With the intention of developing such an understanding, the study aims to answer three research questions: 1) What type of nation is being built through history education in Sri Lanka?; 2) How is the ethnic and religious diversity which characterises the Sri Lankan nation being dealt with through history education?; and 3) How are Sri Lankan youth being aided in understanding the sensitive matters which impeded the nation building exercise in the recent past and resulted in the break out of the ethnic conflict? The thesis draws on an inductive approach, using qualitative research and secondary literature. Findings are generated from field work and textbook analysis. Conducted in four different districts around the country chosen based on their ethnic and religious compositions, field work involves the conducting of interviews with youth, history teachers, curriculum developers, textbook writers and other academics. This thesis argues that an ambiguity regarding the composition of the ‘Sri Lankan nation’ is being created through history education, with it sometimes being characterised as a purely Sinhalese-Buddhist nation instead of a multicultural one. This is most likely because the prominent players involved in the development of the curriculum themselves appear to be conflicted about the monoethnic versus polyethnic nature of the nation, with their views filtering through to the educational materials they produce. i It is evident that the history curriculum predominantly contains Sinhalese-Buddhist history, with little information being conveyed about the history of the minority groups. Tamils and Muslims are portrayed as invaders and outsiders since the national story is narrated through the perspective of the Sinhalese- Buddhist community who play the role of the protagonist. With respect to stakeholder reactions, there appears to be a contrast in the attitudes of Tamil and Muslim youth regarding the portrayal of minority history, with Tamils being vocal about their anger towards the perceived bias, but Muslims being reluctant to discuss ethnic matters, preferring to sweep them under the rug. Finally, in terms of the ethnically sensitive matters in recent history, while some are completely omitted from the history lessons, others are narrated through a majoritarian perspective or glossed over by leaving out key pieces of information. Youth are therefore largely unaware of the contentious matters that led to the breakdown of ethnic relations in the country, despite having lived through a brutal ethnic conflict. These findings indicate the failings of the nation building exercise being carried out through history education. Instead of building a strong Sri Lankan identity, this type of education is creating confusion regarding the composition of the nation and adversely affecting the sense of belonging of minority youth. It is also creating a younger generation who are unaware of their country’s past troubles. The recent spate of ethnic and religious violence that shook the nation highlight the need to address these weaknesses in a timely manner, with a view to promoting reconciliation through education. ii This thesis is dedicated to Giulio Regeni, a true inspiration and an even truer friend. iii iv Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the Politics and International Studies Degree Committee. Mihiri Warnasuriya Cambridge 28 August 2018 v vi Acknowledgements Looking back over the last four years, I am fully aware of the fact that I would not have been able to complete this thesis without the help of many remarkable individuals who played important roles in my life. First among them is my supervisor, Dr. Shailaja Fennell, without whom I would never have even received the opportunity to pursue a PhD. Pulling out all the stops, she somehow manged to secure funding for me to take up the position, and I will always be grateful to her for not giving up even when I had. She is a truly inspirational academic and a wonderful person. While I have learned so much from her, she has also stimulated my interest in various topics and helped me to have more confidence in myself as a researcher. Her genuine care and concern has greatly helped me to overcome all the obstacles that have sprung up during my PhD journey. Next, I have to say a big thank you to my amazing family for their continuous love and support. I fondly remember my father who is no longer with us, for being a quiet but vital presence in my life. I thank my mother and sister for being my ‘go to’ people for anything and everything, and for laughing and crying along with me throughout the ups and downs of the PhD experience. I’m also grateful to my mother for assisting with my research by accompanying me on fieldwork trips, finding useful contacts and proofreading my work. Overall, my parents, my brother and sister-in-law and sister and brother-in- law, not to mention my adorable nephew and niece, were the best support system I could have asked for. Their warmth, generosity and humour got me through many a hard time. With respect to the University of Cambridge, there are many institutions and individuals I wish to sincerely thank. For starters, I extend my deep gratitude to the Cambridge Trust for making my PhD dream a reality by awarding me with a Cambridge International Scholarship to fund my studies. I am also extremely grateful for the Bursary I received from the Centre of Development Studies (CDS). I am thankful to have been a part of the close-knit community in CDS. Apart from my supervisor, the intellectual guidance I received from other academics in the centre like Dr. David Clark and Dr. Gay Meeks is much appreciated. A big thank you also goes out to the administrative staff both past and present, namely Doreen Woolfrey, Nathalie Henry, Élise Lapaire and Emma Cantu. I’m further grateful to CDS as well as the Department of Politics and International Studies (POLIS) for granting me fieldwork and conference funding. My college, St. Edmund’s, deserves a massive thank you for providing me with a home away from home and for supporting me in so many ways. I am privileged to have received a Martlet Award and Santander Scholarship through college, not to mention Tutorial Awards to attend conferences. I honestly could not have asked for a better college. My tutor, Dr. Anna Gannon, warrants a special thank you for being one of the most kind and caring people I have ever met. vii This research would not have been possible without the assistance of many organisations and individuals back home in Sri Lanka. I am thankful to the Sri Lanka Unites organisation and the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU) for helping me to access youth participants; as well as to Vidyananda College, Matara Central College, Narandeniya Madya Maha Vidyalaya, Carmel Fatima College, and Zahira College Kalmunai for providing me with access to teachers. Likewise, I thank the National Institute of Education (NIE) and Educational Publications Department (EPD) for granting me permission to interview history curriculum developers and textbook writers. My sincere thanks also goes out to Prof. Amal Jayawardene who gave me considerable advice and facilitated the KDU connection; Mr. W. Sunil who helped me to get approval for the research from the Ministry of Education, Ms. Lilamani Amarasekera and Ms. Chandani Senerath who assisted in locating the textbooks needed for the study; and Mr. Mario Gomez who offered me the use of the International Centre for Ethnic Studies library as a work space. Most importantly, I extend my deep gratitude to all the research participants for agreeing to be a part of the study and sharing their views with me.