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Home , 158 BC, Amarapura Nikaya, Andrew Caldecott, Anuradhapura Kingdom, Chandrabhanu, Dighavapi

CONTENTS Chapter Preface Introduction 1. Sri 2. Prehistoric Lanka; Ravana abducts Princess Sita from .(15) 3 The Mahawamsa; The discovery of the Mahawamsa; Turnour's contribution...... ( 17) 4 Indo-Aryan Migrations; The coming of Vijaya...... (22) 5. The First Two Sinhala Kings: Consecration of Vijaya; Panduvasudeva, Second king of Lanka; Princess Citta...... (27) 6 Prince Pandukabhaya; His birth; His escape from soldiers sent to kill him; His training from Guru Pandula; Battle of Kalahanagara; Pandukabhaya at war with his uncles; Battle of Labu Gamaka; - Ancient capital of Lanka...... (30) 7 King Pandukabhaya; Introduction of Municipal administration and Public Works; Pandukabhaya’s contribution to ; Basawakulama Tank; King Mutasiva...... (36) 8 King Devanampiyatissa; gifts to Emporer Asoka: Asoka’s great gift of the Buddhist Doctrine...... (39) 9 established in Lanka; First Buddhist Ordination in Lanka around 247 BC; visits the Palace; The first Religious presentation to the clergy and the Ordination of the first Sinhala ; The Thuparama Dagoba...... (42) 10 Theri arrives with Bo sapling; Sri Maha Bodhi; Issurumuniya; Tissa Weva in Anuradhapura...... (46) 11 A Kingdom in Ruhuna: Mahanaga leaves the City; Tissaweva in Ruhuna...... (52) 12 Nibbana of The Arahants; King Uttiya; mountain; King Mahasiva...... (54) 13 Two Damila Invasions from ; Kings Suratissa and Asela; King Elara on Sinhala Throne ( 205-161BC)...... (58)

1 SL Histary Cont. & Intro. 14. Ruhuna and Kelaniya Kingdoms; King Mahanama in Ruhuna: King Kelani Tissa of Kelaniya. Sacrifice of the king’s daughter; Princess Devi comes to Ruhuna; Kavan Tissa and Queen Maha Devi; Situlpav vihara and Monasteries...... (61) 15 Princes Gemunu nd Tissa Extraordinary cravings of the Queen; Birth of Prince Dutugemunu; The Princes and the Oaths; Education of the Princes...... (67) 16 The Ten Giants or Paladins ...... (70) 17 Preparation for War; The Sinhala Army; Dutugemunu suffers for his impatience; Seruvila Dagoba; The ten giants take an Oath; Death of King Kavan Tissa...... (75) 18 The Royal Brothers at war; Battle of Culaganiyapittha; Duel between the brothers; Reconciliation of the two brothers...... (78) 19 The war to reclaim ; Dutugemunu leads his army ; Seige of Vijitapura; The battle for the city of Anuradhapura; Duel between two kings; Death of Elara and a monument in his honour; Another Tamil invasion; Theraputt Abhaya’s request; Dutugemunu’s resolve...... (81) 20. King Dutugemunu(161-137BC); His Coronation; Miriisavetiya Dagoba: Dutugenunu's desire to fulfill an ancient prophecy; The Gem Palace of Birani; The Lova Maha Paya 150 BC...... (90). 21 Ruwanveli Seya; The plan; The laying of the Foundation Stone; The Relic chamber; The Enshrining of Relics in Ruwanveli Seya...(96) 22 The Death of the Great King Dutugemunu; His son Saliya...... (104) 23 King Saddhatissa(137-119BC) The Completed Ruwanveli Seya; Kings Thulathana; Lanjatissa; and Khallatanaga...... (108) 24 The Fourth Tamil Invasion; King Vattagamani 103-77 BC; Vattagamani in Vessagiri forest; The Rock Caves; Beminiti Seya Famine; Vattagamani shows his impetuous character.....(112) 25 Vattagamani regains the throne; Abhayagiri Vihara; A schism in Buddhism; Writing down of Scriptures; Aluvihara Rock Caves ..(117) 26. Ten Rulers 77 BC-93 AD: Mahaculi Tissa; Coranaga; Kuda Tissa; Queen Anula; Kutakanna Tissa; Bhatikabhaya; Mahadathika Mahanaga; Amanda Gamani; Kanirajanu Tissa; Culabhaya...... (122) 27. Seven Rulers: 93-114 AD: Queen Sivali; Ilanaga; Candamukha Siva; Yasalalaka; Subha: A revolt by Vasabha; Vasabha’s religious zeal and public Works; Mahamatta and the dying ascetic; Vankanasika Tissa (127) .

2 SL Histary Con. & Into. 28. Twelve Kings: 114-247 AD-Gajabahuka Gamani; Mahallaka Naga; Bhatika Tissa; Kanitha Tissa; Khujja Naga; Kunca Naga ; Srinaga; Voharika Tissa; AbhayaNaga; Sirinaga II; Vijaya II; Samghatissa(133) 29. King Sanghabodhi; King Gothabhaya; Sangabodhi's self-immolation; A new Sect-The Sagiliyas; Jettha Tissa...... (140) 30. Mahasena; Attempts to destroy the ; People rebel to bring the king to repentance; Jetawana Monastery; ....(146) END OF MAHAWAMSA AND CULAWAMSA BEGINS 31. The Culawamsa The Lower Dynasty: from 301 AD; King Sirimeghavanna; The arrival of the Tooth Relic; Jettha Tissa II. Buddhadasa; I; The Topaweva; Mahanama...... (152) 32. The arrival of Buddhagosa; Sothisena; Chattagahaka; Mittasena...(162) 33. Dhatusena; King Dhatusena; Kalaweva; Yoda weva; Aukana Statue; Dhatusena antagonises son and son in law...... (162) 34 Eleven Kings; 473-604: Kassapa; ; Moggallana I; First Lankan Navy; Kumaradhatusena; Kittisena; Upatissa II; Silakala; Dathapabhuti; Moggallana II; Kittisirimegha; Mahanaga; Aggabodhi I...... (167) 35. Eight Kings :604-650: Aggabodhi II; Samghatissa II; Moggallana III; Silameghavanna; Aggabodhi III; Jettatissa III; Aggabodhi III restored; Dathopatissa I...... (181) 36. Five Kings : 650-718: Kassapa II; Dappula I; The family of Dappula; Dathopatissa II; Aggabodhi IV; Manavamma...... (186) 37. Seven Kings 718-801: Aggabodhi V; Kassapa III; Mahinda I; Aggabodhi VI; Aggabodhi VII; Mahinda II; Udaya I. Keeping of Records of Judgements by kings...... (191) 38. Seventeen Kings 801-982 :Mahinda III;Aggabodhi VIII: Dappula II; Aggabodhi IX; Sena I; Sena II; The Sinhalese invade ; Udaya II; Kassapa IV; Kassapa V ; Dappula III; Dappula IV .Udaya III; Sena III ; Udaya IV; Sena IV ; Mahinda IV; Sena V...... (196) 39. Anuradhapura under Cola rule (1018); Mahinda V, last king of Anuradhapura 982-1029; Vikkamabahu I in Ruhuna, Kitti and Mahalanakitti in Ruhuna; Lokeswaran in Ruhuna...... (207) 40 Sinhala kings get back the throne (1055); Vijayabahu I in Ruhuna; Vijayabahu in . Rebuilding of Polonnaruwa; Jayabahu; Vikkamabahu I...... (210) 41. Prince Parakramabahu; His birth; His Education; Spying in Polonnaruwa.

3 SL Histary Cont. & Intro. 42: King Parakramabahu 1153-1180; Centralisation of government; Collecting of soldiers and money; Deaths of Gajabahu and Manabharana;. Consecration of Parakramabahu: Restoration of Anuradhapura...... (224) 43 Conquest of Ruhuna; Conquest of Ramanna (Lower Burma). Sinhala Army goes to help Pandu King...... (231) 44 Parakramabahu in Polonnaruwa; Purification of the ; Ecclestiastical buildings in Polonnaruwa - Jetavana Monastery; Lotus baths; Thuparama; Tivanka Image house; Tooth Temple; Alahena Parivana; Lankatilleke; Baddhasima Pasada; Pacchimarama Monastery; Gal Vehera; Damila Thupa; ; Vejayanta Palace; Kumara Pokuna; Statue of Parakramabahu; The Laying out of Gardens; Parakrama Samudra...... (235) 45 Fourteen Rulers of Polonnaruwa 1153-1232; Vijayabahu II; Kitti Nissanka; Vikkamabahu II ; Codaganga; Queen Lilavati; Sahassa Malla; Queen Kalyanavati; Dharmasoka; Mahadipada; Queen Lilavati; Lokesvara; Queen Lilavati; Parakkama Pandu ; Magha. 46 Dambadeniya Kings 1232-1270: Founding of Yapahu; Vijayabahu III; Parakkambahu II; Literary achievements; Invasion by Javakas; Distribution of Performance of Pious works; A famine; Handing over of the Burden of Dominion; 47 .King Vijayabahu IV 1270-1272: Second Invasion by Chandrabanu; Restoration of Ancient Cities 48 Thirteen kings 1272-1477; Bhuvenakabahu I in Dambadeniya and Yapahu; Parakramabahu III in Polonnaruwa; Parakramabahu IV in ; Bhuvanekabahu IV at ; Ibn Batuta visits Lanka; Virabahu II; Chinese expedition to Lanka; Buvanekabahu V in Gampola and Kotte; Parakramabahu VI in Raiygama and Kotte; Bhuvanekabahu VI. 49 Five Kings 1477-1581: Pandita Parakramabahu VII; and Vira Parakramabahu VIII; Arrival of Portuguese in Lanka; Vijayabahu VI; Bhuvaneka Bahu VII and the Portuguese; Mayadunne in Sitawaka; Portuguese in . 50 Dharmapala in Kotte: Rajasimha I in Sitawaka; Portuguese under seige for two years; Rajasimha’s death. 51 Wimala Suriya I in Kandy; Dutch visit Lanka; Senaratana in Kandy; Rebellion in Kandy; Rajasimha II in Kandy; The Dutch after the cinnamon trade. 52 The Dutch after Cinnamon in ; Robert Knox in captivity;

4 SL Histary Con. & Into. Rebellion of 1665; Rebellion against the Dutch. 53 Last Two Sinhala Kings :Wimala Dharma Suriya II; Narendrasinha. Nayakkar Kings :Sri Vijaya Rajasinha; Kirtisiri Rajasinha in Kandy. 54 in Kandy; Conflict with the Dutch; Trade and Agriculture under the Dutch; Cleansing of the Order in Kandy; The Sixteen Sacred Places in Lanka; Rajamaha Vihara; Conflict with the Dutch.;Trade and Agriculture under Dutch; Sri Rajadi Rajasinha.(3rd)**. 55 British take over Dutch possessions; A review of Dutch rule in Lanka; Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe. 56 Frederick North as first British Governor; Religious and Social changes under British; British lose first War on Kandy; Britain takes over Kandy 1815; The . 57 Last king of Kandy 58 Sri Lanka becomes a British colony; Rebellion against British 1817. 59 An era of Reforms and Reconstruction: education, jobs, Buddhism: Plantation activities; Rebellion of 1848; Plantations and their effect on the Economy; Peasant agriculture and Irrigation works (1850-1910) 60 Consolidation of British Rule, Education, and Social change. 61 Revival of Buddhism and the rise of Nationalism; Temperance move- ment; Recovery of ; Islam. 62 Politics and Constitutional Reforms of late 19th Century. 63 The twentieth Century; Riots of 1915. The Young Lanka League 64 The Ceylon National Congress; Governor Manning; Sinhala Mahajana Sabha; Radicalism and Goonesinghe; Suffrage. 65 Social and economic Reform in early 20th Century; Peasant Agriculture, The Land Commission; Population; Education. 66 Recommendations of the Donoughmore Commission; Responses to the Donougmore Report. 67 The Transfer of Power; The first State Council 1931-35; Reforms Proposed in 1932; the Second State Council. 68 Constitutional Reforms 1937-39. 69 The Passage to Dominion Status; Sri Lanka since Independence;

5 SL Histary Cont. & Intro. Economy after 1948; Foreign Affairs. 70. Social and Economic changes 71 Sri Lanka since Independence; The economy: Foreign Affairs. 72 S.W.R.D.Bandaranaike in Power 1956-59. 73. The 1960s- A Balance of Forces under Mrs Bandaranaike; Foreign 74. Sri Lanka 1970-77. An insurrection. New Constitution 1972; Minority problems 75 Sri Lanka under SLFP. Breaking up of the U.F in 1977 : Ethnic violence 76 Minority The 1960s: A new balance of forces: the SLFP in power: UNP back 1965: 77. The Indian Involvement Foreign Affairs : The Economy in Crisis : The Revolution. 428 78 Intervention by Invitation Sri Lanka 1970-75 : JVP -An Insurrection : A New Constitution 1972 : Death of Dudley Senanayake ( 436) 76 Sri Lanka under SLFP 1975 -77: UNP back 1977 : Ethnic Violence (442)

77 Ethnic Problems and Indian Intervention : Discrimination and Standardisation of Marks.: Tamil Youth form groups: Racial Riots 1983 : Indian Training Camps for Sri Lankan Militants : First Evidence of camps in North India. (448)

78 The Indian Involvement : Talks in Thimphu : Traditional Tamil Homelands Theory : Forced Air-drop : Intervention by Invitation (466) 79 Intervention by Invitation 79 Indian Army in North East Sri Lanka 1987 -90 (page 487)

80 CONCLUSIONS (pages 496- 505)

ILLUSTRATIONS Chapter Page 01. A. at work 3 B performance at the Zoo 3 C. Waterfalls 4 D. 5

6 SL Histary Con. & Into. THE STORY OF THE SRI LANKANS A SMALL PEOPLE WITH A GREAT HISTORY FROM THE TINY ISLAND IN THE

INTRODUCTION This is not a textbook of History, for I am neither a historian nor an academic! It is rather the story of us, Sri Lankans, which I want to relate in simple English for anyone, especially for our young ones to learn about the great history of our little island. It contains summaries from several historical books and many other books. From the Mahawamsa and Culawamsa, which are too descriptive for anyone, especially young people, to read through, I have left out those long narrations, so that readers can obtain a fairly good picture of the without wading through pages and pages of elaborate descriptions. It is written mainly for the benefit of the many children of expatriate families, who have decided to leave Sri Lanka for various reasons and have settled down in foreign climes. What I have attempted to do, is to chronicle the reigns, of all the kings and queens who sat on the throne of Sri Lanka, and describe the important events and places related to our history, from the very beginning to around 1980s and 90s; that is, our 2500 year old history. There will come a time when some child may want to know something about the history of the country which gave birth to his or her parents. They may want to go back there if they feel they are facing discrimination in a foreign country, as some have already done. They may want to visit that beautiful country of their ancestors and discover their origins and roots for themselves. It is for this reason that places of historical importance have been dealt with in detail, with pictures included, wherever possible. It is also important for our children growing up now to know that Sri Lanka was not a country always torn apart by ethnic violence; that in the past till the 1970s it was a fairly peaceful country where their parents and grandparents did not ‘see’ any difference between Sinhalese, Tamil, Burgher, Moor or Malay; where they lived, studied and worked to- gether as Sri Lankans; where even in the thickly Sinhala populated places like , 12 miles south of Colombo, there was a Tamil Church from the 1930s, which carried on its activities without interference; that among the many Sinhalese in the most southern coastal zones of Colombo, in and , there was and still is a very big pop- ulation of , Burghers and Muslims living among the Sinhalese; where

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i SL Histary Introduction they had and indeed still have, Christian Churches, Tamil Kovils, Muslim Mosques, Tamil schools and Muslim Schools, and there still exists peace- ful co-existence; where in the first Legislative Council one of the first Sri Lankans to be appointed as “representative of the educated Ceylonese” was Sir , a great Sri Lankan Tamil, and when after the 1915 riots, Sinhalese Buddhists like Jayatilleke and the Senanayake brothers were arrested, it was Sir Ramanathan who defended the Sinhalese leaders in the Legislative Council, “with impassioned speeches notable alike for their fearless condemnation of excesses committed by the British forces....,” and it was he who fought to obtain concessions for Buddhists. The leading Buddhist journal of the day, the Sarasavi Sandarasa in 1899 said, “Ramanathan not only looks after the welfare of his own constituents, but also all matters connected with various activities on ...... It might well be said, judging from the active part he has taken, and the amount of time and labour he has devoted to questions in Council affecting the Sinhalese alone, that he was their representative...... The Buddhists owe Mr Ramanathan a deep debt of gratitude. His interest in the question of the Wesak holiday...... and a host of other services towards Buddhism have endeared him immensely to the Buddhists of Ceylon.” Professor K.M.De Silva writing of the late 1890s says “At this stage in the island’s development, ethnicity was not a divisive factor. A local journal commented in 1899 that ‘among the different races to be found in Ceylon, the existing relations are perhaps more cordial than...... in any other British dependency in the East. The divisive forces were religion and caste,.....these caused divisions among the Sinhalese themselves rather than dividing the Sinhalese from other ethnic and religious groups in the island’. Our children must grow up knowing, and being able to believe that, our beautiful island of Sri Lanka, though tiny and with a high density of population, can still accommodate all these people and there is no need to partition it off on communal lines, because we are the same flesh and blood. Just as we who live in Australia have people from over one-hundred and twenty different ethnic groups as our neighbours, some of whom do not even speak English, but are quite happy living together, so can all the few ethnic and religious groups in Sri Lanka live together, in peace and amity, without having to kill each other or divide this tiny island into separate sections or states. All Sri Lankans should have the freedom to live in any part of the island, speaking their own language, practising their own religion and cultural traditions, just as we have done in the southern and central parts of Sri Lanka for centuries. Why cannot it be so for our children? Why a book on the story of the Sri Lankans? The answer is Nirosha Methananda, and the many other Niroshas of Sri Lankan origin living across

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ii SL Histary Introduction the world. Let me explain. I always felt that all children should have some religious instruction in their young days. But I found that in Australia the Sinhalese children, most of whom are Buddhists were neither learning Christianity in the schools nor were they taught Buddhism. When the Sinhala Cultural and Community Services Foundation was first started in Melbourne in 1988, one of the first tasks we undertook was to start Buddhism classes for our children at the Buddhist Vihara, which was then in Richmond. This aspect we felt had been an extremely neglected field and not even the Buddhist clergy had seen the need of it for our expatriate children. Soon after we added an hour of Sinhala to follow the Buddhism classes. Being qualified to teach neither of these subjects, I was more or less the “school ayah”. I also assisted Ranjini Silva who was teaching Sinhala to the little ones. Nirosha and her younger brother Anisha were in this class. Anisha was very interested in learning Sinhalese, but not so the sister. One day Nirosha protested. “Aunty, why should we learn Sinhala when we are living in Australia.” I did not have a ready answer, but I said, “One day when you go there, you may need it. Besides it is the language of your parents and their parents”. Then realising how foolishly inadequ- ate my answer sounded, to a very valid question this little girl had raised, and being unable to think of anything better, I said, “Do you know Sri Lanka has a 2500 year old history? Have you heard of the great kings we had?” And I related a story about my favourite king, Dutugemunu. The whole class listened very attentively. These stories from history, when they finished the Sinhala lesson, thereafter became an important part of our class! Later on it struck me, that our young children growing up in foreign countries needed to know about the great history of our small island. So I started writing out interesting parts of Sri Lanka’s history, to be read out in English on the children’s programme of our Sinhala Broadcast on 3ZZZ in Melbourne every Sunday morning. This we did for several months. From those beginnings this book was born! I am dedicating this book to Nirosha and Anisha Methananda, James and Shenali Fernando, Varsha Perera, Ranil Kuruppu, Yohan Athukorale and any others who were in that Sinhala class; the many other children of Sri Lankan parents growing up in foreign lands, like my little Melbourne born grandson Dilshan Avantha Mendis, grandnephews Adrian and George and their sister Sharmaine De Silva, and the many Sri Lankan children adopted by families in foreign countries, who may one day want to know about the country of their parents, and feel a sense of belonging, and perhaps pride, to know they have come from a land with a great past! This book can of course also be read by adults, both Sri Lankan and others who would like to know something about our beautiful country.

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iii SL Histary Introduction Most of us really do not know very much about our history. It is quite fascinating. The more you read it the more you awaken to the fact that Sri Lankans in the past had been an amazing lot! Apart from the massive buildings constructed and the efforts these people made to maintain Sri Lanka as the centre of Buddhism for over two thousand years, they have spent large amounts of money to show their piety. King Batika Abhaya ruled from 22 BC to 07 AD. He had the entire 90 metre (300 feet) tall Ruwanveliseya covered “with a paste of sweet- smelling unguent, four fingers thick and had flowers carefully embedded by their stalks, and made the thupa even as a globe of flowers...... and when he had raised water by means of machines from the Abhaya tank by pouring masses of water over the thupa, carried out a water offering.” This mind you, was two thousand years ago! I would also advise Sri Lankans who are proud of their country to read “Ceylon, the of the East” by Harry Williams, an Englishman who had lived in Ceylon. It will make you prouder still. Mr Harry Williams is in love with Ceylon. I am sure he must have been a Sri Lankan in his previous births because this love could not have come from living there for a few years. He does not spare the use of superlatives in his descriptions of the island. Colombo he describes as “perhaps the loveliest tropical city in the world.” Writing about Anuradhapura, the Sacred City, he says, “It is probable that the world has never seen such a city of flowers...... Roads were bordered with flame trees, the few pieces of land not under cultivation were covered with flowering shrubs which are one of Ceylon’s particular glories, and the gay horticultural gardens made a backcloth of sheer blazing colour behind the splendid buildings of the day...... Even now, walking among the ruins left to us after two millenniums, the magic has not died away.” Describing the irrigation system Harry Williams says “The thought of five thousand lakes and four thousand canals linking each to each in a delicate system of veins is fascinating”. He is full of sympathy for the Sinhalese. On page 44 he says “All this is quite consistent with the Sinhalese character which while utterly unwarlike, gentle...... ” Speaking of Parakrambahu’s exploits he adds, “His next exploit affords me, personally, great satisfaction. The Pandyans who for so long had ravaged Lanka, smashing down with monotonous regularity the industry and enterprise of others, were due to receive a little of their own medicine.”(pg 92) As a student I enjoyed “Ceylon History” although British and European History were two of the few subjects, (and Sinhalese language and grammar, I am ashamed to say) which I could never master! Maybe all I remember of that history is that William Penn conquered Pennsylvania and Henry VIII had seven wives, of whom, some were incarcerated in the Tower of

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iv SL Histary Introduction London, (which I was fortunately able to visit!). For some reason I always admired Dutugemunu. Is it because I seem to have a bit of that same stubborn determination he appeared to have, in persevering to do what he believed was right? In my third year at school at Princess of Wales College, Moratuwa in Sri Lanka, the first history I studied was “Ceylon history”. I remember being quite fascinated when reading about Dutugemunu sending “female jewellery” to his father the king. Perhaps my admiration for him was strengthened by the fact that, at that time, we had at home a grammophone record of a play about him. His words to his mother, who asked why he was huddled up in bed, after he and his brother refused to take the third oath their father wanted them to take, “On this side is the dumb sea, on that side are the Tamils. Only when I chase those Tamils out will I be able to stretch my limbs and sleep,” still ring in my ears as though I heard it only yesterday. I am sure most of you, when you have read this book, will agree that Dutugemunu certainly was one of the greatest, if not the greatest king of ancient Lanka - so fearless and patriotic even as a youth, so religious and warm, gentle and humane in his actions! He did not ‘send his generals to war, he went himself’ unlike most other kings. He certainly does not deserve to be called “Dutu” Gemunu (disobedient Gamini) merely because his burning desire to free his country of Tamils, made him call his father a woman! All Sri Lankan children should be proud of this Prince. I feel that my love for Sri Lanka too could not have come from being born there in this life alone. Although I really do not believe in , I often wonder whether I have lived there many a time before! I love that country so much that even when I advise someone to cut down on an excessive tea-drinking habit, I feel a little guilty, that it may affect the tea-trade of Sri Lanka! So dear to me is Sri Lanka and all that it has - especially her poor among whom my husband and I have worked, those extremely poor Sri Lankans, always smiling even when their stomachs are cramped with hunger, born with such a wonderful generosity, always willing to share what they have with others, even when what they have is so very little, always grateful and thankful for little mercies. “Ayu Bowan” meaning ‘may you live long’ is what they humbly say, with hands clasped and bowed head, instead of just mumbling ‘thank you’! It makes me sad and angry to hear of people in power today fattening their purses at the expense of the poor masses in Sri Lanka, because we have seen at first hand, the misery they are going through in silence, uncomplaining, perhaps because they are content to believe and accept that it is their inescapable Karma - punishment for crimes in former lives! While reading these books I discovered that Colombo had been a trading centre for centuries. As far back as the twelfth century, Moors used the

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v SL Histary Introduction mouth of the as a harbour calling it Kalamba, by which name it was known to Ibn Batuta. This was changed to Colombo by the Portuguese in honour of Columbus. The British Prince of Wales, later King Edward V11, laid the first stone in 1875 for the 4000 feet breakwater. Colombo, the man-built harbour, thereafter was used in preference to our beautiful ‘natural harbours’ at and . And how many of us Sri Lankans have ever given a thought to the fact that we owe so much to that humble talipot-palm-tree that produced the ‘Ola leaf.’? These talipot leaves were boiled, dried and processed to produce these ola leaves. If not for those precious leaves, I would not be recounting this ‘story of ours’ nor would you be reading the great doings of our Sinhalese kings! Collecting material for this book has helped me in another way. Around 1983, when terrorist troubles started in the north of Sri Lanka, I got down several books of history from Sri Lanka. This was because there were claims being made that “the Tamils had a kingdom in the North and East of Sri Lanka, even before the Sinhalese came to Sri Lanka”. I too had some doubts. I was anxious to learn the truth about this. I tried to read through these books and clear these doubts, as I have explained in the last chapter in this book. I also read “The Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka” by Rohan Gunaratna and I was sad to discover that India has been responsible for training, providing arms and money and encouraging the terrorism that has plagued Sri Lanka since 1983. I hope no country will ever do such a thing to a small neighbouring country, and make their people suffer as Sri Lankans are suffering today. To read what is happening in the island today, the number of young lives and innocent victims being killed, and learn that people who should have known better, encouraged all this terrorism, and put that little island into all this mess, makes one so sad. Did Sri Lanka deserve this? What had Sri Lanka done to deserve this, and what did India expect to gain from it? These questions often come to my mind! I hope those who read this ‘The Story of the Sri Lankans’, especially expatriate children, will find it useful to gain some knowledge of the history of our ‘beautiful paradise’. If they are impressed, I hope they will get more information from other books, and will want to go and see for them- selves the beauty of that little island with such a great history! Yes, one must really go there and see those enormous buildings, some over 2000 years old, in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya and other ancient cities, but still as solid as the day they were built! It is then that one can appreciate, as Harry Williams says, “the race of men that could rear up such staggering buildings and the conditions of the civilisation that made them possible” over 2000 years ago. Yes, it is difficult even

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vi SL Histary Introduction to imagine that our ancestors in little Sri Lanka were men capable of such greatness! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND THANKS For the material on the Mahawamsa I have utilised “The Story of the Sinhalese” written by John M. Seneviratne, a very old book, lent to me by Geetha Gunatilleke presently living in New Zealand. Additions and subtrac- tions have been made where necessary using the Mahawamsa. The Culawamsa lent to me by Prematilleke Kumbukage of Melbourne, was used for the material on the Culawamsa. To give a little more complete picture up to 1980, the period from about 1500 to 1980 has been directly summarised from “A History of Sri Lanka” by Professor K.M.De Silva. I have attempted to narrate briefly, some of the incidents that took place in the history of our country, which in my opinion, seemed important. I sincerely hope I have not made any mistakes or misrepresented any part, in attempting to summarise the scholarly work of these great historians. I am indeed extremely grateful to Dr K.M.De Silva. When I telephoned him from Melb- ourne about my idea, he gave me much encouragement to proceed with this work. I have also directly copied the ‘Chronological list of Sri Lanka’s rulers’ and the glossary given in his book. I have very lavishly used material from “Ceylon-Pearl of the East” by Harry Williams, kindly given to me by friends, Rankiri and Crystal Gunatileke of Melbourne; and from “A Short History of Ceylon” by H.W. Codrington kindly lent to me by Professor Christie Weeramantry of Melbourne; “The Social History of Early Lanka” by Ellawela; “The Early in Ceylon” by Dr. E.W.Adikaram; the Mahawamsa by Ananda W.P.Guruge and “Sri Lanka” Insight Guides whose producers and Mr Ravi Anthonis very readily gave me permission to use their book, to describe some of the places of interest. I have quoted some interesting passages from “Images of Sri Lanka through the American eyes” by H.A.I Goonetilleke; “Robert Knox in the Kandyan Kingdom” by Professor E.F.C.Ludowyke, “Sinhalayo” by Dr. Senerat Paranavitane, “Ceylon under British Occupation” by Dr. Colvin R. de Zoysa, and “Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka” Rohan Guneratne, given to me by Doreen de Silva. From Rohan’s book I learnt a lot about the present predicament Sri Lanka is in, and from it I have summarised the “Tamil Problem” so that young ones can understand something about the war that is ruining our beautiful island. I am grateful to Rohan Guneratne (whom I met in Melbourne recently), but I had earlier contacted in Texas, for permission to quote from his book, which I think every Sri Lankan should read to understand what Sri Lanka is painfully facing today, and what Calcutta Statement Editorial means when it says, “If the Tigers are ruthless, it is we who made this

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vii SL Histary Introduction possible”. I am grateful to Rankiri Gunatilleke, Mr. N. D. Pieris, and Senath Abeygunawardene for giving me some of the beautiful colour photographs that have been included in this book, to M. G. Mendis who took me to Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Tissamaharama and other historical places to collect some of the missing pictures and to Squadron Leader Hiran Karunaratna of the Airforce, with whom we stayed in Polonnaruwa, and who took us around Polonnaruwa in October 1994, eleven months before his tragic death. To all these people I am extremely thankful. I sincerely thank every- one who has helped in every way to get this together, including my family who have had to tolerate me, spending hour after hour with the word pro- cessor. My daughter-in-law Sreeni, has always been ready to help whenever I had problems with word processing. Uditha Senanayake has spent many valuable hours, helping me with the computor during the last stages of the book. I must thank HLD Mahindapala, Elmo Perera and Cedric Fernando for going through the script and giving their advise, and my husband Mervyn and children Duleep, Roshan and Priyadharshini who have helped with the index and given encouragement in preparing this book. It has taken me a long, long time to finish this book as I had to do it between so many other tasks. I hope it will be of some use to somebody someday, and it would help our young children learn about the great history of our small island. I would appreciate all comments from readers, critical or constructive, as I am certain there must be many omissions, mistakes and so on, which have crept into it.

Olga Mendis

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viii SL Histary Introduction ix

ix SL Histary Introduction THE STORY OF THE SRI LANKANS ✮

CHAPTER 1

SRI LANKA

Ojadipa, Varadipa, Mandadipa, Lankadipa, Tambapanni, Taprobane, Serendib, Pearl of the Orient, tear drop of India, Sihaladipa, Heladipa, Ratnadvipa, Ceylon, Shri Lanka or whatever name one may use, Sri Lanka was, is and always will be that fascinating little island, in the midst of the Indian Ocean, the Island Paradise famous for its scenic beauty, its mildly tropical climate, the golden ‘palm-laced’ beaches, the sparkling gems, its inebriating tea, the hot spicy curries, the smiling faces and the generosity of its people. Hanging like a tear drop in the blue expanse of the ocean, below and to the east of the southern tip of India, from which it is separated by 48 kilometres (30 miles) of shallow water, the island is 435 kilometres (270 miles) long and 225 kilometres (140 miles) wide. It extends over a land area of 65,000 square kilometres (25,332 square miles). In size it is smaller than Tasmania but has a population equal to that of Australia. Its closest southern neighbour is the icy mass known as the continent of Antarctica. Travellers to Sri Lanka through the ages have seen a beauty in the island which some of us born there have yet to appreciate. Different people seem to enjoy different aspects of her beauty, but, ‘it is the dream island of nearly every traveller from the intrepid voyagers of ancient Greece and Rome, Arabia and fabled to the globe- trotters of the present charter flight era.’ (Images of Sri Lanka). To some, even the name sounds fascinating. ‘Sri Lanka, the name rolls off the tongue like a waterfall from lush mountain slopes’, says the ‘Insight Guides’. Few places on earth, if any, have packed the variety of experiences available in Sri Lanka into such a small area.(IG)

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1 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Sri Lanka has a population of 17.6 million, composed of people who are socially, culturally, religiously, and linguistically different - Sinhalese, Tamils, Burghers, Moors, , a few Indians and others who have lived side by side, generation after generation. This is made up of 74%(13m) Sinhalese, 12.6% (2.2m) , 5.5%(.0.6m) Indian Tamils; 7.1%(1.2m) Moors and Malays and the balance 0.8% consists of Burghers, North Indians and others. 69.3 per cent of the population are Buddhists, (nearly all Sinhalese), while 15.5 % are Hindus (nearly all Tamils). Islam is practised by 7.6% who are all Moors and Malays, while Christianity which accounts for 7.5% is practised by Burghers, some Sinhalese and some Tamils. Sri Lanka enjoys a literacy rate of 86.5% which is one of the highest in Asia. Sinhalese, Tamil and English are the languages spoken and most schools have parallel classes in all three media. Currency notes and coins, postage stamps, all important state documents and street signs, especially in Colombo and big towns are in all three languages. Buddhism, the language of the majority, is the State religion. The main ethnic groups are represented on the National . Moncure Daniel Conway in ‘My Pilgrimage to the Wisemen of the East’(1883-84) talks of “Ceylon, the land of my dreams.” He says “I shall always think of Ceylon as an Eden, and of the people as happy children who have not yet eaten of the tree which Pessimism calls Conciousness”. At a temple, Conway met a , Waskaduwe Subhuti, “who spoke perfect English, and was a gracious old gentleman.” Since he was feeble, the monk had been carried to the temple by four people. When asked why he did not use a horse carriage, he said, life was so sacred that he was afraid that “a horse might be vitally injured” by carrying him. He was asked, “But might it not be the same with one of these men?” “But a man can tell me if he is suffering” was the reply. Conway writes, “Subhuti was an exact thinker, and the elevation and sweetness of his spirit excited my veneration. He was the Buddhist I had dreamed of. The affection of his people for him was touching”. Talking still of the fascination that travellers have for the island, in ‘Round the World’ (1885) Andrew Carnegie, who travelled from Galle to Colombo along the shore, says “there is no prettier sea shore in the world, nor a more beautiful surf”; and Eugene Wright in the ‘Great Horn Spoon’ (1929) thought that “Kandy was, without doubt,

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2 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Elephants at work

Elephants performing at the Colombo Zoo

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3 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 the most enchanting city this side of heaven”, and as he leaves in the ship ‘Hyacinth’ he continues, “.....and the exquisite beauty of Kandy seemed like a dream I might have had ....I wondered how long it would be until I could relax into such loveliness once more”; while Henry Munroe Rogers in ‘Journal - letters from the Orient’ writes, “I am more and more delighted with this island and its people. There is beauty everywhere, of moun- tain and valley and sea-shore, of verdure and flowers, radiant trees with great flaming flowers on them, that illuminate the scene. Then the people are so beautiful to look upon, and A Waterfall in Sri Lanka the children are like bronze statues, who have left their clothes on the wash. I should like to stay in this island and spend a few weeks, browsing around....” Of course they did not miss the funny side of the island and its people. Francis Keyes in “Coral Strands” (1926), writing about the time he was leaving Sri Lanka, found ‘the removal of our boxes had already begun, under the supervision of a gorgeous person in a white uniform made with a long coat and wide skirt... This person’s black hair was gathered into a large knot...... and above the knot rose a high, circular tortoise-shell comb terminating just in front of the ears giving the wearer, when viewed from certain angles, the appearance of having horns. For one startled moment I was not sure whether I was looking at a man or a woman,...... the flowing robes and long hair adopted by both sexes, combined with the slight figures and somewhat effeminate faces often seen among the men, often arouse an uncertainity...... ’ Conway had counted “twenty nine various vegetables in one market

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4 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 The Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya

Beaches of Sri Lanka

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5 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 A Moonstone at Abhayagiri Complex in Anuradhapura This portrays the transcendence from desire shown by the flames in outer layer to the Lotus in the inner layer denoting nibbana stall and wondered whether these various contributions of Armati, genius of the Earth had any connection with the varieties of expression, voice and fancies of the Sinhalese and their freedom from friction. They spoke and moved, women, children and men, spontaneously, as if never used to being sat upon..” Sri Lanka is also blessed with a rich and exotic wild life. It has several animal sanctuaries such as Wilpattu, Tissamaharama, Wirawila, and Yala, which adjoins the elephant sanctuary at , which abound in a variety of animals such as elephants, leopards, bears, sambhur, deer, wild buffaloes, wild boars, monkeys and chimpanzees, porcupines, ant-eaters, civet cats, jackals, mongooses and loris which are unique to Sri Lanka. It also has an elephant orphanage near where baby elephants separated from, or abandoned by their mothers are cared for. The elephant was the common mode of travel in ancient Sri Lanka. Kings went to war on their elephants. Sri Lanka has a fair number of tuskers but ‘thanks’ to the greed of ivory-hunters, the numbers of these gentle animals have dwindled. Even today in villages, tamed elephants are used to trasport logs of wood, while Buddhist ‘Peraheras’

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6 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 or religious processions are never without at least a few of these great giants of the wild. Hundred or more elephants ‘ranging from majestic bulls to half grown calves’. gaily caparisoned, have marched in the famous ‘Kandy Perehera’ in August every year for over two hundred years, when the Tooth Relic in its casket is carried on the back of a gorgeously decorated magnificent tusker, for public veneration. There are a number of elephants in the Zoo, in Colombo South, who have been trained to perform to music for visitors every evening. The island has an abundance of birds, of over 400 species and is a ‘paradise for bird watchers’. The black crows found in plenty in coastal regions, little house-sparrows, mynahs, parrots, koels, parakeets, lorikeets, flying foxes (bats) which during the day hang upside down from branches or electricity wires, magpies, pigeons and kingfishers are seen in towns, while jungle areas are preferred by the beautiful peacocks, jungle-fowl, and songbirds. In addition 160 odd varieties that fly over in mid-August, to escape from the severe winters in Siberia, Scandinavia and Western Europe, and enjoy our coolest months of the year and our Christmassy breezes. Surrounded by palm-fringed beaches of warm golden sand, the centre of the broad base of the island rises to mountain peaks, the tallest of which is , touching the clouds at 2,524 metres (8280 feet). A warm tropical climate allows swimming, surfing and fishing in the ocean all year round. Temperatures in the island average from 28 to 30 degrees centigrade with a high humidity of around 85 in the low lying coastal regions, while the central hilly areas are a cool 20 degrees. Sri Lanka has two monsoons - the north-east in the later months of the year, and the south-west monsoon around May-June. Often when it rains, it pours, sometimes for hours on end, but at other times, showers are interspersed with beautiful sunshine. The island has many beauties to lure the discerning traveller. The central hill country or ‘Up country’ as Sri Lankans call it, has many beautiful mountains. The tallest is Pidurutalagala 2524 metres high. Next comes Kirigalpotta 2355 metres, Totupola 2322 metres and the best known of them, the Sri Pada or Samanala kanda or Adam’s Peak, 2243 metres tall, towards which our butterflies or ‘Samanalayas’ of which 240 species are found in Sri Lanka, are seen to fly in hordes every March and April, ‘there to die’. Among the mountain ranges are Namunukula, Rakwana and the beautiful Knuckles.

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7 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 From these lovely mountains flow down many a river. The longest the Mahaweli, starts near Adam’s peak and winds its way over 333 kilometres (207 miles) to empty itself into the Indian ocean on the east coast at Koddiyar Bay, near Trincomalee. The next longest Aruvi Aru in the Northern Province, is 167 kilometres (104 miles) long. Other major rivers are the 144 kilometre (90 mile) long Kelani river which flows into the sea near Colombo, the Maduru Oya, the Walawe- and the Kaluganga. The Kala Oya, 55 kilometres (97 miles) long, is the only major river that does not arise from a mountain but from the gigantic man-made Kalawewa reservoir built by King Dhatusena in the 5th Century. The hill country has several waterfalls and Sri Lanka has more than its share of beauties. The tallest one is Diyaluma or the “Koslanda bridal veil” which, with its shimmering 208 metre (694 feet) fall, is one of the highest falls in the world. Kurundu Oya (180 metres), Ratna Ella (109 metres), Ramboda (98 metres), Devon (78 metres), the ‘smoking’ Dunhinda (57 metres) and the small, but lovely St Clair are other well known falls. Some of its more scenic ones, like the thunderous 113 metre tall Laksapana, have been muted by the construction of dams across the rivers that produce the falls. Only a trickle now squirts across its mighty rock face, and the great boulders and rocks it had angrily covered with swirling sprays for thousands of years lie exposed, brooding and silent in the mountain air.(IG 27) Maturin M. Ballou who circumnavigated the world in 1882, in his preface to ‘The Pearl of India says,’ “It is safe to say no point presents more varied attractions to the observant traveller, more thoroughly and picturesquely exhibits equatorial life or addresses itself more directly to the delicate appreciation of the artist, botanist, antiquarian, general scientist, and sportsman than does Ceylon, gem of the Orient.” He goes on to write, “How many lands can, like Ceylon, tell so much of their past history in authentic records verified by enduring monuments.” Although the island has been known in the past by various names it has always been referred to as LANKA in ancient writings. Valmiki, the ancient poet of India, refers to Lanka in his epic, , which is older than the Iliad. The people of Sri Lanka were known as Hela people. When Arahant Mahinda, son of Emperor Asoka of India, brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka, he is said to have recorded the great commentary on Buddhism in the Hela Language. It is said

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8 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 that, “Ka in Hela language means land. Helan being the possessive case of the word Hela, the land of Hela people was HELAN-KA, which later became ELAN-KA and still later LANKA”. Vijaya and his men are supposed to have called the island Taprobane which name was used by Greeks and Romans. The Arabs called it Serendib or Selendip and the Portuguese called it Seylan which the British converted to Ceylon. Recently, in the town of Kuruwita in the of Lanka, a 28,000 year old human skeleton was discovered. This had ear ornam- ents showing that Sri Lanka, 28,000 years ago, had been inhabited by a people with a high level of development. According to , ancient Sri Lanka had a “fairly advan- ced civilisation with well ordered cities, linked by roads, and nourished by a wonderful irrigation system, making it one of the sought-after trade centres of the world, a system not seen in contemporary civilis- ations in other parts of the world”.(IG) The earliest Archaeological remains connected with the Sinhalese are the many hundreds of caves, with over 1200 inscriptions engraved on their brows, found in various parts of the island. The caves were natural rock shelters. A dripline cut on the brow of the cave prevented rain water dripping into the cave. “To cut driplines and to engrave inscriptions on boulders of hard granite, the ancient Sinhalese of the pre-Christian period must have had chisels of a superior quality of steel...... The Sinhalese appear to have been the first to introduce tools and weapons of iron to Lanka. There is no evidence to show that when the Sinhalese started settling in the island, it was occupied by a people who knew the use of iron.” (Sinhalayo by Paranavitana) The ancient kings all seemed to have believed in the philosophy which was expressed by one of her great kings, in 1153 BC. “In a country like this, not one drop of rain water should be allowed to flow into the ocean without profiting man. Remember that it is not meet that men like us should live and enjoy what has come into our hands and care not for the people. Let there not be any piece of land, though it be of the smallest dimensions that does not yield some benefit to man.” Commenting on this, Harry Williams in his book Ceylon Pearl of the East, adds.

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9 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 “There to my mind speaks the natural genius of the .” (HW pg.67) Ancient civilisations flourished in the North Central plains of the island. To cope with the ‘pecularities of the dry zone’ with its frequent droughts, artificial lakes called “irrigation Tanks” and canals were const- ructed across the country. In the words of James Emerson Tennant, “the number of these stupendous works(of irrigation) almost exceeds credibility.” The city of Anuradhapura drew its water supply through an 86 kilometre (54 mile) long, and 12 metre (40 feet) wide canal from the huge tank of Kalawewa, acclaimed by Turnour, as ‘the greatest of the ancient works of the Sinhalese’. The tank was about 64 kilometres (40 miles) in circumference, with a bund of more than 20 kilometres (12 miles) and the spill stone, in Turnour’s own words, “is one of the most stupendous monuments of misapplied human labour in the world”. Harry Williams explains that ‘misapplied’ is presumably used, because it did not need such strength for the overflow. When in 1904 a count was taken, there were over 11,200 tanks in the Northern Province and Anuradhapura alone. These varied in size from that of a football field to giants covering many square miles, “in one of the world’s greatest examples of a drought stricken forest being made to blossom like a rose,” where they virtually “convert- ed the desert to green paddy fields” that fed a vibrant population for over one-thousand years from 437 BC to 1017 AD when the glorious capital of Lanka was Anuradhapura. (HW pg.40). “The method of building tanks or reservoirs which alone made this agriculture possible, was to seek out a valley or even a depression in the earth’s surface, from which water could escape from one side only. Across this open side was thrown a dam or bund - the largest in Ceylon was over 20 kilometres (12 miles) in length - with a spill stone for the overflow when the tank was full. Some of the spill stones left by the ancients are absolutely colossal in size”. (HW pg. 40) Sinhala engineers in the third century BC had invented the bisokotuwa (valve pit) “the prototype of sluices which regulate the flow of water from contemporary reservoirs”. Without these technological skills, this vast irrigation system could not have been established. These engineers appear to have had an amazing knowledge of trigonometry and hydraulic

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10 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 principles. Their successors had to merely copy these with minor alterations. (IG pg 35) Harry Williams in his book “Ceylon - Pearl of the East” says, “Two thousand five hundred years ago this lost plain began to open up to man’s most homely and lovely occupations - agriculture and horticulture. As the years passed five-thousand tanks confined their liquid treasures, and beneath their bunds nestled innumerable towns and villages. Flowering trees and shrubs made a glory of the footpaths and roads, while such a horticulture as the world has scarcely seen since, must have flourished, if the devout records of the era, are to be believed.” (HW. pg.42) Elsewhere Williams states, “Even now, walking among the ruins left to us after two millenia, the magic has not died away. From the bund of the Basawakulama (tank) in Anuradhapura there is beauty in the air, haunting the tiny breezes of the evening.” (HW pg.43) The monumental scale of the larger tanks spread over the dry zone of Sri Lanka is evidence of the prosperity that the island enjoyed, and proof that the island had an economy which enabled it to invest in such massive projects. These ancient tanks, old dagobas, such as the nine storey and palaces like Sigiriya, are a mute testimony to an era of amazing technological skill and knowhow. It is difficult for us to comprehend how 2000 years ago all these monumental tasks were undertaken without the availability of equipment and technology used by engineers and builders today. “By itself the irrigation network of ancient Sri Lanka was a tribute to the ingenuity of her engineers and craftsmen and the organisational skills of her rulers. Nowhere else in South Asia does one find a multiplicity of irrigation works as in the dry zone of Sri Lanka...... for nowhere else in the pre-modern world was there such a dense concentration of irrigation facilities at such a high technical level. Ancient Sri Lanka was the example par-excellence of a hydraulic civilisation.” (KM pg.32) “To this day some of these tanks repaired by British Engineers, are more than 20 miles (32 kilometres) in circumference, but in earlier times many of them were forty miles or more...... In the zenith of their glory they must have presented a spectacle of beauty perhaps unrivalled anywhere, for they are lovely enough now in their desolation, clothed only in the sweet untutored fascination of nature left to herself.”

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11 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 (HW pg.40) “Despite the ever-present danger, the agricultural progress of Ceylon for five hundred years after Vijaya, was phenomenal. The whole surface of the northern plains was altered by tireless industry, from wild and forbidding forest to an expanse of cultivated fields, roads, villages and towns almost comparable to the state of England under Queen Anne. At that point in history, indeed, the condition of the two realms was exactly reversed, for at the moment when Julius Caesar was carrying out the first Roman reconnaissance of Britain - finding it a woody and almost impenetrable jungle, the kings of the Mahawamsa in the full height of their religious devotion, were making of Ceylon a Paradise Island in truth...... To irrigate over twelve thousand square miles of former jungle and desert would be considered a formidable task with the aid of every modern invention. Indeed, enormous tracts of Australia, potentially as fruitful as the northern of Ceylon, are left to drought and eternal loneliness for no other reason than that man, at this stage of history, considers the task of opening it up uneconomic.” (HW pg.39). Even as early as 437 BC, for administrative purposes the island was divided into three regions- the north of the island was the “king’s country” or or Pihitirata, the hill-country was Mayarata or Malayarata or “sub-king’s country”, (Maya or Malaya means younger brother) and the southern part was Ruhunurata or Ruhuna. Megasthenes the Greek ambassador to the Indian court of King Chandragupta (321-297 BC) called the people of Sri Lanka, the Palaeogoni Irastosthenes of Alexandria has recorded that trade existed between Egypt and Lanka, via sailing boats, 4000 years ago. Ptolemy had written of Anuradhapura, calling it Anurogrammum Regium, and in 150 AD he drew a map of Lanka showing it as part of India. Coins minted in the reigns of twenty-five separate Roman emperors have been discov- ered during excavations in Lanka, showing that Romans have had traffic with Lanka for many years. Pliny records that in the reign of Claudius (41-54 AD), a Roman sailor named Annius Plocamus, blown off his course, sought in Lanka. Having lived here for six months, he was so impressed, that he persuaded the Sinhalese king to send an embassy with him to Rome. (HW pg.38) Pliny writing of Lanka says, “they possess a greater degree of civil liberty, and a greater regard for popular rights than perhaps ever existed in any region of the East.” (HW pg.38)

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12 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Two-hundred and fifty years before Vijaya came to Lanka, embroidered cloths were obtained from Lanka by Indian kings. Lord Buddha, whose death is believed to have occurred the day landed in Sri Lanka, is said to have visited the island on three occasions. Records in the Rajatharanganeeya, in Kashmir, show that Tank builders from Lanka were taken to Kashmir to construct tanks for storing water, and for the building of forts. According to ancient writings, a flourishing civilisation existed in the north central parts of Sri Lanka from about 300 BC, till the menace of malaria, and the greater menace of Dravidian invasions from Southern India, forced the Sinhalese to abandon Anuradhapura, the capital for over one thousand years, in favour of a more secure city - Polonnaruwa, in the 8th Century AD. The Sinhala kings used Damila (Tamil) mercenaries from south India to do their policing and fighting, while they were busy with their agriculture, leaving all their military work in the hands of the Damilas. It did not take long for the Damilas to realise their strength, and get ideas about taking over the island. “As time went on, however, and not for the first time in history, the very virtues of a peace-loving, industrious people contributed to their own downfall. Partially disrupted a score of times by further invasions from India and internecine strife at home, the life stream of the land fell into final ruin, the jungle swept over the fields, parks and gardens in a ruthless tide, bringing in its train disease, poverty, starvation and final decimation” (HW pg.41) He goes on to say, “a secondary but important reason for this decline was the inability of the gentle Buddhist race, brought up to regard killing as the sin of sins, to fight for their unity.” (pg. 43) Besides, strife within the country continued. Many of the heads that wore the Sinhala crown may have lain very uneasy. Of the 191 kings who sat on the Sinhala throne, “fifteen monarchs ruled less than one year, thirty for less than four years, twenty-two were murdered by their successors, six by other people, four suicided and thirteen died at war. Eleven were dethroned and never heard of - probably murdered.” Quite a grim record for a country blessed by the teachings of - “the religion of pure reason” “besides which that

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13 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 of the early English kings seems almost peaceful.” (HW pg.44) Buddhism came to Lanka in the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa. Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born as Prince Siddhartha to a princely Sakya family in North India around 563 BC. At the relatively young age of 29, realising the futility of this life, he left the pleasures of the royal household, his beautiful wife, Princess Yasodhara and their newborn son Rahula, in search of salvation. After long spells of meditation in the forests, he attained enlightenment. He was known as Gautama Buddha, and his doctrine was Buddhism. There were three held in India. The first of these was at Rajagir - present day Rajagaha - three months after Buddha’s death or parinibbana. The second was about one hundred years after his death, and was held at Vaisali (now Vesali). At this Council, the Sangha split in two factions, which later became the Theravada and schools. The third Council was at Pataliputra (now Patna) during the reign of Emperor Asoka in 250 BC. It was at this Council that the decision was taken to send missionaries to various parts of South-East Asia, and even to Greece.

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14 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Sri Lanka was one of these countries, receiving the most favoured treatment, with Emporer Asoka sending his own son Mahinda as the missionary to the little island ruled by his young friend Devanampiya Tissa. Arahant Mahinda lived in Lanka for 48 years.

CHAPTER 2

PRE-HISTORIC LANKA

In pre-historic times Sri Lanka was inhabited by two tribes, who worshipped Devils, and Nagas who worshipped snakes. They were civilised people, who had their own kings and a regular form of govern- ment. Nagas occupied the north of the island.

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15 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 “Judging by prehistoric information, homo sapiens first appeared in Sri Lanka about 500,000 BC...... Stone cultures emerged in the region about 10,000 BC in two distinct phases, prepottery and ...... The only surviving traces of the prescence of mesolithic man, modern man’s last link to the Stone Age, are a few stone and bone implements...... The groups that practised stone working are called the cultures. They first made an impact on island life about 5,000 BC and eventually spread throughout Lanka. Balangoda man survived till at least 500 BC when he began to wane under the advance of sophisticated cultures brought by early settlers from India...... A stone-age tribe called Veddhas still inhabits parts of the interior and may be descended from legendary Yakshas and Nagas.” (IG 33) According to the Mahawansa, Lord Buddha visited Sri Lanka nine months after he became Buddha. This was at the time when a large gathering of Yakshas was meeting at Binntenne in the central plains of in south-central Lanka. He preached to them and a large number embraced Buddhism. Again in the fifth year after he attained enlightenment, Buddha visited Lanka to avert a war that was brewing between the Naga King Mahodara and his sister’s son, Culodara, who were quarelling over a gem studded golden throne.

King Maniakkhika, the Naga King of Kelaniya, who was there at the time, invited Buddha to visit Kelaniya. Three years later, Buddha is said to have visited Kelaniya. The story states, that Lord Buddha was entertained sumptuously and as he was returning to India, through the air, his foot touched the top of Adams Peak and the imprint was left on top of the Peak. Dr Guruge in ‘The Mahawamsa’ quoting S .J. Gunasegaram in ‘The Tamil’ of January and March 1955, states, ‘No corroborative evidence or other records are available...... to support the historicity of his visit to Ceylon. There are however, references in the Manimek- halai, a Tamil epic of the third century, to this tradition.’ (pg. 404). King Ravana of Lanka Abducts Princess Sita From India Ravana was one of the Yakksha Kings who ruled in ancient Sri

bear names such as Sitawaka, Sitaganga, and Sitaeliya. These are believed to be places where Sita was kept hidden by Ravana.

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16 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Lanka. His capital was Lankapura. He was so clever and powerful, that in Hindu poetry he is depicted as possessing ten heads and twenty arms. In addition to being a clever and rich king, he was a man of medicine. Prince Rama, the son of King Ayodhya in India, banished from his country, was living in exile in the forest, with his wife Sita, the beautiful daughter of King Mithila. Rama’s brother Lakshman joined them in exile. Ravana, in revenge for an insult paid to his sister who was living in India, flew over from Lanka to India in his flying machine, and seeing Sita alone, while Rama and his brother were out hunting, carried Sita back with him to Lanka. Sita remained faithful to her husband and refused Ravana’s advances. A grief-stricken Rama came overland to Lanka with an army, and met Ravana in battle. Ravana’s own brother refused to take his side as he felt that Ravana had done a despicable act in stealing Sita. After a long battle Ravana was killed, Lankapura was burnt down and Rama took back his wife to India. But Rama chastised Sita for having been the cause of all the trouble. Thereupon, Sita cast herself on a blazing fire. The fact that she was not hurt, made Rama accept her innocence. Many places in Lanka CHAPTER 3

THE MAHAWAMSA

The Mahawamsa gives the story of the Sinhalese nation. It is a remarkable literary achievement, and is the primary source of the rich historical tradition of Sri Lanka, in which is recorded the “most astonishing dynastic history of any people” from 542 BC to 1758 AD. It is a very colourful and complete narration, of which Mr Wilhelm Geiger, the famous Indologist wrote in 1932, “It is a well known fact that for hardly any part of the continent of India is there such an uninterrupted historical tradition, as for the island of Ceylon.” The Mahawamsa was begun in the 6th Century AD by Bhikkhus

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17 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 (Buddhist monks) who wrote it in verse. Thera Mahanama who lived in a monastery, is believed to have started writing on the advise of his nephew and friend, King Dhatusena (455-473 AD). Details were added from time to time by other bhikkhus giving 2000 years of Lanka’s history under 61 rulers of the Mahawamsa or “Great Dynasty” and 111 Sovereigns of the Culawamsa or “Lesser Dynasty” who graced the throne of Lanka. According to Dr Guruge, ‘Very early in their sojourn in Sri Lanka the Sinhalas had begun to keep records, though not necessarily in written form, pertaining to their kings, their settlements, waves of mig- rations, palace intrigues, military actions, town-planning and building operations and the development of water resources. ‘Not only are the various versions of these records persistently consist- ent as regards essential details, but an extensive war of succession in the fourth century BC by Pandukabhaya, the fourth in their historical tradition is described with such minute details on strategic aspects of his campaign with special reference to the terrain covered, as to establish its plausibility. ‘Did the pride of new nationhood give them this extraodinary hist- orical sense? Did the fact that they constituted an island nation contribute to it? Did their isolation from their original stock by an intervening mass of Dravidian and fast Dravidianizing states compel them to cling to the historical evidence of their identity? Perhaps each of these factors played a vital role.’ (AG pg.83) As Dr Guruge states “The records of 1500 years ago are not the dead hand of the past, they are the voice of the living present.” ‘The Sinhala Sangha appears to have emerged as the earliest known custodians of history in and around south and south-east Asia. They kept their records in a variety of forms - ballads, narratives, memory -verses (ie mnemonic devices which enabled details of an event to be recalled from popular knowledge) and Books of Virtue or Pious Deeds’ The usual eastern tendency to exaggerate, may certainly have embel- lished events and the fact that Bhikkhus did the writing, may have led to much biased reporting, with more emphasis being given to those kings who built dagobas and viharas, or to those who encouraged agriculture by building irrigation tanks and canals, or to those who gave fertile lands to monasteries, and less importance given to those

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18 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 brave kings who excelled in military skills, when they had to fight for their country against foreign invasion. As stated by Harry Williams in ‘Ceylon, the Pearl of the East’ King Vijayabahu I “whose main contribution to the history of Lanka was to save it from final disruption and bring it to unity again...... for some strange reason the mainspring of this astonishing Indian Summer, seems to have made no real impression upon the historian.” Again, although Matouan Lim in his Chinese Encyclopaedia states that, “It was in the reign of the Emporer Nyanti (about 400 AD) that ambassadors arrived from Lanka bearing a statue of Fo in jade- stone, four feet two inches high, painted in five colours and of such singular beauty that one would almost have doubted it being the work of human ingenuity”, there is no such record in the Culawamsa or Mahawamsa. (HW pg. 56) THE DISCOVERY OF THE MAHAWAMSA The Mahawamsa was written in Pali verse on Ola leaves, which are the dried leaves of the Talipot palm. To those who in later years had attempted to translate a few verses, it had not made sense. Hence the project had been abandoned and forgotten. Turnour's Contribution In 1826 Hon. George Turnour was an English Civil Servant serving his time in the colonies of the British Empire. He was the Government Agent in Ratnapura, “the City of Gems” in , in southwest Sri Lanka. Only a handful of Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka knew of the existence of the Mahawamsa. But a learned Sinhalese monk named Galle´ recognised the genius in Mr Turnour and became acquainted with him. He mentioned to Turnour that he was convinced, that there was a “Tika”- known as the ‘Vamsatthapakasini’ composed by an unknown author. This is a prose translation of the mystical verses in the Mahawamsa. The monk and Turnour arranged for searches in all the likely places and the priceless treasure, the ancient ola leaves, were finally located at a monastic library in Mulkirigala Vihara near Tangalle. This vihara had been built around 150 BC. “It was not till about 1826 that the discovery was made and com- municated to Europe, that whilst the history of India was only to be conjectured from myths and elaborated from the dates on copper grants, or fading inscriptions on rocks and columns, Ceylon was in

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19 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 possession of continous written chronicals, rich in authentic facts, and not only presenting a connected history of the island itself, but also yielding valuable materials for elucidating that of India.”(AG.pg.78) Were the Sri Lankans historians? To answer this question, Dr Guruge quotes from several other well known personalities. Bishop R.S. Copelston in an address to the Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch) had said “The Sinhalese stand alone, or almost alone, among the Indian people as having had an interest in history. Their chronicles are the oldest I believe, and for centuries the only instances of histories in the Indian world.... The Sinhalese chronicles are distinctly historical in form, not epical.” Dr C. A. Hewavitharna in Young Lanka, states, “The Mahavamsa is a product of the genius of the Sinhalese people and whatever its limitations may be, judged by modern historical methods, its value to the modern Sinhalese as the statement of old ideals, is incomparable” Rev. Father S. G. Perera in Young Ceylon (May 1937), speaking of George Turnour, has said “we can scarcely realize the epoch-making character of Turnour’s work. It was he who first vindicated the authencity of the chronicle and it was his publication that established its reputation for good.”(AG pg 403) Finally Guruge quotes from ‘The Tamil’(March 1955) where S.G Gunasegaram, says, “Few peoples have had the good fortune to inherit such a comparatively reliable story of their hoary past as the Sinhalese. The people of Ceylon in general and particularly the Sinhalese are rightly proud of this ancient story of their long line of kings...... It is the opinion of scholars that, as a historical record, the Mahawamsa is superior both in style and in content, to the legendary chronicles - written several hundred years later - of some of the very European races who a few hundred years ago conquered this country, and taught us to believe that they were a superior people..... “Here in the Mahawamsa we meet a people who, in the formative years of their nationhood, placed before everything else the high principles of the founder of their religion and asserted the supremacy of tolerance, rectitude, non-violence and peace, as against material prosperity pomp and power that war, conquests and enslavement of peoples might bring in their wake. The Mahavamsa is a book that should be in the library of every educated Ceylonese - a book that should be read

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20 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 and reread with understanding.”(Guruge pg 405) Turnour must have been truly dedicated to this job. One can picture him spending all his leisure hours struggling to get the verses in over thirty of the one-hundred odd books of the Mahawamsa, transl- ated (with help from bhikkhus) from a Pali he did not know, into the Sinhalese which he had by then mastered, and then translate them into ordinary prose by using the “Tika!” His dedication was rewarded when in 1836 a splendid edition of over thirty books of the Mahawamsa, translated and edited by Turnour, was presented to posterity. It was unfortunate, that Turnour did not live to complete the marathon task he had set himself. But others took over. Sri Lanka and the Sinhalese owe him and the bhikkhu an immense debt! (HW pg.10-11) “One is tempted to believe that Providence had a hand in bringing together the missing documents, and the particular scholar, at one and the same time.” The Mahawamsa was hailed as “one of the most remarkable histories in existence (unrivalled with, perhaps, the sole excep- tion of the Shu King records of the Chinese Emporers) as a dynastic narrative of an ancient and cultured civilisation.” (HW pg.12) “But Turnour’s research had achieved more than this. It opened the door to the study and translation of carved inscriptions found all over Lanka and India, and among the countless monuments of two of the most remarkable lost cities of the ancient world - Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa - abandoned and forgotten in the arid plains of Central Ceylon.” (HW pg.12) Facts related in the Mahawamsa have been corroborated by evidence obtained from archaeological sources, and from sources outside Sri Lanka, such as the records of Fahien, the famous Chinese traveller. “The Mahawamsa” says Dr. Ananda Guruge, “is not a forgotten work of literature which is restricted only to scholars. It is a

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21 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 living document forming the fountainhead of a vibrant natural hist- orical tradition which the Sinhalas in general and the Sinhala Buddhists in particular are proud to possess and determined to perpetuate.” Dhatusena who became king in the year 455 AD, commissioned his uncle the learned monk Thera Mahanama to bring the historical records up to date. Mahanama is credited with writing the first part of the Mahawamsa, and others, probably bhikkhus, added to it. It is unique, in that it is an account which shows “continuity, comprehensiveness and verifiability.” Apart from the Mahawamsa written by Mahanama many kings appear to have kept records of their doings, such as Dutugemunu's “Book of Meritorious Deeds” (161-137 BC); records kept by King Udaya I “of judgements which were just” (797 AD) and accounts of what happened in the country during the 55 years of King Vijay- abahu I (1055-1110). In addition many inscriptions on stones or rocks have been left by these ancient Kings. This also points to the fact that there were many literate people in the country from very early times - at least among the Royalty- several of whom had taken an interest in writing and translating Buddhist Arrival

CHAPTER 4

INDO-ARYAN MIGRATIONS Indo-Aryan migration to Lanka occurred from the fifth Century B.C. Several clans or families came to Lanka, ‘such as Lambakanna, Moriya, Tarachcha, Balibhojaka, Sinhala and others’. They brought with them Brahamanism. Evidence available tends to support the conclusion that ‘Aryan migration and the colonisation from north India preceded the arrival of Dravidians from the south of India.’ (KMDS pg13). “Some tried to trace the obvious Dravidian elements in present day and culture to pre-historic relations with the original settlers of the island on the argument that Rakshas, Yakkhas and Nagas were Dravidians...... Unless we have a minimum of such evidence -

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22 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 epigraphical, archaeological, literary or linguistic - such assertions are no more than guesses or products of fanciful imagination...... If the original base - the very foundation - was Dravidian how did it become secondary.” (A.G pg 101) Quoting from Sangam Literature, Guruge says, “By the time the Dravidian ascendancy took place in South India, the Aryanisation of Sri Lanka had been completed...... Besides the kings and chieftains of the Sangam age had produced only adventurers seeking personal fortunes and not leaders of mass migratory movements.”(pg 104) “The Sinhalas who founded the kingdom of Sri Lanka around the sixth century B.C. and developed their own national identity, actually came in several waves of migration from the northern parts of the Indian sub-continent. On the basis of both legendary accounts of such migrations and the evidence gleaned from linguistic palaentology, these early ancestors could be traced to such diverse parts of the sub-continent as Punjab, and Gujerat.” (AG pg.80) According to Dr Guruge “By the time the Dravidian populations developed as organized kingdoms or states in South India, the Indo- Aryan settlers were well-established in Sri Lanka with a fully developed national identity as evinced by a distinct language, a religion and socio-cultural institutions. Linguistically and culturally South India on the contrary had experienced several waves of formidable influences from the North and did not evolve a Dravidian identity at least till a millenium had elapsed from the first colonisation of Sri Lanka by Indo-Aryan settlers.” (AG pg.92) “...... linguistically and culturally, the Dravidian element in the Sri Lankan population had remained sporadic, intermittent and secondary. On the whole, the material evidence of its prescence and impact, dates from a much later period than the arrival and the entrenchment of the Indo-Aryan Sinhala population in the entire island. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence as well as the place names of proven antiquity confirm the distribution of Sinhala in all parts of the island without exception.” (AG pg.90) These Indo-Aryans spoke a Pali tongue similar to Sanskrit and were culturally allied to northern Indian races rather than those of South India. According to Paranavitane in ‘Sinhalayo’ “the script on the over 1200 cave inscriptions found in Lanka is the same as that of historical

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23 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 inscriptions in India...... The edicts of Emporer Asoka are in the same script. Closer examination reveals that the forms of the individual letters were imperceptibly undergoing change during the period in which they were written. A comparison with Asoka inscriptions enables us to conclude that these cave inscriptions have been made in dates ranging from the last quarter of third century BC to about the end of first century AD. Like the script, the language is akin to that of earliest records found in India. These inscriptions thus corroborate the literary tradition that the Sinhalese migrated from Lala in North India.” Such inscriptions are found in the North, South, East and West of the island. THE COMING OF VIJAYA Prince Vijaya, believed to be the founder of the Sinhala race, is according to the Mahawamsa, the son of King whose mother was Suppadevi. Over six hundred years before the birth of Christ, the King of Bengal and his beautiful Queen, Mayavati, the daughter of the king of , had one child - the lovely Suppadevi. As foretold by the astrologers she was a wilful woman and led an unbecoming life. Running away from the palace, she joined a caravan that was heading towards . At Lala, an outlaw named Sinha seized the caravan and carried away Suppadevi and made her his wife. They had two children, a son called Sinhabahu, and a daughter named Sinhasivali. Whenever Sinha left the cave that was their home, he would seal the entrance with a large rock so that his family would not be able to escape. When Sinhabahu was about 16 years old, his mother told him about her royal beginnings and her relatives in Bengal. She yearned to go back to the comfort of life in the palace. One day when Sinha was away, Sinhabahu rolled away the stone and escaped with his mother and sister. When they came to a village, they met some labourers who took them to the governor of that village. This governor, who took them to the king, was a cousin of Suppadevi, who later married her. Meanwhile Sinha came home to the cave and finding his wife and children missing, he was distraught. Angry, he ran amok terrorising the villagers. The people complained to the king who proclaimed a reward of three thousand pieces for anyone who would capture Sinha. Angry over the way his father had treated his mother, Sinhabahu was determined to capture his father. Twice he attempted but was

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24 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 stopped by his mother. The third time he went to the king without his mother’s knowledge and offered to kill his father, Sinha. The king promised to make him a governor if he got rid of the outlaw. He went to the Lala forest. As Sinha saw his son, he came forward to embrace him. But Sinhabahu shot an arrow and killed him. By the time Sinhabahu returned to the palace, his grandfather, the king had died. So the people elected him as king. Though he accepted it, he handed over the kingdom to his mother and her husband, and went to Lala where he set himself up as king. He had many sons, Vijaya being eldest and Summitta the second. Vijaya was wild and reckless like his grandfather Sinha. He and his band of wild friends killed cattle and did intolerable deeds, which forced the villagers to complain to the king. Warnings had no effect. The king was left with no choice, but order the arrest of Vijaya and his seven hundred lawless friends. Their heads were half shaven to indicate that they had lost their freedom and they and their families were put in boats and sent out to sea. Vijaya lands on the northwest coast of Lanka After a long and rough period of sailing, their boats landed at Tammanna, near the present day , in northwest of Lanka. They called the place Tambapanni, meaning red palms. They probably sat on the beach and had their palms scorched red by the hot sand. They explored the new country and saw a dog. Vijaya’s chaplain said “dogs are found only in a village” and followed the dog. He arrived at a pond. Here he drank some water and decided to have a bath. As he was leaving after his bath he saw a beautiful young woman spinning thread under a Banyan tree. She was Princess , daughter of a chieftan, and had supernatural powers. She made the chaplain invisible. Since the chaplain was delaying, another of Vijaya’s men came in search. The same fate befell him. One by one the others came, and met with the same fate. Finally Vijaya himself came in search of his men and seeing Kuveni said, “Lady, has thou seen my men?”. She replied, “Prince, I have not seen any one.” The fact that she called him Prince, made him suspect that she was not human. Thinking she was a demon, he held her by her long hair and demanded his men. She was frightened and pleaded to be spared. He felt sorry and realised then that she was human. According to Harry Williams’ book “Ceylon -Pearl of the East”,

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25 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 this story “is a vivid counterpart of the story of Ulysses meeting Circe in Greek Mythology”. He believes that Homer gathered his story “from Eastern mariners” relating legends of Taprobane from where they had heard the story of Vijaya and Kuveni. (HW pg.22) Kuveni made all his men reappear and made friends with Vijaya. Soon Vijaya decided to make her his wife. She provided him and his men with food and luxuriously furnished apartments. That night Vijaya awoke to sounds of music and singing. On being questioned, Kuveni told him that one of her cousins, Princess Polamitta from Lankapura, was marrying one of her relatives from Laggala. The wedding feast was to last seven days. She decided that if Vijaya and his men went there and killed her people he could become king without opposition. So, led by Kuveni, Vijaya and his men attacked the large crowd of aboriginees who were feasting there that night - a treacherous and ignoble achievement! Vijaya founded a kingdom at Tambapanni. His ministers explored the country and founded new settlements to which they gave their names, without any opposition from the aboriginees. Anuradhagama near the Kadamba river (Malwattu Oya), Ujjeni, Vijitanagara and Uruvela were some of these new settlements. Vijaya had two children by Kuveni

The coming of Vijaya (a mural)

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26 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 - a son named Jivahatta, and a daughter called Disala. After some time, Vijaya’s men wanted him consecrated king. But since he was a brahmin and a Hindu he said he would consent only if he had a queen of the Aryan race. His ministers sent an embassy to Madhura in South India, to woo the daughter of the king of the Pandus, a Ksatriya tribe of Aryans who had migrated from Madhya Pradesh. This Aryan Princess came to Lanka with a large retinue of maidens, craftsmen, weavers, gold-smiths, potters, and other tradesmen. On hearing of her coming, Vijaya explained the position to Kuveni, and told her she could live in any part of the island and that he would care for her and the children. He offered her one thousand pieces of silver. Kuveni was heart broken and pleaded in vain to remain with him. Vijaya was unrelenting. Angry and hurt, she refused any help from him, and decided to take her children and go back to her people. On arriving at her former city of Lankapura she left the two children outside the city gates, and entered alone. On seeing her, thinking she was coming to spy, her people killed her. Her maternal uncle seeing the two children, asked them who they were. On hearing that their mother was Kuveni, he told them that she was killed and advised them to run away. They ran away and hid in the jungles around Adams peak. Their descendents are considered to be the Pulinda race of Veddhas.. CHAPTER 5

THE FIRST TWO SINHALA KINGS

CONSECRATION OF VIJAYA AROUND 483 BC The Aryan princess disembarked at Mahatittha, near present day Mannar, and proceeded to Tambapanni where she and her entourage were warmly received. Soon Vijaya and the Aryan Princess were consecrated as the first Sinhala King and Queen of Lanka. They had no children. When he was getting old he sent a message to his brother Summitta to come and take over his kingdom. But

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27 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 by then King Sinhabahu had died and Summitta had become the king of Lala. He advised one of his three sons to go to Lanka. Prince Panduvasudeva, the youngest, accepted the offer. In the meantime Vijaya died having ruled for thirty-eight years at Tambapani. His Chief Minister, Upatissa who had set himself up at Upatissagama, ruled the country as regent for about one year.

PANDUVASUDEVA - SECOND KING OF LANKA Panduvasudeva came with thirty-two young men of noble birth. They came in boats disguised as mendicant monks, and landed at Gonagama (probably Trincomalee) at the mouth of the Mahakandara river (probably Mahaveli ganga). From here with the help of aboriginees, they found their way to Upatissagama. Panduvasudeva was installed as king, but the consecration was postponed till a bride was found.

Once more an embassy was sent to India to look for an Aryan bride. This time it was to North India, and the choice was the lovely Princess Subhadhakaccana (known as Kasayindevi) youngest daughter of King Pandu of the Sakya clan, who was a cousin of the Buddha, and ruled north of the river Ganges. She was divinely tall and beautiful, and has been likened to a goddess. She had many royal suitors from the seven kingdoms around, but the king preferred to send her to Lanka. She set sail from Kimbulvatpura, with thirty two maidens of noble birth, and landed at Gonagama, at the mouth of the Mahakandara River. Panduvasudeva and Subhadhakaccana were soon consecrated as the second King and Queen of Sri Lanka. Six of the seven brothers of Queen Subhadhakaccana came later to Lanka and founded settlements for themselves, giving their names to these settlements - Anuradhagama, Dighayu, Ramagama, Rohana, Uruvela and Vijitagama. Prince Anuradha lived in Anuradhagama near Malvattu Oya. He also constructed the Abhayaweva, the first authentic records of a tank built in Lanka. South of this tank he built a stately palace and resided there. Princess Citta King Panduvasudeva and his Queen had ten sons, the eldest being Abhaya, and one daughter, named Citta. When she was born, astrologers foretold that she would have a son, who would fight her brothers and take the throne. The brothers then decided to kill Citta. But

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28 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Abhaya, who was the eldest brother and the Vice-Regent, advised against it, and instead they decided to lock her up in a chamber. She was locked up with a serving woman in a room to which the only access was through the king’s sleeping chamber. One hundred guards kept watch outside, day and night. Citta grew up to become a beautiful woman with a beauty that maddened men. Hence she was called Ummada Citta (Ummada means maddening). Her fame spread far and wide. It reached the ears of Prince Digha Gamani the son of Prince Dighayu who was Citta’s uncle. So he came to Upatissagama to see for himself. When he presented himself to his uncle the king, he was appointed for service in the Royal

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29 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Court. One day Citta was standing near the window of her chamber and she saw Prince Digha Gamani and fell in love with him. On hearing that he was her cousin, she begged the serving woman to bring him to her room. Unable to refuse her entreaties the serving woman arranged for the Prince to climb up through a hook ladder that she let down from the window in the night. When he came to see Citta, he too fell in love with her. Thereafter he came over every night. Soon Citta was going to have a baby. When the serving woman discovered this, she was afraid and confided in the queen mother, who told the king about it. The king consulted his sons and they decided that she should be married to the Prince to avoid a scandal. But in view of what the astrologers had foretold at her birth, the brothers determined to kill the baby, if it turned out to be a boy. They summoned two Yakkshas, Kalawela and Cittaraja, who were servants of Digha Gamani, and tried to bribe them to kill the child. But they refused and were threatened with death. However they escaped and lived in hiding.

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 6

PRINCE PANDUKABHAYA

THE BIRTH The queen arranged to find another woman who was due to have a baby at about the same time, and brought her to the palace. Soon Princess Citta had a baby-boy, and the other woman a baby-girl. The baby-girl was taken over from the woman and she was paid one thousand pieces of money. Citta’s brothers were told that that was

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30 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 Citta’s baby- daughter. The baby prince was named Pandukabhaya combining the names of his grandfather, and eldest-uncle Abhaya. The serving woman was entrusted with the task of taking the baby prince to her village, where her own sister-in-law was due to have a baby. On the day that Pandukabhaya was born, King Panduvasudeva died, having ruled for thirty years. His eldest son, Crown Prince Abhaya became the next king. When the serving woman was on her way carrying the baby Prince in a basket, she met Citta’s brothers, the princes, returning from the hunt. They asked her what she was carrying, and she told them it was a cake. They wanted her to take it out. Just then a big boar ran across the road. The princes forgot the cake and the woman, and started running behind the boar. The maid quickly took the basket and ran as fast as she could. When she arrived in her village, her sister-in-law had just given birth to a baby boy. So her husband told their neighbours that she had given birth to twin sons. Pandukabhaya Escapes From Soldiers Sent To Kill Him Thus the prince grew up in this village with his foster family. When the prince was about seven years old, his uncles found out the real truth - that Citta had a baby son, and that he was in hiding in this village. Prince Pandukabhaya was in the habit of going daily with the village boys to bathe in the village pond. In the pond grew a banyan tree whose trunk had a large hollow, much below the water level. Only Pandukabhaya knew of this, and he would often hide there when playing with his friends. The uncles were determined to have him killed. So emissaries were sent to kill all the boys in that village. When the soldiers arrived, the prince concealed himself in the hollow of this tree with his clothes on. The emissaries killed all the boys who were bathing near the pond, counted the clothes and finding it tallied with the number killed, went back and reported to the princes, that all the boys in the village, including Pandukabhaya, had been killed. When the prince was about 12 years old, the uncles heard that he was still alive in the village, working as a herdsman. Once again they sent emissaries to kill every herdsman in the village. On that day the herdsmen with whom the prince was working, killed a deer,

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31 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 and sent the prince home to get fire to roast the meat. When he reached home his feet were sore. Hence he bade his foster-brother take the fire. Soon soldiers came there and killed all the herdsmen and once again the prince escaped. When Pandukabhaya was about sixteen years old, Citta heard that her brothers were planning once again to kill her son. She therefore sent a thousand pieces of money to Pandukabhaya’s foster-father, advising him to move him to a safer place. Pandukabhaya Gets Training From Guru Pandula The foster father gave all that money to the prince, and sent him with a slave to the Brahman Pandula who lived in Pandulagama. The Brahman was a rich man who was learned in the Vedas. The Brahman too had an intelligent son called Canda. Both his son, and the prince learnt the Arts. He taught the Prince all he needed to know to prepare himself for kingship. Soon, the Brahman felt it was time for the prince to confront his uncles. He gave the prince one-hundred-thousand pieces of money to enrol soldiers and five- hundred trusted men. With these men, and his trusted friend Canda, the prince started his march towards Upatissagama the capital, where his eldest uncle, Abhaya, was now the king, his grandfather having died the day Pandukabhaya was born. When he came to Girikanda he found that his uncle Girikanda Siva was governor of the area. The uncle’s beautiful daughter Suvannapali, was riding a splendid chariot with a retinue of servants, and was taking food for her father and others who were working in the fields. When the prince got this information he drove his chariot to meet hers. He inquired who she was, and asked for some food. Princess Suvannapali got off the chariot and offered him food in a golden bowl. They fell in love, and she decided to go with him, leaving her family. They proceeded towards Ritigala. On hearing this story, Governor Girikanda was furious that his daughter had been abducted. He sent soldiers in pursuit but it was too late. Battle Of Kalaha-Nagara The soldiers caught up with the Prince and Princess, at Kalaha Nagara (present day Kalahagola), a few miles south of present day Minneriya. A fierce battle was fought between the soldiers of the prince and those of the governor, Girikanda Siva. The governor’s men were badly defeated. They went away and came back with fresh troops led by Suvannapali’s five brothers. They fought again, a bloody battle,

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32 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 in which all five brothers of Suvannapali were killed by Canda, the friend of Pandukabhaya. This place was called Lohita Vahakhanda which means “field of blood”. Pandukabhaya’s army marched south, crossing the Mahaveli at Kacchaka ford (Mahagamtota) and occupied the mountain known as Dolapabbata. Here they stayed for four years, and increased the size of the army. Pandukabhaya At War With His Uncles The eight uncles meanwhile prepared to make war against their nephew, Pandukabhaya. They came with a large army and occupied Dhumarakkha mountain (Dimbulugala) on the right bank of Mahaveli river, probably to stop Pandukabhaya from crossing the river. But his army crossed the river and here another fierce battle was fought - the battle of Dhumarakkha. The uncles lost and ran away, and reported what happened to their elder brother King Abhaya. Abhaya though he felt sorry for his brothers, could not help a feeling of admiration for his nephew. He secretly sent a thousand pieces of money to Prince Pandukabhaya and asked him to stay on the further bank. Abhaya’s brothers heard this and wanted to kill

Koottum Pokuna shows two pools of different sizes

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33 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 him, but decided it was better to get him to abdicate. Abhaya abdicated after reigning for 20 years in favour of the next brother, Tissa. Though Pandukabhaya had a large and faithful army, he knew that his uncles had more resources. He therefore fortified himself for two more years. There were numerous Yakshas around Dhumarakkha mountain. So far, they had remained neutral. Pandukabhaya fought the Yakshas and captured their chieftainess named . To get her freedom, she offered to help the prince. The prince pitched camp at Aritha mountain (Ritigala) and remained there for seven years. Battle Of Labu Gamaka Leaving Abhaya and Girikanda Siva to guard the capital, Tissa and the other brothers came with their armies to the Arittha mountain. After two years of sporadic fighting, Pandukabhaya resolved on a bold plan. On Cetiya’s advise, Pandukabhaya sent soldiers with gifts to his uncles expressing a desire to make peace. The uncles were so happy, they relaxed their guard. Pandukabhaya’s soldiers then attacked them, and killed everyone. Seeing the heads of the corpses everywhere, the Prince remarked “it is like a field of gourds (labu)”. Hence the village was called Labugama (now called Labunoruwa). Thus ended 19 years of fighting with the uncles and true to the prediction made at his birth, he killed his uncles and became king. He went to his mothers Uncle at Anuradhagama, who handed over his palace to the prince, and built a smaller one for himself. A soothsayer pointed out an auspicious place to build his palace. ANURADHAPURA - ANCIENT CAPITAL OF LANKA (394 BC - 1029 AD) Pandukabhaya built his capital in Anuradhapura in the North Central part of Sri Lanka. It remained the capital of Lanka for over 1400 years, from around 394 BC to 1029 AD. It is believed to have had a population of several tens of thousands. There were buildings which were two or three storeys tall. The kings lived in bejewelled palaces. But due to decimation of the population by malaria and foreign invasions it was deserted and lost to the world, till it was rediscovered in 1820 by a young British Civil Servant, named Ralph Backhaus. Still it was only after 1871 that an Archaeological Commissioner was appointed, and excavations really began by Commissioner Bell about 1890.

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34 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 About the city of Anuradhapura, ‘Insight Guides’ states “At the height of its glory, this civilisation spread its influence from the Tiber to the Yellow Sea.”. It covered some 20 sq. miles (52 sq. kilo-metres). Fa Hein, the Chinese traveller who lived in Anuradhapura for over two years studying Buddhism in the first century AD, wrote, “In the city are many Vaisya elders and Sabaen (Moor) merchants whose houses are stately and beautiful. The lanes and passages are kept in good order...” He records that there were over 3000 monks in the Mahavihara and over 5000 in the Abhayagiri vihara. Fa Hein also makes mention of a 22 feet tall image of jasper in Anuradhapura. In his book “Ceylon-Pearl of the East” Harry Williams says, “What it must have been at the zenith of its beauty one can only guess, but I do not believe that any other city could have been more beautiful than Anuradhapura when at the height of its prosperity.” It certainly must have been a beautiful city, with the copper plates on the roof of the Brazen Palace or Lova Maha Paya dazzling in the hot tropical sun, the lofty dagobas, some of which in height were only second to the pyramids, and the bejewelled palaces! “...... these mute testimonials to the skill of a highly gifted people, but they are only the minutiae of the splendours of the lost metropolis. The skeleton of the city is there, but only the imagination can clothe it with the flesh of the past, for the glory has departed” (HW pg 141) Here there are the eight Sacred Buddhist sites (Atamas Stanaya)- the Sri Maha Bodhi (Bo tree); Ruwanveliseya; Thuparama Dagoba; Jetavanarama Dagoba; Abhayagiri Dagoba; Lankarama Dagoba; Mirisaweti Dagoba; and Issurumuniya Vihara. The Poson Poya (full Moon Day in June) attracts large crowds of pilgrims to Anuradhapura - to celebrate the bringing of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Arahant Mahinda. In addition to these eight places of importance, there is the forest of 1600 monolithic columns of granite in 40 rows of 40 each, all that is left of the nine- storeyed Brazen palace or Lova Maha Paya which Dutugemunu built in the second century BC as a residence for monks. This was part of the Mahavihara, the seat of Theravada Buddhism. Nearby is the Basawakkulama Tank and a fine Arch- aeological Museum. There are several bathing pools. The Koottum Pokuna or ‘twin pools’. consists of two baths built end to end, with descending terraces to a depth of twenty feet. “Cave points out that the famous baths of the Roman emperors built contemporaneously with these pokunas have long since crumbled beyond repair, whereas those of Lanka, although scattered by the malice of invaders, are as sound as the day on which they were assembled by archaeologists. Certainly the famous Roman swimming pool at Bath in England, compares very unfavourably with many pokunas. With their lovely and imposing proportions, their fine terraces and impressive steps, the baths of Dutugemunu deserve far more notice.....” (HW pg.140) The two baths though called twin pools are not of equal size, one being one- and-a-half times longer. They have been built for the bhikkhus around third century AD. The water which feeds these ponds first flows into an enclosed filtration basin, then through a beautiful makara gargoyle and a lion’s-head-spout into the smaller tank. A submarine conduit feeds the larger tank. (IG) 35 Pokunas or bathing tanks for monks, were part of the larger mona-steries, such as the Twin baths at Anuradhapura and the Lotus baths at Polonnaruwa.

35 SL Histary Chap. 1-6 CHAPTER 7

KING PANDUKABHAYA At age 37 Pandukabhaya was ceremoniously consecrated as the fourth Sinhala king with beautiful Suvannapali as Queen, in the new capital of Anuradhapura. His first duty was to publicly honour those who had helped him. The Yaksha Chieftainess Cetiya was housed in his own Palace as a distinguished guest. The two Yakshas, Kalawela and Cittaraja who, at Pandukabhaya’s birth refused to be bribed by his uncles to kill him, were settled on the east and the south-west sides of the city. At festivals, it is stated, the king had Cittaraja seated beside him on a seat of equal height, showing that the Sinhalese did not regard the aboriginees as a conquered race. He decreed that sacrifical offerings be made to Yaksha gods. His faithful friend Canda, was made Chaplain or Purohita. His uncle and father-in-law, Girikanda was spared and made governor of Girikanda. A slave woman, Kumbo Kata, who had befriended him when he was fleeing to the Brahman’s house, was settled in comfortable dwellings at the south gate. INTRODUCTION OF MUNICIPAL ADMINSTRATION AND PUBLIC WORKS Pandukabhaya wanted to make Anuradhapura a beautiful city. A Municipal type of adminstration was introduced. His uncle Abhaya was given the “night kingship of the city” or Nagara Guttika, and put in charge of the administration of the city by night. He was given a large staff of officials and cleaners from the Candala caste, 500 men to clean the streets of the towns at night with 200 men to clean sewers, 150 to bear the dead and 150 night watchers of the common cemetery. The Candala caste had a village built for them with a separate cemetery. North of the cemetery, near Pasana mountain was built a line of huts for the huntsmen. He also introduced Public Works. The four gates of the City -

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36 SL Histary Chap.7-18 North, South, East and West were enclosed by a solid ornamental rampart. Starting from each gate was a pretty suburb in which houses and buildings quickly sprang up. Near the west gate was the Common Cemetery, the place of execution and the two buildings known as Chapel of the Queens and the House of great sacrifices. Hospitals for the sick, and lying-in-homes for pregnant mothers were built in all parts of the island. In the tenth year of his reign he built boundaries for villages. The entire island was divided into three states - Pihiti rata or Rajarata, the capital state, ruled by the king; Mayarata or Malayarata covering the hilly country and governed by the subking,(Maya or malaya means younger brother) and Rohanarata or Ruhuna covering the southern part. Rajarata extended over the northern part of the island, north of the Mahaveli ganga and . Mayarata was bounded on the north by the Deduru Oya, on the east by Mahaveli, on the south by and on the west by the Indian Ocean, and included the hill country. Ruhana rata was the area south of Mahaveli and Kalu ganga. PANDUKABHAYA’S CONTRIBUTION TO IRRIGATION The Basawakkulama Tank The Sinhalese built dams across rivers to form reservoirs or Tanks known as Wewas which could store water. From here water was made to gradually flow into fields directly or through excavated channels. The Basawakkulama, one of the oldest tanks in Anuradhapura, was built by Pandukabhaya in the early 4th Century BC. It covers an area of 330 acres and has a capacity of 133 million cubic feet. With an embankment about a kilometre long (over one mile), it has served the people for over 2000 years. Pandukabhaya’s maternal uncle, Prince Anurudha, had built the Abhaya Weva, (probably the first tank in Lanka), under the guidance of Jotiya, a Brahman. Pandukabhaya deepened this tank to hold more water. Water from this tank was used for his consecration, hence it was called Jayavapi. He also built the Gamani Weva north of the Cemetery, in memory of his father Digha Gamani. The religious sect called Jains had 2 sects - Svetambaras, who wore white clothes and Digambaras or Nigantayas, naked asetics, who wore no clothes. He built temples and houses such as Nigantha Jotiya, Nigantha Giri and Nigantha Kumbhanda, for them.

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37 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Basawakkulama Tank - covering 330 acres

When Pandukabhaya died his only son Mutasivu, became king in the beautiful kingdom at Anuradhapura. KING MUTASIVA Mutasiva is believed to have ruled for 60 years. He was the first king to lay out Parks - first the Mahameghavana and later, the Nandana or Jotivana Park. He ruled in a peaceful country over a contented, religious people. He had ten sons - Abhaya, Devanampiyatissa, Mahanaga, Uttiya, Maha Siva, Mattabhaya, Suratissa, Asela and Kira, and daughters Anula and Sivali. Abhaya the eldest, did not succeed the father (probably he may have been sick or disabled). Instead, Devanampiyatissa, the second son whose name means, friend of the gods, succeeded Mutasiva.

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38 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 8

KING DEVANAMPIYATISSA

GIFTS TO EMPEROR ASOKA From the beginning of his reign, King Devanampiyatissa sent gifts to King Asoka, Emperor of India at Magadha. A sword, an umbrella, a diadem, slippers, a fan, right-whorled chank (which is believed to bring luck), sapphires, rubies and other gems, eight kinds of and other valuable gifts were sent through his own nephew and Prime Minister Maharittha; Talipabata the king’s Chaplain, Tela a Minister and Tissa the Royal Treasurer. Leaving from Jambukola in the north of Lanka they arrived in Tamalitti at the mouth of the Ganges, and went overland to the capital of Magadha, in Pataliputra (Patna). King Asoka was pleased to receive all these gifts sent by his friend the young king of Lanka whom he had never seen. He in turn sent back many gifts when they returned to Lanka, five months later. Ambrosial healing herbs, golden platters, a set of garments which needed no washing, and other things needed for the consecration of a king were sent. He also sent his Royal chaplain and Treasurer, advising them to perform a second consecration for Devanampiyatissa. A kshastriya maiden with water from the Ganges was sent to perform the consecration. As advised by King Asoka a second consecration was held in 246 BC, when the kshastriya maiden poured water from the Ganges on the king’s head, and he was consecrated as Maharaja Devanampiyatissa, seated on a beautifully ornamental throne made of udumbara wood. The royal crown was placed on his head and the people paid homage to him - the sixth king of Lanka. ASOKA'S GREAT GIFT OF THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINE A month after his coronation the king went hunting on the Missaka mountains. It was the full moon day in June. He saw an elk feeding in the thicket. Not wanting to cowardly shoot at a standing elk, he

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39 SL Histary Chap.7-18 snapped his bow strings, to make the elk run. When the animal took flight, the king shot an arrow but missed the mark. The king started to follow the elk. Suddenly he heard a voice call out, “Tissa, Tissa” Surprised that anyone in his kingdom dared address him by name, he looked around and saw a band of yellow robed monks on the mountain. They were Arahant Mahinda, the son of King Asoka, Sumana the son of his sister Theri Sanghamitta (and grandson of King Asoka) and four Theras - Uttiya, Itthiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. A lay disciple named Bhanduka, was brought along, to prove they were human. The king asked, “Who art thou, with shaven heads and glistening teeth, wearing saffron robes.” Thera Mahinda answered, “Oh King, we are monks, disciples of Buddha. Out of compassion for you, we have come from Jambudipa.” The king, when he heard they were monks, laid aside his bow and arrows and exchanged greetings with Mahinda. When asked whether there were other monks in Jambudipa, Thera Mahinda answered, “Jambudipa is gleaming with yellow robes.” Before preaching, Mahinda wanted to test the intelligence of the king. He asked, “What name does this tree bear, Oh King?” The king answered, “This tree is called the mango tree”. “Is there yet another mango tree besides this?” “There are many other mango trees”, said the king. “Are there yet other trees, Oh King, besides this mango tree and the other mango trees?” “There are many trees Sir, but those trees are not mango trees.” Then the Thera asked, “Besides the other mango trees and the trees which are not mango trees, are there yet other trees?” The king replied, “There is this mango tree.” Thera Mahinda said, “Thou hast a shrewd wit, Oh ruler of men.” To test him further, Mahinda asked, “Hast thou kinsfolk, Oh King?” “There are many, Sir” “Are there also some who are not kinsfolk of thine?” “There are yet more of those, than of my kin.” “Is there yet any one besides the kinsfolk and those others?” “There is yet myself, Sir,” said the king. Mahinda said “Good. You have a shrewd wit” and he preached to the king and his followers, all of whom embraced Buddhism.

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40 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Mahinda bringing Buddhism to Lanka (mural)

The king knelt down and saluted the theras by worshipping them. He invited Mahinda and the other bhikkhus to the city, but they declined and said they would remain where they were and come to the city the next day. The king then offered to take Bhanduka, the lay disciple to the palace with him. This Mahinda said was not possible, because Bhandhuka was due to be ordained that very night. [One wonders whether Subadhakaccana who was closely related to Buddha, and the large numbers who came with her from North India, had brought some knowledge of Buddhism with them. The fact that the king placed on the ground, the bow and arrows with which he was going to kill the deer, as soon as he heard that the visitors were servants of the Buddha, shows that he had some knowledge of Buddhism. And the fact that so many accepted the new religion on the very first day that Thera Mahinda preached, makes one feel that some knowledge of Buddhism must have been there among the people from earlier times. It is also note worthy that so many lay people understood the language that Mahinda preached and became Arahants. Mahinda is believed to have preached in the Hela language]

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41 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 9

BUDDHISM ESTABLISHED IN LANKA

THE FIRST BUDDHIST ORDINATION IN LANKA

Devanampiyatissa called Bhandhuka aside, and inquired about the Theras. On learning that Thera Mahinda was the son of Emperor Asoka, he was very happy. It also convinced the king that they were humans. That night in the First Buddhist Ordination held in Lanka, (around 241 BC), Bhandhuka was ordained. He immediately attained Arahanthood. The next day Mahinda asked Sumana to make an announcement about the time for listening to the Dhamma. He inquired up to what distance he should announce. Mahinda replied that it should be to the whole of Tambapani. It is said that when the king who was at Nagapokuna heard this announcement, he was worried and inquired if there was trouble. He was told that it was only an announcement about the preaching to be held. Mahinda Visits The Palace A chariot was sent by the king for the theras the next morning, but they did not use it. Instead they arrived through the air by their miraculous powers. Having received the bhikkhus at the Palace, the king invited Anula, the wife of his brother Mahanaga, who was a very religious lady, and other Royal women to meet the bhikkhus. Mahinda preached to them and they all embraced the new religion. The king offered the Nandana Park to the visiting bhikkhus, but it was refused as it was too close to the city. The king then offered them the Mahamegha Park, which they accepted. The royal pavilion in the park was furnished with fine beds and chairs for them to rest. News of the arrival of the Theras spread throughout the island. People rushed to the palace to listen to the new teaching. Since the pavilion in the palace was not large enough to accomodate everyone

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42 SL Histary Chap.7-18 who came, the Hall of the Elephants was cleansed out and prepared for the large crowds. They all listened to the teaching of the Dhamma and over 8500 Sinhala men and women embraced the new faith in the first week. Large numbers of young men and women from all walks of life, embraced the religion. But Mahinda preached, “Every lavish giver of gifts is not a kinsman of the religion, only a giver of gifts is he called. But he who lets his son or daughter enter the religious order, is indeed a kinsman of the religion, and withal a giver of gifts”. Soon large numbers wanted to become monks. The first of these were fifty-five members from the family of Maharittha, the Prime Minister. Queen Anula and the other Royal women, too expressed the desire to become nuns. As only a nun could ordain women, Mahinda advised Devanampiyatissa to send a message to King Asoka, with a request to send his sister Theri Sanghamitta to ordain the nuns. He also suggested asking for a branch of the sacred Bo tree at Gaya under which Lord Buddha had attained enlightenment. THE FIRST RELIGIOUS PRESENTATION TO THE CLERGY AND ORDINATION OF THE FIRST SINHALA BHIKKHUS The king then presented the Mahamegavana Park to the monks - the first important religious presentation to the clergy in Lanka. As Mahinda expressed a desire to spend the rains retreat on the Missaka mountain, the king had a vihara built there, called the Missakapabbata. The establishing of this vihara was marked by an important event, the first Ordination of Sinhala Bhikkhus. Three months later when the rains retreat was over, samanera Sumana, son of Theri Sangamitta, and nephew of Mahinda, who came to Lanka with Mahinda, was sent to India with a letter requesting King Asoka to send Buddha’s alms bowl and other relics to Lanka. When Sumana came back with the alms bowl and the right collarbone relic of Buddha, they were first deposited in the Missakapabbata which thereafter was named the Cetiya pabbata or Shrine mountain. When the Thuparama Dagoba was built later on, the collarbone of the Buddha was enshrined in it. The first stone image of Buddha in Sinhala sculpture was made for this Vihara.

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43 SL Histary Chap.7-18 THE THUPARAMA DAGOBA Built in the 3rd century BC it is the oldest and perhaps the ‘most exquisitely beautiful Dagoba in Sri Lanka, and the oldest monument in India or Sri Lanka’. It has remained in almost perfect preservation for over two thousand years. A festival was held by Devanampiyatissa at the enshrining of the collarbone relic brought from India. On this day 2,500 young men from five villages entered the priesthood. It was called Thuparama Dagoba because the monastery was built, commencing with the thupa. The height and the diameter of the base of the bell-shaped dagoba are about 17 metres (56 feet), and it stands on a slight eminence surrounded by trees. The courtyard is 49 metres (164 feet) in diameter. The wide terrace which runs round the base of the brickwork, is itself, in the form of two flat and receding tiers. On this platform is a forest of ornamental pillars arranged in four concentric circles, the tallest in the middle and others tapering off. The pillars are believed to have been built in 2nd Century BC by King Lanjatissa to form a vatage. King Agbo II in the 7th Century AD added more pillars making it the largest vatage in Sri Lanka. The dagoba is believed to be constructed of brick and earth and is still solid! . .

Thuparama Dagoba in Anuradhapura - over 2200 years old

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44 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The Dagoba is essentially a solid hemispherical dome. The relic chamber which was in the shape of a stone box or a cist was in the centre of the dome. In large there was a relic chamber at ground level and another below that. The one at ground level symbolised the earth, the one above it the heavenly world and that below ground the subterranean world of serpents. The therefore symbolised the cosmos. (Paranavitana). Most of the early Stupas were of solid brick masonry. The first Stupa built in Lanka was the Thuparama by King Devanampiyatissa with the diameter at its base being 17 metres (59 feet). Later the Mirisavetiya with a diameter of 32 metres (108 feet), Ruwanveliseya 86 metres (289 feet) diameter and 90 metres tall were built by King Dutugemunu, and still later Abhayagiri with diameter of 106 metres (355 feet) and 36 metres (255 feet) tall by King Vattagamini, and Jetavana with a diameter 110 metres (367 feet) and 110 metre (367 feet) tall by King Mahasen were built. [At a later date in 311 AD when the Tooth relic of the Buddha was first brought to Lanka it was placed in a Dalada Maligawa (Tooth Temple) within the grounds of the Thuparama. The Tooth relic was formerly treasured in Dantepura, capital of Kalinga in India, for eight hundred years after the death of Lord Buddha. When the country was forced into war with non-buddhist invaders, King Guhasiva of Kalinga ordered his daughter Hemamala to take the relic and flee to Lanka, where Buddhism was flourishing at the time. The princess hid it in her hair, and travelling with her husband Dantekumar, disguised as pilgrims, brought it safely to Lanka in the reign of King Sirimeghavanna who was also known as Kitsiri Mevan.]

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45 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 10

THERI SANGHAMITTA ARRIVES WITH BO SAPLING

Within months of Thera Mahinda’s arrival, over 30,000 had embraced Buddhism. Many thousands of young men had become monks. The beautiful and pious Queen Anula, wife of the king’s brother and subking Mahanaga, and the thousands of women who had decided to become nuns were living in a nunnery called Upasika vihara awaiting the arrival of Thera Mahinda’s sister, the Theri Sanghamitta, who was to ordain them. Devanampiyatissa sent Prime Minister Maharittha to King Asoka, with letters from him and Mahinda. The emissaries set out on a Vap Poya day. Before leaving on this journey, Maharittha obtained permission from Devanampiyatissa, to be ordained on his return from India. Emporer Asoka was sad to let his daughter go, having already allowed his son Mahinda and grandson Sumana to go to Lanka. But she pleaded with him and got his consent. With the south branch of the Bodhi tree at Buddha Gaya planted in a golden bowl, and with a retinue which included eleven bhikhunis, eighteen princes from Magadha royal family and various tradesmen, Theri Sanghamitta arrived in Jambukola in northern Sri Lanka. Devanampiyatissa was in Jambukola eagerly awaiting the arrival of the Bodhi sapling. As the ship dropped anchor, the king boarded the ship with sixteen persons of noble birth, and brought the Bodhi sapling ashore. It was temporarily housed in a beautiful pavilion built for it and vast crowds came and worshipped it for three days. The king himself spent time guarding it. On the fourth day, it was placed in a beautiful open chariot, and brought to the City of Anuradhapura. The entire route from Jambukola to Anuradhapura was strewn with white sand and white flower petals. On the eighth day the procession entered Anuradhapura and the Bo- Sapling was planted at its present site in Mahamega Uyana. People

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46 SL Histary Chap.7-18 came with offerings from all parts of Lanka, even from the southern parts of Ruhuna and . In later years, a fruit from this was planted and eight saplings grew out from it. These eight saplings were planted at eight different places - Jambukola, Tivakka, Thuparama, , Pathamacetiya, Mihintale, Candanagama and Kataragama. Issurumuniya and Vessagiri were two viharas also built by Devanampiyatissa. Soon after the Bo tree was planted, the Prime Minister Maharittha, the king’s nephew, was ordained with five hundred others and took up residence in the Isurumuniya Vihara, while another five hundred commoners who were also ordained, took up residence at Vessagiri. Queen Anula and one thousand lay sisters were ordained by Sangamitta, as the first Sinhala Nuns. The nuns lived in Upasika Vihara. Many hundreds of viharas and pirivenas were built by pious laymen while the king built at least twenty three viharas and pirivenas. High ranks and distinctions were conferred on the Magadha princes who accompanied the Bo tree. The king is said to have asked Thera Mahinda whether the sasana was established in the island. Mahinda replied, “The sasana is established but it has not taken root.” On further questioning he said, “When a person born of parents in Lanka learns the and recites the same in his language, then will the sasana take root in Lanka.” Bhikkhu Maharittha is believed to have been able to recite the Vinaya at that time. Hence arrangements were made and a recital of the Vinaya took place at the Thuparama on a Vap Poya day. THE BO TREE -“THE SRI MAHA BODHI” Twelve years after the Bodhi sapling was brought to Lanka, Emperor Asoka’s Chief Queen Asandhimitta, a devoted Buddhist, died in India. Asoka then promoted Tissarakkha as his Chief Queen. She was a very beautiful but vain woman. She could not understand why Asoka was so devoted to the Bo tree at Buddha Gaya. In jealousy, she had the main tree at Buddha Gaya destroyed. The present Bodhi tree at Gaya is a sapling that grew at this site. Thus the Bodhi tree at Anuradhapura, is the only branch left of the tree which shaded Lord Buddha as he sat under it, meditating, when he attained enlightenment 2500 years ago.

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47 SL Histary Chap.7-18 There is no spot in Lanka more sacred than the Bodhi tree (ficus religiosa) at Anuradhapura. Jealously guarded, tended and rever- enced by all the Sinhala kings, and by thousands of devotees from many eastern countries for 25 centuries, today it needs iron crutches to support its ageing branches. It is so widely respected that when blight attacked the tree in 1950 and it was in danger of dying, an expert from the Smithsonian Institute came to Sri Lanka, to treat the tree. Most of the Bodhi trees in Lanka, Burma and have grown from its seeds. Most dagobas have been built in the shape of the Theri Sanghamitta arrives with Bo sapling Bo leaf. A gold-plated railing (mural) encircles the base of the sacred Bo tree at Anuradhapura. The tree stands on a plinth, to the south of the Brazen Palace and to the north of the Peacock Palace. At the bottom of the steps is a fine moonstone and on either side are two carved guard stones. The shimmering heart shaped leaves of the Bo tree become softly tremulous as the wind blows. The Sinhalese call it the “Jaya Sri Maha Bodin Wahansa”, which when translated means “the Victorious, Illustrious, Supreme Sacred Bo Tree.” (Harry Williams) Jambukola Vihara in Naga Dipa in the north, Issurumuniya in Anuradhapura where the Prime Minister Maharittha and the 500 nobles who ordained with him lived, Tissamaharama, Pacinarama, and the two nunneries - Hathalhakavihara and Upasika Vihara, Vessagiriya for monks from the lower castes, and Mahiyangana Dagoba were some of the many religious works built by Devanampiyatissa. ISSURUMUNIYA is one of the most beautiful rock temples in

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48 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Lanka. It is carved half from living rock and half built into two vast boulders. In the temple are sculptured tablets and frescoes. The sculptured doorway is magnificent. The most well known of the rock carvings is found at Issurumuniya. Called “the Lovers” it depicts a woman sitting on the lap of a man with the woman’s finger lifted as if to caution the man. It is believed that these carved figures, built at a much later date, are those of Saliya, King Dutugemunu’s son, and the low caste woman, Asokamala, for whom he gave up the throne. Describing Issurumuniya, Harry Williams says, “It has ponds in front, and at the back, and the huge tank of Tissa weva behind it gives it a perfect setting for which, an artist might seek in vain! Why artists have done so little for Ceylon, I do not understand. If gifted that way, I do not think that I could ever take my leave of the island, so rich is it in colour and atmosphere, so infinitely resourceful in the play of its light and shade. Isurumuniya, from directly in front, or from across the lotus pond at the back is transcendently beautiful, but I have never seen a painting of it...... It was only discovered towards the end of the nineteenth century, and if it is any indication of the buried world still to be unearthed, there must be riches indeed under the jungle tide-wrack covering the central and northern plains.” (pg. 131-132)

Issurumuniya Rock Temple one of the most beautiful rock temples in Sri Lanka carved out of living rock

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49 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The TISSAWEVA was constructed by Devanampiyatissa to improve agriculture. It was, and still is, the chief source of water to the city of Anuradhapura. It lies by the side of Issurumuniya and is the largest tank (lake) in Anuradhapura, with an embankment over four kilometres (two and a half miles) long and six metres (twenty feet) It is so well built that engineers feel that with a little attention it can “last for ever”. In later years, in 5th Century AD, a canal called the Jayaganga was built by King Dhatusena to connect this with the Kalawewa.

Tissa weva in Anuradhapura

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50 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The Bo Tree at Anuradhapura showing the original branch brought from Buddhagaya now held up with props

The gold railing around the Bo tree - The picture shows props supporting the 2000 years old original branch brought from Budhgaya

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51 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 11

A KINGDOM IN RUHUNA

Very little is known about King Devanampiyatissa’s queen. She bore a son to the king, when he was quite old and feeble. Mahanaga his brother was then the subking. The queen foolishly worried that when the king died, the throne would go to the subking and not to her son. So she plotted to kill Mahanaga. One day, Mahanaga took the little prince with him when he went to supervise the construction of the Taraccha tank (Valas weva). The queen sent the subking, a plate of ripe mangoes. On top she placed the ripest mango into which she had introduced poison, believing that the subking would eat the top one. On seeing the fruits, the little prince grabbed the topmost ripe one, and ate it and died on the spot. MAHANAGA LEAVES THE CITY Mahanaga understood the implications, and fearing for his life, took his second queen who was pregnant and left the city for Ruhuna. (His first wife, Queen Anula by then had become a Nun). On the way, near the vihara at Yatthalaya, the queen gave birth to a son who was therefore named Prince Yatthalaya Tissa. From here Mahanaga and his party went to Mahagama near Tissamaharama north east of . He was soon accepted by the people who made him King of Ruhuna. He built the Tissaweva in Ruhuna. At recent excavations at Yathalaya Dagaba in Ruhuna, an elephant wall with a large moonstone over five metres wide and a rock inscription were unearthed. TISSAWEVA IN RUHUNA Tissaweva was built in Ruhuna by Mahanaga. Tissamaharama the old capital of Ruhuna lies on the bank of this tank. The city did not have water in the dry season. So a dam (the first built in Lanka) was constructed across the Kirindi Oya (Magama river). This was an “oblique Dam” built at forty five degrees from the direct line.

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52 SL Histary Chap.7-18 “The knowledge of Oblique dams was acquired in Europe only recently. It is now accepted that oblique dams have a greater discharging power than those built across the river.” The dam was built of roughly hewn stones, most of which were over one ton in weight. The tank which covered an area of 652 acres (250 hectares), had a capacity of 160 million cubic feet. The embankment was one and a quarter kilometres long and 4 to 6 metres wide. It was restored in 1871 as a great part of the bank had worn out. The higher parts of the bank were cut down to the extent of one metre, and the depth of the water retained was three metres. Twenty five years later, modern engineers found that it was necessary to raise the water level once more, to what it was originally fixed in the time of the Sinhala engineers of old! Mahanaga also built the Nagamaha (Mahanaga) Vihara and the Udukandaraka Vihara. The Nagamaha Vihara is believed to enshrine the right temple bone of the Buddha. The diameter of the base of the Vihara is 49 metres, and the dagoba is 55 metres tall. Mahanaga’s daughter by Queen Anula, Abhi Anuradhi, married her father’s younger brother, Prince Uttiya, who succeeded Devanampiya Tissa. Mahanaga’s son Yatthalaya founded a kingdom in Kelaniya. When Mahanaga died, his grandson, (Yatthalaya’s son), Gothabhaya, succeeded him at Mahagama as king of Ruhuna.

Tissa weva in Ruhuna over 2000 years old

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53 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 12

NIBBANA OF THE ARAHANTS

KING UTTIYA - IN ANURADHAPURA King Devanampiyatissa died after a reign of forty years leaving no child to succeed him. His younger brother Uttiya who succeeded him ruled for ten years. His rule was unremarkable except for the fact that the two saints Arahant Mahinda, and his sister, Theri Sanghamitta both died during this period. DEATHS OF THE ARAHANTS In the eighth year of Uttiya’s reign, Mahinda Thera aged 80, passed into parinibbana (died). Ordained at twenty, he came to Lanka at the age of 32 and died while he was observing the Vas season on the Cetiya mountain. He spent 48 years of his life preaching to the Sinhala people in Lanka. King Uttiya was very sad when he heard the news of the death. He went up to the mountain to pay his respects. Escorted by the army the body was brought in a golden casket placed on a golden bier, to the city, where for one week, thousands of people paid their respects. His cremation took place at a spot which was named Isibhumangana, meaning “courtyard of the sage”, to the left of the place where the Ruwanveli seya was built later on. He was cremated on a pyre built of sweet smelling wood, and the relics distributed among various viharas. His ashes are enshrined in Mihintale in the Ambastala dagoba. According to Paranavitane, an inscription in Rajapala in Gal Oya confirms that the bodily relics of Mahinda were distributed to all monasteries in the island. The next year, Theri Sangamitta died, aged 79. She was cremated at a spot she had pointed out while alive, within sight of the Bo Tree she had gifted to Lanka.

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54 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Mihintale Rock - Aradhana gala - from which Mahinda preached

MIHINTALE The rock called Mihintale, which means “mountain of Mihindu”. (Mahinda), 11 kilometres from Anuradhapura is the 311 metre tall rocky hill where Mahinda first met King Devanampiyatissa, and where Mahinda lived and died, having dedicated most of his life for the welfare of the Sinhalese. According to legend, Mihintale is associated with many former Buddhas. Pilgrims used to climb the 1,840 steps hewn out of solid rock (now reduced to half the number) to pay homage to the holy spot, where Arahant Mahinda met King Devanampiyatissa. The steps were built in later years by King Bhathika Abhaya (22 BC-07 AD). Near the summit of Mihintale, stands the majestic 30 metre tall Maha Seya. Built in 1st Century AD it is said to enshrine a single hair of the Buddha. The giant rocks around are honey combed with rock dwellings or cells (kuti) of monks. In the walls of these cells are inscriptions which give in minute detail, the duties of monks, novices and others. ‘The inscriptions reveal an organising and administrative ability of a very high order’. At the foot of the hill is what, according to inscriptions, appears to have been a “hospital”. There is a stone cistern, probably used for immersion in medicinal oils. Nearby is the “Lion Bath”- another stone cistern carved in the shape of a lion, from whose mouth, water is spewed out.

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55 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Close to the top of the hill is a flat glade, in which is built the charming stupa, the Ambastala Dagoba, in which are enshrined the ashes of Thera Mahinda. This denotes the spot at which Thera Mahinda tested the king’s wisdom by asking about the mango (amba) trees. Hence Ambastala. But it was probably built after King Devanampiyatissa died. This is believed to be the only dagoba built of stone and not of brick. Near it is the Aradhana Gala, “rock of convocation” from which Mahinda is said to have made his first sermon in Sri Lanka. East of Ambastala Dagoba is “Mahinda’s couch”, a ledge on a precipice, on which Mahinda is said to have slept or meditated. Harry Williams, describing this says, “It is a rock eyrie from which contemplation of the beauties of the world might be carried on indefinitely, for no words can give an adequate impression of the blue and silent immensity spread beneath this holy couch. Seen from above, the matted carpet of the jungle, broken only here and there by the silver sheen of tank water, seems to have stood there in unbroken silence from the dawn of time, but it is not so. Down beneath that very rock and for hundreds of square miles around, hidden in undergrowth, covered over perhaps by detritus or lost beneath forest trees, unseen for centuries by human eyes, lie countless ruins waiting to be unearthed.” (HW pg.125). At the highest point on Mihintale rock, the “Aath Vihara” (distant vihara) lies in ruin. On the way up is the rock pool called Naga (Snake) Pokuna on the back wall of which is a five headed cobra carved out of rock, in the shelter of which is the 40 metre long pool. Half way up the climb to the left, is the Kantaka Cetiya built in the 2nd Century BC. When excavated in 1934, it was found to be perfectly preserved. It is 12 metres tall and has beautiful paintings of divine beings arising from the clouds. King Uttiya and Queen Abi Anuradhi had a daughter who was married to Yatthalaya Tissa, king of Kelaniya, brother of Queen Anuradhi. Uttiya had no sons and at his death, Mahasiva, his younger brother became king. KING MAHASIVA Mahasiva’s rule too was uneventful. He built the Nagarangana vihara in the eastern part of the city. At his death, his brother Suvannapinda succeeded him, taking the name of Suratissa.

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56 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Ambastala Cetiya enclosing the Ashes of Thera Mahinda

1840 steps leading to Mihintale (now reduced to half the number)

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57 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 13

TWO TAMIL INVASIONS

KINGS SURATISSA AND ASELA Like his brothers Suratissa too was very religious. Even before he became king he had built over five hundred viharas. His rule was unfortunate but unique in that the first Damila (Tamil) invasion occurred during his rule. During this period, due to friendly relations between Lanka and India, thousands of Indians came as traders, or as settlers to Lanka. Attracted by the prosperity prevailing in Lanka, two such Damila brothers Sena and Gupta, sons of a horse dealer, brought a large army from South India and marched into Anuradhapura, and killed Suratissa. Between them they ruled over the Sinhalese for twenty-two years. But Prince Asela, the youngest brother of Devanampiya Tissa and the ninth son of King Mutasiva, ousted them and took back the Sinhalese throne. Asela who was old when he became king, ruled for 10 years, till he was ousted and slain by another Dravidian, Elara.

ELARA ON THE SINHALA THRONE - 205-161 BC Elara came from Cola in South India with a large army and slew Asela and took over the Sinhalese Kingdom. Elara is said to have been a just king. Though a Hindu he is believed to have tolerated the Buddhist religion. Folk-lore records many stories told about King Elara. Story of the bell and the cow : It is stated that Elara had a bell, hung on a long rope above his bed. If anyone had a grievance, they could pull on this rope. The king’s only son when riding his chariot ran over a young calf. According to the story, the cow or someone who saw the tragedy, pulled on the rope. When Elara heard the story, he ordered that the same chariot be driven over the neck of his own son.

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58 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Story of the Snake and the bird : A snake once devoured a young bird. The mother bird is said to have rung the bell. Elara then ordered that the snake be slit open. The young bird was freed and the snake was hung on a tree. Story of the damaged Thupa : Once when Elara was riding in his chariot to the Cetiya mountain, the yoke of his chariot accidently knocked violently on the side of a Thupa, and dislodged several bricks. On hearing the noise, the ministers who accompanied the king, told him that his chariot had damaged the Thupa. He immediately got off the chariot, fell on the ground and said, “Sever my head with the same wheel.” The Sinhala ministers replied that it was against the Buddhist religion to kill anyone, and advised the king to get the Thupa repaired. He did it at his own expense. Story of the old woman and her : An old woman had spread some rice out to dry in the sun. The rains came at an unexpected time and the rice got wet. She was so upset that she went and rang the bell. Elara on hearing her story was also upset. He said, “A king who observes justice must surely obtain rains in due season”. He went on a fast. It is said that, thereafter the rains came only at night. Elara, the Dravidian king sat on the Sinhala throne at Anuradhapura. According to Harry Williams, “It was an apathy of character as well marked two thousand years ago as it is today, for certainly the villagers of Ceylon do not care who rules them. It is fatalism, probably endemic in all who follow that passionless creed, the worship of Pure Reason.” (pg. 44) But according to records, the Sinhalese could not reconcile themselves to be ruled by one who was not a Buddhist, even though Elara tried to protect Buddhism. They rebelled within themselves at having a foreigner on the throne of the Sinhala kingdom. Many Sinhala families left Anuradhapura and settled down in Ruhuna. Harry Williams has this to say of Elara. “Elara’s reputation among the Sinhalese is, to me, inexplicable. He has been almost canonized by them. ‘Although a Tamil’, says the Mahavamsa, ‘he administered justice impartially among friend and foe’, as a result of which he is held in higher affection by the people he conquered than all but a few of their own national heroes. I can find no grounds at all for this heroic mantle except the chivalrous story of his end. It is true that although a Hindu,

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59 SL Histary Chap.7-18 he defended the Buddhist faith against his followers, but, during a reign of forty years, that is about the sum total of his good deeds...... Meanwhile Elara himself despoiled the rich central and northern provinces with a quite remarkable thoroughness, reducing them to ruin by a policy of complete neglect. His followers were permitted to rob temples and monasteries of their riches and return to India with their spoil, the mighty irrigation works were neglected and left to rot, drought and pestilence resulting, and except for the immediate environs of the royal palace which he himself inhabited, the invader does not seem to have possessed any idea of administering a country. Why in view of all this - and the records are complete - he should be venerated by his victims is more than I can tell.” (pg. 45) [Elara though he ruled for 44 years does not appear to have done anything of note in respect of improving agriculture, or renovating any of the old monuments. Hence as Williams says it is difficult to see why Elara was held in such high esteem. When we read through this history we can see that whenever the South Indians came to Lanka, they came to plunder and control, and did nothing to improve the country]

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60 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 14

RUHUNA AND KELANIYA KINGDOMS

During this time, although the capital of Lanka was at Anuradhapura, other Sinhala princes ruled over smaller areas. Devanampiya Tissa’s brother Mahanaga who fled from Anuradhapura, had established the Kingdom of Ruhuna in the far south. His son Yatthalaya Tissa went to the west coast and set up a kingdom in Kelaniya. He is said to have built the Kelaniya Vihara and a beautiful palace for his residence, next to it. Yatthalaya, who married the daughter of King Uttiya of Anuradhapura, had three sons, Gothabhaya, Tissa and Ayya Uttika. The eldest, Gothabhaya, went back to Ruhuna and took over the kingdom when his grandfather Mahanaga died. The second son, Tissa, succeeded the father at Kelaniya and was known as Kelani Tissa. Gothabhaya had a son called Kavan Tissa (Kavan means black like a crow) who succeeded him at Ruhuna. Thus Kavan Tissa was king at Ruhuna while his father’s brother Kelani Tissa ruled at Kelaniya. As sub-kingdoms, they both paid tribute to the king of Anuradhapura. KING KELANI TISSA OF KELANIYA The queen of Kelani Tissa was a woman of bad character. She was on friendly terms with the king’s younger brother, Ayya Uttika, who lived in the palace. When the king heard about it, he wanted to publicly disgrace his brother. So he arranged with a Rodiya man, (a man from the lowest caste) to disgrace him. The next day, when Ayya Uttika came to the king’s prescence with the ministers, the Rodiya man was also brought before the king. The king asked the Rodiya man, “Tell me, who is of a lower caste than thou.” As pre-arranged, the Rodiya answered, “Yes your majesty, a younger brother who lives in the same house as the elder, is of lower caste than I am.” When Ayya Uttika heard this, he knew that the king had discovered his friendship with the queen. Therefore, he immediately left the Palace, and went into hiding in Udugampola.

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61 SL Histary Chap.7-18 Situlpav Vihara built by Kavan Tissa in Ruhuna

Yattalaya Dagoba in Ruhuna

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62 SL Histary Chap.7-18 However he was anxious to correspond with the queen. So he got one of his men to shave his head and dress up in bhikkhu robes. He then gave a letter to this man and instructed him to go with the other priests when they went to the Palace for their midday meal. When after the meal, the king and queen escorts the priests who are leaving, he was asked to drop the letter for the queen to pick up. The man did as he was told. He dropped the letter, just as the queen was passing him. When the queen bent to pick it up, the king, having heard the noise of the falling letter, looked back. Seeing the letter, he took it from the queen’s hand and read it. The writing on the letter, looked just like that of the Chief Priest. The king was furious. He immediately ordered that the Chief Priest be put in a cauldron of hot oil and his corpse be thrown into the sea. The queen and the bearer of the letter were also to be killed and put into the sea. No one dared disobey the king’s orders. It was only later, after the cruel order had been carried out, that the king realised that his younger brother who had learnt his letters from the Chief Priest, had writing very similar to that of the priest. The whole kingdom was shocked and angry over what the king had done. When the king realised his mistake, he too was stricken with grief. But it was too late. A few days later the sea rose in a mighty

Tissamaharama, the Dagoba of two million bricks

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63 SL Histary Chap.7-18 flood, devastating the land. The people said the king had angered the Sea gods, and he should make a suitable sacrifice to save the country.

Princess Devi the King's Daughter Is Sacrificed Kelani Tissa had no alternative. The most precious thing he had left was his daughter, and he decided to offer her as a sacrifice to appease the gods. He asked his young daughter, the beautiful Princess Devi, to dress herself in new silken clothes and put on her jewels. She was then placed in a boat decorated gaily, an inscription was fastened on the boat which said, “Devi, the daughter of King Kelani Tissa given as offering to the Sea,” and the boat was pushed out into the sea. But the floods did not stop. The next day, the king got on his State elephant and rode out, to see for himself the damage done by the floods. When he came to a place, midway between present day Hendala and , the earth suddenly opened and swallowed the king and the elephant, and the floods rolled over the hole. The bodies of the king or the elephant were never found. After the floods subsided, the place at which they were swallowed up was seen as a large hole, which was afterwards filled up. This area was called “Etbunwala”, which means “the hole which swallowed the elephant.” (Seneviratne) Princess Devi Comes to Ruhuna The boat with Princess Devi in it was driven south by the wind. When it was near the coast of Kirinda in Ruhuna, it was seen by fishermen, who thought that the beautiful maiden in the decorated boat was a goddess. They quickly sent messages to the palace of their king. Kavan Tissa, himself came with his minister to find out what was happening, and ordered his fishermen to bring the boat ashore. Princess Devi was invited to land. On hearing her story, the king found out that she was his cousin, the daughter of King Kelani Tissa. She was taken to Mahagama, the capital, and Kavan Tissa decided to make her his Queen. As she came ashore near the Tolaka Vihara, she was called Vihara Devi. King Kavan Tissa And Queen Vihara Maha Devi King Kavan Tissa found in her, a wife who was as devoted as he was, to Buddhism. Together they built many dagobas and viharas. Situlpav Dagoba, Seruvila Dagoba, Akasa Cetiya near Situlpav, and Tissa Maha Thupa (Tissamaharama) are some of the better known ones.

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64 SL Histary Chap.7-18 SITULPAV VIHARA (CITTALA PABBATA VIHARA) This is a rocky site near Tissamaharama in the Ruhuna National Park known as Yala, 23 kilometres northeast of Tissamaharama. All around are numerous rock caves in which bhikkhus lived. It is one of the greatest monasteries built in the 2nd Century BC. At one time twelve thousand bhikkhus had resided at this monastery and many had become arahants. During the day, due to people flocking there to meet the arahants, it became unsuitable for meditation. Over sixty inscriptions discovered in it show that it had been a seat of learning and piety. Nearby are three tombs enclosing relics of Arahants who lived there.

TISSAMAHARAMA MAHA THUPA Tissamaharama, is a town built on the banks of Tissa Weva by Kavan Tissa. It was the capital of the Ruhuna Kingdom which gave refuge to Sinhala kings from the north, when they fled Indian invasions. Tissamaharama Thupa, built by Kavan Tissa, and excavated recently, was known as the dagoba of two million bricks. It is said to have been the largest dagoba in Lanka at the time, having been 14 metres (47 feet) tall originally, and later increased to 24 metres (80 feet) by King Dutugemunu. Several thousands of bhikkhus had lived there. Just as the Mahavihara was the centre for bhikkhus in the north, Tissamaharama was the meeting place for bhikkhus in the south, where they met to revise religious texts and commentaries they had committed to memory. It was a prosperous monastery. It is said that during the Brahmanatissa famine there was enough grain in the monastery to last three years although water was scarce. From the days of Arahant Mahinda, Buddhism had flourished in the south and had been preserved there up to the present in a manner unparalleled in any other part of the island. Thus, when the greater part of the island was devastated by Tamil invaders, “the once replendent light of Buddhism was almost extinguished in Anuradhapura by the Tamils, but they were unable to extend their harmful influence towards the south”. [Early history of Buddhism] Tissamaharama and Situlpav were the two most outstanding centres of learning in the south. Kavan Tissa and his queen gave lavishly to the bhikkhus. Those living in Tissamaharama had their noon dana (meal) every day at the palace. At this time there was a samanera who had performed many

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65 SL Histary Chap.7-18 meritorious deeds. He fixed steps to facilitate the climb to the Akasa Cetiya, which was built on top of a rock. Soon after, he fell ill, being afflicted with a grievous illness. To look after him, the bhikkhus brought him to the monastery at Tissamaharama. One day, after the queen had as usual, presented robes and medicines to the bhikkhus, she sat down to listen to the Dhamma preaching. The Chief bhikkhu wished her happiness on account of the meritorious actions of hers. Sadly she said, “What happiness have we, when we have no sons or daughters? Lo, our happiness is therefore barren.” [A comment has been made that this statement shows that even in those days there was no difference made between sons or daughters in Lanka, unlike in India where sons were the preferred sex. A similar comment is made by Paranavitane. “....inscriptions contain evidence to show that women were among the most enthusiastic supporters of the Buddhist order...... Women generally seemed to have held an honoured position in society, and enjoyed a considerable amount of freedom. In several inscriptions recording joint donations by a prince and a princess, the name of the princess is given precedence. Women seem to have owned property in land, and succeeded to titles of nobility.”] The bhikkhu directed the queen to go and see the Samanera who was very sick. The queen did as she was told. Seeing that he was about to die, she told him, “Utter the wish to be a son to us, for that would bring great happiness to us.” But she sensed that he was not willing. She pleaded with him many times, and made many offerings of food, medicines and garments to him. When he died the queen arranged for his cremation, and a large almsgiving was held. Shortly afterwards Queen Viharamaha Devi found that she was pregnant.

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66 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 15

PRINCES GEMUNU AND TISSA

THE EXTRAORDINARY CRAVINGS OF THE QUEEN

According to the Mahavamsa, Queen Vihara Maha Devi had three extraordinary cravings during her first pregnancy. Firstly, she desired to lie on a magnificent bed with a huge honey- comb for a pillow. This she wanted to distribute to twelve thousand bhikkhus, and enjoy the remainder herself. Secondly, she longed to drink the water that was used to wash the sword that struck off the head of King Elara’s chief warrior, and to drink it while standing on the head of this warrior. Thirdly, she wanted to adorn herself with garlands of unfaded lotus flowers from the lotus marshes in Anuradhapura. When she conveyed her bizarre desires to the king, he consulted court-soothsayers, who declared that it meant that she would bear a noble son who would vanquish the Damilas, unite Lanka under one king and bring lustre to the religion. Anxious to please the queen, the king made a proclamation that whosoever found a large honey-comb would be handsomely rewarded. According to Seneviratna in ‘The story of the Sinhalese’, two sons of a blind cripple, anxious to get the reward, found a honey-comb in an overturned boat. The place that this was found was named Meegamuwa, or ‘village of the honey-comb’, present day Negombo. To satisfy the other two cravings, full responsibility was given to Velusumana, his well-trusted and brave, chief warrior. Velusumana boldly went to Anuradhapura, which was under King Elara. Without divulging his identity, he befriended the keeper of the king’s horses. Soon he won the confidence of the groom. Early one morning, Velusumana went to the lotus marshes, and gathered the lotuses. He hid these, together with his sword, on the banks of the Kadamba river (Malvattu Oya). He then came back to the stables, mounted the

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67 SL Histary Chap.7-18 statehorse Vaha, and publicly announcing who he was, rode swiftly to the river bank, collected his sword and the lotuses, and hid in a thicket on the road leading out of the city. The rumour spread to the palace. Elara ordered his chief warrior, Nanda Sarathi (whose head Velusumana was after), to mount the next best horse named Sirigutta, and pursue Velusumana. As Nanda Sarathi came riding swiftly, Velusumana mounted his horse, emerged from the thicket and stretched out his sword. Nanda Sarathi rode through the sword and his head was severed. Velusumana quickly collected Nanda Sarathi’s head and taking both horses and the lotuses, rode back to the palace at Mahagama. Velusumana was rewarded for the courage he showed, to beard the Tamil lion in his own den.

Birth Of Prince Dutugemunu In due course, the Queen gave birth to a baby boy. He bore all the signs that according to astrologers, are seen on a noble person. It is said that on the same day, a ship filled with gold and precious stones was found washed ashore near Mahagama. Also on the same day a baby elephant abandoned by its mother was found in a thicket near a watering-place in the jungle, by a fisherman named Kandula. When the king heard about this, he sent for the baby elephant to be reared in the palace. It was named Kandula after the man who found it. For the naming ceremony of the baby prince, Kavan Tissa invited one-thousand and eight bhikkhus. The baby prince was received by a bhikkhu named Gotama. Hence he was given the name Gamani Abhaya. (Gamani means leader of the community.) Two years later, the queen had another son, who was named Tissa. The two princes were brought up in strict accordance with Sinhala Buddhist traditions. An almsgiving for five hundred bhikkhus was again held for the weaning ceremony at which the two princes were fed rice by the king, from a golden spoon, saying, “Little sons, if you abandon the faith of the Buddha, let this not digest in your stomachs.” The princes are said to have eaten it, as though it was ambrosia. Kavan Tissa and Vihara Maha Devi are believed to have had a daughter named Princess Somadevi, who was given in marriage to Prince Abhaya, the governor of Giri district.

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68 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The Princes And The Oaths When the Princes were ten and twelve years old, the king arranged another almsgiving. When the bhikkhus had finished eating, a little of the rice left over, “the alms-rice” which was considered very precious, was placed before the two princes. The king then asked his sons to eat a spoonful of rice, and take an oath, saying, “We will never turn away from the bhikkhus, the guardian spirits of our house.” The princes solemnly took the oath as directed. The king then asked them to take another spoonful and take a second oath, “We brothers will for ever be without enmity towards each other.” This too they gladly took. The king then asked them to take a third oath saying, “Never will we fight with the Tamils.” Tissa, the younger son is said to have dashed the food away with his hand. Gemunu too threw away the handful of rice, and went to his room. Soon afterwards the queen found him curled up in bed and asked, “Son, why are you not sleeping comfortably, with your limbs stretched out.” Gemunu answered, “On one side is the dumb sea, on the other side beyond the Mahaveli river, are the Tamils. Only when I rid my country of these Tamils can I stretch my limbs and sleep!” To Vihara Maha Devi whose heart was burning with patriotism those words must have brought immense pride and joy. The queen conveyed this to the king. The king pretended to be unhappy, but he too must have been proud of such a son, who even at the tender age of twelve had the patriotism to think on these lines! Education Of The Princes The king felt that he was too old, and his army too weak to fight the Tamils and get back the ‘throne of his fathers’. But he trained his sons in martial exercises to make them fit to be kings. When Gemunu was sixteen years old he was provided with a separate establishment. Soon Gemunu gathered round him the famous band of ten Giants who excelled the princes in valour, strength, and daring.

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69 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 16

THE TEN GIANTS OR PALADINS

The First Giant - NANDHIMITTA Nandhimitta was a nephew of Mitta, a Sinhala general in Elara’s army, and lived in a village south of Anuradhapura, near the Citta mountain. He was named Mitta after the uncle. When he was small, whenever his mother, had to leave the house, she would tie the boy with a leather strap to a large grinding stone. One day when she came back to the house, she found that he had dragged the stone along, and got out of the house and the strap was broken. Hence he was called Nandhimitta, (Mitta of the leather strap). When he was older he used to go to the city every day and offer flowers, and light lamps at the Bodhi tree and at the Thuparama. He noticed that the flowers were regularly thrown aside and trampled, since the Tamils in charge of the city were not Buddhists. This angered him so much that every day he would kill as many Tamils as possible, and throw their bodies over the city wall. When Elara heard about this he gave orders to capture him. Mitta soon realised the foolishness of his action. “It is not possible for me to kill all the Tamils. Killing of people, brings not glory to Buddhism. I will join the princes in Ruhuna, who have faith in Buddhism, and help them overcome the invaders and make the doctrine of the Buddha to shine in Lanka”. So saying, he went to Mahagama and offered his services to Gemunu. Gemunu consulted with his mother and gladly took him into his service.

The Second Giant - SURANIMILA King Kavan Tissa had ordered that all the fords of Mahaveli river should be guarded to prevent any Tamils crossing the river. Prince Dighabhaya, who lived in Kasatota, a son of a lesser queen, was in charge. He sent messages, asking each family to send at least one son to guard the fords. In the village of Khandakavitthika, lived a chief of a clan, named

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70 SL Histary Chap.7-18 named Samgha. His wife bore him seven sons. The youngest was Nimila. Although well built, he was lazy. When the message came, the brothers suggested that Nimila be sent to guard the fords. Being the favourite of the parents, they were reluctant to send him. But annoyed at being taunted by his brothers, he himself offered to go. He woke up very early and taking a quarter measure of cooked rice, walked the forty eight kilometres (30 miles) to meet Prince Dighabhaya. When he arrived, the prince was having his breakfast. He asked him when he left his home, and on being told that he left that morning, the Prince was surprised and decided to test him out. After giving him a meal of “cold rice” he gave Nimila a letter to be delivered to the Brahman Kundali, who lived in the village of Doramadala, near the Cetiya mountains east of Anuradhapura. This Brahman had some merchandise obtained from overseas which the prince wanted. Nimila started off and reached the Brahman’s house before noon. On reading the letter, the Brahman was surprised that Nimila had come so quickly. To test him further he told Nimila, “After such a long journey, you must be tired. Go to Tissa Weva and have a bath, while I prepare rice and curry for you to eat.” Nimila, who had never visited Anuradhapura before, was very happy. He went to the city, bathed in the tank, offered flowers at the Bodhi Tree and at the Thuparama, plucked lotus flowers from the lotus ponds, bought perfumes, and returned in time for the midday meal. The Brahman was very happy, and thought, “This is a man from a noble race. If Elara hears of him, he will employ him. So he must leave the city and go to Ruhuna”. He wrote a reply to Dighabhaya and sent him back. Nimila reached Kasatota before dusk. When Prince Dighabhaya heard what he had done, he ordered the servants to cut his hair and give him a bath and new clothes. When he was presented to the prince, he gave him ten thousand pieces of money and his own ornamental bed as gifts, and advised him to take the gifts to his parents and come back next morning prepared to go to Mahagama to serve under the king. Nimila took all his gifts and the bed and reached home before bedtime. When the brothers saw him coming they said, “This fellow has not gone to Kasatota after all, but has gone halfway and come back.” They were surprised when he showed the gifts, and gave the money to his mother and the bed to his father. The next morning with his

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71 SL Histary Chap.7-18 parents’ blessing he went to Prince Dighabhaya, who sent him to King Kavan Tissa with a letter praising Nimila. The king gave him over to serve Prince Gemunu. Nimila was capable of drinking large amounts of liquor. Hence he was called Sura-nimila (sura means strong drinks). The Third Giant - MAHASONA In the village of Hundarivapi lived a man called Tissa who had eight sons. The youngest called Sona was strong and big made. Hence he was called Mahasona. He was so strong that at the age of seven he could uproot young palms, and at the age of ten he could uproot large trees. When the king heard about him, he got him down and gave him to Gemunu.

The Fourth Giant - GOTHA IMBARA In the village of Niselvitiya in the district of Giri lived a man named Maha Naga. He had seven sons. The youngest who was small made, was nicknamed Gothaka. One day his six brothers went to clear a forest to plant beans. They worked the whole day and left a small portion uncleared, and came home, and sent Gothaka to do his part. Gothaka tore up the imbara trees which grew there, levelled the land and came back in a short time. When they saw what he had done single handed, they called him Gotha-imbara.

The Fifth Giant - THERAPUTT ABHAYA Rohana, the chief of the village of Kittigama near Kotagala mountain had a son named Gothabhaya. Rohana was a supporter of Thera Mahasumana who lived in the Kotagala Vihara. One day he listened to a religious discourse given by the Thera and decided to become a bhikkhu. Later he became an arahant. Hence his son Gothabhaya was called Thera Putt Abhaya (son of a Thera). Theraputt Abhaya was so strong, that at the age of ten he could throw about like balls, stones which could not be lifted by three or four men. When he was sixteen years old he used a club which his father made for him, which was about one metre (38 inches) round and sixteen spans long, to smite down the trunks of palmyra and coconut palms. The king soon heard of him and he was given over to Gemunu.

The Sixth Giant - BHARANA Bharana was the son of Kumara of the village of Kappakandara.

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72 SL Histary Chap.7-18 When he was about ten or twelve he used to accompany other boys to the forest to hunt hares. He would chase the hares, strike them with his foot and crush them. At sixteen he could kill antelopes, elks and boars in a similar manner. These exploits soon came to the ears of the king who took him over to the palace. The Seventh Giant - KHANJADEVA The youngest son of Abhaya of the village Mahisadonika, in the district of Nakulanaga, was named . Since he limped a little, when he was small he was nicknamed Khanja-Deva, (khanja means lame). Even as a youth he chased buffaloes, grasped them by their legs and dashed them on the ground. He too was called to serve Gemunu.

The Eigth Giant - UMMADA PHUSSADEVA Phussadeva, son of Uppala lived in Gavita near Situlpav Vihara. When he was small he took one of the conch shells offered to the Bo tree and blew it so loud that it sounded like thunder, and frightened all the other boys. Hence he was called Ummada Phussadeva (Maddening Phussadeva). His father taught him the archers art and he became the greatest Sinhala marksman of his time. He could hit a mark guided by sound, and he could shoot at a hair. Legend has it that he could shoot an arrow through a wagon full of sand or through a hundred skins placed one on top of another, or through 20 centimetre (8 inch) thick slabs of asana or udumbara wood, or through 10 centimetre (4 inch) thick copper or iron slabs. When the king heard of him, he too was summoned to the palace and given to Gemunu.

The Ninth Giant - LABHIYA VASABHA Vasabha was the son of Matta from the village of Viharaveva near Tuladhara mountain. He had a beautiful body, hence he was called Labhiya Vasabha. When he was twenty years old he went with others to construct a tank. He was so strong that he could fling away masses of earth that needed ten or twelve men to move. Thus when the tank was completed it was called Vasabha’s tank. He too was recruited by the king to serve under Prince Gemunu.

The Tenth Giant - VELUSUMANA Velusumana was the chief warrior who risked his life to go to Anuradhapura to fulfill the extraordinary desires of Vihara Maha Devi

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73 SL Histary Chap.7-18 when she was expecting Gemunu. His father Vasabha was a respected man in the village of Kutumbiyangama. On the day this son was born, two intimate friends, Vela his neighbour, and Sumana the governor of the district of Giri came to his house with gifts for the baby. They gave their names to the baby, and hence he was called Velusumana. When Velusumana was grown up, the governor Sumana invited him to live with him. The governor had a powerful horse called Sindhu who would not let anyone mount him. But Velusumana managed to mount him and exhibit superb horsemanship. He got the horse to gallop in a circle so fast that it seemed like an unbroken circle of men going round. Spectators applauded heartily. The governor presented him with 10,000 pieces of money and sent him to the king. He served under Kavan Tissa till Gemunu was old enough to have his own army.

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74 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 17

PREPARATIONS FOR WAR

THE SINHALA ARMY

The ten giants were Prince Gemunu’s body guards. They learnt the martial exercises with the two princes. Gemunu excelled them all in archery, dexterity in swordsmanship, and skill in guiding elephants and horses, proving that he was a born leader. The Sinhala nation looked up to Prince Gemunu to deliver them from the bondage of Tamil domination. King Kavan Tissa asked each of the ten giants to find ten warriors. Each of these were then asked to find ten men. eagerly responded to the call and soon they had over 11,000 able bodied men ready to lay down their lives for their country. Some came from villages under Elara. Daily more and more young men came forward to join the army. The king, the two princes and the ten giants busied themselves in the task of equipping the army. Elephants, horses, chariots and munitions of war were collected. Everybody, men, women and children lent a hand. Still the king was not ready to fight. He sent Tissa with a strong force of troops to to guard the open country.

DUTUGEMUNU SUFFERS FOR HIS IMPATIENCE Gemunu was Commander-in-Chief. Not wanting to delay the fight any longer, he marched his army to Kosatota. He then sent letters to his father, the king, stating that the time was right to commence hostilities and requested permission to cross the which was the boundary between the Ruhuna kingdom of his father, and the ruled by Elara. The king alarmed at the consequences of crossing into territory occupied by Tamils, wrote back saying, “Be not rash. The Tamil army contains over one-million men and twenty giants. Do not cross the river at least for the present.” Gemunu was annoyed. He wrote three times asking for permission. Each time he got the same reply. The fourth time he wrote, “My Royal Sire is a woman. If he was a man he would not speak thus. Therefore

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75 SL Histary Chap.7-18 he should put these on”, and sent his father a pair of bangles and other ornaments, which women wear. The king was stunnned by his son’s comment. He gave orders for the arrest of Gemunu. He commanded, “Make me a gold chain that I may bind him, or else he cannot be protected.” On hearing of his father’s anger and of the orders made by him, Gemunu fled to Gilimale in Ratnapura, and, after hiding for several days went to Kotmale, where he went into hiding. Thenceforth he was called Dutthagamani or Dutugemunu (meaning “undutiful Gemunu.”)The Sinhala army was ordered to come back to Mahagama and Tissa was put in charge. Seruvila Dagoba King Kavan Tissa decided to build the Seruvila dagoba in , near the right bank of the Mahaweli, to enshrine the Forehead Relic and Hair Relic of the Buddha, which were brought to Mahagama in the time of King Mahanaga. Handing over the kingdom to Prince Tissa, the king and queen went in a magnificent procession to supervise the work. The suitable spot was found by a peculiar device. Two pairs of bulls were decorated with flowers and let loose to roam the jungles.

Seruvila Dagoba in Eastern Province

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76 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The next day they were both found at one rock. Then a horse and an elephant were sent out the same way. The next day they were also found at the same rock. This spot was therefore selected as the site for the dagoba. When the Relic Chamber in the upper part of the dagoba was completed, the king deposited the Forehead Relic and the queen placed the Hair Relic in the Relic Chamber. The king and queen then took out all the ornaments they were wearing and offered them to the relic chamber. His ministers did likewise. All those who were present too offered the ornaments they were wearing, and the chamber was closed with a stone slab. A vihara was also built and when all the work was over, they were formally gifted to the bhikkhus. A large ceremony was held at which the king’s son in law Abhaya, and other royal members were present. Seruvila Dagoba or Seruwavila Dagoba was built by Kavan Tissa along the eastern shore of Allai tank, near Kantalai. The tank was also built by him. Kavan Tissa next built Mahanuggala Cetiya, a stately imposing structure. This was the last structrure that Kavan Tissa built. The Ten Giants Take An Oath : Death Of King Kavan Tissa When the Mahanuggala Cetiya was completed a ceremony was held, which was attended by 12,000 bhikkhus. Soon after this ceremony Kavan Tissa called the ten giants and told them, “If the two brothers quarrel, you ten persons must not take either side”. The ten giants solemnly took that oath in the prescence of the bhikkhus. This showed a father’s love for his sons, even when he felt offended at been treated shamefully by one. He knew that if the giants took one brother’s side, the other would be killed. Shortly after this, Kavan Tissa died. He was sixty four years old and he had built sixty-four viharas. The queen took the body of her husband in a covered chariot to Tissamaharama. Prince Tissa who was at Dighavapi followed her to Tissamaharama. He carried out the funeral rites for his father and then took the Queen mother and Kandula the elephant, and returned to Dighavapi with the army. Since by law, succession went to the eldest, the ministers met and decided to immediately send a letter to Dutugemunu at Kotmale informing him of the King’s death, and inviting him to take over the kingdom at Ruhuna.

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77 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 18

THE TWO ROYAL BROTHERS AT WA R

Dutugemunu was apprised of what had h appened, and of the apparently hostile attitude of Tissa when he came to the funeral at Mahagama. To guard against a surprise attack from Tissa who was at Dighavapi, Gemunu marched with troops to Guttahala (Buttala), and left them there. This was because Buttala which is over 48 kilometres (30 miles) north of Mahagama, is on the road from Mahiyangana to Mahagama. He then went to Mahagama where he was ceremoniously crowned King of Ruhuna. Soon after the coronation, he sent a letter to his brother, requesting him to send back to Mahagama their mother, Queen Vihara Maha Devi and Kandula, the elephant, who was born the same day that he was born and hence was gifted to him by the king. The letter was ignored by Tissa. When three such letters were ignored, Dutugemunu decided he had to use force to make his brother surrender if he would not surrender by peaceful means.

Battle Of Culanganiya Pitthi Sixteen kilometres (10 miles) north of Buttala the two brothers and their armies met at Culanganiyapitthi and a fierce battle took place. The battle ended in victory for Tissa. Dutugemunu astride Dighathunika his favourite mare and accompanied by his Prime Minister Tissa, fled from the scene and crossing the Kumbukkan Oya, came back to Mahagama. Tissa, who started in pursuit, met a number of bhikkhus who advised him to give up the pursuit and return to Dighavapi. Meanwhile Gemunu, angry over his defeat, got together an army of sixty-thousand men in a few weeks and invited his ten giants to join in the battle. The giants reminded Gemunu of the oath they had taken before King Kavan Tissa, that they would not take sides in any fight between the brothers. He accepted their neutrality. Dutugemunu went with his army and encountered Tissa’s forces camped there in the vicinity of the former fight.

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78 SL Histary Chap.7-18 A Duel Between The Two Brothers Gemunu realised that, whatever the outcome of their fight would be, it would mean the death of many Sinhala soldiers, when they had before them the enormous task of fighting the Tamils. So he wrote a letter to his brother and said, “Let us two fight, one against the other, the sovereignty going to him who wins.” This was accepted and the brothers met for a duel. Gemunu came astride his mare Dighathunika, and Tissa came on the elephant, Kandula. Gemunu did not want to hurt his only brother, Tissa, or injure the elephant, Kandula. Dutugemunu made his mare encircle the elephant which Tissa was riding, but could find no unguarded spot to aim a blow. He then backed his mare a few paces and darted forwards, making her leap over the elephant and its rider. At the same time, Gemunu dealt a blow with his spear, which struck Kandula on its back. Frightened by the mare flying over him and perhaps maddened with the pain of the injury, Kandula rushed away, throwing Tissa to the ground. (The Mahavamsa says Kandula would have been angry that because of his riders incompetence a female animal jumped over him!). Tissa realising that he had lost the battle, got up and started running away. Dutugemunu mounted his elephant Kandula, and pursued Tissa, who ran to the nearest vihara and hid himself under the bed of the chief priest. The bhikkhu quickly spread a cloth over the bed to conceal Tissa’s prescence. A few moments later Dutugemunu appeared at the Vihara. He asked the chief bhikkhu, “Where is Tissa?” Unable to tell a lie, the bhikkhu replied, “He is not on the bed, great King, as you can see.” Dutugemunu knew that Tissa was under the bed. But not willing to fight inside a vihara, he placed sentinels around the vihara and left. In the meantime four young bhikkhus made Tissa wear a yellow robe, covered him over, and carried him on the bed, as though they were carrying a dead bhikkhu. Dutugemunu saw this and stopped the “cortege”. Addressing the covered up body of Tissa, he said, “Tissa, you are being carried on the head of our family-dieties. It is not for me, to take you by force from them. You should for ever remember the virtues of the family-dieties”. Dutugemunu went quickly to Dighavapi and taking his mother, Queen Vihara Devi and Kandula, returned to his Palace in Mahagama. Tissa however returned to the vihara and addressed the Chief bhikkhu

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79 SL Histary Chap.7-18 and said, “Reverend Sir, I know I have behaved badly, and undutifully, and I am sorry. I want to make peace with my brother.” The Thera undertook to bring about a reconciliation.

Reconciliation Of The Two Brothers The next day the bhikkhus went to the Palace for alms, taking with them Prince Tissa dressed up like a servitor. The bhikkhus entered the serving room, leaving Tissa at the top of the stairs. King Dutugemunu greeted the bhikkhus and when they were seated, he and the Queen mother began serving food to the bhikkhus. But when Dutugemunu was about to serve the Chief bhikkhu, he covered his bowl with his hand. The king asked, “What means this?” The bhikkhu replied, “We have brought Tissa with us” “Where is the traitor?” demanded Dutugemunu. The bhikkhu pointed to where Tissa was standing, with his head bowed. Quickly, the queen ran up to Tissa and embraced him, and stood between Tissa and Gemunu, as if to shield her younger son from the elder brother’s wrath. But Dutugemunu addressed the bhikkhus and said, “Reverend Sir, we are your servants even now after assuming kingship. If you had but sent even a seven year old samanera our strife would not have taken place and all would have ended without loss of precious lives.” The bhikkhu replied, “Oh King, this is the brotherhood’s guilt. The brotherhood will do penance for it.” The bhikkus then took their food. Dutugemunu called his brother to his side and embraced him, as a token of forgiveness and the two brothers took their meal together.

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80 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 19

THE WAR TO RECLAIM THE SINHALA KINGDOM

DUTUGEMUNU LEADS HIS ARMY Dutugemunu, now as king, made preparation for the campaign against the Tamils - his childhood dream. The road to Anuradhapura was repaired for easy passage for the army. Gay caparison for horses and elephants were ordered. War chariots were prepared. Summoning his brother, he said, “Tissa I am going to fight the Tamils, the enemies of our house and race! Let agriculture be your particular care during my absence”. Handing over the kingdom and the welfare of his people to his brother, Dutugemunu first went to the monastery at Tissamaharama, where the body of his father after death was taken by his mother. He worshipped the Chief bhikkhu and said, “Sir, I am going to the land on the further side of the Mahaveli river, to bring glory to the religion. Since the sight of bhikkhus is a blessing and protection for us, give us bhikkhus to go with us.” The Thera remembered the crime they had committed in not intervening to prevent strife between the Royal brothers. As a penance he gave 500 bhikkhus to accompany the army. With the blessings of the Sangha, and good wishes of the people, he took his mother and the 500 bhikkhus, and riding his elephant Kandula, Dutugemunu led his army to war. His spear with a relic embedded in it, was carried before him as his standard. The army consisted of elephants, cavalry, chariots and infantry. They say the army was so large that when one end had reached Guttahalaka (Buttala), the other end was still in Mahagama, which is 56 kilometres (35 miles) apart. The Tamil sub-kings (Damilarajano) had built several strong well guarded forts at strategic points from the mouth of Mahaveli river extending to the bend of the river at Mahiyangana. Dutugemunu’s army stormed the forts one by one and took them from their Tamil commanders.

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81 SL Histary Chap.7-18 1. Mahiyangana (Bintenne), where he defeated Chatta. 2. Ambatiitthaka, where Tamil commander Titthamba was defeated. 3. Khemarama, where seven Tamil chiefs were conquered. 4. Antarasobha, where the commander was Mahakottha. 5. Dona, under the commander Gavara. 6. Halakola, where the Tamil commander was Issariya. 7. Nalisobha (Polwatte) under Nalika. 8. Digabhaya Gallak, where the commander was Digabhaya. 9. Kacchatittha, where the siege lasted four months and Kapisisa the Tamil leader was slain. 10. Kotanagara , in charge of chiefs Kota and Halavahanaka. 11. Vahittha, in charge of Tamil commander Vahittha. 12. Gamanigama, in charge of Tamil commander Gamani. 13. Kumbagama, which was in charge of Kumba. 14. Nandigama, in charge of Tamil commander Nandika. 15. Khanugama, which was in charge of Khanu. 16. Tambunnama, in charge of Tamba, and his nephew Unnama. 17. Jambugama, in charge of Unnama.

Dutugemunu made an affirmation of the truth, “Not for the joy of sovereignty is this toil of mine, my striving has been to establish the doctrine of the Sambuddha for ever. By this truth let the articles worn on the body of my troops take the colour of fire”. It is said that this colour change came to pass. When the fort at Jambugama fell, the remaining Tamils fled to Vijitapura. Dutugemunu and his army followed them to Vijitapura. SIEGE OF VIJITAPURA Vijitapura was a strong fort near the northern bank of Kalaveva, near present day Vijitapura Vihara. It is believed to have been the capital of Panduwasudeva, the second king of Lanka, when Anuradhapura was only a village. The Tamils were in large numbers. Dutugemunu knew that the success of his campaign, depended on this battle. So he took his time and prepared his troops. He knew that if the Tamils were driven out of Vijitapura, they would be so demoralised that taking of Anuradhapura would be an easy task. Vijitapura had three moats around it, with high strong walls and iron

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82 SL Histary Chap.7-18 gates. The Tamils were prepared for a long battle. Dutugemunu pitched camp in Kandavurupitthi, in a plain close to Hatthipora. One day partly in fun and partly to test the strength of Nandhimitta, Dutugemunu let loose his elephant Kandula upon Nandhimitta. On seeing the animal coming at him, Nandhimitta seized the animal by his two tusks and actually forced him on his haunches. The entire camp cheered and this place was thereafter called Hatthipora (meaning elephant contest). The siege however dragged on. Weak attempts made by the Sinhala army were of no avail. After four months, Dutugemunu decided to act. He called the ten giants and asked them to do their part. Dutugemunu marched up his entire force to the fortress, crossed the three moats which were full of water, and decided to make simultaneous attacks on all four Gates. To the East Gate went Velusumana, Gothaimbara, Mahasona and Theraputtabhaya with strong detachments. Bharana went to the North Gate with Khanjadeva, and Phussadeva to the West gate with Labhiya Vasabha. They all had hand-picked men. The main attack was to be at the South gate, to which Nandhimitta and Suranimila went with Kandula. Arrows and all sorts of missiles rained down on the Sinhala army from points of vantage that the Tamils occupied on the walls. Kandula led the attack. He battered down stones, bricks and mortar with its tusks, and charged at the South Gate with great force. But the strong iron Gate was unyielding. Trumpeting and roaring, he rushed again and again at the Gate till it shook at its foundation. The Tamils, standing on the watch towers, hurled down balls of red hot iron and molten pitch. When these fell on Kandula and burnt him, he rushed into the water in the moat nearby. The elephant-physician washed away the pitch and applied balm on his wounds. Kandula was taken near the king who was busy directing operations. Dutugemunu lovingly stroked him, and mounted his back for a few minutes in appreciation of all what the animal had done. He was given fodder and his back was covered with a thick cloth, over which was placed a plate of copper. On top of this was placed a buffalo hide folded seven times, and a hide steeped in oil. Then Kandula was set free to go back to his job at the South Gate. Kandula joined Nandhimitta and Suranimila and their troops who had inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy. In one last tremendous effort,

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83 SL Histary Chap.7-18 roaring like thunder, Kandula came on the Gate with a mighty rush. The Gate and its arches crashed to the ground, nearly burying Kandula, who was quickly dragged aside by Nandhimitta.

Fall of the Citadel of Vijitapura The East, North and West gates fell almost simultaneously and the Sinhalese poured into the city chasing away the Tamils who took to their heels. Nandhimitta and Suranimila scorned entry through the opening made by Kandula. Instead, they broke down the wall freshly and entered the city. The Tamil losses were heavy. Those who escaped and were not injured, fled to Anuradhapura. Dutugemunu too followed the road to Anuradhapura to complete the enormous task he had begun. Beyond Vijitapura, the Sinhala army encountered more resistance on the way, along the road from present day Dambulla to the city of Anuradhapura. Fighting occurred, first at Girinillankanda (Girilaka) where they had to slay the Tamil chief Giriya, then, at the fortress of Mahelanagara, where the siege lasted another four months. Battle of Kahagalagama Within two days march from the city of Anuradhapura, Gemunu decided to halt and wait for Elara. He felt sure that Elara would decide to come out to meet him, and avoid the disadvantage of a confrontation within the City itself. The Sinhalese pitched camp at Kasapabbata, near Kahagalagama, which is 30 kilometres (18 miles) south east of Anuradhapura and 16 kilometres (10 miles) north west of Ritigala mountain. They built fortifications and while awaiting the enemy, the army constructed the Tank called Pajjota vapi in the nearby village of Pajjotanagara. A great water festival was held in which peasants from all neighbouring villages took part. Meanwhile Elara having heard of the loss of nearly all his forts, about thirty two in number, reviewed the situation with his ministers and generals. Being conscious of the danger of fighting within the city, it was decided that with an army of over 30,000 men, Elara would lead the troops in an attempt to force the Sinhala army to retreat. Elara on his favourite elephant Mahapabbata, and closely surrounded by his body guard of twenty warriors, led his army. Dutugemunu himself prepared for the encounter which was to decide the sovereignty of Lanka. He had a meeting with his mother and

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84 SL Histary Chap.7-18 his war council. On a suggestion made by Queen Vihara Maha Devi, the army was divided into thirty-two groups. In the centre of each group were placed parasol bearers around wooden figures, made to look like the king. The king himself was in the innermost group, with his pearl parasol raised above him. The faithful Nandhimitta stood on his right, and the redoubtable Suranimila on his left. The Battle for the City of Anuradhapura When the battle really started, it looked as though the Sinhalese would lose. Those Sinhalese who were in front, had to fall back. As fighting spread deep into the ranks of the Sinhala army, it approached the area where Dutugemunu was. Then Dighajantu, the strongest and most fearless of Tamil warriors, recognised Dutugemunu from the pearl parasol over him. As he pushed his way towards Dutugemunu, Suranimila stood in his way and asked, “Where goest thou, worthless Tamil”. Without answering him, Dighajantu ran towards Suranimila, and raising his sword high in the air, brought it down heavily on Suranimila. Suranimila warded off the blow with his shield and the sword fell heavily on the ground. As Dighajantu stooped to pick up his sword, Suranimila with lightning speed drew his sword and killed Dighajantu. The death of Dighajantu was the turning point in the battle. The Tamils began to flee. Phussadeva blew his conch shell, as a signal for the Sinhalese to close ranks. The signal was promptly obeyed, and the Tamils were surrounded by Sinhalese on all sides. It was a bloody battle. It is said that water in the nearby tank was red with the blood of the slain, and hence it was called Kulantavapi (meaning end of tribe). DUEL BETWEEN THE TWO KINGS King Elara was one of the few who managed to escape unhurt. On hearing that he was trying to get away, Dutugemunu followed him, and overtook him at the South Gate. Giving orders that no one was to raise a hand against Elara, Dutugemunu engaged him in single combat. Elara in full armour was mounted on his elephant Mahapabbata, while Dutugemunu rode his favourite Kandula. Elara threw a dart at Dutugemunu, which he averted. Dutugemunu made his elephant charge the other animal, and just then flung a javelin which caught the Tamil king on the side. Elara fell off the elephant, dead. Just then, his elephant Mahapabbata, gored by Kandula also collapsed in death agony a few paces away. [The famous Dambulla rock caves has a fresco of this battle]

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85 SL Histary Chap.7-18 DEATH OF ELARA - A Monument in his honour Dutugemunu and his army marched triumphantly to the city of Anuradhapura, the land of his fore-fathers, redeemed from foreign domination after forty-four long years. Finally he had subdued Elara, who had ruled over the Sinhalese in Anuradhapura, but more than that he had seen his childhood dream of redeeming his country, come true. He had also triumphed over the thirty two “Damila.” sub-kings, who had built forts (kingships) for themselves around Anuradhapura. But he did not forget his obligations to the former king, his foe. Elara’s body was borne respectfully into the city. “Gemunu appears to have shared the admiration his countrymen had for Elara, for he treated his defeated foe with a magnanimity found nowhere in Sinhalese history”. (HW pg.46). After his victory was celebrated, Dutugemunu summoned the people from miles around and solemnly celebrated the funeral rites for Elara. Sinhalese and Tamil, men, women and children marched in a mighty procession. He was cremated at the very spot he fell dead, just outside the South Gate and a stately monument was built afterwards at this spot. On this was an inscription which read, “Let no man, prince or peasant, in future pass this way, riding in a palanquin or litter, or with beating of drums.” For over one thousand years after that, princes and other citizens respected this order. “It is said that some years later, Pilima Talava, one of the infamous prime ministers who ever tried to murder his own king, was fleeing for his life past this tomb, he yet found time to stop and worship there. Certainly to this day, Sinhala passers-by pray for the soul or whatever it is that Buddhists believe passes into the next incarnation of Elara” (HW pg.47)

ANOTHER TAMIL INVASION When Vijitapura fell to the Sinhalese, Elara’s warrior Dighajantu had sent messages to his nephew Bhalluka in South India, begging of him to raise an army and come to Lanka. Bhalluka came to Lanka with 60,000 Indian Tamils and landed at Mantota on the Western coast, (opposite the island of Mannar), on the day that Elara’s body was cremated, long after Dighajantu’s death. Bhalluka was reluctant to go back without avenging the death of his uncle, and perhaps attempting to get the throne for himself. He marched his army to Kolambahalaka, near the North Gate of the city and pitched camp. Leading his fourfold army, Dutugemunu came out to meet him

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86 SL Histary Chap.7-18 on his elephant Kandula, with Phussadeva beside him. A fierce battle was fought. Suddenly Kandula retreated. Surprised Dutugemunu remarked: “Before this in twenty-eight battles Kandula has never once retreated. What does this mean, Phussadeva?” To reassure the king, Phussadeva said, “Victory lies behind us, Oh King. Looking to the place of victory, the elephant withdraws. Let us take our stand where he halts.” Kandula halted near the Mahavihara. At this very moment, Bhalluka let fly an arrow at Dutugemunu’s mouth. But the king covered his face and avoided injury. Bhalluka shouted that he had shot the king in the mouth. This was not true. Phussadeva let fly an arrow, which went straight into Bhalluka’s mouth, and he fell down dead. He was falling backwards, which would have meant that his feet would have pointed towards the king. To avoid such a situation, which Phussadeva considered a disrespect to his king, Phussadeva shot at Bhalluka’s knee, so that his body fell forwards on his face, prostrate before the king. As Bhalluka fell, the Tamils, thrown into confusion broke ranks and fled. When Phussadeva let fly this arrow that killed Bhalluka, it went past Dutugemunu, grazing the royal ear. Phussadeva immediately cut his own earlobe and showed it to the king. Surprised, the king asked him why he did that. He said, “I have carried out the Royal justice on myself” “What is thy fault?” asked the king. He replied, “Striking your majesty’s ear”. The grateful king said, “Brother, why did you assume as guilt something which was an accident. I shall not forget either the spirit or the extent, of your service today. Exceedingly great shall be your reward”. Of those from Bhalluka’s army who survived, many surrendered, while others went back to India. Theraputtabhaya's Request On the night of the victory, Dutgemunu sat in the Royal Chamber in his palace, and bestowed gifts on all those who had rendered service. When it was Theraputtabhaya’s turn he declined any gift or honour. On being asked why, he said, “It is war, O great King” “When a single realm has been created, what war is there?” asked the king. “I have resolved to do battle with those rebels, the passions - a battle where victory is hard to win. I pray, your majesty, grant me

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87 SL Histary Chap.7-18 The Duel between Dutugemunu and Elara (a Mural)

Tomb of Elara- now believed to be the Dhakkina Thupa - over 2000 years old

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88 SL Histary Chap.7-18 leave to live a hermit’s life. That is my only wish.” Dutugemunu asked him to reconsider his decision. But he was determined, and the king reluctantly gave permission. Phussadeva had a special reward. His arrow was set upright on the ground and covered with coins. All these coins were given to Phussadeva.

DUTUGEMUNU’S RESOLVE That night the king was deep in thought. All this victory did not give him any real joy. He remembered the many thousands who had died in the war, and that memory filled him with a very deep sadness. Having been religious, it was with great sorrow that he remembered the incalculable suffering, the indescribable pain he had inflicted, and the terrible price his people had paid for this victory. It robbed him of peace of mind although he had realised his cherished dream. He determined that henceforth the man of war would be a man of peace, governing his people justly and humanely, and devoting himself to further the sacred cause of Religion.

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89 SL Histary Chap.7-18 CHAPTER 20

KING DUTUGEMUNU (161-137 BC)

THE CORONATION The Coronation of Dutugemunu was soon held. Thousands came to acclaim him Supreme Ruler of United Lanka.The festivities in the City lasted one week. It was celebrated in every village and hamlet. "Never was a king so enthusiastically and so universally acclaimed as King Dutugemunu was at his coronation. His great and glorious victories shed lustre on the nation which could now proudly declare themselves Sinhalese.” When the week long Coronation festivities were over, the king, the Royal household and ministers drove in state to a water-fete at the Tissa tank. His spear with the relic embedded in it, which he always took with him, was carried by his spear-bearers. The spear-bearers who halted just north of the Tank, planted the spear on the ground, while waiting for the water sports to be held. In the evening, when the Royal party was ready to return home, the spear-bearers found they could not dislodge the spear from the ground. Knowing that it contained a relic, they all knelt down and worshipped it and made offerings to it. When Dutugemunu was told about it, he too came and made his own offerings. Soon there were so many offerings, that sentries had to be placed for the night. The next day Dutugemunu gave orders for a Cetiya enclosing the spear and a Vihara to be built at this spot. The work on the cetiya was completed in three years, 161-158 BC. All bhikkhus and bhikkhunis in the island were invited to the imposing consecration of the Monastery, which was handed over to the bhikkhus. It is said that one-hundred thousand bhikkhus and ninety-thousand bhikkhunis attended this great ceremony. The dagoba was named Mirisavetiya or Maricavatti Dagoba. This was because the king who normally takes his meals only after having offered food to the bhikkhus, had one day accidently eaten a Miris (chillie) pod before offering to bhikkhus. This dagoba was offered to the bhikkhus in penance for his fault.

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90 SL Histary Chap.18-36 MIRISAVETIYA DAGOBA Built around 160 BC, this dagoba is shaped like a hemisphere resting on three cylinders. One of the oldest of Dagobas in Lanka, Mirisavetiya is the fourth largest in size, being 61 metres tall (200 feet), with the diameter of the base being 32 metres (108 feet). It has massive altars which are six metres tall, and ribbed with bars. This dagoba has the best preserved terraces of any of the ancient dagobas. It is described thus by Seneviratne, “It had three high rectangular vahalkadas 7 metres long, facing north, south and west, each formed by a series of cornices or deep mouldings, separated by bands of plain stonework. Twenty-one heads of elephants project from the band above the lowest cornice, and on the uppermost band are carved in relief four processions of animals in one line, all marching to the left, and consisting of horses, humped-bulls, lions, horned-lions and elephants. At the left of the six animals, in each wing of the vahalkada, a man or deity stands facing them and holding up his left hand, while a similar figure stands facing each group of five animals in the central part. The vahalkadas are flanked on each side by two rectangular monolithic pillars, 32 centimetres wide in the face, the inner one being as high as the uppermost cornice, and being surmounted by a stone lion sitting on his haunches on a square capital, with a Buddhist railing of two bars on its face. He is looking outwards, with half open mouth. The outer pillar which is very short has vertical flutings on the face, and the lower half of a rayed sun emblem above them. “The taller pillars have, as ornaments on their face, a dwarf at the base supporting on his head a vase out of which springs a tree decorated with a series of pairs of men and animals alternately climbing upwards on each side of it. At the top, above the tree, there is a disk or dharma-chakra (Wheel of law) on a pedestal, over which is a conical chatta in relief, with a snake lying head uppermost on each side of the pedestal. Above each snake is a Yak-tail fly-whisk, the emblem of a guardian deity.” A beautiful pavilion was built around the monastery. GEMUNU’S DESIRE TO FULFIL ANCIENT PROPHECY One year after donating the Mirisavetiya to the bhikkhus, a gold plate, dating from the time of King Devanampiyatissa, was discovered in a chest at the Royal Palace. In it was an inscription (probably a prophecy of Arahant Mahinda), which stated that, ‘after one-hundred

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91 SL Histary Chap.18-36 and thirty-six years, there would arise another king, who would glorify the religion by constructing mighty buildings’. Dutugemunu assumed this prophecy referred to himself. He was hence determined to build a magnificent building for the Sangha. Religion had now become an obsession occupying his mind, day and night. “The man of war had been transformed into a man of peace, the valorous soldier into the pious devotee, and his one ambition was to employ all his strength of mind and body, and all the power he had acquired as king, for the greater glory of his religion.” He invited the bhikkhus to a meeting at Mahamegha Park and addressed them. “I shall build for you a mansion comparable to a Palace of the gods. Give me a plan for it.” The bhikkhus discussed among themselves. One bhikkhu said, “He wants to build a Palace like a palace of the gods. Why not give him a plan of the gleaming gem- palace of the serving woman Birani?” Some bhikkhus did not know who Birani was. The Gem Palace of Birani According to the story, Birani lived in the time of the previous Buddha, the Sage Kassapa. She was a serving woman to a Brahman named Asoka. He gave eight meal tickets to Birani and asked her to give food to the bhikkhus. But Birani continued to give food to bhikkhus all her life. For this , she was born as a lovely maiden in a beautiful gem-palace floating in the air. “Her gem-palace was twelve yojanas high and forty eight yojanas in circumference. It had nine stories and a thousand window-chambers. In the middle of this gleaming Palace was a beautiful pavilion named Ambalatthika pasada, visible from every side, and bright with hanging pennons.” One of the artistic bhikkhus made a drawing of this with red arsenic on a linen cloth and sent it to Dutugemunu. He was very pleased and gave directions for the building to start without delay. The construction work on the mansion, which was named the Lova Maha Paya or Brazen palace, was started around 156 BC, two years after Mirisavetiya was completed. Thousands were employed to work, but Dutugemunu insisted that he pays for all the labour. A proclamation was made, "No work is to be done without reward.” At each Gate of the City were paymasters with large sums of

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92 SL Histary Chap.18-36 money, thousands of bundles of clothing, and oil, sugar, and honey for the workers. THE BRAZEN PALACE OR LOVA MAHA PAYA The Lova Maha Paya was completed in 150 BC, taking six years to produce the magnificent structure. Many could not believe that it had been fashioned by human hands. “It had four faces, each 46 metres (150 feet) in width and length. It had nine storeys and each storey had one hundred window chambers, all overlaid with silver. Their coral balustrades were decked with different gems and surrounded by rows of little silver bells. In the mansion, were one thousand well arranged chambers overlaid with various gems and adorned with windows. Costly beds and chairs, and coverlets and carpets were provided. Even the rinsing-vessel and ladles were of gold. In the centre was a gem-set Pavilion adorned with pillars of precious stones on which were figures of lions and tigers and shapes of devatas. A border of pearl ran round the edge of the Pavilion. “Within the Pavilion adorned with the seven gems, stood a shining ivory throne with a seat of mountain-crystal. On the back of it was fashioned a sun of gold, a moon of silver and stars of pearls. White lotus blossoms made of various gems were artistically placed here and there, and scenes from Jataka stories depicted within a festoon of gold. “On this ivory throne, covered with costly cushions was placed a gleaming fan of ivory. A white parasol with a coral foot, resting on mountain crystal and having a silver staff, shone over the throne. On it, depicted in the seven gems, were the eight auspicious figures- (lion, bull, elephant, fan, water-pitcher, standard, conch shell and lamp) as well as figures of beasts, with jewels and pearls in between. Rows of little silver bells hung on the edge of the parasol. The whole thing was surrounded by a beautiful enclosure and had four gateways. “Palace, Parasol, Throne and Pavilion were beyond price.” The roof was covered with plates of copper - hence the name Brazen Palace or Lova Maha paya. In the tropical sun the mansion must have shone like “the Assembly Hall” in Tavatimsa heaven! “It is almost impossible to imagine what it must have been, when it was actually a building, swarming with monks, the centre of religious activity rarely equalled”. Though called a Palace, this “labour of love” King Dutugemunu provided for the bhikkhus, was a monastery. A solemn consecration

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93 SL Histary Chap.18-36 festival was held, at which a large gathering of bhikkhus and lay people were present. Those bhikkhus who were less educated were accomodated on the lower floor, those learned in the Tripitaka on the second floor, those attained to sottapatti, sakadagami and anagami on the next three floors and the four topmost storeys were for Arahants. Lavish alms were given to the bhikkhus for one week. He spent 30 crores for the structure alone. All that is seen today of this Brazen Palace, the first sky scraper, are 1600 granite pillars, forty rows of forty pillars in each row, which over 2000 years ago, held up the first floor of this massive nine storey monastery which provided residence for over 3,000 bhikkhus.

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94 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Mirisavetiya Dagoba-built around 161 BC

Ruins of Lova Maha Paya - 40 pillars in 40 rows

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95 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 21

RUVANVELI SEYA THE GOLD DUST MAHA THUPA

THE PLAN About one year after the consecration of the Lova Maha Paya the king held a splendid ceremony in honour of the Bo Tree. When entering the City for this ceremony, he saw a pillar set up by Devanampiyatissa, and he decided to build a Maha Thupa at this spot. But when he went back to the Palace he was quite worried. “At the conquering of the Damilas my people were oppressed by me. It is not possible to levy a tax. Yet without a tax, how can I buy the bricks?” he thought. He was determined not to burden the people, but he was equally determined to build the Thupa. The Mirisavetiya and Lova Maha Paya had cost much money, and the Thupa he had in mind would cost even more. A series of “fortunate discoveries” are said to have occurred. 1. A hunter had gone with his dogs to the forest near the Gambhira river about thirteen kilometres from the City. Seeing an iguana, he pursued it and then he came across a large pile of bricks. He remembered that the king needed bricks to build a Thupa. So it was reported to the king who rewarded him handsomely. 2. Another hunter found four large and beautiful gems in the sand in a cave near Vavunikulam Tank, 80 kilometres north of the city. They were the colour of flax flowers and were as large as grinding stones. 3. Fifty-one kilometres south east of the City, in the village of Sumana weva, large numbers of precious stones were found. 4. In Acaravitthiya, thirty-eight kilometres north east of the city, villagers discovered nuggets of gold. 5. Ninety kilometres east of the City, in Tambapitta, copper was discovered.

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96 SL Histary Chap.18-36 6. In Uruwela, sixty-four kilometres west of the City, near the mouth of the kola river, six waggon loads of pearls and coral were found. 7. In a cave in Ambatthakola-lena, eighty kilometers south of the City, silver was discovered by a merchant. This merchant had set out from the city with many waggons, to visit Mayarata and bring back ginger and other provisions for his trade. Needing to get a few sticks to whip the bulls, he stopped his waggons somewhere near the Ambatthakola cave and walked up the hill to the forest. He saw a young Jak tree, weighed down by the weight of a single ripe fruit. He ripped open the fruit with his axe and started to eat the sweet jak kernels. Just then four Theras appeared on the scene. He greeted them and quickly offered them the jak kernels, filling their bowls with the ripe fruit. They accepted the alms and walked away. Soon after, four other theras appeared. He again filled their bowls with the sweet jak kernels. Three of them then walked away in silence, but the fourth went a short distance and sat down at the entrance to a cave, and ate what was in his bowl. The merchant ate some of the jak fruit and wrapped up the balance and walked towards the mouth of the cave. The thera said, “Go thou now also on this path, brother!” and walked away. Through curiosity the merchant looked into the cave and saw something dazzling in front of him. He struck the glistening object with his axe and broke a piece and realised it was silver. Excitedly, he ran to his men, ordered them to untie the bulls, and rushed to the City and told the king of this discovery. Thus within five years the king had sufficient money to start the Thupa. The Laying of the Foundation Stone On the full moon day around 144 BC in the seventeenth year of his reign, the work on the Maha thupa was started. The stone pillar set up by Devanampiyatissa was removed, and the ground dug up to a depth of seven cubits (about three metres). Round stones were brought by soldiers, and broken with hammers. They were crushed down by elephants whose feet were bound with leather. Clay known as “butter clay”, brought by special messengers from the river Ganges in India, was spread over the crushed stone. Bricks were laid over the clay, then rough cement and upon this quartz. Over the quartz was placed a network of iron, and over that, sweet scented marumba brought from the Himalayas. This was overlaid with mountain-

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97 SL Histary Chap.18-36 crystal and then bricks. “Butter clay” was used as binding cement for all the layers. Over the stones came a thick sheet of copper, eight finger-breadths thick, and over that a sheet of silver, seven finger- breadths thick. Learned bhikkhus from the whole of Lanka, India, and even Persia and Alexandria were invited for the solemn ceremony of the Laying of the Foundation Stone. The entire city was decorated. At each of the four Gates of the City, barbers and bath attendants were placed to attend on the people who came. Large piles of white clothes, fragrant flowers and sweet foods, butter, honey and sugar were provided for the people, so they could eat and cleanse themselves before they entered the area. The eminent monks who came from overseas were : Candagutta Maha Thera from Vanavasa (North Kanara). Cittagutta Maha Thera from Buddhgaya where Buddha attained enlightenment. Dhammasena Maha Thera from Isipatanarama near Benares, where Buddha preached the first sermon. Indagutta Maha Thera from Rajagaha - the capital of Magadha. Mittinna Maha Thera from Asokarama in Pataliputta. from Jetavanarama near Savasthi in . Suriyagutta Maha Thera from Kelasa Vihara. Urubuddharakkhita Maha Thera from Mahavana Monastery in Vesali north of Patna. Urudhammarakkhita Maha Thera from Ghositarama in Kosambi on the river Yamuna. Urusangharakkhita Maha Thera from Dakkhinagiri in Ujjeni in Gwalior State, Central India. Uttara Maha Thera from Vattaniyarama near Vindhya mountains. Uttinna Maha thera from the Kashmir . In addition to these bhikkhus from India, there was the wise Mahadeva from Pallavabhogga (Persia) and Yonamahadhamma - rakkhita Maha Thera from Alexandria, the city of (Greeks) near Kabul. Each Thera brought with them large numbers of bhikkhus. Several of those present that day are reported to have been Arahants. The king arrived in rich royal robes, decked in priceless and beautiful gems, accompanied by his Ministers of state and members of the Royal Household, all richly clad. The four sections of the Sinhala army formed a great square round the entire gathering. As the king stepped on to the dais, the music crashed and the whole assembly broke out into deafening shouts of “Sadhu”(means well done). At the appointed time the king greeted the Maha Theras and paid homage to them. He walked round them three times in salutation, thus making a “pradakshina”. He then went to the consecrated place where the filled pitchers and the turning-staff made of silver were placed. A Minister of noble birth, who was popular with the people was directed, to walk round with the turning-staff, and draw the circular outline of the Thupa. As it was being done, a far-seeing bhikkhu, Siddhattha Maha Thera stepped forward and said it was not wise to have too large a Cetiya for two reasons. Firstly the king may not live to complete it in his lifetime, and secondly repairs in future would be costly and more difficult. The king accepted this advise and gave directions to modify it. Dutugemunu then proceeded to lay the Foundation stone. At the spot, he first deposited in the middle, eight vases of silver and eight vases of gold. Round these he placed one thousand and eight new vases. Then he laid eight special bricks and around each of these he deposited one hundred and eight garments. These eight bricks were then taken and laid on sweetened hay by eight chosen ministers. The clay was mixed by Thera Mittasena, and Thera Jayasena poured water on it. The ceremony closed with a sermon by Piyadassi Maha Thera who had come from Jetavanarama in India. Thereafter the king addressed the clergy and invited them to stay at his expense till the Maha Thupa was completed. But the bhikkhus declined the offer and finally agreed to stay for one week. Eighteen pavilions were built and they were treated lavishly for that one week. Five hundred master-builders were then invited, to discuss about the building. Each was asked how they would build the Thupa. But only Sirivaddhaka, an experienced master-builder, who said he would grind the sand and sift it before use, was selected. The king asked Sirivad- dhaka what shape the Thupa would take. The master-builder then had a golden bowl filled with water, and on to this with his hand, he dropped some water which caused a bubble to arise. Sirivaddhaka pointed out the bubble to the king, and said that the Thupa would take that shape. The king was satisfied. He gave him clothes, shoes and

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99 SL Histary Chap.18-36 money and entrusted the job to him. “No Work Without Wages” Again, the king made public announcements that no work shall be done without payment. At each of the City Gates, temporary buildings were put up for storing the necessary materials. Clothes and food for the workers, money for wages, perfumes and five kinds of mouth fresheners, were left. “Let them take of these as they will, when they have laboured as they will,” was the king’s generous command. A Bhikkhu's Secret Endeavour A bhikkhu wanting to get some merit for himself, went to the building site and made a brick with clay and gave it to the bricklayer. The workman recognised it and reported the bhikkhu to the overseer. The king heard about it and requested that the bhikkhu be located. When the bhikkhu was found, he was given flowers to offer at the Bodhi tree, and after he had offered them, he was informed that, that was in payment for the brick he had made! Another bhikkhu who was a relative of the brick-layer tried the same thing. He made a brick and laid it. A worker who saw this reported him to the overseer. It was found that he had come from the Piyagallaka temple in Kotthivala district for the laying of the foundation stone, stayed on to lay that brick, and then set off to get back to his temple. When the king was informed about this, he gave the overseer a costly pair of garments, a red coverlet, sugar and oil and asked him to go in search of the bhikkhu. The overseer overtook him and walked with him till Piyagallaka. He made the bhikkhu sit down in the shade, gave him sugar to eat, and rubbed down his feet with scented oil and put sandals on them. He also gave him other requirements for priests, and told him, that these were in payment for the brick which the bhikkkhu had made for the Thupa. The Relic Chamber of the Maha Thupa When the time came for the Relic Chamber of the Cetiya to be constructed, two bhikkhus, Uttara and Sumana, went to the land of the northern Kuru, to get special fat-coloured stones from near the Himalayas. They brought back six massive stones, each eight finger breadths thick. They were similar in colour to ganthi (Bhandujiva) blossoms and bright as the sun. In the flower terrace, one of these was laid in the centre, four on the four sides and one used as a lid. In the centre of

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100 SL Histary Chap.18-36 the Relic Chamber was a bodhi-tree made of gems, with the trunk eight metres high and having five branches. The roots made of coral rested on sapphire. The stem of pure silver had leaves of gems. Withered leaves and fruit were of gold and tender shoots of coral. On its trunk were the eight auspicious symbols, flowering creepers, rows of quadrupeds and rows of beautiful swans. Over it, on the border of a canopy, were a network of pearl bells, rows of golden bells and chains. At the corners of the canopy hung clusters of strings of pearls, each worth nine-hundred-thousand. The Bodhi tree and the enclosure were encircled by a railing of gems and paved with large pearls, the size of myrobalan fruits. At the foot of the Bodhi tree were vases, some empty, some with flowers and gems and fragrant water. To the east of this was a throne worth a crore, on which was a shining gold statue of the seated Buddha. The body and limbs of this were of gems of various colours. Seven other thrones, as beautiful, were erected. A couch adorned with jewels of every kind, was placed with its headrest towards the Bo tree. On the inside walls of the Chamber were painted scenes from the life of Buddha, and figures of various gods and godesses. Zig-zag lines on the fat coloured stones, gave the appearance of flashes of lightning, adding to the beauty and radiance of the Relic Chamber. There were numerous other images and figures in this chamber, each made of massive wrought gold. The fashioning of these works of art were under the supervision of Maha Thera Indagutta.(Seneviratne) ENSHRINING OF RELICS IN RUVANVELI SEYA Sonuttara Thera, a pious bhikkhu from the Puja Parivena who though sixteen years old, possessed supernormal powers, was sent to India to bring the relics to be deposited within the Thupa. The day after he returned, the relics were enshrined in the Relic Chamber of Ruvanveli seya. This festival was of greater magnificence than any held before. A select number of bhikkhus recited pirith all through the night. The Relic Chamber was kept open for one week to enable people to worship and make offerings. People flocked in their thousands, to make offerings to the Relics and to the bhikkhus. At the four Gates were stored garments and food for the crowds pouring into the city. Beautifully decked Kandula, the elephant, bore the Relic casket on its back under a white parasol. Dutugemunu, who came in his chariot 101 drawn by four pure white Sindhi horses, stepped forward and took the

101 SL Histary Chap.18-36 relic casket into his hands, amidst the thundering noise of elephants, horses and chariots, the crash of music from a thousand instruments, and the solemn chanting of the assembled bhikkhus, and moved forward to the Maha Thupa, followed by his courtiers and others who made costly offerings to it. Heading a procession led by the Maha Thera Indagutta and other principal bhikkhus, the king walked three times round the Thupa, and finally placed the Relic-casket on the jewelled throne. Washing his hands in fragrant water and rubbing them with five kinds of perfume, the king opened the casket. Taking the relics out, one by one, he placed them on the gem-studded couch, which was to be their final resting place. He then made an offering of all the rich ornaments on his body. His ministers, together with members of the Royal household privileged to be within the Relic-chamber did likewise. This was on the Esala full moon day that year. After that, the Relic chamber was left open for all citizens to make their offerings. At the end of the week, the king presented the Thupa to the bhikkhus. Dutugemunu declared, “Now let the Brotherhood take charge.” Uttara and Sumana, the bhikkhus who brought the fat coloured stones from India were asked to close the Chamber with these stones. The Arahants resolved : “Let not the flowers wither, let not the perfumes dry up, let not the lamps be extinguished, let nothing whatsoever perish: let the six fat-coloured stones fuse together without a gap.” King Dutugemunu had the religious fervour of Devanampiya Tissa, but he carried out his work to a degree that earlier kings could never have conceived. In addition to the Mirisavetiya, the Lova Maha Paya, and Ruvanveli Seya, he built ninety nine viharas. Having heard that “a gift of the doctrine” or propagation of the doctrine was more meritorious than a gift of worldly wealth, he once invited the bhikkhus to the Lova Maha Paya and took his seat in the Preacher’s chair. Though he was fully conversant with the Tripitaka and sacred scriptures, he could not proceed. Profusely sweating, he said “Reverend Sirs, I fear to proclaim the Dhamma”. He then inquired in what other way he could acquire the merit of Communication of Religious Truth, and was told that he could arrange Dhamma preaching to be carried out at his own expense. He then arranged for Bana preaching in his name in all the viharas

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102 SL Histary Chap.18-36 in the island. In the preaching halls he placed books, carpets, pulpits, stands for books, covers for books, blankets, a fan and a Bana book. The bhikkhus who preached were given monthly allowances of butter, molasses, sugar, liquorice and cloths. On three occasions he gave the three robes to bhikkhus in all parts of the island. He had one thousand lamps, with oil and wicks, perpetually burning, at twelve Viharas, as an offering to Buddha. Special attention was paid to the sick and needy. Spending vast sums of money, he arranged for food and medicine as prescribed by doctors, to be provided at eighteen places. In the twenty four years he ruled, a great festival was held for Vesak every year with lavish alms-giving.

Ruvanveli Dagoba - The gold- dust dagoba - built around 131 BC

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103 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 22

THE DEATH OF THE GREAT KING DUTUGEMUNU

Before he could complete all the work on the Ruvanveli Seya, Dutugemunu fell ill with a terminal illness. He sent for his brother, Tissa, who was in Dighavapi, and asked him to continue with the work on the Maha Thupa. But Tissa realised how much Dutugemunu wanted to see the Thupa completed. Seamstresses were employed to make a covering of white cloth to completely cover the entire cetiya, and painters drew ornamental railings on it. When it was completed he went to the king and said, “What remained to be done I have completed.” The Royal Palanquin was prepared and the king was carried to the Maha Thupa. Lying in the Palanquin, he made a circuit of the cetiya and worshipped it. He was full of joy. His eyes then wandered to the splendid Brazen Palace, and he heaved a sigh of pleasure and fell down exhausted on his pillow. The Chief Theras who had heard about his illness and had come to the palace, recited suitable verses. The king gazed around, and not seeing Thera Theraputtabhaya his former friend and champion in battle, the king sadly said, “The great warrior, Thera Theraputtabhaya, who aforetime fought victoriously through twenty-eight great battles with me, and never once yielded his ground, comes not now to help me, now that the battle with death my last battle, has begun. Methinks he forsees my defeat.” The Thera who had come from his dwelling place on the Panjali mountain as soon as he heard of the king’s illness, stepped forward to be seen by the king. With a smile of joy, the king asked the Thera to sit beside him and said, “Once I fought with you, ten giants by my side. Today I enter alone upon the battle of death all by myself, and death is a foe I cannot conquer.” The Thera replied, “O great King and ruler of men, do not be

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104 SL Histary Chap.18-36 afraid. Without conquering the enemy Sin, the enemy Death cannot be defeated. All things that are formed and exists in this transitory world perishes, is full of sorrow and as the Buddha said, are impermanent. which has no shame or timidity comes even to the Buddhas. Mortality overcomes all, even the saintliest. In your last birth too, your attachment to the Dhamma was great. You gave up heavenly bliss when heaven was near at hand, came here and acquired much merit. Unifying the country under one rule was for the glory of the faith. Think now only of the varied works of great merit thou hast performed in life, and all will be well, even in this last battle.” The dying king murmured, “In single combat also thou art my help,” and seemed consoled by the words spoken by the Thera. Dutgemunu then ordered that the “Book of Meritorious Deeds,” or “the Punnapotthaka” on which were recorded all the works he had done, be brought and read aloud. When it was over he said, “All this liberality when I was reigning does not please my mind. But the two gifts given by me, without thinking of my life when I was in adversity, alone, gives joy to my mind.” The Thera Abhaya described these two events. One was during the Akkhakhayika famine, when he offered to five Arahants, sour millet which he obtained by giving two priceless earings. The second was during the battle of Culanganiya when, fleeing after defeat, he offered rice from his own vessel to an Arahant ascetic. The king then replied, “For twenty-four years have I been a patron of the Sangha. Let my body also be subservient to the Sangha. In a place from which the Great Thupa can be seen, in the malaka consecrated for the ceremonial acts of the Sangha, cremate the body of me, a servant of the Sangha.” He then called Tissa his brother and said, “All the work on the Maha Thupa do thou complete, my dear Tissa. Morning and evening, offer flowers at the Great Thupa, and three times every day command a solemn oblation at the place. All the ceremonies introduced by me in the name of religion do thou carry on, neglecting nothing, stinting nothing. One thing bear in mind always : Never grow weary in duty to the Brotherhood.” With this, the king fell back upon his pillow and everyone knew his end was come. He closed his eyes. The Brotherhood of bhikkhus started chanting. In the middle of it the king was seen to hold up his

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105 SL Histary Chap.18-36 hand and murmur, “Wait ye as long as I listen to the Dhamma.” The bhikkhus, thinking he wanted them to stop chanting, ceased their chant. The king opened his eyes and asked them why they stopped. They answered, “Because, O king, you gave a sign to stop.” The king replied, “It was not for you,” and explained that it was for the six celestial beings who were hovering in the air, each one inviting him to enter their heaven. He then looked at the Thupa and closed his eyes. The death was promptly announced to the vast The Lovers at Issurumuniya multitude gathered outside the (probably Saliya and Asokamala) Palace. The sorrow with which this news was received was universal. Thousands of people wept. To every single person in the island, high or low, rich or poor, it came as a personal bereavement. According to legend, at the time the king interrupted the chanting, he “was seen reborn and standing in celestial form in a heavenly chariot, in which he circumambulated three times around the Great Thupa before he disappeared from sight”. It is believed that he was reborn in Tusita heaven. After a week of Lying in State, for “the greatest and most popular king of ancient Lanka”, during which thousands of people came from all over the island, to pay their respects, the cremation took place with pomp, solemnity and ceremony in the malaka, which henceforth was called the Rajamalaka (king's terrace). He ruled from 161 BC-137 BC. Prince Saliya - Son Of King Dutugemunu Nothing is mentioned of Dutugemunu’s queen. But he had one

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106 SL Histary Chap.18-36 renowned and handsome son named Saliya, perhaps through one who was not of royal birth, and it is possible that the mother died soon after Saliya’s birth. Saliya was greatly gifted and religious, and took part in meritorious work. One day, while still in his youth, he happened to hear the singing of a beautiful Candala (low caste) girl who was gathering Asoka flowers in the garden. This was perhaps the reason for her being called Asokamaladevi. He fell in love with her. When this came to the ears of King Dutugemunu, he and the Ministers pointed out, that it would make him lose the throne. Saliya is supposed to have said, “What care I for kingly rule. My love is to me a nobler prize, a greater kingdom, than the sovereignty of Lanka.” Thus Saliya enriched the blood of the Candalas from whom the Rodiyas are descended.

According to the Mahavamsa, it is prophesied that Dutugemunu will become the chief disciple of the Blessed One Mettayya. The king’s father and mother will be his parents. His brother Tissa will be his second disciple and his son Saliya will become the son of the Blessed One Mettayya himself.

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107 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 23

SADDHATISSA AND HIS SONS

KING SADDHATISSA (137-119 BC) Tissa, the brother of Dutugemunu succeeded him to the throne. This was perhaps expected, because a few moments before death, it was to his brother, and not to his son, that Dutugemunu gave instructions. Thus Saddhatissa was consecrated king. His first work was to complete the Maha Thupa, which was named the Ruvanveliseya or gold dust dagoba or Mahacetiya or Sonnamalicetiya.

The Completed Ruvanveliseya The Ruvanveliseya was the most stupendous and imposing structure of ancient Lanka, though not the largest or the tallest. It is regarded as “the greatest of dagobas”, or “Asadisa Mahathupa” or “Great cetiya without parallel”. According to Harry Williams, “the bricks used for this dagoba could build a ten-foot high, one-foot thick wall from London to Edinburgh”. The dagoba is 90 metres (300 feet) tall, and the diameter of the base is 86 metres. The lowest platform encircling the stupa is 30 metres wide and is impressive. Above this is another platform 150 metres each way and apparently supported upon the heads of four hundred brick elephants, cunningly contrived. Each elephant is three metres tall, and each one had tusks of real ivory. No two were alike. All round this are carvings, altars, carved monoliths, scrolls and Buddha statues. One slab has inscribed on it the story of King Kirti Nissanka (1187 -1196 AD) who in later years, became famous for his restoration of religious buildings, and for decorating the capital Polonnaruwa to look like a city of gods. Above the platforms are three terraces running round the base of the dagoba, above which the vast breast-shaped edifice sweeps upwards. According to tradition, the relics that were to be enshrined in this cetiya were reserved for this purpose by Mahakassapa Thera when King

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108 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Ajatasattu deposited the relics of the Buddha shortly after his nibbana. According to another tradition it is one of the places which would be visited by the relics just before the Dhatuparinibbana (extinction of the relics) which is to take place in the future. (Early history of Buddhism) This cetiya was one of the most sacred sites in Sri Lanka, perhaps on par with the Sri Maha Bodhi. A larger than life statue of a man, probably Dutugemunu stands respectfully facing the dagoba.(I.G. pg184) “Standing there now, in unimaginable peace, the thought of the race of men that could rear up such staggering buildings and the conditions of the civilisation that made them possible, is very salutary. It would need, for example, five hundred bricklayers working English union time for fourteen years, to build the Gold Dust dagoba”. (H. Williams). But the Sinhalese did not take fourteen years. At the time it was built it was probably the largest monument of its type in the world! In 246 AD a glass spire was included to serve as a protector against lightning. This was long before the nature of electricity became known. Soon after the Ruvanveli Seya was completed, the Lova Maha Paya accidently caught fire from a lamp, and was burnt down. The people felt it was a national calamity! Many thousands volunteered free service to help in building it anew. Soon a new Lova Maha Paya, but with seven storeys, as splendid as the former one was built by Tissa. Tissa seemed anxious to outdo his brother in religious work. He built a Vihara for every yojana (eight miles or 12 kilometres), from Anuradhapura to his former district Dighavapi, where his eldest son was governor. He built the Dighavapi Vihara(one of the 16 holiest places). For its cetiya he had a covering network set with gems, and in every mesh there hung a flower of gold as large as a cart-wheel, all made at his expense. He built many Viharas, the Dakkhinagiri, Dighavapi, Dumbulveti, Duratisveva, Kalambaka, Kallakalena, Matuvihara, Pettangavalika and Velangavitthika Viharas. His religious zeal won for him the name of Saddha Tissa (pious Tissa). He constructed many tanks, and offerings were made to 84,000 bhikkhus. Though there is no mention of a queen of Saddha Tissa, he had four sons, Lanjatissa, Thulathana, Khallatanaga and Vattagamani, each of whom reigned over Lanka. Saddha Tissa ruled for 18 years in a peaceful and prosperous country.

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109 SL Histary Chap.18-36 KING THULATHANA (119 BC) Before Dutugemunu died, Thulathana, the second son of Tissa had built a Vihara called Kandara, and he wished to gift it to the Sangha. For this the king’s permission was necessary. Just at this time, Saddha Tissa was summoned to the sick bed of his brother King Dutugemunu. So Thulathana accompanied his father to the Palace and after Dutugemunu’s death, he remained in Anuradhapura with his father Saddha Tissa, while his elder brother Lanjatissa remained as governor at Dighavapi. During the eighteen years of Tissa’s reign, Thulathana’s piety and devotion to religious matters won the goodwill of the bhikkhus at the main temples in the city. When Sadha Tissa died, the Ministers summoned the whole Brotherhood of bhikkhus and asked their advise. They unanimously decided to anoint Thulathana as king, although this was contrary to the Law of Succession. This was because the Bhikkhus did not know the elder brother Lanjatissa well enough. This was the first time that the Bhikkhus had intervened directly in the politics of ancient Lanka. But one month and ten days later, Lanjatissa came with a large army and slew his brother Thulathana and took over the throne which was rightfully his, as the eldest son. This was the first instance of the killing of a reigning Sinhala Monarch.

KING LANJATISSA (119 - 109 BC) Lanjatissa or Lemeni Tissa naturally resented the bhikkhus. He stopped giving alms and other privileges which, his father and uncle had previously given through the Royal treasury. But after three years, he was anxious to atone for what he had done to his brother and the bhikkhus. Now he went to the other extreme of lavish expenditure. He built three stone terraces for offering flowers at the Ruvanveliseya and levelled the ground between this and the Thuparama at a cost of one hundred thousand pieces of money. The Girikumbhila Vihara he had built at his own cost when he was governor at Dighavapi, was consecrated and six garments offered to each of 60,000 bhikkhus. He also built the Arittha (Ritigala) Vihara, Kunjarahinaka Vihara, Lanjakasana Hall, and Sela Thupa. He died after 9 years and 15 days as king. KING KHALLATANAGA (109 - 103 BC) Lanjatissa’s brother Khallatanaga became the next king. He was a pious king. He built the Kurundavasoka Vihara. A border or “elephant path” thirty metres wide was built round the Thuparama. He also had

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110 SL Histary Chap.18-36 thirty-two beautiful mansions constructed around the Lova Maha Paya, as residence for monks. In the sixth year of his reign, a Commander of troops, named Maharattaka marched into the capital with an army and slew the king. But within twenty-four hours, the king’s youngest brother Vattagamani slew Maharattaka and took back the throne. Khallatanaga who reigned only six years, from 109-103 BC, left behind his queen, Anula Devi and a son Mahaculika.

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111 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 24

THE FOURTH TAMIL INVASION

KING VATTAGAMANI (VALAGAMBAHU) (103-77 BC) Mahaculika, the little son of Khallatanaga was the rightful heir to the throne. Vattagamani, who had strengthened his position by marrying Anula Devi the w i dow of his brother, and by adopting Prince Mahaculika the heir to the throne as his own son, now took over as king. Hence Vattagamani was known as Pitiraja (father king). In the fifth month of his reign, a young Brahmana named Tissa, relying on a prophecy that assured him of success, came to Anuradhapura with an army from Mahagama. He camped near the city and sent a written message to King Vattagamani, demanding surrender. At the same time, a Tamil army of about 7000 from South India, led by seven Tamil warrior-chiefs landed at Mantota, opposite the island of Mannar, and marched towards the capital. They pitched camp north of the City and sent a written demand asking the king to surrender. The king took his chance and wrote to Brahmana Tissa, “The Kingdom is now thine, conquer the Tamils.” Tissa foolishly marched at once to meet the Tamils. He and hundreds of his followers were killed. This action of Brahmana Tissa was looked upon by people with such hatred that he, though a brahmin, is sometimes referred to as Candala Tissa (low-caste Tissa). The Tamils then marched towards the capital. At Kolambahalaka, not far from the north-gate of the City, the Sinhala army met them and faced a fierce fight, in which the Tamils were victorious. Vattagamani immediately fled, taking with him his two Queens, Anula Devi who was pregnant, his other queen Soma Devi, adopted son Mahaculika and his own son Mahanaga. As he was fleeing, Giri a naked ascetic from the Tittharama which Pandukabhaya had built for them, saw him and shouted, “The great black Sinhalaya is fleeing.” The king heard it and made a mental note that, if he ever came

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112 SL Histary Chap.18-36 back to power, he would build a monastery at that spot where he was humiliated. On the way the chariot was so overloaded that the progress was very slow. Sensing the danger to the king, Queen Soma Devi offered to be left behind. Reluctantly, Vattagamani accepted her offer, and handed to her for safe keeping, his own splendid diadem-jewel. She got off and hid behind a thicket and allowed the Royal party to escape. The Tamil soldiers found her and took her to the seven Tamil warriors. Struck by her beauty, one Tamil was so infatuated with her, that he took her and went back to India. Another took Buddha’s alms-bowl from Anuradhapura and returned to India. Meanwhile Vattagamani, his queen and two sons hid in the Vessagiri forest. The remaining five Tamil warriors Pulahattha, Bahiya, Panayamara, Pilayamara and Dathika ruled over Anuradhapura in turn. Pulahattha ruled for three years with Bahiya as Commander of troops. Bahiya led an insurrection against Pulahattha and slew him. Bahiya then became king with Panayamara as Commander in chief. In two years Panayarama killed him and took the throne, with Pilayamara as Commander-in- chief. After seven years Pilayamara killed him and became king with Dathika as his Commander in chief. But in seven months Dathika slew

Dambulla Rock Caves

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113 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Pilayamara, and ruled for two years, till Vattagamani killed him in 89 BC. Thus the five Tamils ruled in Lanka for fourteen years. Vattagamani In The Vessagiri Forest In the forest, the Royal party met Thera Mahatissa of Kupikkala Vihara when the bhikkhu was about to partake of some food that he had received as alms. He ate a portion and offered the rest to the king and his companions who were famishing with hunger. The king in gratitude, plucked a ketaka leaf from its tree, and on it recorded what the thera had done for him and alloted to him the land of the Kupikkala Vihara. While in exile, the Royal family is said to have taken refuge in the Dambulla Rock Caves. When it was safe, the Royal party moved from the forest and journeyed to Silasobbhakandaka (Galhebakada) and from there to Matuvelanga near Moragalla. Here, they again met the Thera Mahatissa who had with him as personal attendant, a villager called Tanasiva. The thera entrusted to Tanasiva the care of the Royal family while in exile. The Royals lived in the house of Tanasiva for the next fourteen years. While here in Malaya Province, the two young princes were educ- ated and trained in the martial exercises. In secrecy, the king got together men he could trust to fight for him, when the time came. The DAMBULLA ROCK CAVES are by far the most impressive of all rock caves in Lanka. It is a series of five caverns comprising the Maha Vihara at the village of Dambulla, 19 kilometres (12 miles) southwest of Sigiriya. The largest cave, the fourth, has a ceiling illustrated with paintings that follow the natural folds of the rock so closely that visitors think the surface is of cloth. There are 48 Buddha statues, in addition to statues of Hindu gods. (I.G. 208)

The Beminiti Saya Famine During this time, the rains failed and there was a great famine, the Beminiti saya. It lasted twelve years in Lanka, but longer in India, where the toll on life was heavy. It is believed to be due to a curse by a woman of Sagal in India. King Milindu of Sagal, who coveted this woman, had got his men to wrongfully accuse her husband of stealing the Prime Minister’s bull, and then put him to death. The curses of the distraught wife are believed to have brought on the famine. Conditions were extremely difficult and the people had no food to

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114 SL Histary Chap.18-36 feed themselves, leave alone giving alms to bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. It was a period of misery. Many lived on leaves and barks of trees. Many died of starvation, both bhikkhus, bhikkhunis and laity. People had even resorted to cannibalism. The teachings of the Buddha were at this time being handed down orally from teacher to pupil. Hence there was a real danger of some of the bhikkhus who had memorised the scriptures becoming weakened by starvation, or dying, and the teachings being lost. Some bhikkhus who had memorised the Texts, had left Anuradhapura and travelled to different parts of the country, and there was no guarantee they would return. Sixty bhikkhus who had gone so far as to cross over to India, returned to southern Malayarata and lived there, eating only roots and leaves. They never failed to recite the Texts, lest they should forget. When they had sufficient strength to sit they recited the Texts, keeping themselves in that posture, and when they could no longer keep their bodies erect, they laid their heads on mounds of sand and continued their recitations. In this wise they preserved in full, for twelve years, the Texts as well as the Commentaries. One book however was on the verge of being lost to the world. That was the Mahanidessa of the Sutta Pitaka. Only one bhikkhu could recite it. Mahatipitaka Thera, the preceptor of Catunikayaka Tissa requested a Bhikkhu named Maharakkhita, who had great powers of memory to learn the Mahanidessa, but he refused on the grounds that the person who knew it was known to be an immoral bhikkhu. Maharakkhita was at last persuaded and learning it day and night, he completed the task. [Early history of Buddhism pg 76] After fourteen years in exile, Vattagamani felt it was time to fight and get back the throne of his fathers. During this time, his queen one day had gone out for food, but came back angry. She complained to the king that Tanasiva’s wife had deliberately kicked her basket. On hearing this, Tanasiva took his bow and walked out of the house. The king believing the queen’s story, took her and the two princes, and angrily left the house. Meeting Tanasiva on the way, the king drew his bow, and killed him. The king then publicly proclaimed who he was and people flocked to join his army. He appointed as ministers, eight nobles who were known for their courage and wisdom. Placing each of them in charge of a division, the king led his army to the capital. As they approached the City, many others joined the army. On the way he met

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115 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Thera Mahatissa who had befriended him fifteen years earlier. As a preliminary to the encounter with the Tamils, a festival in honour of the Buddha was held at the Acchagalla (Valasgala) Vihara in Ruhuna.

Vattagamani Shows His Impetuous Character While preparing for this festival, one of his ministers named Kapisisa, had gone up the maluwa of the cetiya to sweep the building. Having finished, he came down and sat by the roadside to rest. The king and queen passed that way at the time, to go to the maluwa. Either through inattention or from forgetfulness, Kapisisa failed to arise and make obeisance. The king immediately slew him. The other seven ministers were so angry, that they refused to work for him and started to leave for their homes. On the way they were waylaid by robbers who stole their possessions and they were forced to seek refuge in the nearby Hambugallaka Vihara. Tissa, the bhikkhu at the Vihara enquired what happened, and on being told of their intention never to return to work for the king, asked them, “With whom will it be possible to further the doctrine of the Buddha - with the Tamils or with the king”. They agreed that it was possible only with the king. The Thera then advised them to forget their anger and help the king to get back the throne for the sake of the religion. Reluctantly, they went with the bhikkhu who took them to Acchugalla Vihara, where they met Thera Mahatissa. The two theras pleaded with the ministers who finally accepted a reconciliation with the king.

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116 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 25

VATTAGAMANI REGAINS THE THRONE (89-77 BC)

The Sinhala army was ready to move forward to fight the Tamils. Dathika’s Tamil army was small, and he was uncertain of the loyalty of the Sinhalese in his army. Hearing that the Sinhala king’s army was close to the city, he marched out with his men. The two armies met and Dathika was slain with several thousands of his men. Vattagamani was now back on the throne of his fore-fathers after an exile of nearly fifteen years, and Lanka was once again freed from foreign oppression. One of his first acts was to send for his queen Somadevi, who had been carried away to India. When she came back, he built in her honour the Somarama Vihara at the place where she alighted from the carriage, to help the king to get away faster. Somarama was probably

Abhayagiri Dagoba

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117 SL Histary Chap.18-36 near the Abhayagiri Vihara. He also built the cetiya called Silasobbhakandaka (Galhebakada) in remembrance of the place, where he found refuge, when he went into exile. He remembered the vow he had made when the Nigantha Giri shouted, “the great black Sinhaya is fleeing.” He broke down the aramaya of the Niganthas, and built a vihara with twelve cells. Giving it his own name, Abhaya, and the fact that it was at the aramaya of Nigantha Giri, he named it Abhayagiri Vihara. It was presented to Thera Mahatissa, who befriended him during the years of exile.

THE ABHAYAGIRI VIHARA Built in 88 BC this dagoba stands on eight acres. Its original dimensions are not known. It is believed to have been enlarged in the reign of King Gajabahu in the 2nd Century AD to a height of 113 metres, (370 feet) making it higher than St Pauls Cathedral in London. The dome is a semi-globe, the diameter of which is 110 metres. The top has collapsed from neglect or probably smashed by invaders and is still 76 metres (250 feet) tall, making it the second tallest, next to the Jetawanarama Dagoba. The view from the top is breath-taking. It has four massive altars, larger and finer than those of Ruvanveli Seya. Carvings of cobras, elephants, horses, geese and bulls and many other animals and human figures of Nagas and their female companions are seen. The cells of the bhikkhus were built in clusters to facilitate maintenance. The king’s interest in religion was matched by that of his ministers. Minister Uttiya built Dakkhina Vihara to the south of the City, near Elara’s tomb. Minister Mula built Mulavokasa Vihara, Minister Pabbata built Pabbatarama, Minister Saliya built Saliyarama, and Minister Tissa built Uttaratissarama. They were all gifted to Thera Mahatissa, whose advise to all of them had been invaluable during the time Vattagamani was trying to get back the throne. A SCHISM IN BUDDHISM After over 200 years of Theravada Buddhism in Lanka, a schism was appearing among the clergy. Thera Mahatissa who had received the Abhayagiri Dagoba was actually living in Kemgalla. He was accused of frequenting houses of lay people in breach of Vinaya rules. It became a public scandal and the bhikkhus of Maha Vihara felt they had to intervene.

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118 SL Histary Chap.18-36 At a solemn Convocation of bhikkhus, the Thera was found guilty and formally expelled from the order. One of his disciples, Thera Bahalamassutissa, who spoke in protest at the expulsion, was also expelled. Bahalamassutissa left with about 500 bhikkhus who supported him, and took up residence in the Abhayagiri Vihara, and refused to recognise the authority of the Mahavihara, which was then recognised as the centre of orthodox Buddhism of Lanka. At about this time a band of bhikkhus, disciples of Dharmaruci Acarya of Vajjiputta Nikaya, came to Lanka from Pallararama in India. Though they professed Buddhism, they were regarded as heretics by the Mahavihara bhikkhus. Some of the mystery of Brahminism was introduced into their Buddhism. The Abhayagiri bhikkhus however received them, and even accepted the teachings of Dharmaruci. Hence the Abhayagiri bhikkhus were known as the Dharmaruci Nikaya.

THE WRITING DOWN OF THE BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES It was obvious that the Sinhalese were falling away from religion. The Dharmaruci Nikaya was a setback to the progress of Theravada Buddhism. It therefore seemed the opportune time to set down in writing, the Scriptures which had hitherto been handed down verbally.

Aluvihara Rock Cave Temple

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119 SL Histary Chap.18-36 There were many reasons to fear that the teachings were in danger of being lost or corrupted. The danger of the island being attacked by non-buddhist foreigners, and such unrest causing the separation of teachers and pupils, or famines like the Beminitiseya causing death of monks who had memorised the Texts, or the danger of irresponsible and irreligious bhikkhus entering the order, or the king’s partiality to the new school that was being fashioned at Abhayagiri in preference to Mahavihara, were some of the possible reasons for deciding to put down the teachings in writing. From the fact that they decided to write the Texts in , at a place remote from Anuradhapura, it could be inferred that the king’s partiality to the new school at Abhayagiri may have been the more important reason for this decision. Under the patronage of King Vattagamani, some five hundred of the most learned monks belonging to the orthodox sect assembled at the cave temple of Aluvihara, (near Matale), and wrote down the Scriptures in books. These were the Three Pitakas (baskets) - Vinaya Pitaka (the basket of discipline), the Sutta Pitaka (the basket of Discourse) and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (the basket of Metaphysics). There was in addition the connected (commentaries) which also had been handed down by word of mouth. “When the Theras of the earlier part of the first century BC are compared with those of the first Century AD, the former were more saintly than learned while the reverse is true of the latter” [Early History of Buddhism]. It was at this time that the new Era of calculation, the Salivahana or Saka Era was adopted by Sri Lanka. It is still used in astrology.

ALUVIHARA ROCK CAVES Aluvihara is just north of Matale, 29 kilometres (18 miles) from Kandy. The rock caves were formed long ago by boulders tumbling down a nearby mountain. They contain numerous icons and frescoes. One cave graphically depicts a sinner’s hell. The Buddhist scriptures were committed to writing by about 500 senior bhikkhus. But in 1848 the library was totally destroyed along with a large part of the temple complex, when the British soldiers pursued a notorious rebel leader to a hiding in the rock caves. Since then bhikkhus have been painstakingly re-inscribing the ola-leaf manuscripts. The 550 Jataka stories of the Buddha’s many births have

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120 SL Histary Chap.18-36 been recorded in Sinhala. The first of the ‘three baskets’ of the tripitaka was completed in 1982. (IG 159) Vattagamini died in 77 BC. According to Williams, his reign is remarkable for his ability to fight for the throne after a long exile, “for the ability to fight back from a losing position is not, normally a Sinhalese character”. Five months after he ascended the throne in 104 BC, he went into exile for fourteen years and seven months, and after regaining the throne he ruled for twelve years, till 77 BC- a total of twenty-seven years.

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121 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 26

TEN RULERS FROM 77 BC - 93 AD

KING MAHACULI MAHA TISSA (77 BC- 63 BC) Vattagamini’s adopted son, Mahaculi, (the son of his brother and Queen Anula Devi), succeeded him. He was very pious, so pious that he went in disguise and worked in paddy fields and got paid like the peasants, and used the earnings to do meritorious deeds, because Buddhists believe that an offering made with what one has earned by one’s own effort, brought more merit. He also worked in disguise at a sugar mill in Sonnagiri which is called the Gold mountain or , and molasses he received as payment were offered to the bhikkhus. Robes, food and other alms were offered to thousands of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. He built Abhayagallaka (Abagala) Vihara, Dighabahugallaka (Digabagala) Vihara, Jalagama(Valagama)Vihara, Mandavapi Vihara and Vagupatagala Vihara. His cousin Coranaga, Vattagamani’s own son, tried to raise a rebellion. But the king’s troops chased him away. Coranaga was despised by bhikkhus because of his loose character, and he was refused refuge in at least eighteen viharas when he was running away. Mahaculi died after reigning for fourteen years, leaving behind his queen, who later became a bhikkhuni, and two sons, Prince Kuda Tissa and Prince Kutakanna Tissa. KING CORANAGA (63 BC - 51 BC) When Mahaculi died, Coranaga established himself as king. He took revenge on all clergy and civilians alike who had refused to help him in his nefarious activities during the reign of Mahaculi. The eighteen viharas which had refused him refuge when he was running away were destroyed. When, after an intolerable reign of twelve years, he died of poisoning at the hands of his own queen, the nation had no regrets over the death of the worst of the kings of Lanka. 122

122 SL Histary Chap.18-36 KING KUDA TISSA (50 BC-47 BC) Coranaga’s beautiful queen, Queen Anula was as cruel as she was licentious. She became intimate with a palace guard named Balat Siva and poisoned her husband King Coranaga. When at Coranaga’s death, Kuda Tissa, the son of Mahaculi became king, her plans failed. However the unsuspecting Kuda Tissa allowed her to reside in the palace. He thought that her infatuation for Balat Siva was the reason for killing her husband, and did not realise that she had her eye on the throne. However within three years she succeeded in poisoning Kuda Tissa and killing him. FIRST QUEEN OF LANKA : QUEEN ANULA (48 - 44 BC) When Kuda Tissa was killed his brother Kutakanna Tissa, the rightful heir, fled from the city and became a monk. Anula now consecrated herself as the first Queen of Lanka, with Balat Siva, the ex-guard, as Consort. With more power in her hands, she elevated at least four other men as consorts before systematically killing them, one by one with poison. Balat Siva, the guard was second husband, Vatuka a Damila city- architect was third, and Dharubhatika Tissa, a wood carrier was fourth husband, each lasting a little over one year, and Niliya, the Royal chaplain, was fifth husband who lasted just six months, before being poisoned by her. Perhaps unable to find a sixth husband to share her cruel life, Anula took over the administration into her hands and ruled for four years. KING KUTAKANNA TISSA (42 BC - 20 BC) The citizens, disgusted with the queen, gathered at the gates of the monastery in which Prince Kutakanna Tissa, the second son of Mahaculi was living as a bhikkhu, and insisted that he leave the monastery and take back the throne of his fathers. Prince Kutakanna Tissa yielded to this request. He killed Anula within four years of her taking over, and became king of Lanka. He ordered her cremation within the palace and built a new palace for himself. Kutakanna Tissa built the Hall at Cetiyapabbata, founded the Pelagama Monastery at Antaraganga, and built two great tanks, the Bhayoluppala and Ambadugga tanks, and the canal Vannaka. He also built a moat and a wall round the city, 3 metres (10 feet) tall.

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123 SL Histary Chap.18-36 His mother, whose name was also Anula, obtained ordination and he built for her, a nunnery called Dantageha. He ruled for 22 years.

KING BHATIKABHAYA (22 BC - 7 AD) After the death of Kutakanna Tissa, his son Bhatikabhaya ascended the throne. He was known as King Bhatika. The Lova Maha Paya was repaired and two terraces constructed at the Thuparama. His reign of twenty- eight years was a period of peace and prosperity as a result of which the religion benefited. He remitted the tax due to him, and with that, had sumana and ujjuka flowers planted all round the city. The 90-metre tall Ruvanveli Seya Thupa was daubed with a fragrant paste to a thickness of eight finger-breadths, from the bottom terrace to the top of the chatta and flowers were embedded in it, making it look like a globe of flowers. Machines were used to raise water from the Abhaya tank to sprinkle over these flowers. A net made of coral was spread over the cetiya. Lotuses, the size of cartwheels made of gold were fastened in the meshes of the net, and from these hung clusters of pearls. He offered flowers at the cetiya thrice a day. For the twenty-eight years he ruled, he held major Vesak festivals and Ceremonies for the Bodhi tree. The coral is believed to have come from Rome. Sri Lanka had connections with Rome. Pliny records the visit to Rome of four Sinhala ambassadors who came in the company of Annius Plocamus, a Roman sailor who came to the island accidently, when strong winds forced his ship to land off the coast of Sri Lanka in the reign of Augustus Ceasar. To bhikkhus, the king gave oil, honey and clothes in abundance. He continually fed bhikkhus engaged in studying religious Texts, and provided them with all their requisites. Land was distributed for building . According to Harry Williams there is a tomb near the Lova Maha Paya which is believed to be ‘the tomb of Bhatika Abhaya’.

KING MAHADATHIKA MAHANAGA (7 AD - 19 AD) When Bhatika died after twenty-eight years, his younger brother Mahadathika Mahanaga became king. He was intent on meritorious works like his brother. The Ambatthala Cetiya was constructed in Mihintale. At the four gates were erected four gem set arches, well executed by artists and dazzling with precious stones. On the cetiya was fastened a red woollen covering with golden balls and strings of pearls fixed on it.

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124 SL Histary Chap.18-36 An almsgiving was held for twenty-four thousand bhikkhus at the ceremony of homage performed for the dedication of the Cetiya pabbhata. Prisoners were freed. To ensure that the people would go with clean feet to the cetiya, he had carpets laid out from the Kadamba river to the cetiya. Garlands of lamps were lit over the entire island without a break, even over the ocean. This ceremony of homage was called Giribhanda. Although the Sangha tried to stop him, he gave over to the Sangha himself, his queen, his two sons, the state elephant and horse. He gave six-hundred thousand worth to bhikkhus and one- hundred thousand to the bhikkhunis. The Pasanadipaka monastery was built and handed over to the bhikkhus. He ruled for twelve years. KING AMANDA GAMANI ABHAYA (19 AD - 29 AD) After the death of Mahadathika, his son Amanda Gamani became king. His reign too was one of peace not only to men, but also to bird and beast. Being a vegetarian he forbad killing of any animals or birds, and encouraged the cultivation of vegetables. He had all sorts of gourds planted, hence the name Amanda Gamani (amanda means ‘gourd’). An upper chatta was built for the Great Thupa and beautiful gemset pavilions for the Lova Maha Paya and Thuparama. He built the Rajatalena Monastery. The Mahagamendi tank was built by him and handed over to the Dakkhina monastery. His rule lasted nine years and eight months. Since the death of Queen Anula in 42 BC, up to the death of Amanda Gamani, for 71 years the island enjoyed peace and prosperity with neither external invasions not internal uprisings. Even the kings did not tax the people to build memorials to perpetuate their names.

KING KANIRAJANU TISSA (29 AD - 32 AD) Amanda Gamani was killed by his younger brother Kanirajanu Tissa who then ascended the throne. Kanirajanu Tissa decided a law suit against the uposatha hall of the monastery, and he had sixty bhikkhus who were accused of crime against the king, put to death by flinging them down the precipice. He ruled only for three years.

KING CULABHAYA (32 AD - 33 AD) After the death of Kanirajanu, his nephew, the son of Amanda Gamani became king and ruled for one year. He founded the Culagallaka Monastery on the bank of the Gonaka river south of the city.

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126 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 27

FIVE RULERS OF SRI LANKA (93 - 114AD)

QUEEN SIVALI (33 AD) : SECOND QUEEN OF LANKA After the death of King Culabhaya, his younger sister Sivali, daughter of King Amanda Gamani, reigned for four months, as the second queen to ascend the throne of Lanka. Ilanaga, the son of her father’s sister, ousted her and became king. Perhaps the memory of Queen Anula and her doings did not help Sivali to get the people’s support. Ilanaga made her his consort.

KING ILANAGA (33 AD-43 AD) The Lamabakannas were an important clan of the Sinhalese. They came to Lanka with the Bo tree, and remained probably as scribes in the adminstration. (Paranavitana). In the first year of King Ilanaga’s reign, when he visited the Tissa tank he found that the Lambakannas ignored him. He became angry. In revenge he made them construct a road to the Great Thupa beside the tank and made the Lambakannas stamp it down with their feet. To insult them further low caste Candalas were appointed as supervisors of the Lambakannas. Angry over this, the Lambakannas banded themselves, got hold of the king and imprisoned him in his own house, and governed the country by themselves. Ilanaga escaped from prison and lived in Malayarata for three years. From here he went south, to Ruhuna. While living in exile, Ilanaga made improvements to the tanks in Ruhuna which helped to improve cultivation and prosperity. He restored the Nagamaha monastery and the Tissa Weva. The people appreciated what he had done. Thus he was able to raise an army which he took by ship when he went to meet the Lambakannas. The Lambakannas came out of the city to meet the king’s army. A fierce battle took place. The king’s men were tired, but the king bade them fight on. Most of the Lambakannas were killed. The king felt sorry, and ordered that the rest be captured alive. These were brought

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127 SL Histary Chap.18-36 as captives when the king marched into the city, triumphantly. The people thronged the city to welcome back their king. The rejoicings lasted several days. The customary water festival was held at Tissawewa. While there, the king fell into a reverie and remembered how the Lambakannas made him a fugitive in his own country. Suddenly he was filled with an uncontrollable anger. He ordered that those Lambakannas who were around should be yoked, two by two behind one another, to his chariot. He rode into the City in front of them. Once he came to his Palace he gave orders to behead them. But Ilanaga’s mother pleaded with him, “These are but oxen, yoked to your chariot. Have their hoofs and horns cut off instead.” Then he ordered that their noses and toes be cut off. King Ilanaga reigned in Anuradhapura for ten years.

CANDAMUKHA SIVA (43 AD-52 AD) Ilanaga’s son Candamukha Siva succeeded him. He was only ten years old - the first boy king of Lanka. He ruled from 43 to 52 AD, the adminstration being carried out by his mother, Queen Sivali. When he was about 17 years old, he married a princess named Damila Devi who was as pious as she was beautiful. The king built a tank in Manikaragama and donated it to the Isurumuniya Monastery. Queen Damila Devi also donated income from her lands to this monastery. Soon after, he went to Tissa tank for a water-fete and there he was killed by his brother Yasalalaka Tissa who then seized the throne. KING YASALALAKA TISSA (52 AD - 60 AD) Yasalalaka Tissa was seventeen years old when he became king. He acted as a boy in thought and deed. He was not popular, because he had killed his brother to take the throne. But his death came because of his own foolishness. Having realised that Subha, the door-keeper at the Throne room of the Royal palace was very much like him, he would often change clothes with Subha, and make Subha sit on the throne, while he stood as the door-keeper and laughed at the ministers who would bow down to Subha, mistaking him to be the king. One day when the ministers bowed down as usual, and Yasalalaka burst out laughing, Subha who was seated on the throne seized the opportunity, and cried out, “How dare this door-keeper

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128 SL Histary Chap.18-36 laugh in my prescence?” and ordered the guards to forthwith slay him. No one dared disobey, and the orders of the “king” were immediately carried out. This grim ending to a silly joke helped the door-keeper become king of Lanka. Yaslalaka reigned 7 years and 8 months from 52 AD to 60 AD. KING SUBHA (60 AD - 67 AD) Subha was not comfortable as “king”. It was brought home to him in many ways that the people would not tolerate an imposter. Hence he remained heavily guarded all the time. He tried to win over the clergy by giving them lavish gifts of food and clothing. Near Uruwela he built the Valli Vihara and the Ekadvara Vihara. At the mouth of Mahaveli river he built the Nandigamaka Vihara. A row of beautiful cells were built at the Abhayagiri Vihara and the Mahavihara and they were given the name of “Subharaja”. About this time there was a rumour of a prophecy, which said that, “One named Vasabha shall be king.” Subha too heard this prophecy. He tried to trace this person who was called Vasabha, but failed. He then decided to do what King Herod of Palestine did, one- hundred years previously, when he heard that Jesus was born in Bethlehem. Subha ordered that all who had the name of Vasabha should be slain. The Commander of the troops who lived in the city, had a nephew named Vasabha, serving under him. Vasabha, came from one of the noble families belonging to the Lambakanna clan, and was one of the closest surviving members of the Sinhalese Royal family. When the king’s order came the Commander felt duty bound to deliver Vasabha to the king. He discussed this with his wife Pottha, and resolved to take Vasabha to the Palace next morning. That night Pottha tried to secretly warn Vasabha, but failed. So the next morning as the Commander and Vasabha set out, Pottha prepared the betel bag for her husband but purposely did not put in the chunam. She knew that when her husband found out that the chunam was missing, he would send Vasabha back for it. It happened as she expected. When Vasabha came back, she told him why he was being taken to the Palace. She gave him a purse full of money and asked him to run away.

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129 SL Histary Chap.18-36 A Revolt by Vasabha Vasabha fled to the Mahavihara. The bhikkhus gave him food and clothing and good advise. As he was leaving the Mahavihara, he met a leper who confirmed the prophecy that he would be king. Hence he decided to become a rebel. Before long Vasabha managed to collect a large army. He recalled the story of King Candagutta of India. “Candagutta when fighting for his throne, made war in the interior of his kingdom and lost. One day when he and his followers were wandering about the villages in disguise, they came near a certain house. The woman in the house had made some cakes and had given one to her little son. He ate the middle of the cake, leaving the outside and asked for another. The woman told the boy, 'You do with your cake what Candagutta does with his kingdom. He wants to have the inside first without conquering the outlying provinces’. Candagutta heard this and took this advice and won back his kingdom.” Vasabha marched south towards Ruhuna, and then Mayarata and took over the villages one by one. Soon both these provinces swore allegiance to him, and gave him men and munitions to fight. King Subha had one daughter named Mahamatta. He loved her and feared for her life. Therefore he handed her over to a brick-worker on the out-skirts of the city, whom he had known, before he became king. With her he gave to this man, his mantle and the Royal insignia for safe-keeping. After two years in exile, Vasabha decided to fight. He came to the city and defeated Subha. Both King Subha and Vasabha’s own uncle, the Commander died in battle. Subha had ruled for six years. KING VASABHA (67 AD - 111 AD) One of the first acts of Vasabha when he became king, was to elevate Pottha, who was now a widow, to the position of Queen Consort, by marrying her, out of gratitude for having saved his life. Vasabha was now full of superstition. He was told by an astrologer that he had only twelve years to live. He gave him 1,000 pieces of money to keep it a secret. He then assembled the clergy and asked them in what way a person could lengthen life. The bhikkhus replied, “There is a way to do away with the hindrances to long life. Give gifts of shrines and buildings, and gifts to the sick, and repair old buildings. Observe

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130 SL Histary Chap.18-36 the carefully, and keep the fast on Uposatha day.” VASABHA’S RELIGIOUS ZEAL AND PUBLIC WORKS Vasabha did as he was told. He gave gifts to the bhikkhus and the sick. At thirty-two places he ordered porridge and honey to be given, and at sixty-four places lavish alms to be given. One thousand lamps were lit at four places, the Thuparama, the Ruvanveliseya, the Cetiyapabbata, and in the temple of the Bodhi tree. Every three years, he gave the three robes to all bhikkhus in the island, sending them by messenger, if they could not come. He restored all buildings which were damaged, built the Anurarama Vihara near Mahagama, and bestowed on it one-thousand and eight karisas of land from the village of Heligama. The Mahavalligotta Vihara in Valliyera monastery, the Mucela Vihara in Tissavaddhamanaka, and a brick mantle and a thupa for the Galambatittha Vihara were constructed. In the courtyard of the Bo tree, four beautiful images of Buddha were made, with a temple to house them. On a side of this, Queen Pottha built a splendid Thupa and a beautiful temple for it. Vasabha restored the Catussala refectory at Anuradhapura. Ten beautiful thupas were built at Situlpav Vihara which had been constructed earlier by Kavan Tissa. Uposatha houses at Issurumuniya and Kumbigallaka Vihara, and rows of cells at Mahavihara were constructed. Queen Pottha too had an attractive thupa and thupa house built. Food for bhikkhus and for the sick was provided. He held Vesak festivals every year for forty-four years. There was a definite revival of Buddhism in Lanka during this time. This was a period of intense activity in the field of irrigation too. The 48 kilometre long Alahara canal was constructed to take water from the Ambangama, (a tributary of Mahaveli ganga), to Anuradhapura. In later years, during the reign of Mahasena, this was the main source of water to the Minneriya tank. For greater security, Vasabha had the City wall raised to a height of 18 cubits (9 metres) with four gate-towers. A new palace, was built inside the City, in the garden of which he had a tank stocked with sacred geese. For the people he built several bathing-tanks, to which water was brought via subterranean canals. He also constructed many tanks to improve agriculture - Aggivaddamanaka, Cambuti, Catthamangana, Cayanti vapi, Kali vapi, Kehela vapi, Kolambagamaka, Mahanikavatti, Maharametti vapi, Rajuppala vapi, and Vaha vapi and twelve canals. Vasabha’s inscriptions are found in different parts of Lanka indicating

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131 SL Histary Chap.18-36 that his authority was acknowledged throughout the island (Paranavitana). PRINCESS MAHAMATTA AND THE DYING ASCETIC All this time the little daughter of “King Subha”, Princess Mahamatta was growing up at the brick-workers house. She used to carry meals for her foster father to the brick-kiln where he worked. Meanwhile she had grown up to become a very beautiful young woman. One day when walking through the thicket she saw an ascetic who was practically at the last stages of death. He was in 'nirodha', which is a trance which normally ends in death in seven days. She promptly fed him with the food she was taking for her foster father, and saved him from death. She then went back home and prepared food again for her foster father. When she got late the foster father asked her the reason and she related what had happened. He praised her and told him to feed the ascetic every day till he came out of the trance. When the ascetic finally came out of the trance, Mahamatta was getting ready to feed him. He gazed at her and said, “When your fortune rises, may you remember this place.” Then he fell down dead. King Vasabha had a son Prince Vankanasika Tissa who had come of age. The kingdom was being combed for a wife for him. Some of the Ministers who had seen the beautiful girl at the brick-kiln told the king about her. He sent for her and found that she not only had the five perfections (Panchakalyana) but she also had the signs of a noble birth. The brick-worker then exhibited the king's mantle and insignia that Subha had given to him for safe keeping. Thus she was accepted as a suitable wife for the prince. Vasabha lived to see this marriage consumated and the birth of his grandson, Gajabahuka Gamani. VANKANASIKA TISSA 171-174 AD Vansanasika Tissa ruled for three years in Anuradhapura. The Mahamangala monastery was built by him on the banks of the Gona river. During his reign the Cola king, Karikala invaded Lanka and took away 12,000 Sinhalese as captives. It is believed he took them for flood-protection works he had undertaken in India.

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132 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 28

TWELVE KINGS FROM (114 - 247 AD)

KING GAJABAHUKA GAMANI (114 - 136 AD) Young Gajabahuka succeeded his father, King Vankanasika Tissa. He was in the habit of walking about the City at night to see for himself that all was well, without relying on the ministers’ reports. One night he heard a woman weeping. He was unhappy that something was wrong. So he marked her door with chalk. The next morning as usual he asked the ministers if they knew of any problems in the city. They replied, “The city is like a wedding house. Everyone is happy and contented.” Angered by this false reply, he sent for the woman in the house whose door he had marked. On questioning she replied, “I wept because, among the many taken captive by the Cola King, were my two fatherless sons” The king had not heard about the Cola invasion before. Orders were given immediately to prepare an expeditionary force to go to Cola. When everything was ready, Gajabahu, with his favourite giant Nila, went ahead. Without much resistance, Gajabahu managed not only to bring all the Sinhala prisoners back, but he brought back twelve thousand Colas. The reasons for the Cola king coming to a peaceful settlement are not known. Either he was taken by surprise, and was overawed by the size of the Lankan force, or he was desirous of living in peace with the king of Lanka. The Cola king also gave back to King Gajabahu the Bowl relic of the Buddha which had been carried away in the time of Vattagamani, and presented Gajabahu with many gifts. According to Paranavitana, “Gajabahu is the only king of ancient Ceylon who has found a place in early Tamil literature, and it is not impossible that he undertook an expediition to South India”. With this large exodus of Colas, the cult of Hindu gods and goddesses was brought to Lanka. (Early History of Buddhism)

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133 SL Histary Chap.18-36 On coming back to Lanka, the Sinhala soldiers were sent back to their homes, and the Colas were settled in various parts such as Alutkuruva, Egoda-tiha, Megoda-tiha, Harasiya-pattuva, Hevaheta, Pansiya-pattuva, Tumpane, Udunuvara, and Yatinuvara. His mother Queen Mahamatta, meanwhile had collected enough money to build the Matu Vihara, in the name of the ascetic who died in the thicket of flowering kadambas. The king built the Thupa for it. Gajabahu also had the Abhayagiri Vihara thupa raised to a greater height. Abhayagiri had by now become an independent centre of learning. He constructed the Gamanitissa Tank, and presented it to the Abhayagiri Vihara. A mantle was made for the Mirisavetiya Thupa and the clergy were presented with land that he had purchased from private owners for 100,000 pieces of money. He also built the Ramuka monastery and within the city a stately hall, the Mahejasana sala. In later years, at Palu Makiccava 25 kilometres on the road from Anuradhapura to Trincomalee, a six-line Rock-inscription was found in a now abandoned tank. This stated that Gajabahu spent 5000 karsapanas on the excavation of the Vadamanaka Tank in the Upala district, which he gave to the bhikkhus at Thuparama. Gajabahu married the sister of Mahallaka Naga the Commander-in- chief of the army and apparently had no children. He ruled for 22 years from 114 to 136 AD. KING MAHALLAKA NAGA (136 AD - 143 AD) With no children to take over from King Gajabahu, his brother-in- law, Mahallaka Naga ascended the throne. (Mahallaka means old) He built the Dakapasana Vihara in the west, Girihalika Vihara in the inland regions, Gotapabbata (Kotagal) Vihara in the south, Salipabbata Vihara in Nagadipa, the Sejalaka Vihara in the east, and the Tobbalanaga pabbata (Tobalnapav) and Tanaveli Vihara in Rohana. About four kilometres southwest of Anuradhapura on the road to Kurunegala, is a four line rock inscription on a large stone slab in an old tank called Ratmaleweva, which reads that King Mahalleka gave gifts of gruel, rice and clothes to twenty monks resident at Vihirabijaka, Mutigutika and Parivataka monasteries. His rule lasted six years. BHATIKA TISSA (143 AD - 167 AD) When King Mahallaka Naga died, his brother Bhatika Tissa became king. He had a wall built round the Mahavihara. The Gavaratissa monastery, the Mahamani tank which he gave to the Mahavihara, the

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134 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Bhatika Tissa Monastery, an uposatha hall for the Thuparama, and the Randhakandaka tank were built by him. He ruled for twenty-four years from 143 to 167 AD. KING KANITTHA TISSA (167 AD - 186 AD) Bhatikka Tissa’s son Kanittha Tissa, succeeded him and ruled for nineteen years. He constructed the beautiful Ratanapasada at Abhayagiri, and built an additional refectory for the Dakkina Vihara. A row of cells called Kukkutagiri panti (Kukulgiri peti) was built and furnished for the Abhayagiri Vihara. Twelve beautiful four-sided mansions were also built within the grounds of the Mahavihara. For the Mandalagirika Vihara, a new Uposatha house and for Manisoma Vihara a great pirivena and a new Uposatha house were constructed. He also built the Nandatissa Vihara, the Niyelatissarama, the Pilapitthi Vihara, the Raja Maha Vihara, and Ramagonaka Vihara, and restored the Nagadipa Vihara. He ruled for 19 years and left behind two sons, Khujja Naga and Kunca Naga.

KING KHUJJA NAGA (186 AD - 187 AD) The elder brother Khujja Naga succeeded the father, but in two years his younger brother killed him, and took the throne. KING KUNCA NAGA (187 AD - 189 AD) Kunca Naga was unpopular. During his reign there arose a famine. It was called the Ekanalika or “one seer” famine, meaning that the people had only one seer of rice. Yet to appease the bhikkhus for having done evil by killing his own brother, the king fed five-hundred bhikkhus, everyday of the famine. Meanwhile Sirinaga, the brother of his Queen consort who was a Commander in the army raised a large army and defeated Kunca Naga who fled leaving the throne to Sirinaga. The people, angry with Kunca Naga over the killing of his brother, supported Srinaga in taking over the throne. KING SIRINAGA (189 AD - 209 AD) King Sirinaga ruled wisely and well. He remitted to the people the tax paid by them, which kings hitherto had taken for their use. He won favour with the bhikkhus by constructing religious buildings A gilded parasol was placed on the Ruvanveli seya, and the Lova Maha Paya was rebuilt to five stories. The completion of these two buildings was

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135 SL Histary Chap.18-36 celebrated with a magnificent festival and much almsgiving. He restored the steps at the four entrances leading to the Bo Tree. He had two sons, Tissa and Abhaya Naga. KING VOHARIKA TISSA (209 AD - 231 AD) Sirinaga’s elder son Tissa succeeded him. He was known as Voharika Tissa. (Voharika means skilled in law). He was the first Sinhala king to enact a law, abolishing bodily injury, such as mutilation, as a form of punishment for offenders of the law. He spent a large amount of money to construct religious buildings and repair old ones and held lavish almsgivings. Many bhikkhus had got into debt for no fault of theirs. He spent 300,000 pieces of money to redeem these debts. There was a “Book of the Holy Ones” called the Ariyawamsa in which were written down meritorious deeds done by eminent Buddhists. He decreed that this book should be read aloud publicly for the edification of the people. At every public reading of it, an almsgiving was held. At each Vesak festival, the three robes were given to all bhikkhus in the island. He was so impressed by the preaching of Thera Deva of Kappukagama Vihara, that he personally undertook, at great cost, to restore five buildings of religious worship. For Thera Maha Tissa who lived at Anurarama in Ruhuna, he held an almsgiving at Mucelapattana. To obtain clothes for the Mahavihara bhikkhus he gave 1000 pieces of money from the Royal Treasury. He built a parasol for the Abhayagiri and a pavilion called Tissaraja for the Mahavihara, an uposatha hall at Anurarama, two bronze images at the Bo tree, a new wall for the Dakkhina Vihara, a parasol for the thupa at Dhakkhinamula Vihara, a new wall for Issurumuniya and a parasol for each of the thupas at Kalyanika Vihara, Mahagamanaga Vihara, Mahanagatissa Vihara, Mahiyangana Vihara and Mirisavetiya Vihara. New walls were built for Mulanagasenapati, Dakkhina, Puttabhaga, Maricaveti, Issarasmana and Tissa viharas. A new palatial residence was built within the Mahavihara. The Vaitulyan or Dharmaruci sect which came into existence at the Abhayagiri Vihara during the time of Vattagamani, continued to prosper, although they did not have many converts or much material wealth. Thervada was the accepted teaching, but the Dharmarucians were tolerated. In the time of King Voharika Tissa they began to proclaim that their teachings were the word of the Buddha. The Mahavihara

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136 SL Histary Chap.18-36 bhikkhus soon pronounced them as heretics. It became a public scandal and the king had to intervene. King Voharika Tissa entrusted to a Minister named Kapila, who was reputed to have done an exhaustive study of Buddhism, to enquire and report on this. Kapila reported that the Vaitulyan teachings were opposed to that of the Buddha. The king then ordered all the Vaitulyan books to be burnt and the Abhayagiri bhikkhus were disgraced.

PRINCE ABHAYANAGA The king’s younger brother, Abhayanaga during this time was in terms of intimacy with Voharika Tissa’s queen, and when the king came to know of it, Abhayanaga fled from the capital, taking with him Subhadeva, the father in law of the king and a number of faithful followers. Subhadeva hated his son-in-law, King Voharika Tissa. Abhaya fled by ship to India, but realising that Subhadeva hated the king, he decided to leave Subhadeva behind, so that he could create discord in the country, and also send him information about what was happening in the palace. Subhadeva stayed in the palace, pretending to be friendly with the king. Abhaya sent a messenger to Subha, to find out what was happening in the country. This messenger met Subha while he was in the company of several others who were faithful to the king. On seeing the messenger, Subha loosened the soil around an arecanut palm with his spear till the palm was hanging feebly by the roots. He then struck the tree with his hand. The messenger got the message, that the king’s government was weak and the king could be struck down easily. The messenger took this message to Abhaya in India. Abhaya had meanwhile collected a large army of Tamils. He came to Lanka, and waged war against his brother. The king mounted his horse, and taking the queen and his only son, Prince Srinaga, he fled to Ruhuna. But Abhaya chased his brother, the king, and killed him and brought back the queen and the son to the palace. Voharika Tissa ruled for 22 years.

KING ABHAYANAGA (231 AD-240 AD) Abhayanaga ruled an uneventful nine years. After the murder he committed, he tried to win over the priests by spending 200,000 pieces of money to give robes to all bhikkus in the island. A stone railing was built round the Bodhi Tree, and a pavilion in the courtyard of Lova

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137 SL Histary Chap.18-36 Maha Paya. Sirinaga, son of his brother Voharika Tissa, meanwhile lived in Ruhuna. King Abhaya died without children after eight years..

KING SIRINAGA II (240 AD-242 AD) When Abhaya died, his brother’s son Sirinaga returned to the City from Ruhuna and became king, as Srinaga II. He built the beautiful Hamsavatta round the Bodhi tree and a large Pavilion near the Bodhi tree. He left behind his son Vijaya Kumaraka who succeeded him.

KING VIJAYA II (242 AD-243 AD) After Vijaya became king, three friends who were princes from the Lambakanna clan, named Samghatissa, Sanghabodhi and Gothakabhaya, came from Mahiyangana to serve in the court. On the way as they passed the Tissaweva, a blind man, on hearing their footsteps cried aloud, “The ground here bears three Rulers of the Earth.” Gothakabhaya who was behind, heard it. He asked the blind man, “Whose dynasty will endure?” The reply was, “That of the last,” meaning Gothakabhaya’s. When they reached the City, they were warmly welcomed by the king who gave them Ministerial Offices and kept them in the palace. Samghatissa was made Commander in Chief. They became close and trusted counsellers of the king. Gothakabhaya whose mind was troubled by the blind man’s prophecy, plotted against King Vijaya, and with the aid of the other two, killed the king. Samghatissa was then consecrated king. KING SAMGHATISSA (243 AD - 247 AD) Samghatissa, like those who before him had come to the throne through murder, tried to appease the clergy by giving lavish gifts to the Sangha. He gave six robes to forty-thousand bhikkhus, and put up a gold parasol on the Maha Thupa. Four large gems, each worth a hundred-thousand, were placed in the centre of the four suns on the Thupa, and a priceless diamond ring placed on the spire of the Thupa. Having listened to a discourse in the by Thera Mahadeva of Damahalaka Vihara, on the merits of a gift of rice-gruel, he ordered rice-gruel to be served to the Sangha at the four gates. Leaving his Commander in chief, Samghabodhi, in charge of the City the king would go with the women of the Royal palace, to Pacinadipa, to eat Jambu fruits. Pacinadipa is a small island between Lanka and India, famous for its jambu fruits. The few people who lived in the

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138 SL Histary Chap.18-36 island were put into unnecessary trouble and expense, and their life was being disorganised by this. When the visits became too frequent, they poisoned the fruits of the king’s favourite tree. The king died on the spot. King Samghatissa ruled for four years from 243 to 247 AD.

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139 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 29

KING SANGHABODHI (247 - 249 AD)

On the death of Samghatissa, Sanghabodhi the Commander-in-Chief was invited to become king. Being a more religious type, and being meek and humble at heart, he refused. The bhikkhus felt it was best to have a pious man like Sanghabodhi as king. Sanghabodhi gave into their pleadings and allowed himself to be consecrated. Although king, he still spent his day observing the five precepts - to refrain from killing, not to take the property of others, not to commit adultery, to avoid lying and not to drink intoxicating drinks. The people and the bhikkhus were soon convinced that his preoccupation with so much religious work, made him neglect the affairs of the State. Crime, and the number of criminals increased in the country. Wrong- doers brought to prison, were secretly released by the king and to cover it up, corpses of those dying of the usual casualities were exhibited. Principles of religion were at conflict with principles of good government in the country. Religious merit was to him infinitely more important than state policy. Robbery was now a safe and lucrative occupation which increased the terrors of the weak and the poor. Just at this time a long continued drought threatened the country with a famine and many people were dying. It is stated that Sanghabodhi in desperation, lay down on the courtyard of the Maha Thupa and made this resolution, “Unless I am lifted up by the water that would rain, I shall never rise, even if I am to die here.” And the rain came immediately over the entire island. Thus through compassion, the good king was able to avert the famine that had threatened his people. But his treasurer Gothakabhaya who was waiting to take over the country was impatient. He became a rebel, went to the north and came with an army, and marched towards the city. Not wishing to fight anyone, the king took his water-strainer and fled by himself, through the southern gate of the city. He did not want to take anyone with him, not even his queen, and place them at risk.

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140 SL Histary Chap.18-36 He had reigned only for two years, from 252 to 254 AD. He is believed to be the son of Prince Abhayaseela and Princess Devugon. Like Kings Dutugemunu, Saddha Tissa and Bhatiya before, his life was an embodiment of faith and piety (Early history of Buddhism).

KING GOTHAKABHAYA (248 -261 AD) When King Sangabodhi abdicated, Gothabhaya (Gothakabhaya or Meghavannabhaya), became king. He faced a big task getting the country back into some order. While he was doing this, Sangabodhi journeyed south and took up his abode among the rocks of Attanagalla in Siyan Korale, 45 kilometres from Colombo. His hermitage was two large granite boulders, one overhanging the other, so as to provide shelter from rain and sun. Undisturbed he continued his religious exercises, which was all he wanted to do. Gothabhaya was not popular. He could see that Sanghabodhi still had a hold on the people. He felt that his government would be unstable

Self Immolation by Sanghabodhi (mural at Attanagalle)

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141 SL Histary Chap.18-36 and his own life would be in danger as long as Sangabodhi remained free and alive. Therefore through tom-tom beaters throughout the country he offered a handsome reward for the head of Sanghabodhi. The reward was so tempting, that people resorted to fraud, to get it. Many men who closely resembled Sanghabodhi were killed and their heads produced. Such an assassin if caught paid the penalty of forfeiting his own life.

SANGHABODHI’S SELF IMMOLATION According to Seneviratne, a poor woman from a village in the neighbour-hood of Attanagalla, who had heard about the reward offered, and was anxious that her lazy unemployed husband makes some money instead of being idle at home, insisted that her husband goes in search of Sanghabodhi. Taking a bundle of boiled rice and curried sprats prepared by his wife, to sustain himself, the man left home one morning and walked into the jungle leading to the rocks of Attanagalla. Seeing a rock-pool he decided to rest, quench his thirst and have his meal. He then noticed a short distance away, a man seated on the ground, lost in contemplation. He approached the seated man and got into conversation. Without revealing his identity, Sanghabodhi asked him where he was going. The peasant told him why he had come to the jungle, and added that he felt he was going on a fool’s errand. He said, “Many a man has suffered death on account of King Sirisangabo.” Sanghabodhi listened patiently, and then suggested that they share the food he had brought. King and peasant ate the food and Sanghabodhi strained the water and drank it, lest he killed any insects. He then declared to the man who he was. “I am King Siri Sangabo. Friend, take my head to King Gothabhaya who will give thee a rich reward.” The man started running away. Sanghabodhi called him back and asked him not to be foolish. By the power of meditation, Sanghabodhi severed his head and gave it to the man. He died to enrich a poor man. When the peasant had recovered from the shock, he realised that there was no point in throwing away an opportunity that kind fate had placed before him. He then took the dead king’s head to King Gothabhaya and received the promised reward. Sanghabodhi’s Queen in the meantime had come into the jungles in

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142 SL Histary Chap.18-36 search of her husband. She had fallen into a pool and drowned a short distance away from where her royal husband had died. This pond was called Nivam Pokuna, “Pond of repose” since then. Now relieved of the anxiety of Sanghabodhi being alive and affecting his administration, Gothabhaya resolved to perpetuate the memory of his former friend. He went to Attanagala and carried out the cremation of both Sangabodhi and his queen, in a fitting manner. At Attanagala several buildings were constructed in honour of the royal hermit, King Sangabodhi, the most remarkable being, the or circular Relic house (rotunda), built over the ashes of Sangabodhi. The Vatadage “is 47 metres in circumference, and the foundation which is over one metre above the ground, is entirely of large slabs of hewn granite. It had four porches for entrances, and the roof of the two- storey building rested on two rows of granite pillars. The roof as well as the walls were beautifully painted in the style peculiar to Buddhists, embellished with statues, pictures of the Devas and so on. The Thupa occupied the centre. It was a neat structure of bricks, with a silver-gilt pinnacle.” (Seneviratna) On completion of the Vatadage, a lavish almsgiving was held. One- thousand and eight monks were invited, and given alms of clothing. This was repeated everyday for twenty-one days. So did Gothabhaya ease his conscience of his ill-treatment of his king, and old friend. This restored to him the goodwill of the people. Today there is some doubt whether the king and queen could have walked so far south as to go to Attanagalle from Anuradhapura. A NEW SECT - THE SAGALIYAS In the fourth year of Gothabhaya’s reign, the former Vaitulyan heresy raised its head again, being promoted by the bhikkhus of the Dharmaruci Nikaya living at Abhayagiri Vihara. After lying low for forty years since their setback in the time of King Voharika Tissa, they now started on a vigorous campaign. But one of their own, Maha Thera Ussiliya Tissa refused to be associated in this enterprise. He thought that Gothabhaya might disgrace them in the same way that Voharika Tissa did. Taking with him some three hundred bhikkhus who shared his views, he left the Dharmaruci Nikaya and went to the Dakinagiri Vihara. Those who stayed behind chose Maha Thera Sagala of this Vihara as the new leader, and these

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143 SL Histary Chap.18-36 bhikkhus came to be known as the Sagaliyas. This happened 795 years after the Buddha. Hearing of these divisions in the Sangha, the king decided to play the role of Patron of the Buddhist Church in Lanka. The bhikkhus of the five large Viharas, Mahavihara, Cetiya Vihara, Thuparama, Issurumuniya and Vessagiri were invited to investigate the problem. It was agreed that the Vaitulyan doctrines were heretical. Gothabhaya had all their Vaitulyan books collected and burnt. Not satisfied with that, he picked out sixty of these bhikkhus, had them branded with marks on their bodies, and drove them out of the island. The Dharmarucians were terrified and stopped further propaganda. The sixty exiled bhikkhus took ship to India and settled in the town of Kavira, where soon they had a great following. Among those who joined them was a young shrewd adventurer from Cola. Seeing the favours these bhikkhus were receiving, he decided to become ordained as a bhikkhu. He took the name of Sanghamitta. One day while they were disrobed he noticed the brand-marks on the bodies of these bhikkhus and inquired how it happened. On hearing the story, he asked whether there was anything he could do for them. Sanghamitta was advised to go to Lanka and find a way they could return to Lanka and punish their enemies, now in power. Sanghamitta boldly declared that he “will go and see that the bhikkhus of Mahavihara either adopt the Vaitulyan doctrines, or the Vihara itself is uprooted and destroyed.” Sanghamitta sailed to Lanka and took up residence in Abhayagiri Vihara. He began to propagate the Vaitulyan heresy. There now were four sects, Theravada, Dharmaruci, Vaitulyan and Sagaliyan and the people were getting confused. However the king was induced to call a meeting of all the bhikkhus to solve the dissensions between the groups. At this meeting held in the Thuparama, Sanghamitta expounded his heretical doctrine and spoke against the Mahavihara bhikkhus. He succeeded in convincing the king. Even Thera Gothabhaya, the king’s uncle, after whom he was named, could not convince King Gothabhaya that Sanghamitta was wrong. This was the first time a ruling monarch in Lanka had publicly taken the side of a heretical sect. Sanghamitta was invited to the palace and became a frequent visitor. He was appointed tutor to the king’s two young sons. Though the elder prince, Jetthatissa did not favour Sanghamitta, Mahasena became close to him. King Gothabhaya restored damaged religious buildings such as the Ambatthala Vihara, Dakkhina Vihara, Manisomarama, Mirisavetiya, and Thuparama and built a Pavilion at the Maha Vihara to show that he

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144 SL Histary Chap.18-36 had no animosity towards Theravada Buddhism. He ruled for 13 years. KING JETTHA TISSA (262 - 273 AD) Jettha Tissa started his rule in a cruel manner. When Gothabhaya died, some of the Ministers who were against Thera Sanghamitta, refused to participate in the funeral rites. Jettha Tissa compelled them to do so. As the funeral procession entered the crematorium grounds he arranged for those Ministers to be slain. This act of his spread fear across the country, and he was given the appellation “Kakkhala” meaning wicked. Sanghamitta knowing that Jetthatissa disliked him, went back to Kavira in India to wait for his favourite prince, Mahasena to become king. Jetthatissa however continued with the same almsgiving and religious works as his predecessors had done. New gates for the temple of the Bo Tree, construction of the Kalamattika tank for the bhikkhus resident at Cetiyapabbata, extension of the Lova Maha paya to seven storeys, and the construction of a new monastery called Pacinatissa pabbata which he donated to the Theravada bhikkhus in the five great monasteries - Maha Vihara, Cetiya Vihara, Thuparama, Issurumuniya and Vessagiri, were some of the works carried out by him. The beautiful stone image which Devanampiya Tissa had placed in the Thuparama was installed in the Pacinatissa pabbata monastery. He also built the Alambagama tank. He ruled for ten years and was succeeded by his brother Mahasena.

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145 SL Histary Chap.18-36 CHAPTER 30

MAHASENA 274 - 301

Mahasena second son of King Gothabhaya, succeeded his brother Jettatissa as king. The thera Sanghamitta who, in fear of Jetthatissa had escaped to India came back, and was warmly received by Mahasena. He took up residence at the Abhayagiri Vihara and attempted to spread the Vaitulyan doctrine which included placing of statues of and Siva in the Buddhist temples. He performed the Consecration Ceremony for King Mahasena. This was the first time a thera outside the orthodox Theravada sect, and perhaps a non-Sinhala thera, performed this Ceremony for a king of Lanka. Attempts To Destroy The Mahavihara The events which followed could well be one of the darkest chapters in Buddhist history. Sanghamitta first attempted to convert the Theravada bhikkhus to his teaching. When that failed, he was determined to destroy the Mahavihara. So he began to poison the mind of the king. “The Mahavihara residents do not adhere to the Vinaya” he repeated. Although the king ignored this at first, Sanghamitta succeeded in convincing the king and coerced him to proclaim that, “Whoever gives food to the bhikkhus at Mahavihara would be fined a hundred pieces of money.” The bhikkhus at Mahavihara went on their alms round and came back with empty bowls. For the first time in 500 years, the Theravada bhikkhus faced starvation. After tolerating this problem for a few days, they met and decided that, even if they had to starve to death, they would not accept the Vaitulyan doctrine. They then left Anuradhapura and went to Mayarata and Ruhunurata in the south. The Mahavihara was thus abandoned for nine years. Sanghamitta told the king, “Ownerless property belongs to the king” Jetawanarama Monastery in Anuradhapura, 122 metres tall built around 300 AD

and obtained approval to destroy the Mahavihara. Sona, a ruthless Minister and a servant of Sanghamitta, together with his followers demolished the beautiful seven storeyed Lovamaha paya which the king’s own brother had restored in the preceding years, and added whatever was there to the Abhayagiri monastery. One by one those beautiful buildings raised at great expense and labour by Sinhalese kings, ‘the silent monuments of the piety of bygone rulers’, were uprooted. Some three-hundred and sixty-four colleges and great temples were destroyed and in their grounds ‘mung seeds’ (green lentils) were sown. Mahasena’s destruction is similar to what in 1540, Henry VIII did to English monasteries, though for a different reason. The great stone image from Pacinatissapabbata was brought and installed at Abhayagiri. The king built an image house, a Bodhi-tree temple, a beautiful relic house and a four-sided hall which made the Abhayagiri monastery more attractive. For nine years evil Sangamitta from the Cola country, and his wicked friend Sona held sway. According to the Dipawamsa, Mahasena when he came to the throne found two sections of monks. Before he could find out which was correct, he fell into the clutches of Sanghamitta and Papasona(evil Sona). They taught that (1) ‘computing the 20 years

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147 SL Histary Chap.36-44 required for Upasampada ordination from the conception which has been admitted by the Buddha in the story about Kumarakassapa was not allowable and (2) that the wearing of ivory fans which has not been admitted in the story about the Chabbaggiyas was allowable’. (Early history of Buddhism, pg.92)

PEOPLE REBEL TO BRING THE KING TO REPENTANCE A minister called Meghavannabhaya, a friend of the king, was angry over what was done to the Mahavihara. So he went to Mayarata, collected a large army and came to the City. The king having heard about this, brought his army and came to meet the minister’s army. That night, Meghavannabhaya had received good food and drink from the people of Mayarata. He thought he would share it with his long time friend, the king. So he went at night, alone by himself and met the king and shared the food with him. They had always been fond of each other. Mahasena asked, “Why have you become a rebel against me.” He replied, “Because of the destruction of the Mahavihara”. The king said, “I will arrange for the Vihara to be occupied. Forgive me my fault.” The good news of this reconciliation reached the people, who by then were getting annoyed over the treatment of the Mahavihara bhikkhus. The king’s favourite wife, a Lambakhani, angry over the destruction of the Mahavihara, induced a carpenter to kill the evil Sanghamitta, as he came to destroy the Thuparama. His violent and lawless friend, Sona was also killed and their heretical books burnt. Meghavannabhaya brought building materials and had many cells built in the Mahavihara. The bhikkhus came back to occupy them, after nine years in exile. The king had two bronze statues installed on the west side of the Great Bodhi-tree temple. He revoked his order to stop alms to the Mahavihara bhikkhus. But this change of heart did not last long. Thera Kohon Tissa, another evil-minded friend of the king, living in the Dakkhinagiri vihara, belonging to the Sagaliya sect, persuaded him to build the Jetavana monastery within the boundary of the Mahavihara, in the garden of Joti. Although the bhikkhus in the Mahavihara objected, those in Abhayagiri belonging to the Vaitulyan sect supported the new project. It was given to Thera Kohon Tissa. The Mahavihara bhikkhus again left Mahavihara in protest for nine months, but to maintain their right to it, some of them hid inside the Vihara.

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148 SL Histary Chap.36-44 THE JETAVANA MONASTERY The Jetavana Monastery or Eastern Stupa built in 286 AD was originally over 120 metres (400 feet) tall and was second only to the second tallest pyramid at Gaza in Egypt, making it taller than St.Paul’s Cathedral in London and matching the height of St. Peter’s in the Vatican. It is the greatest monument in the Buddhist world and is believed to be “the mightiest mass of its kind” on earth occupying eight acres of land. The base, 111 metres (370 feet) in diameter, stands on a brick foundation 8 metres (26 feet) thick, which in turn stands on a raft of concrete. (Insight Guides pg.185) According to Harry Williams, “a town, the size of Northampton could be built with the bricks used in the Abhayagiri or the Jetawana- rama.” Millions of tons of bricks have been used and the foundation is about 30 metres (100 feet) deep. Sir Emerson Tennant computes that its cubic content was no less than “20 million cubic feet ...... sufficient to raise eight thousand houses, each with twenty feet frontage...... line an ordinary railway tunnel twenty miles long, or form a wall one foot thick and ten feet in height, reaching from London to Edinburgh.” In 1982, ninth century gold plates containing texts of a Mahayana sutra were discovered here. Recent excavations have yielded objects coming from far west as ancient Rome and far east as China, proving beyond doubt that Mahasena and his successors had international relations. The 3rd century AD saw a historic confrontation between the Vaitulyan or Mahayanist and the Theravada schools. According to Dr. K.M. De Silva, “Mahayanists had a profound influence on Sri Lankan Buddhism...... To the lay buddhist, Mahayanist ritual and ceremonies had a compelling attraction, and they became a vital part of worship. The annniversary of the birth of Buddha became a festive occasion celebrated under state auspices. Relics of the Buddha and his early disciples became the basis of a powerful cult of relic worship. Of these, much the most significant and popular was the tooth relic of the Buddha, which was brought to Lanka in the reign of Sirimeghavanna (301-328 AD) under Mahayanist auspices and housed in Abhayagiri, since the Mahavihara would have nothing to do with it, in the early stages at least. But the lack of enthusiasm on the part of the Mahavihara could not prevent the cult of the tooth relic becoming an important annual Buddhist ceremony whose appeal became progressively more

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149 SL Histary Chap.36-44 contagious to the point where, after some centuries, the possession of the tooth relic became essential to the exercise of sovereignty in Sri Lanka.” (KMDS pg.49) Before long, Thera Kohon Tissa was found guilty of a grave offence. Chief Minister Dhammika, appointed to conduct the inquiry found him guilty and despite the king’s disapproval, Thera Kohon Tissa was expelled and disrobed. Sagiliya sect bhikkhus occupied the Jetavanarama. King Mahasena also built the monasteries of Manihiraka, (near Minneriya), Gokanna, Erakavilla, Migagama, Gangasenaka, Kokavata, Dhatusenapabbata, Thuparama and Hulapitthi and two nunneries called Uttara and Abhaya. Sixteen tanks were built to improve agriculture - Minneriya, Mahagama, Challura, Khanu, Mahamani, Kokavata, Dhammaramma, Kumbalaka, Vahana, Rattamalakanda (probably Padaviya Tank), Tissavaddamanaka, Velangavitthika, Mahagallaka, Kalapasana, Cira and Mahadaragallaka. In spite of all his cruel and foul deeds, especially directed towards the sacred Mahavihara, he remains deified, and is still worshipped as the Minneri Deiyo “Minneriya God”, because his great achievements in architecture and irrigation engineering, has left an indelible impression on the people.

Minneriya Tank covering 4670 acres

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150 SL Histary Chap.36-44 MINNERIYA TANK described as the loveliest of all inland “seas”, at full sluice level covers a massive 4670 acres (1868 hectares). The dam holding the water had to be extraordinarily strong. It is over 15 metres (50 feet) tall. An artificial canal, the Alahara canal built by King Vasabha and over 48 kilometres (30 miles) long, brought water from the Ambanganga branch of the Mahaveli which arises in the hills. A network of small channels distributed the precious water to the fields. The tank had a capacity of 70,730 acre-feet, (one acre-foot being 272,140 gallons). The sluices through which water was let out of the tank and the spill, over which the excess water flowed out when the reservoir was full to capacity, was made of stone. The construction of this tank opened up lands east of Mahaweli and led to the development of trade and commerce with south east Asian countries through the port of Trincomalee. The irrigation schemes of Vasabha and Mahasena significantly extended the area under cultivation. “Irrigation engineering attained its high water mark in the reign of Mahasena.” (Paranavitana)

WITH MAHASENA ENDED THE MAHAWAMSA OR THE GREAT DYNASTY IN 301 AD

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151 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 31

THE CULAWAMSA - THE LOWER DYNASTY

The Mahawamsa starting with Vijaya ended with King Mahasena. According to the edited by B. Gunasekera, the Culawamsa or “lower dynasty”, which is believed to have been written by Bhikkhu Dhammakitti of the 13th century, “is distinguished by the father or mother of the reigning Sovereign being a descendent of the Solar line. It is designated lower dynasty, because the pedigree of the Sovereigns is heterogenous, being a mixture between descendents of those who brought the sacred Bo branch and those who brought the Tooth Relic; because of the non-existence of buddhist clergy endowed with supernatural powers; because Sakra does not overlook this illustrious Lanka; because Anuradhapura declines for want of meritorious personages; and because the produce of agriculture and horticulture is failing.” But why the line was drawn between Mahasena and his son will always remain a mystery. The history of Sri Lanka continued to be written by bhikkhus, and they got their information from what had been written by other bhikkhus. Mahanama who wrote the Mahawamsa is believed to have written the first part of the Culawamsa too. That the kings also kept records of their doings is possible. Dutugemunu (161-137 BC), and Vijayabahu I (1055-1110 AD) kept records of their activities. To the bhikkhus, kings who built viharas and promoted irrigation were important. Defending the country from foreign invaders ranked second. But as explained by Harry Williams, “The monks obsession...... is readily understandable. Behind the prosperous life of the people, the culture and the beauty, the piety and yearning for immortality unconsciously expressed in the dagobas, lies the constant fear of the tyranny of water. It was a civilisation which existed for a millenium and a half in a desert, one of the unnoticed miracles of human cussedness. The fragility of the means by which life was sustained against the ever-threatening jungle - the thin trickle of water

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152 SL Histary Chap.36-44 which was, almost literally a blood stream to the dwellers in the plains - can never have been far from the consciousness of the rulers of the people. It may account, in some part, for their instinct to intrigue rather than to fight, to flee rather than to oppose. The invaders had no such background to their thoughts, for they came to despoil.” (pg. 55) However as Harry Williams states, “the story of the Culawamsa is a sorry record of decline and fall, of civil strife and a kind of perpetual forced piety, against a background of assassinations, intrigue and the infiltration of malabari blood”.

KING SIRIMEGHAVANNA (301 - 328 AD) Mahasena’s son Prince Sirimeghavanna (called Sirimevan) succeeded him in 301 AD. He embraced Buddhism. He visited the Mahavihara and asked the bhikkhus, “Why did my father destroy the Sasana?” The bhikkhus said, “A thera called Sanghamitta and Sona the Minister, won the king’s heart and made him do this evil. The Lovamaha paya was destroyed and taken to Abhayagiri. He was totally cruel. He cultivated undu plants on the sacred grounds of the Cetiya.” Sirimevan listened to all the destruction done by his father, and was very unhappy. He decided to repair them all, starting with the Lovamaha paya and the aranya. Having learnt about Mihindu (Mahinda) Thera who first brought Buddhism to Lanka, a gold statue of this Thera was made and all bhikkhus and citizens invited to a big dana. He wanted to revive the religious fervour of the people, so that all people would live as good Buddhists, as in the days of Mihindu Thera. The road from Ambatale to Kandy, and Kandy to Sarath Nuvera was decorated and the statue was taken in procession. All prisoners were freed. Bhikkhus were treated as he would, the Buddha. The Suwasathyiakara Vihara was built and the Mihindu statue installed there. A decree was made that this celebration should be done annually. This was perhaps the origin of the Mihindu Perahera which is still held on Poson full-moon day in June every year in Sri Lankan temples. Sirimevan had diplomatic relations with India. Having sent an embassy to the court of , he obtained permission to establish a monastery for the benefit of pilgrims at Buddha Gaya, where Lord Buddha had attained enlightenment.

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153 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Arrival of the Tooth relic (mural at Kelani Temple) THE ARRIVAL OF THE TOOTH RELIC In the ninth year of the reign of Sirimeghavanna the Tooth Relic was brought to Lanka. All that time, it had been in the custody of the kings of Kalinga City (present day Orissa), in Dantepura, capital of Kalinga, in India. When non-buddhists attacked the City, King Guhasiva of Kalinga requested his daughter Princess Hemamala to flee to Lanka with the Tooth Relic. She hid it in her hair and brought it safely to Lanka, coming disguised as pilgrims, with her husband Dantakumara. She handed it over to King Sirimeghavanna. It was first kept in a place called the Damsak built by Devanampiyatissa. That place was then called the Dathugara (the house of the relic). A great festival was held for it. The king built eighteen viharas. Sirimeghavanna collected nine lakhs of people and took the relic in procession to Abhayagiri Vihara, and decreed that this procession be carried out annually. This was the beginning of the Esala Perahera which is held every August to honour the Tooth Relic. He was kind to animals and provided places for them to drink water. He died in the 26th year of his reign. His cousin Jetthatissa succeeded him.

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154 SL Histary Chap.36-44 KING JETTHATISSA II (328 - 337 AD) Jetthatissa was different to previous kings. Being a skilled artist he won renown as a painter, sculptor and carver of ivory. He tried to encourage these arts among the people, and for this he founded schools to teach these subjects. He was succeeded by his son Buddhadasa. KING BUDDHADASA (337 - 365 AD) Buddhadasa too was different to previous kings, like his father, Jetthatissa. He was a man of medicine, Physician, Surgeon and Veterinarian - the great Royal Surgeon! Every possible effort was made by him to make all beings in the island healthy and happy. He was very kind and very pious, and lived in accordance with the ten kingly qualities. Animals were treated as though they were children. Veterinary services were provided for animals. As Harry Williams comments, “...... surely one of the first instances of organised medicine for animals in the story of man.” He gave his wealth to the poor, and protected the property of the rich and their lives. He “treated the good with friendlines, the wicked with sternness, and the sick with remedies.” The town was protected, as Vessavana - god of wealth - protects the town of Alakamanda (capital of the gods). Many stories are told about his healing powers : 1. One day while travelling on his elephant to bathe in the Tissaweva, he had to pass an ant hill behind the Puttabhaya Vihara. On top of the ant hill was a king cobra suffering from a stomach ailment. Seeing the king approach, the cobra turned around to expose his stomach. The king realised that something was wrong with the cobra, but he was afraid to go near. He got off his elephant and said, “King cobra, I know what is wrong with you. But you have a bad temper, so I cannot touch you. Without touching you I cannot treat you.” On hearing this, the cobra tucked his head inside the mouth of the anthill and waited motionlessly with the stomach turned upwards. The king came up to the cobra and cut open his stomach and treated him, and cured him. He then thought to himself, “Even animals know my charity; in the right way have I ruled.” In return the cobra gave him a gem which the king offered to the Abhayagiri Vihara. It was placed as an eye

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155 SL Histary Chap.36-44 on the reclining Buddha statue. 2. A priest went out for alms in the village of Thusavatthi. He was offered rice and milk which was infested with worms. As he had to eat what was offered, he consumed it. But this caused his stomach to ache. He came to the king. When the king heard his story, he gave him some horse blood to drink. He waited for a few minutes and told the bhikkhu, that what he had just drunk was horse blood! This made the bhikkhu vomit the blood in revulsion, and with it came the worms and he was cured. 3. A Candala woman in the village of Helloligama, who had had seven still-births was cured by the king. 4. A bhikkhu who was bent in two, like the antlers of a deer, and was unable to stand erect due to arthritis, was cured by him. He established hospitals and appointed doctors for all villages, one doctor for ten villages. They were paid one tenth of the village harvest. All the available Medical literature was compiled by him into a book called the “Sarartha Sangaraya”. Hostels were built for the deaf and blind. Doctors were appointed to look after horses and elephants. Alms were offered to bhikkhus and he listened to their sermons. People who worked for the clergy were paid by him. He carried his Medicine pouch wherever he went. When he came across someone sick, he stopped and treated him. King Buddhadasa and the Leper One day, dressed in full royal robes he was travelling with his Queen and royal entourage. A man suffering from a skin condition saw him, and throwing himself on the ground and smiting the ground, started abusing the king. Buddhadasa said, “I have not done evil to any being. He must be my enemy from a previous birth.” He ordered one of his servants to go and talk to the man. The king’s servant came to the leper and said, “What is the reason for your anger.” He replied, “Buddhadasa was my slave in a previous birth. He became king because of his virtues. To insult me he is going on his elephant in front of me. If he does not come to me, I will kill him and drink his blood.” On hearing this story, the king said, “It is meet to put an end to

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156 SL Histary Chap.36-44 enmity by some means”, and asked his servant to go and attend on the leper. The servant went back to the leper and said, “I also want to kill the king, but did not have anyone to help me. You come to my house and stay with me. In a few days we will be able to kill the king.” The servant took the man to his house and bathed and treated him, and gave him clothes and good food. Soon the leper was healed. He then gave some rich food to the leper and said “This is from the king.” Two or three times the leper refused the food, but was persuaded to eat it. The servant then told the leper, that it was the king who had asked him to do all this for him. This humbled the man. In the Mahavihara, Buddhadasa built the 12 metre tall Monera (Mayura) Parivena or Peacock Parivena and donated to it the villages of Samanaya and Golapanuwa. During his reign bhikkhu Mahadhamma- kaththi translated the Buddhist Suttas into the Sinhala language. Buddhadasa had eighty heroic sons who were beautiful like gods. They were given the names of Buddha’s disciples. The king died in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. Upatissa his eldest son succeeded him.

KING UPATISSA I (365 - 406 AD) Upatissa too was a virtuous and pious king, who practised the ten meritorious works- “dana (giving of alms), sila (leading a moral life), bhavana (spiritual discipline), apaciti (reverence), veyyavacca (diligence), pattianuppadana (transference of one’s merit to another), abbhanumodana (gratitude), desana (instruction), savana (listening to sermons), and ditthujukakamma (right views).” He built halls called Mahapali, to provide free food for the people, where the food given was similar to what he ate. Homes were built for pregnant mothers, cripples, the blind and the deaf. Many temples were built and tanks renovated. Villages were donated to the temples. One night when it rained, the roof above his bed leaked, but he waited till morning, as he did not want to trouble the people at night. A famine and a plague overtook the whole country and epidemic diseases afflicted the people. He inquired from the bhikkhus, “What has Lord Buddha asked us to do at such times when the people are suffering.” The bhikkhus recited the Gangarohana or which praises the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. He made a Buddha statue of gold, filled the alms bowl with water

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157 SL Histary Chap.36-44 and placed it in the palms of the statue. The statue was then placed in a chariot. He observed Sil (eight precepts), and asked the people to do so. The whole city was decorated like a heavenly city, and alms given lavishly. The bhikkhus walked on the streets chanting the Ratana Sutta and sprinkling pirith pan (holy water). The next morning the monsoon rains fell and the people who had been sick held a festival. The king told the people that if they ever had a epidemic or famine they should do the same. He built halls for meditation and statuaries and parks. A gold pinnacle was built for the Thuparama, and a gold covering for the vatage. All his life he lived simply, insisting on eating food similar to what was being served for the poor in the Mahapali. He ruled for forty- two years, and was killed by his Queen consort who was secretly in love with his brother Mahanama. After his death, Mahanama who was in robes, left the monastery and became king. THE TOPAWEVA tank at the heart of the City was built by Upatissa I. King Sena restored it later, and Parakramabahu I enlarged it. The tank has been breached, but the original bund still remains. “It is beautiful beyond description. At sunset its waters are stained like the colours of a peacock wing..” (Harry Williams 144)

KING MAHANAMA (406 - 428 AD) Mahanama left robes and married the queen consort who killed his brother. Mahanama built homes for the sick, and halls for providing food to the poor. He built the Lohadvara, Ralaggama and Kotipassavana Viharas and donated them to Abhayagiri Vihara. A vihara was built at Dhumarakkha mountain in the name of his queen and donated to the Theravada bhikkhus at Mahavihara. He is believed to have sent a letter to the Chinese Court. He had a son called Prince Sottisena by a Tamil serving woman and a daughter called Sanga by his Queen. Bhikkhu Buddhagosa came from India during his reign.

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158 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 32

THE ARRIVAL OF BUDDHAGOSA

At this time there lived in India, a young Brahmana, born in Bodhimanda near Buddhagaya in India, who was an expert in the three vedas - Vidya (Science), Silpa (archery) and Sasthra (arts), who knew the doctrine, was skilled in disputation and fond of controversy. During his wanderings in India, he came to a Vihara and all night long he elucidated the ideas of Patanjali, author of Yogasutrani, word for word. Revata, the Grand Thera of that vihara, realising that the Brahmana was intelligent and ‘a being of the highest wisdom’, wanted to test him. The thera asked, “Who then is he, who cries there with the cry of an ass?” The Brahmana asked “Does thou then understand the meaning of the cry of asses?” The Thera said he did. Then the Brahmana expounded his views, and Revata was able to answer all his questions, and point out the contradictions. The Brahmana asked him to explain his doctrine. When the Thera expounded the text of the Abhidhamma, the Brahmana was unable to understand it. The Brahmana inquired from the Thera, whose sayings they were. Revata replied, “These are sayings of the Buddha.” He then said, “Make them known to me.” Whereupon Revata told him, “Thou shalt receive it, when you undergo world renunciation.” The Brahmana therefore decided to become a bhikkhu. He had a deep voice like that of the Buddha and he was very popular. Hence he was called “Buddhagosa” (Sounds like Buddha) Buddhagosa studied the Tripitaka and wrote a Dhamma book called Nannodaya and a commentary called Atthasalin. This is an interpretation of the Dhammasangani, which is one of the books of the Abhidhamma. He also composed a commentary to the Pirith book. The chief thera, Revata saw this and said, “Here you get old editions of pirith books and here you do not get good teachers. All the three tripitakas of Buddha’s words and Sariputra’s teachings are available in

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159 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Lanka written in Sinhala by Mihindu Arahant. So go there and read them, and translate into Magadha language for the use of the people of India. It will be a blessing to the world.” Venerable Buddhagosa came to Sri Lanka in the early part of the fifth century, during the reign of King Mahanama. He came to the Mahavihara and learnt the teachings of Buddha. He asked for material to write another book. “Give me all the books that I may compose a commentary”, he said. The bhikkhus said, “Show here thy qualification. Once we have seen it, we shall give thee all the books.” To test him the bhikkhus gave him two verses, and asked him to prove himself. Buddhagosa started reading and showed that he was capable. He was then given the Tripitakas. Summing up the Tripitakas with the Commentary, he wrote the famous . The topic was, "sile patitthaya naro sapanno cittam pannam ca bhavayam atapi nipako bhikkhu, so imam vijataye jatam.” "What man his conduct guardeth, and hath wisdom. And thoughts and wisdom traineth well. The strenous and the able priest. He disentangles all this snarl.” The Visuddhimagga, his first work is a concise but complete encyclopedia of the Buddhist teachings. To further test Buddhagosa, his book was hidden, but he reproduced the entire book without any mistakes. The bhikkhus stated that he may be Metteyya, the next Buddha. He lived in a pirivena near the Mahavihara and read all the Sinhalese Buddhist Commentaries and translated them into Magadha language, and went back to India. Buddhagosa was the greatest Buddhist commentator. More than half the Pali commentaries and Canonical Texts were written by him. Some believe that “he was born to this world for the sole purpose of writing the Pali commentaries and thereby help in the preservation of the doctrine in purity.” (Early History of Buddhism, Adhikaram.) “Of his talent there can be no doubt; it was equalled only by his extraordinary industry. But of originality, of independent thought, there is at present no evidence...... The diligence and precision which Buddhagosa has shown in his works may not appear to be anything remarkable when compared with the scientific accuracy of the present day scholar. But it must not be forgotten that he lived fifteen hundred years ago and it is only as we take this into consideration and compare him with scholars of other civilised countries of the same day, that a

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160 SL Histary Chap.36-44 true estimation of him becomes possible.” (Early History of Buddhism) SOTTHISENA AND CHATTAGAHAKA JANTU (428 AD) The Lambakanna dynasty ended with King Mahanama. His son Sotthisena born of a Damila serving woman, became king after him, but was killed the same day by Sanga, Mahanama’s daughter by his queen. She then proclaimed her husband Chattagahaka, as king. Chattagahaka built a tank, called Chattagahaka tank, but he too died in one year. A powerful minister who was friendly with him buried him in the palace and told the people that he was sick. He then got hold of another tough man, who was a paddy thief, and made him king. He was called King Mittasena.

KING MITTASENA (428 AD) AND KING PANDU (429 - 34 AD) In spite of his bad past Mittasena was a good king. He ruled for one year and was killed by a Damila who then became king, as King Pandu. Most of the Sinhalese people, unhappy at having a Damila on the Sinhalese throne, left Anuradhapura and went to Ruhuna.

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161 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 33

DHATUSENA

A certain man from the Moriya clan called Dathanama who lived in Ambilayagu had two sons, Dhatusena and Salatissa. Their mother’s brother, bhikkhu Mahanama lived in the Dighasanda Senaviya Pirivena. Young Dhatusena went to his uncle and became a bhikkhu. One day when he was studying the scriptures seated under a tree, it started raining. A king Cobra came out and covered his head and the book with its hood. His uncle, the chief Bhikkhu, Mahanama saw this. On another occasion another bhikkhu in anger put some rubbish over Dhatusena’s head, but he did not get angry. Mahanama saw this too and thought, “It is obvious that Dhatusena is a great man. He will be king and should be protected.” So he decided to take him over and educate him in state-craft. When this came to the ears of King Pandu, he ordered the arrest of Dhatusena. That night Mahanama saw this in a dream. He immediately left the place with Dhatusena and thus saved him from soldiers who came for him the next day. When Dhatusena and Mahanama came to the Kala Oya, it was in flood. Bhikkhu Mahanama told Dhatusena, “Even as this river holds us back, so do thou hold back its course by collecting its waters in a tank.” A king cobra saw them and took them on his back to the other side. There they got some milk-rice as alms. The thera ate his share and gave the balance to Dhatusena. He accepted it and out of respect to the teacher, he placed the rice on the ground and ate it. King Pandu died after five years. His son Parinda became king, but died in three years, and was succeded by his younger brother Khuddaparinda. This king’s men started killing Dhatusena’s followers. Khuddaparinda ruled for sixteen years and was followed by another Damila called Thiritara. Dhatusena killed him in two months. He was followed by another Damila called Dathiya who was killed by

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162 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Dhatusena in three years. The next king, a Damila called Pithiya was also killed by Dhatusena in seven months. KING DHATUSENA (455 - 473 A.D.) Finally in 455 AD Dhatusena became king over all Lanka, after twenty-seven years of foreign rule. With his brother, he built fortresses and annihilated the ravagers of the island. He uplifted the Buddha sasana to what it should have been. Anyone who had supported the Damilas or intermarried with them, was chased out of their homes. The Sinhala people who had earlier gone to Ruhuna, now came back to Anuradhapura. His rewarded his followers who had stayed by him. He built eighteen viharas and many tanks to provide water for agriculture. A dansala was made for bhikkhus, and halls provided for the sick and poor. As instructed by his uncle, he built the Kalaweva Tank by damming the Kala Oya, and a great canal, the Jaya ganga was built to bring water from the Tissa Weva to the Kalaweva. The festival for the Bodhi Tree which, had traditionally been held every twelve years, was celebrated by him. An image of the great Sage Mahinda was made and taken to Mihintale where he was cremated, and a great festival was held. A gift of one thousand pieces of gold was donated for the interpretation of the Dipawamsa. Lightning protectors were made for the three big cetiyas.

THE KALAWEVA As advised by his uncle the Bhikkhu Mahanama, Datusena built the Kalaweva tank, by damming the Kala Oya, which is a river 150 kilometres (90 miles) long. The tank encompasses over eighteen square kilometres (7 square miles) and had an embankment eight kilometres (5 miles) long and twelve metres tall. It irrigated an area of 466 square kilometres. The canal, called Jayaganga or Gona canal which is 86 kilometres long and twelve metres wide, linked it to the Tissaweva which supplies water to the City. The first 27 kilometres of this canal named as the Yoda Ela or Giant’s Canal had a gradient of 15 centimetres slope per 1.6 kilometres (6 inches per mile)-a great technological feat for all time. (I.G pg 35). THE YODAWEVA in the was also constructed by King Mahasena. It had an embankment of 11 kilometres and was fed

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163 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Kalaweva

Yoda Wewa in Mannar

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164 SL Histary Chap.36-44 by a 27 kilometres long canal from the Malvatu Oya. Although the topographical structures in this area made it impossible to construct it any deeper, it served a vast area by means of carefully laid canals flowing at a low gradient, distributing the water to many village tanks around Mannar, where rainfall is lowest. He built many Viharas and repaired old ones and their statues and paintings. Since the Dhammarucians occupied the Mahavihara he built the Ambasttala Vihara on the Cetiyapabbata for the Theravada monks, but was entreated by the Dhammarucians to give it to them. The Tripitaka was revised in his time. It is said that when the Kalaweva was been constructed there was a bhikkhu in deep meditation who was in the way of the workers. When it was reported to the king that the bhikkhu could not be aroused from his meditation, he had earth flung at the bhikkhu’s head, and the wall built over him. The king built 82 other tanks. THE AUKANA STATUE It is believed that the AUKANA STATUE of Bud- dha was also built during his reign. Au-Kana means “sun- eating”. This is the most magnificent undamaged ancient image. It is of colossal dimen- sions, being 13 metres (43 feet) tall. It is carved on the face of a rock and stands on a lotus pedestal. A drop of water dripping from the tip of the nose of this statue is said to drop exactly between the two feet of the statue. Today it stands under a brick shelter. The height of this statue is only second to that carved out of rock at Buduruvagala near , which is over 15 metres (50 feet) tall, where Aukana Statue the Buddha statue stands

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165 SL Histary Chap.36-44 between two , and may be dated to the ninth or tenth century. At Maligavila in Buttala there is an image of Buddha in lime stone which is 12 metres (40 feet) tall.

Dhatusena Antagonises His Son And Son-in-law Dhatusena gave a vihara to the bhikkhu who threw rubbish on his head when he was living at the temple. He built a gold karandu and a gold statue for the temple. He had a daughter whom he loved dearly, and two sons - Kassapa from a lesser queen and Moggallana by his chief queen. The daughter was given in marriage to his sister’s son, who was made the Senapati (Commander in chief). One day the Senapati in anger struck his wife, Dhatusena’s daughter, and she came back to the father for support. The king was angry, and he got his son-in-law’s mother (his own sister) burnt to death. This infuriated the son-in-law. He therefore got friendly with Kassapa and set him up against the father and awoke in him the desire for power and kingship. Kassapa had bad friends. To take over the kingship he started killing people who were close to his father. He next imprisoned his father and took over the throne. His brother Prince Moggallana then fled to India to collect an army. To take revenge on King Dhatusena, the Senapati told Kassapa, “Your father has much wealth, has he told you?” Kassapa said he was not told. The man then said, “Don’t you know your father’s intention. He will keep all his wealth for Moggallana”. Kassapa then sent messengers to his father asking for his wealth. The king kept silent. When repeated messages kept coming, he knew he would be killed. Dhatusena thought, “I will see my friend, and bathe in the Kalaweva before I die”. By friend, he meant his uncle and teacher, Thera Mahanama. So he told the messengers, “Take me to the Kalaweva and I will show my wealth”. Believing it to be true, Kassapa quickly sent a waggon, with a broken wheel, for his father. The driver of the waggon gave some roasted corn to the old king. He was pleased and he gave the driver a message to be given to Moggallana, which was to ask him to make this driver, his gate-keeper. The Thera, the old king’s uncle and teacher, hearing that the king was coming, had kept aside the bean soup and meat that he had received as dana, because he knew the king was fond of this. The king came, greeted his former teacher and uncle reverently, and seated side by side, they shared the food. Their conversation helped the king forget

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166 SL Histary Chap.36-44 his cares. The bhikkhu preached to him about impermanence. “Worldly prosperity is like the glimmering of lightning and what refelcting man would devote himself to its pursuit? Can a wise man when he sees the fleeting nature of the rich and of wealth, crave for earthly joys?” The king went to the Kalaweva and had a good bath and taking some water in his hand, said, “This here, my friends, is my whole wealth.” The messengers conveyed this to Kassapa, who became angry and gave orders to kill his father. The son-in-law was very happy and remarked, “Now I have seen the back of my foe.” He dressed up in Royal robes and walked up and down in front of Dhatusena. Dhatusena thought, “This man wants to ruin my soul even as my body and send it to hell. Why should I fulfil his wish by letting anger arise?” So awaking loving thoughts within himself, he told the Senapati, “You and Moggallana are the same to me.” The son-in-law laughed and shook his head. They stripped Dhatusena, bound him with chains and placed him against a wall, and plastered over him, while he was still alive. Thus after 18 years as king, Dhatusena died at the hands of his son. “His own living entombment was the retribution manifested in this life for that impious act” he had ordered a few years back. His uncle, Thera Mahanama, is believed to have written the Mahavamsa, on his instructions.

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167 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 34

ELEVEN KINGS - 473 - 604 AD

KING KASSAPA (473 - 491) The people were horrified over the killing of King Dhatusena. Kassapa felt he was being ostracised by his people, and he could no longer live freely among them. Kassapa sent the caretaker of his horses and his cook, to kill Prince Mogallana in India. When this attempt failed, he fled to Sigiriya rock and took up residence there, and built for himself a castle on the rock. He had the land around cleared and surrounded by a parapet wall. The entrance to the stairway leading up to the top of the rock was shaped like the mouth of a lion. One entered the stairs between the out- stretched paws of the lion, and climbed through its mouth and throat to reach the fine palace built on top of the rock. He administered his kingdom from here. Kassapa collected a great deal of wealth and kept it well protected. He lived there as Vesmuni Maha Raja (king of gods). Repenting for what he had done, he tried to do good to counteract the evil. Parks were built to decorate the entrance. Mango groves were built all over Lanka. He renovated Issurumuniya Temple and built two viharas to which he gave the names of his two daughters, Bodhi and Uppalavanna. These were given to Theravada bhikkhus who first refused the gift, fearing reproach from the people for accepting it from a man who had killed his father. Later when Kassapa offered the two viharas to the Buddha, the bhikkhus accepted them. A vihara was built in the Niyyanti gardens and offered to the Dhammarucians. He meditated, built image houses and dansalas, gave alms and observed poya days. He cultivated the appamanna - metta (loving kindness), Karuna (pity), muditha (joyous sympathy) and upeka (serenity). In the eighteenth year of Kassapa’s reign, Moggallana came from India with an army. With twelve of his friends, he camped in Kuthari Vihara in the Ambatakola district. Kassapa heard about it and decided

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168 SL Histary Chap.36-44 The Sigiriya Rock

to fight. Moggallana had a powerful army and was ready for war. Like two seas that had burst their bounds, the two armies met and fought fiercely. Kassapa seeing a large pool of swamp, turned his elephant to go in another direction. But his men who saw this, thought he was running away and started to retreat. Moggallana’s people then overtook them and killed them. Kassapa took his sword and cut his own throat, despite Moggallana entreating him not to do so. It is stated that, as much as the people disliked Kassapa for killing his father, the Sinhalese did not join Mogallana’s army as it consisted mainly of South Indians. According to Chinese chronicles Kassapa had written a letter to the Chinese Court in 527 AD. SIGIRIYA Senerat Paranavitane in his book “Sinhalayo” states that according to documents recently brought to light, Dhatusena may have been the son of Sanga, daughter of King Mahanama. Dhatusena was a bhikkhu. He fell into disfavour with the Pallava king, Pandu, who sent an army against Dhatusena. Kassapa the elder son of Dhatusena, born of a Pallava princess, repelled this attack and then wanted the king to proclaim him as Yuvaraja. But on the advise of his Ministers, the king

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169 SL Histary Chap.36-44 refused this request in favour of the second son Moggallana, who was born of a Sinhalese princess. This incensed Kassapa, who then went to India and came with an army. Dhatusena went to battle with this army, and when he was losing he committed suicide. But of course, the fact of Dhatusena being killed by his son Kassapa, has been the story known by people, as related in the Culawamsa. Sigiriya had been an an- cient hermitage for meditating bhikkhus. Inscriptions found here in the pre-Christian Brahmi script of the Sinhalese, is proof of this. Dhatusena apparently started building a palace here. Later, Kassapa Entrance through Lion's mouth converted this into the most exquisitely decorated royal residence, in which he lived. It was rediscov- ered only in the 19th century by an English hunter. Sigiriya is an unscalable precipitous rock, converted into an exquisitely beautiful Palace, where “a barren and forbidding” rock became “the loveliest Royal city that ever was built by man”. It is a red stone rock, rising 180 metres (600 feet) above the green jungle surrounding it. The hillsides are terraced using the boulders for ornamental features. The largest of the dozen terraces is the northern one, 32 metres broad and over 60 metres long, and 12 metres above the next lower terrace. At the foot of the rock are the beautifully fascinating landscaped gardens, symmetrically constructed, again, “perhaps the oldest surviving landscaped gardens in Asia”. High ramparts and deep moats enclosed the grounds for security. Very recently four fountains, symmetrically placed in these gardens and fed by subterranean canals, and still in working order, were discovered during excavations at Sigiriya. In January 1994, due to the

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170 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Sigiriya Gardens showing four ancient fountains

monsoonal rains the entire area was flooded and the extra water- pressure in the water gardens caused three of the fountains to function. No one had seen them functioning before, perhaps because the water pressure had not been sufficient. “Passing through the ornamental gardens one reaches an enclosed pathway hugging the overhanging rock which leads to the summit where a palace and an entire city was built on the three acres covering the top of the hill. A flight of steps leading up the hillside traverses a gallery and another flight of steps leads to a plateau, where there is an immense rock, shaped into the forepart of a lion built against the perpendicular face of the rock. Another flight of steps leads through the gaping mouth of this gigantic lion, built of brick and plaster. The lion, suggestive of the legendary founder of the Sinhala race, ‘keeps watch’ over the Pidurutalagala mountain. Each of its claws is over one metre tall and one metre broad. Passing through the mouth and throat of the lion, the stairs emerge on its back on the sloping face of the rock on its upper reaches. Running water trickled through channels beneath the floor of the royal summer house.” Bathing pools and other essential structures were constructed to make it a self-contained residence.

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171 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Sigiriya Paintings - the frescoes

Buddhist religious sites such as the Cave Vihara, the Asana Chapel, the preaching rock with tiered platforms for orating monks and a multitude of miniature niches carved into the rock for oil lamps to be lit on Poya days, are some of the many other structures seen on this city, built on this rock. (I.G.) The 3 metre high wall at the edge of the gallery on the western side beneath a dripline cut 188 metres (60 feet) below the top of the rock is lime plastered and has been so polished that, even today, two thousand years later, one could see ones reflection on it. It is approp- riately called the MIRROR WALL. Throughout the centuries after it ceased to be a palace, visitors from various countries have used this wall as a “visitor’s book” to leave their impressions behind.

SIGIRIYA PAINTINGS (FRESCOES) On the west face of this rock, 12 metres above the floor and below a dripline cut 18 metres below the top of the rock, are beautiful bare- breasted, almost life-size maidens, smiling down from the wall, painted in brilliant colours of red, black, green, yellow and white. The blue used freely in the Ajanta frescoes in India, is not seen here. Underneath are prose and poems, over 1000 years old, written in tiny pearl-like script.

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172 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Sigiriya Aerial View

These paintings have lasted 1500 years. According to these inscriptions, there were 500 of these frescoes of beautiful maidens, but today only 22 are left, having weathered centuries of exposure to sun, rain, wind, rock-bees and human-vandals. Whether these were only a figment of the artist’s imagination of heavenly nymphs (apsaras) floating around in the clouds that bathed this palace that touched the skies, or whether they were pictures of royal ladies and their beautiful serving girls on their way to offer flowers, no one will ever know! Dr Paranavitana suggests they may be “lightning Princesses” and “cloud damsels” in the palace of Kuvera, god of riches. These are the oldest surviving specimens of Lanka’s artistic talent that can be definitely dated, and are of about the same age as that of Ajanta frescoes in India. Similar paintings are seen in Kantaka cetiya in Mihintale, Gonapola in Gal-Oya, and in the Hindalagala rock temple in Peradeniya. In 1967 vandals damaged several of these and fortunately they were restored by Dr Marnzi, who came from the Smithsonian Institute. In the COBRA HOOD CAVE, so called because of its shape, there is an inscription dating to second century BC. Faint remains of ancient

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173 SL Histary Chap.36-44 paintings are visible on the ceiling. On the ceiling of the ASANA CHAPEL, believed to have been a place of meditation for bhikkhus, are traces of more paintings. At the main entrance is the so called PREACHING ROCK with tiered platforms for bhikkhus probably built before Kassapa’s time. “There may be more romantic places in the world than Sigiriya, but I doubt it” (HW 168)

MOGGALLANA I (491 - 508 AD) Moggallana carried out the last rites for his brother and taking the regalia from Kassapa’s palace, came to the capital. The bhikkhus having heard about his victory were all assembled in the terrace of the Mahathupa, awaiting his arrival. Moggallana stopped his army outside the walls of the monastery and went alone to meet them, greeted them respectfully and presented his parasol. (The umbrella is the symbol of the ruler. Here the king shows the submission of the ruler to the clergy) The bhikkhus gave it back to him as is the practice. This place is called Chathavadi (meaning ‘flourishing of parasols’). A parivena was built at this point. He visited the other two viharas - Jetavana and Abhayagiri. He punished all those who had joined his brother, Kassapa against his father, and honoured those who had helped his father. When he remembered how the high dignitaries had attached themselves to his father’s murderer, he gnashed his teeth, (hence he was called Raksha or devil). He had the ears and noses of these officials, cut off, and banished them. But after listening to religious sermons, he became more peaceful. The driver of the waggon who gave the last meal to his father King Dhatusena, handed over the message sent through him. The king wept when he read the message. This driver was promoted as guard of the gates. Senapati Migara who had sent reports to him when he was in India, was honoured. On every full moon day in January he had a huge almsgiving. This is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka as Duruthu Poya. The two viharas, Dalha and Dathakondanna in Sigiriya were given to the Dhammaruci and Sagali bhikkhus. A temple called Rajini, was built for bhikkhunis. The Pabbata vihara he gave to Thera Mahanama who wrote the Mahawamsa. A man from the Lambakanna clan, called Dathapabuthi, who was

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174 SL Histary Chap.36-44 earlier with Kassapa, but had fallen out with him, was living in Mereliya district. He had a son named Silakala who went with Moggallana to India and became ordained at the Bodhimanda Vihara. He brought a hair relic from India for King Moggallana. This was taken in procession and enshrined in a crystal casket and housed in a beautiful building. Silakala was entrusted with the safe-keeping of the Relic and was appointed sword-bearer. Moggallana gave his sister to him as wife.

A Sri Lankan Navy Moggallana ruled the country religiously and cleansed the Sasana. Having been to India and brought soldiers from there, he knew only too well, the dangers that Lanka faced through hostile invasions by Indians. He was thus the first to think of instituting a guard for the sea coast- a Sri Lankan navy! But it did not last after his death. He died in 508 AD after a reign of eighteen years.

KING KUMARA DHATUSENA (508 - 516 AD) King Moggallana had a son called Kumara Dhatusena who was beautiful like a god. He succeeded his father and became a powerful king. A revision was made of the sacred texts, old temples were renovated, conferences were held and the sasana purified. He did a lot of good and pleased the people. He died after 9 years. The Pujavaliya states that from his childhood he was very friendly with Kalidasa, the son of the first Minister in his father’s court. When Kalidasa died, unable to bear the loss of his childhood friend, he flung himself on the funeral pyre and was burnt with him. The two graves are believed to be still found in Matara.

KING KITTISENA (516 - 517 AD) Kittisena the son of Kumara Dhatusena, was the next king. He followed his father in continuing the religious works. He ruled for nine months and was killed by Siva, his mother’s brother. In 25 days Siva was killed by Upatissa, a general and husband of the sister of Moggallen. KING UPATISSA II (517 - 518 AD) Upatissa won over the people. He had a son called Kassapa and a daughter whom he gave in marriage to Silakala, the son of Dathapabhati who earlier had been a bhikkhu. Upatissa was from the Lambakanna clan. His son Kassapa was a hero and had twelve heroic friends. He

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175 SL Histary Chap.36-44 was very pious and respected the aged. Silakala was now deluded with lust for power. Wanting to become king, he went to Mayarata and collected a large army. He robbed villages and marched with his army to the city. Prince Kassapa heard about this and came with his friends to meet Silakala., and defeated him, not once, but seven or eight times, but he did not give up. Silakala fled to the east, collected an army and came to the Tissa-Pahuwa to make battle. Kassapa thought, “The people are perishing because of these battles. The troops are weakened. I will take my blind father, the king, and my mother to a safe place in Mayarata, and later collect troops to fight the rebels.” In the night he took the royal treasures and set off to Mayarata with his parents. But his people lost their way. Silalaka came to know of this, and came with his troops and surrounded them. A fierce battle ensued. When Kassapa’s comrades and his elephant were killed in the battle, he committed suicide. When his old father heard about this, he died of grief, eighteen months after he became king. Thus Silakala his son-in-law became king.

KING SILAKALA (AMBASAMANERA) (518 - 531AD)

Silakala also referred to as Silameghavanna ruled for 13 years. He was a just king. Delicious food prepared for the king was served in the Mahapali for the poor. Revenue for hospitals was increased. Daily offerings were made at the Bodhi tree and the three robes presented to all bhikkhus in the island. He decreed the preservation of life for all creatures. He had three sons - Moggallana, Dathapabhuti, and Upatissa. The title of Adipadi was conferred on the eldest Moggallana, and he was given the eastern province. Dathapabhuti, the second son was given Mayarata, the Dakkinadesa and the sea coast. Upatissa the handsome youngest son, of whom he was very fond, was kept in the palace. In the twelfth year of his reign, a merchant coming from Kasipura (Benares) brought a book called ‘Dhammadhatu’. The king unaware that this was not the true doctrine of the Buddha, received it with ceremony. He reverenced it and organised a festival for it every year. It really contained the heretical doctrine of the Vaitulyans. Silakala died in 531 AD, after a reign of thirteen years..

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176 SL Histary Chap.36-44 KING DATHAPABHUTI (DAPULU SEN) (531 AD) When Silakala died, the second son Dathapabhuti seized the throne and had his younger brother, Upatissa, who was in the palace, murdered. This made Moggallana, the eldest brother very angry and he came with a large army to take back the throne that was due to him as the eldest, and to avenge the death of his younger brother. On hearing this Dathapabhuti came with an army and pitched camp in the Karinda mountain. Moggallana sent a message to him, “The people in this island have not failed in their duty to you or me. If one of us dies the government need not be divided. So others need not fight. We too alone will fight on our elephants”. Dathapabhuti agreed and came on his elephant like Mara coming to face Buddha. The two elephants rammed each other and their tusks crashed like thunder. Wounded by Moggallana’s elephant the king’s elephant, gave way. When Dathapabhuti saw this, he cut his throat though Moggallana reverently greeted him and besought him to stop. Dathapabhuti killed himself six- months after becoming king.

KING MOGGALLANA II (DALA MUGALAN) (531 - 551 AD)

Moggallana was known as Dala Mugalan or Cula Moggallan, since his mother’s brother was Moggallana I. He had poetic gifts and was an abode of virtues, like purity, generosity, self control and goodness. By friendly speech and by working for the good of others he won over the people. He held almsgivings, established viharas and gave gifts of medicine, clothing and protection, and won over the clergy. He gave abundantly to those who preached the Doctrine and had the Tripitakas and the Atthakatha recited. Young boys were lured with sweetmeats and instructed in the doctrine. A poem composed by him in praise of the good doctrine, was recited at the close of the sermon. The sacred texts were written and a solemn festival held. The Pattapasana, Dhanavapi and Garitara tanks were built by damming the Kadamba river (Malvatu Oya). He built the Padaviya and Naccaduva irrigation projects. Padaviya Tank which utilised waters from the Ma- Oya helped to extend irrigable land around Polonnaruwa. The country prospered economically. His father Silakala being from the Lambakanna clan and his mother being a daughter of Dhatusena of the Moriya clan, Moggallana II had the loyalty of both sides. He died after 20 years.

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177 SL Histary Chap.36-44 KING KITSIRIMEGHA (551 - 569 AD) The queen of Moggallana II poisoned the relatives of her husband and made her son Kitsirimegha the king, but carried on the government herself. The young king instituted alms for the poor and travellers. He tried to be useful, but his mother interfered in everything and the country fell into chaos. Royal officials and dignitaries all took bribes. The powerful terrorised the weak. Before this time, in the reign of Silakala, there lived in the village of Sangilla a scion of the Moriya clan, called Bhayasiva, who had a handsome son called Aggabodhi. His sister too had a tall son called Mahanaga, who gave up work in the fields and became a robber. During a famine a certain magician came to the village of Sangilla and because he had no food, he clad himself as a bhikkhu and went for alms. But he got nothing and was trembling with hunger. Mahanaga saw this and felt sorry. So he took the alms bowl and went begging but got nothing, till he gave his upper garment and obtained food. He gave this to the magician who was so grateful that he thought, “I will make him worthy of the kingdom.” He took Mahanaga to the beach at Trincomalee and seating himself on the sand, murmured an incantation and conjured up a snake. He asked Mahanaga to touch the snake. Mahanaga was afraid, but finally he touched it with three fingers. The magician then said, “My effort succeeds. You will war with three kings and slay the fourth and become king in your old age and reign for three years, and three people from your clan will then become kings after you. Go serve the king and later you will witness my power.” Mahanaga went to King Silakala and worked for him as a collector of revenue in Ruhuna. He did well and the king made him a Andhasenapati and sent him in charge of Ruhuna. He took with him to Ruhuna, his mother’s brother’s son, Aggabodhi, and his own sister’s son, also called Aggabodhi, and there raised a rebellion. He took all the revenue from Ruhuna. When Silakala died and Dhatupabhuti became king, he tried to wage war but came back to Ruhuna for fear of Moggallana II. He bided his time in Ruhuna and when he heard of the confusion and chaos in the country during Kittisirimegavan’s reign, he decided to seize the government.

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178 SL Histary Chap.36-44 KING MAHANAGA (569 - 571 AD) Mahanaga killed the young king Kitsirimevan and took over the country as King Mahanaga II. He sent for his sister’s son Agabodhi, but he died on the way. Then he sent for the son of his mother’s brother, who was also Aggabodhi and made him Uparaja. Many religious works were undertaken. Jambelambaya, the weaver’s village was given to Abhayagiri (Uttara vihara), the village of Tintinika to the Mahavihara and the village of Udhagama to Jetavana. Garments were gifted to bhikkhus of all three fraternities. Three hundred fields were given to the Jetavana and arrangements made to give a permanent dole of rice soup to the Mahavihara bhikkhus. The Mayura pirivena and other dilapidated buildings were repaired. He died after a reign of three years as was foretold, and the uparaja, his cousin Aggabodhi, succeeded him.

AGGABODHI I (571 - 604 AD) Aggabodhi I was a good king, upright in justice, virtuous, steadfast, impartial and generous like Vessantara. The dignity of Uparaja was conferred on his mother’s brother. He made his own brother, the Yuvaraja, and gave him Dakkhinadesa. He appointed his sister’s son Aggabodhi, as king of Malayarata, and gave him his daughter Data in marriage. Positions were given according to merit. By his heart winning qualities he won over the people. The Yuvaraja built the Sirivaddhamana tank and Girivihara tank for the bhikkhus. The king was responsible for irrigation schemes such as Kurundavapi and Minipe on the Mahaweli Ganga. Aggabodhi was a pious ruler who kept good company and did meritorious works. He built the Sirisamghabodhi Parivena. During his reign there were twelve famous poets who composed numerous poems of high merit in the idiom of the people in Sinhala. They were Dahami, Temal, Babiri, Bisodala, Anurut, Dalagot, Puravadu, Dasala, Kasub, Kitsiri, Kota and Apa. A splendid pasada was built for the Dakkhina vihara. The Kurundu Vihara and the Kurundu tank, (identified as the Giants Tank near Mannar), were constructed and donated to the bhikkhus. The Ambilapassava vihara for Theravada bhikkhus and Sumanapabbata vihara in Kelivata were also constructed by him. Beside the Bodhi tree a large oil pit was made for receiving oil for festive illuminations. The Lovamaha

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179 SL Histary Chap.36-44 paya was restored and at its dedication the three garments were donated to thirty-six thousand bhikkhus. Aggabodhi piously followed the instructions of the bhikkhu Dathasiva and looked after him. Dathasiva probably had a position in court like the purohita in India - which perhaps was the beginning of the influence bhikkhus wielded over the government of Lanka. The Mahanaga Vihara was built to give merit to his cousin, King Mahanaga and presented to Thera Dathasiva, who was well versed in the Tripitakas. But the bhikkhu who no longer cared for these, gave it over to sixty-four meditative and ascetic bhikkhus. The Bhinnorudipa Vihara and halls for the Uposatha festival in the Kalavapi, Dakkhinagiridalha and Mahanagapabbata viharas were constructed. In Abhayagiri Vihara a large bathing tank was built and a permanent water supply provided for the Nagapokuna tank on Cetiyapabbata. At Mihintale the Mahindata tank was constructed and an image of Arahant Mahinda erected. The Mahathupa was presented with a gold umbrella weighing 1,700 kilograms, (over one ton). A golden reliquary was made for the Tooth relic and a canoe of bronze for the Pali Hall. He built the Mahamekhala bund and conducted a great canal from the Minneriya Tank. At this time the adherents of the Vaitulyan (Mahayana) sect living at Abhayagiri were defeated in a controversy by the great Thera Jotipala of the Theravada sect. One of those who lost, the Adipada Dathapabuti, felt ashamed and raised his hand to strike the Thera. His hand got ulcerated and he died of it soon after. But the king was pleased with Jotipala and assigned him a place in the Abhayagiri where the controversy took place, and charged his sister’s son with the protection of the Thera. Aggabodhi is believed to have defended the country against a foreign invasion, probably by a Pallava ruler. The king died in 604 AD after a rule of thirty four years and his Uparaja became king as Aggabodhi II.

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180 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 35

THE EIGHT KINGS (604 - 650 AD)

KING AGGABODHI II (KUDA AGGABODHI 604 - 611) Aggabodhi II took Samghabadda, the daughter of his maternal uncle as his Mahesi. He was a just king. Offices was given accordiing to merit. The Veluvana Vihara was built for the Sagali sect. Around this time the Prince of Kalinga, disturbed by seeing the killings at war in his country, came over to Lanka and underwent the ceremony of renunciation under Thera Jotipala. The king built for him a practising house in Mattapabbata vihara. Soon after this, the mahesi (queen) of this king and a minister also came from Kalinga, and underwent the ceremony of renunciation. Aggabodhi’s queen heard about this and built the Ratana vihara for the queen from Kalinga. When the royal thera died, Aggabodhi wept for him and performed many meritorious works in his name. It is stated that one day when Jotipala was performing devotions in front of the cetiya at Thuparama, a piece of masonry loosened and fell near his feet. He reported this to the king who was very upset about it. The Collar-bone relic from the Thuparama was removed and kept under guard at the Lovamaha paya. When the repairs to the roof were getting delayed, the king dreamt that the devas came to him and said, “If the king hesitates to rebuild the shrine, we will take the relic elswhere.” The king awoke extremely worried and had the repairs carried out immediately. He also had four images and thrones of stone, a golden umbrella and works of stone and ivory made for the shrine. The relic was brought from the Lovamaha paya back to the Thuparama in festive procession by Grand Thera Jotipala and other bhikkhus. The king dedicated himself and the whole island to the relic Shrine. The Unnalomaghara temple at Rajayatana Dhatu vihara was built in Nagadipa in the north of Lanka. The Dathaggabodhi house was built in

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181 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Abhayagiri giving it his name and that of his queen and the village of Anganasalaka was granted to it The queen built the Kapalanaga vihara and gave it to the same monastery. In the Jetavanarama, a building with a glittering crowning ornament was erected. Thirteen tanks were built. The Mahapali was enlarged and a canoe set up to receive gifts of rice. He built the Gantala reservoir. Aggabodhi died after ten years. SAMGHATISSA II (614 AD)

Samghatissa the sword bearer of Aggabodhi became the next king. He probably may have been a younger brother of either Aggabodhi II or his queen. Samghatissa was a righteous king and won the goodwill of his people. A general of Aggabodhi II, named Moggallana, who lived in Ruhuna decided to make war. King Samghatissa’s troops were defeated. Moggallana took his troops to Rattivihara and the king’s troops fought them once again, and this time the king’s army won. Moggallana restored his army and marched to Rahera mountain. This time the Senapati (General) feigned illness and sent his son in his place. Food was in short supply and even the king and the troops had to curtail their food. Hence the king felt that it would be better to finish the war before conditions got worse. So he went with his son to war. Mounted on his elephant he accompanied his army to Pacinatissapabbata. When they were involved in the battle, the crafty Senapati who was supposed to be sick, came with his troops and attacked the king’s army from behind. The king’s son wanted to slay him but the king stopped him. During the battle, the king’s umbrella struck a branch of a tree and fell to the ground. Thereupon Moggallana’s men picked the umbrella and gave it to him and he raised it, declaring himself king. Samghatissa finding his people rallying round Moggallana, got off his elephant and fled into the Merumajjara forest with his son, and a faithful minister. Thus the general became king as Moggallana III.

MOGGALLANA III (614 - 619 AD) Moggallana III took the treacherous Senapati and his son and entered Anuradhapura as king of Lanka. But he was not happy knowing that Samghatissa was alive. When he heard that one of the former king’s

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182 SL Histary Chap.36-44 sons was in Anuradhapura, he sent a servant to cut off his hands and feet. When the man came to cut off his limbs, the prince wept, “How can I eat if my hands are cut off.” The servant felt sorry and wept himself. But as he was obliged to carry out the king’s orders, he cut off his left hand and foot. Another of Samghatissa’s sons, Jettatissa, ran away to Malayarata. When Samghatissa with his son and the minister reached Veluvana, the bhikkhus advised them to disguise themselves in robes. But when they reached Mihintale, Moggallana’s people recognised them and caught and bound them. When Moggallana was informed, he ordered that they be taken to Sigiriya, and there the king and his son be beheaded and the minister brought to him alive. As they were brought to Sigiriya, the king’s son said, “Do me the favour of cutting off my head, first.” They beheaded the son, and then the king. The minister was told that he would be taken to Moggallana. He laughed. “While I was alive, I saw my master beheaded. Shall I alas serve another besides him? After you have slain him, will you also take from him his shadow? Alas, ignorant are you, and deluded!” So saying he held the king’s feet and lay down besides him. The soldiers then cut off his head too, and took the three heads to Moggallana. The treacherous Senapati was made the king of Malayarata, and his son was made sword-bearer. Moggallana held great festivals throughout the island for the three thupas and made offerings to the Hair and Tooth Relics, and the Bodhi tree. He built the Moggallana, Pitthigama and Vatagama viharas. But for some reason the king became displeased with the Senapati who was king of Malayarata, and recollected his shameful conduct towards the former king. He ordered the Malayaraja’s hands and feet be cut off. When the Malayaraja’s son, the sword bearer heard this he fled to Ruhuna with his son. He sought out Jettatissa, son of King Samghatissa, who was hiding in Malayarata, and together with him conquered the province of . On hearing this, Moggallana came with his army, but most of his men suffered fever and died. The sword-bearer fought the king’s weakened army. Moggallana fled, but was overtaken and killed by the sword-bearer. Messages were sent offering the throne to Jettatissa. Knowing this was a ruse to kill him, Jettatissa went to Malayarata.

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183 SL Histary Chap.36-44 SILAMEGHAVANNA (ASSIGAHAKA) (619 - 628 AD) The sword bearer, the son of the shameful Senapati, ruled in Anuradhapura as King Silameghavanna. Sacrifices were made to the three thupas. The Mahapali was enlarged. During a famine he dispensed milk-rice made with butter and syrup to the bhikkhus. He gave generously to the poor, travellers and beggars. The Abhayagiri vihara was restored and the temple decorated with precious stones. Meanwhile a general named Srinaga, who was Jettatissa’s mother’s brother went to India and came with a Damila army and began to take possession of Uttaradesa (northern province). When Silamegavanna heard this, he met him in battle and defeated him. The Damilas who were captured were humiliated and given to the viharas, as slaves. A young bhikkhu named Bodhi from the Abhayagiri vihara who had seen many undisciplined bhikkhus, requested the king to proclaim a regulative act to expell all undisciplined bhikkhus from the clergy. The king acted accordingly. The bhikkhus who were expelled got together and killed Bodhi and annulled the act. When the king heard this, he seized all those bhikkhus and punished them by cutting off their hands and making them guardians of the bathing tanks. Others he banished to India. The king invited the Theravada bhikkhus to celibrate the Uposatha festival with those left in Abhayagiri. The Theravada bhikkhus refused. He got so angry that he abused them. Soon after Silamegavanna went to Dakkhinadesa where he fell ill and died suddenly in 628 AD. KING AGGABODHI III (SIRISAMGHABODHI) (628 AD) Silameghavanna’s eldest son became king as Aggabodhi III. Mana, his younger brother was made Uparaja and given charge of Dakkhinadesa. Aggabodhi ruled the country justly and respected the Sangha. Jettatissa who was in Malayarata collected a powerful army and came up to Arittha mountain in Ritigala. He won over the southern and eastern districts and gradually marched towards the capital. Dathasiva, his minister was sent to occupy the western territory while he himself took up a position in Siripitthi. The king on hearing this, sent an army to the western territory but Jettatissa’s army defeated the king’s army. Aggabodhi mounted his elephant and fled in disguise. He took ship and went to India. This was six months after he became king. Jettatissa now became king.

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184 SL Histary Chap.36-44 KING JETTATISSA III (628 AD) As king, Jettatissa fulfilled all his obligations to the Sangha. Villages were donated to the Abhayagiri, Mahavihara, Jetavana and to many other viharas for their maintenance. Aggabodhi III who was in India had his people stirring up rebellions here and there in Lanka. He came back from India with a large army of Damilas. Jettatissa fought and killed many of them, but when he felt he was losing the battle, he told his Minister, “Go to the Queen and tell her, forsake the world, recite the sacred texts and learn the Abidhamma and transfer merit to the King.” After giving this message, the king drew his dagger and cut his throat. This was only five months after he became king. The Minister took the message to Jettatissa’s queen. With her, he too decided to renounce the world. One day on a later occasion, the queen asked the minister how the king died. The minister took a knife to demonstrate how the king committed suicide, and he cut his own throat and died. Seeing this the queen too died of grief. KING AGGABODHI III (RESTORED) (629 - 639AD) KING DATHOPATISSA I (639 - 650 AD) Now Aggabodhi was back on the throne. His brother Mana who had committed an offence in the women’s apartment was put to death by palace officials, and the king’s youngest brother was made uparaja. Dathasiva, the minister of Jettatissa, heard of the death of Mana and came with a large army of Damilas and defeated the king’s army. Once again Aggabodhi fled to India, in the twelfth year of his reign. Dathasiva became king, as Dathopatissa. Aggabodhi III came back from India. There were constant battles between Aggabodhi and Dathopatissa, each gaining the kingdom from time to time, and the people suffered. Dathopatissa broke open the relic chambers of temples and seized what was in them. Golden images were broken, and the gold robbed. He took the gold crowning ornament in the Thuparama and smashed the umbrella on the cetiya, which was studded with costly gems. The canoes in the Mahapali were left to the Damilas who burnt down the palace and the Relic Temple. Later he repented his wrongs and built the Sakavatthu vihara. His sister’s son the Mahadipada, also known as Ratanadatha supported the king with his income. Aggabodhi was once again defeated, in the twelfth year of his reign,

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185 SL Histary Chap.36-44 by Dathopatissa, and he fled to Rohana, to restore his army, but he died there of an illness in the sixteenth year of his reign. CHAPTER 36

FIVE KINGS OF LANKA (650-718 AD)

KASSAPA II (650 - 659 AD) Kassapa, younger brother of Aggabodhi, who was also known as Pasulu Kasubu, became king by defeating Dathopatissa, who then fled to India. He repented of what he had done to the treasures in the ancient viharas, and united the whole country. The sacred texts were recited by arahant bhikkhus. In the Mirisavetiya, a massive pasada was built for the Grand Thera of Nagasala, and he was invited to recite the Abhidhamma with the commentary. Dathopatissa came back from India with a large army but Kassapa defeated him and killed him in the twelfth year of his reign. Dathopatissa’s sister’s son Hatthadatha fled in fear to India. Kassapa II gave an excellent repast to the Sangha in the Mahapali. The ascetic Mahadhammakathin who lived in Nagasala was honoured and induced to recite the doctrine. He had the sacred texts written down with a short summary. Dilapidated buildings were restored and new works undertaken on the cetiyas. Three diadem jewels wrought with glittering precious stones were made for the three cetiyas. Garments were offered to bhikkhus. Kassapa had three little sons, the eldest of whom was Manaka. When he was ill, he sent for his sister’s son Mana, who lived in Ruhuna and handed over the whole government and his children to him. Kassapa died in the ninth year of his reign. Mana piously fulfilled the obigations handed over to him by his uncle, won the goodwill of the people, and had the Damilas expelled. But the Damilas who had been brought by Dathopatissa from South India as mercenaries, banded themselves together, and when Mana was away, they seized the town and sent a message to

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186 SL Histary Chap.36-44 Hatthadatha, who was in India to come over and take the throne.

KING DAPPULA I Mana hastily got down his father Dappula, the king of Ruhuna, and together they conspired to make a mock treaty with the Damilas. The Damilas agreed and his father was consecrated as Dappula I. Dappula gave lavishly to the three fraternities of bhikkhus and won them over. He sent the valuables to Ruhuna for security from enemies. THE STORY OF THE FAMILY OF DAPPULA Dappula was the son of Mahatissa of the Okkaka clan, who was rich in merit, and a wealthy and virtuous lady named Samghasiva, the daughter of the ruler of Ruhuna. She had three sons - Aggabodhi, Dappula and Manakkhika and one daughter. The eldest, Aggabodhi, was an independent king of Ruhuna. He built the Mahapali Hall and in Mahagama, the Datthaggabodhi parivena. Hospitals for the blind and sick, a large image house in Patima Vihara, the Salavana and Parivena Viharas and Kataragama Vihara in Tissamaharama were built by him. When he died his brother Dappula became king of Ruhuna. The people were very happy with him and called him “Great Lord.” When Siladatha (Silameghavanna) who ruled in Anuradhapura heard about him, he gave his daughter in marriage to Dappula and made him Yuvaraja. Thus Dappula married the sister of Kassapa II, and had three sons of whom Mana (Manavamma) was one.

KING DATHOPATISSA II (HATHADATHA) (659 - 667 AD) Hatthadatha the son of the sister of Dathopatissa I came from India with a large army of Damila mercenaries. Mana felt it was not the time to fight. He sent his father, King Dappula back to Ruhuna. He himself went to the eastern province. So Hathadattha became king in Anuradhapura as Dathopatissa II and his paternal uncle’s son Aggabodhi was made Yuvaraja and given Dakkhinadesa. Mana collected a large army in the eastern province. Together with troops from King Dappula, he went forth to fight Dathopatissa. There was a great battle and Mana was killed. His father Dappula I on hearing of this, died of grief in the third year of his reign. Dathopatissa gave honourable offices according to merit. The Kappuru

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187 SL Histary Chap.36-44 parivena and Tiputthula vihara were built in the Abhayagiri vihara. Mahavihara bhikkhus tried to stop it because it was in their property but he did it by force. The bhikkhus protested by refusing to take alms from him. The Buddha has said, “If an unbelieving layman thinks to lessen the income of bhikkhus or taunts them, the turning down of the alms bowl is to be applied” This annoyed the public and they decided not to give alms to these bhikkhus. Around this time King Dathopatissa II was smitten with a disease and died in the ninth year of his reign. AGGABODHI IV SIRI SANGHABODHI (667-683 AD) When Dathopatissa died, his younger brother Aggabodhi became King Aggabodhi IV (Sirisanghabodhi). He carried out many meritorious works and enlarged the Mahapali. He decreed the keeping of the command, not to kill. Offices were bestowed according to merit. Bhikkhus were honoured and scriptures recited. He visited Thera Datha- siva who was knowledgeable and virtuous, and built a practising house for him. Several villages were granted to it, and his own kinsmen were placed as helpers at the disposal of the vihara. Aggabodhi built many viharas and his ministers, even Damila ministers did likewise. “What he who is master does, evil or good, the same is done by his subjects.” The Damila Potthakutta, a minister, erected the practising house called Madbiyan Parivena. The chief queen named Jettha built the Jettharama for bhikkunis. The wealthy king of Malayarata provided a costly relic house for the cetiya at Mandalagiri vihara. Aggabodhi went to Polonnaruwa and continued his meritorious works. While there, he became ill with a disease that could not be cured. He called his subjects and exhorted them to be pious. When he died in the sixteenth year of his reign, the whole country mourned in deep grief. The people loved him so much that they made medicines out of the ashes from his funeral pyre. After his cremation the people took the royal treasures back to Anuradhapura. The Damila Potthakuttha then administered the kingdom. He had the Uparaja Dathasiva thrown into prison. Soon he realised that a king was needed. So he had a man named Datta, the chief of Dhanapitta, who was from the royal family consecrated king, while he continued to administer the country. Datta died after two years. He then consecrated

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188 SL Histary Chap.36-44 another young man called Hatthadatta, as king. This king was killed by Manavamma after six months. THE STORY OF MANAVAMMA Prince Manavamma or Manaka was one of the sons of Kassapa II who died in 659 AD, leaving his children and kingdom in the hands of his nephew, Mana, son of Dappula I. Manavamma married Samgha, the daughter of Samghamana, the king of Malayarata and went to live in Uttaradesa, (the northern province). Dathopatissa II (also known as Hatthadatta 659-667) was king of Lanka. In fear of the king, Manavamma went to India, where he met the Pallava ruler, King Narasiha, of Kanduvetti and offered to work under him. The king was very happy with him and came to trust him as a valued friend. Later Manavamma got down his wife Samgha to India, and they had four daughters and four sons. While Manavamma was living in India, the Vallabha king from south India made war on Narasiha. Narasiha thought, “Manavamma my friend serves me well. If he were to fight for me and dies, all he and I have planned will not come to pass.” Similarly Manavamma thought, “If this king goes to battle and dies while I live, what value is my life to me? Further he would lose his trust in me.” Thinking thus, he went out on his favourite elephant and joined the army. Narasiha was overjoyed. The two armies led by the king and Manavamma routed the army of Vallabha, put them to chase and went back to their city. They had great celebrations. Narasiha said “It is you who brought me victory.” and honoured Manavamma for his bravery. Narasiha thought, “This man has done so much for me, I must now discharge my debt to him, for grateful people who remember what has been done for them, are very hard to find.” He summoned all his dignitaries and said, “You are witnesses of this man’s deeds. Now I must also show him love and kindness which are his due. A return service for him is the duty of the pious”. The people said, “We accept what the king decides.” King Narasiha then prepared an army with all the necessary equipment for Manavamma to make war on King Dathopatissa II who was ruler of Lanka. King Narasiha himself came to see Manavamma and his men set off in their ships on the journey to Lanka. When they arrived in Lanka, Dathopatissa heard the news and fled. Instead of

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189 SL Histary Chap.36-44 taking over the sovereignty, Manavamma pursued Dathopatissa. At this time the Indian army had heard that King Narasiha was smitten with a deadly disease. So they deserted Manavamma and returned to India. Dathopatissa heard this and came with a large force. Manavamma finding his men had left, fled to India and lived there through the reigns of the next three kings of Lanka - Aggabodhi IV (667-683); Datta (683) and Hattadattha II (684). Then Narasiha thought, “What is the use of my life, if I do not help this friend to gain his kingdom.” So he collected a large army, and gave them money and ships and asked them to go to Lanka with Manavamma. But they refused. To overcome this problem, Narasiha exchanged his armour and clothes with Manavamma, and hid himself from the people and said, “When you embark, have this drum sounded.” The people on hearing the drum, thought that the king was in the ship, and they all went aboard. The whole ocean was like a floating island. Having reached Lanka, Manavamma and his people captured Uttaradesa. Potthakuttha who adminstered Lanka on behalf of the King Hatthadatta heard this and came with a large army. A fierce battle ensued. Both Hatthadatta and Potthakutta fled. The people saw the king fleeing and cut off his head and took it to Manavamma. Pottakutta fled to Merukandara in Malayarata. KING MANAVAMMA (684 - 718 AD) Manavamma, a Lambakanna ruled without enemies. He was a just ruler who did many meritorious deeds. His total period of stay in India and his rule in Lanka was a total of 35 years. He built a pasada in the Thuparama and gave it to those ascetic bhikkhus called Pamsukulins. (This name was given to bhikkhus who wore only clothes made of rags patched together). His son Aggabodhi V succeeded him in 718 AD. [The ancient manuscripts are reported to have been found damaged at this point on the records. (Footnote Culawamsa)]

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190 SL Histary Chap.36-44 CHAPTER 37

SEVEN KINGS 718 - 801 AD

AGGABODHI V (718 - 724) Aggabodhi V (son of Manavamma) built a pasada in the Thuparama and restored many religious buildings. He gave the Rajinidipaka vihara to the Dharmaruci sect. Twenty-six thousand gold pieces were spent to repair decaying buildings in the cetiyapabbata. Old Viharas were repaired and new ones built. The people were given what they needed. The king observed the Poya days with fasting with the people and preached the doctrine in order to obtain spiritual happiness, constantly exhorting the people to live good lives. The employment of officials in wrong places, undeserved favour or unlawful actions were unknown to him. The people did good works, for "as the monarch acts, so do his subjects." He ruled for six years. KING KASSAPA III (SULU KASUBU) (724 - 730 AD) Kassapa III younger brother of Aggabodhi now became king. He too was generous, friendly and cared for his people. He commanded that no living creature should be killed. He ruled for seven years. (PRINCE) MAHINDA I (730 - 733 AD) Kassapa was followed by the youngest brother Mahinda. He had lost his close friend Nila and in memory of him he refused to be crowned, although he continued to rule. He conferred the post of Uparaja on Aggabodhi, the son of his brother Kassapa III, and gave him the Paccinadessa (eastern province). To his own son, also named Aggabodhi, he gave Dakkhinadesa, but he continued as Adipada Mahinda. Large amounts of food were sent to the Mahapali and he did not eat till the poor had been fed. He built a convent for the bhikkhunis and gave them the village of Nagaragalla. The Mahindatata monastery was built by him. The Mahindatata tank in honour of Arahant Mahinda had been built by Aggabodhi I. Prince Mahinda died after a reign of three years.

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191 SL Histary Chap.45-54 KING AGGABODHI VI (SILAMEGHA) (733 - 772 AD) Prince Mahinda’s own son Aggabodhi, governor of Dakkhinadesa, happened to be in the city when Mahinda died. He took the throne but sent a message to Uparaja Aggabodhi, son of his father’s elder brother Kassapa III, who was governor of Paccinadesa (eastern province) to take over the kingdom, as legal heir to the throne according to Sinhala law. Thus Aggabodhi, son of Kassapa III became king of Lanka as Aggabodhi V1 or Silamegha. He made his cousin Prince Aggabodhi, son of the former king, Prince Mahinda, the Uparaja. The two cousins were very friendly. Prince Aggabodhi advised the king to free himself from the burdens of the state, and enjoy himself while he as Uparaja adminstered the government on his behalf. Uparaja Prince Aggabodhi treated his subjects with severity and clemency as required. The people were made more disciplined, and they got on very well. Soon evil minded people whispered to the king, “Thou art the king in name. The Uparaja is taking all the royal dignity for himself. Soon he may become king.” This made the king fall out with the prince. When the prince noticed this he went away to his province Dakkhinadesa, and became a rebel. He came with a large army and bitter fighting took place. The prince lost and fled to Malayarata. The king then remembered with gratitude how his cousin Prince Aggabodhi had helped him, even sending for him and giving the throne to him, when he could have easily taken it himself! So he decided to be reconciled with the prince. The king went to Malayarata and met the Prince and brought him to Anuradhapura, and gave him his daughter Samgha in marriage. One day the Prince in anger struck her a blow. She went crying to her father, saying, ‘the husband you gave me’, beat her without reason. The king sent her to a home for bhikkhunis and made her a nun. Her maternal uncle’s son, also called Aggabodhi who had been in love with her, took her from the nunnery and went to Ruhuna. When the king heard this he went with Prince Aggabodhi to slay the seducer. With his army the Prince succeeded in bringing Ruhuna under his control and got back his wife. Thereafter they lived happily. Aggabodhi VI built the Vaparani and Managgabodhi monasteries and many pasadas in various places. Having done many meritorious deeds for forty years, King Aggabodhi V1 (Silamega) died, leaving the kingdom to Prince Aggabodhi.

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192 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Mahinda the son of Aggabodhi V1 who was his senapati did not want to take the kingdom due to Aggabodhi, son of Mahinda I. Instead he went to the seaport of Mahatittha (Mannar) on duty. Aggabodhi son of (Prince) Mahinda I became King Aggabodhi VII.

KING AGGABODHI VII (772 - 777) Aggabodhi made his own son Mahinda, his Uparaja. (But this Mahinda died soon after). He built two monasteries, Kalanda and Mallavata. He reformed the order of the Sangha through legislation. He studied medicinal plants all over the island to find their value in the treatment of diseases. Rice and food were distributed to the three fraternities of monks. While sojourning in Polonnaruwa he died in the sixth year of his reign.

KING MAHINDA II (777 - 797) Mahinda son of Silamega Aggabodhi VI who was at Mahatittha hearing the death of his uncle came quickly to take over the kingdom. But the chiefs from Uttaradesa got together and seized the land by force and refused tribute to the king. Mahinda came with a great army and crushed all the chiefs and became king as Mahinda II. He went and comforted his uncle’s Queen, and told her she could retain her royal dignity. But he soon found out that she was trying to have him killed. So he had her brought to the city in a chariot and made her his consort. They had one son who was made Uparaja. At this time Dappula, son of King Silamega’s sister, who was an Adipada and had a large army at his disposal, decided to make war on the capital. But Mahinda was able to defeat Dappula’s army and Dappula fled to the mountains. Dappula tried once more to fight the king. He came with the sons of his two sisters, but lost again. Mahinda addressing his troops said, “Three king’s sons have come to our town like a great force. What must we do?” They replied, “We must not flinch from love of life.” Mahinda was able to fight the enemies. Dappula fled, but the two princes were taken captive. The king then sent his army to subdue Paccinadesa (Eastern Province) and Uttaradesa (Northern Province). But after some time the Adipadas in the Eastern Province got together with Dappula and started an insurrection. This time the king sent his army which killed the two Adipadas. Again Dappula fled.

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193 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Dappula now raised an army in Ruhuna. The king summoned all the bhikkhus and wise men of the island and discussed what was best to do. After that a large army was sent to Ratnapura area which laid waste the whole country-side. This made the people yield in fear. The king now made a treaty with Dappula. Dappula was to remain in Ruhuna. Thereafter Mahinda II brought the whole island under his control and ruled from his capital Anuradhapura. The king ruled justly. Many viharas were built. At Abhayagiri he erected the Mahalekha parivena. At a cost of three-hundred thousand kahapanas, the many storeyed Ratanapasada was built with a Buddha image made of pure gold. A magnificent ceremony was held at which he dedicated the whole kingdom to the Buddha. A Bodhisatta statue of silver was made for the Silamega home for Bhikkhunis. Mahinda had the Abhidhamma recited by the Grand Thera living in Hemasali Vihara. Gifts were given in secrecy to the poor who were ashamed to beg. To the Tamils who would not take cattle he gave horses. His son by the Queen consort, who was Uparaja, died young. But he had by a former marriage, another son called Udaya, whom he had made a Senapati, and had fought bravely in the war against Dappula. This son was made Uparaja and he succeeded him as Udaya I when Mahinda II died after a reign of twenty years.

UDAYA I (797 - 801) Udaya I in some books is referred to as Dappula. He won over the people by being just. He and his Mahesi, Queen Sena had many children. The eldest son he made the yuvaraja, and the other sons were made adipadas and the daughters were made queens. Once when the king was at Minneriya, he heard of a rebellion in the borderland. He sent a Senapati and his son, to quell it. These two, father and son were swayed by people to become rebels. When the king heard this he went with his army to the north and killed the rebels, took their belongings, and went to Polonnaruwa. At this time there was in Ruhuna, a nobleman named Mahinda who was the son of adipada Dathasiva who administered the revenue. Mahinda fell out with his father and came to the king. He worked for the king and they became friends. King Udaya gave him his daughter, Deva in marriage and sent him to Ruhuna. Mahinda with the help of the army, drove out his father to India, and took control of Ruhuna.

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194 SL Histary Chap.45-54 King Udaya I repaired damaged temples, built viharas and large halls for the sick in Polonnaruwa and in Padaviya, and provided them with maintenance villages. Halls were built for cripples and the blind in different places. A fine solid house for distribution of food was set up in the Mahavihara in Anuradhapura.

KEEPING OF RECORDS BY THE KING Judgments which were just, were recorded in books and kept in the Royal Palace for security, to prevent violation of justice. This appears to be the first instance of such judgements being recorded. Almsgivings that his father had started were maintained. His queen too built the Katthakacetiya on Cetiya mountain and the Jayasena- pabbata which she gave to the Tamil bhikkhus, and a home called Silamegha for bhikkhunis. The ruined Giribhanda Vihara in Mihintale was restored. The dwelling house called Dappulapabbata in Ambuyyana Vihara was built and given over with all the four necessities to three hundred bhikkhus. At Nilagalla, a beautiful monastery was built with a canal, which made the land fruitful. To the deeply learned bhikkhus, bronze almsbowls were given. He had the sacred texts recited. To widowed women he gave ornaments and food, and food to children, animals and birds. Udaya died after five years of meritorious work. His son Mahinda succeeded him as Mahinda III.

“Vigilance is the path to deathlessness. The vigilant do not die. The negligent are as if already dead.”

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195 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 38

SEVENTEEN KINGS 801 - 982 AD

KING MAHINDA III (801 - 804 AD) Udaya’s son now became King Mahinda III. He was a very good king, “equipped with excellence of every kind, and hence was known as Dhammika Silamegha.” He was “a light of the true doctrine, a banner of the doctrine to whom the true doctrine was the highest”. Having done many meritorious deeds he died after four years. His brother Aggabodhi succeeded him.

KING AGGABODHI VIII (804 - 815) Aggabodhi another son of Udaya became the next king. He built the Udayaggabodhi Parivena using his own and his father’s names. He forbad the bringing of fish, meat or intoxicants to the city on Uposatha days (Poya days). His mother was looked after by him, with a lot of love and respect. She was washed, her limbs rubbed with oil and he worshipped her with flowers, making obeisance three times. He gave lavish gifts to the servants who looked after her. He made his mother offer his own person to the bhikkhus, and then paid a large sum of money to free himself. Once he addressed a slave as 'slave’. To make up for it, he let the slave use the same word on himself. He ruled for eleven years. DAPPULA II (815 - 831) Aggabodhi’s younger brother Dappula, another son of Udaya now became King Dappula II. Like former kings, he carried out meritorious acts. At this time, Mahinda who was married to Dappula’s sister Deva, was ruling in Ruhuna. His two sons, Kittabodhi and Dappula, driven out of Ruhuna by their father, came to their maternal uncle King Dappula, in Anuradhapura and complained. The king gave them a strong force to fight their father, but they were unsuccessful and had to

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196 SL Histary Chap.45-54 come back to Anuradhapura. However their father Mahinda went to war with another kinsman and lost his life. King Dappula gave his daughter Deva in marriage to Prince Kittaggabodhi, who became ruler in Ruhuna, while his younger brother Dappula continued in the service of the king. The king had the temple of the Bodhi tree renovated and gilded. The ruined pasada at the Hatthikucchi Vihara, the Vahadipa monastery and the Lavaravapabbata Vihara were rebuilt. At the Jeta Vihara, a gold image of the Buddha was installed and a splendid festival held. The Mahapali Hall was enlarged and rice to the weight of his body, was given away. The king had the thupa of the Thuparama temple covered with golden bricks, and doors of gold installed. His Senapathi Vajira built the Kachchawala monastery. Dappula died after a reign of sixteen years. His son Aggabodhi succeeded him.

AGGABODHI IX (831 - 833) Aggabodhi IX personally supervised the adminstration of the three monastic fraternities of bhikkhus, and attempted to prevent crime throughout the island. The bhikkhus in the smaller viharas who formerly had to come to the Mahavihara for their alms, were given their alms in their own viharas. For this purpose villages were granted to the small viharas. Lavish alms were given to beggars. He died after three years, leaving four younger brothers, Sena, Mahinda, Kassapa and Udaya.

SENA I (833 - 853) His brother Sena, became the next king as Sena I. He continued the traditions left by previous kings and fulfilled his duty to bhikkhus, bhikkhunis and his people, and showed kindness to all animals and birds. The elder brother Mahinda was made Yuvaraja, and the other two brothers Kassapa and Udaya were made Adipadas. Sena’s consort was Queen Samgha. Mahinda, the son of the brother of King Dappula, disappointed at having lost succession to the throne, had by this time gone to India. Sena arranged to have him killed by agents. (An anticlimax after the last paragraph which says he showed kindness to animals and birds!) During this time, Srimara, the Pandu king invaded the island and laid waste the whole of Uttaradesa (northern Province). The Damilas who were in Lanka, joined the Pandu king’s army. Sena taking with him all

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197 SL Histary Chap.45-54 the treasures of the kingdom, escaped to Malayarata. Yuvaraja Mahinda went on his elephant to battle but seeing he was helpless, committed suicide. Many of his people did the same. The other brother Kassapa too joined in the war. He forced the Damila army to retreat. But he found his men were afraid. So he retreated. The Pandu king took away all the treasures of the city. The gems that were set as eyes on the golden Buddha statue in the Ratanapasada, the gold plates on the cetiya, the gold images in viharas, and everything of value he could find was plundered, just as invaders from India had done in previous times. The Pandu king then sent messengers to make a treaty with King Sena. Sena agreed to everything the Pandu king wanted, and in addition gave him many valuable gifts. This made the Pandu king decide to go back to India, that very day, taking all he robbed from temples and palaces. Sena’s brother Kassapa was slain in Polonnaruwa by the Pandu king. Kassapa had four able sons. The eldest Sena was a hero. The king appointed this nephew, Sena, as Mahadipada and put him in charge of Dakkhinadesa. Kittaggabodhi, the ruler of Ruhuna at this time, had four sons and three charming daughters. Their paternal aunt murdered Mahinda, the eldest of these, and took the Ruhuna kingdom to herself. The other three sons, Kassapa, Sena and Udaya took their three sisters, Samgha, Tissa and Kitti, and came to King Sena in Anuradhapura. The king brought them up with love and care in the Royal household. The king sent Kassapa, the eldest of these three brothers with forces, saying, “Take these forces and go back and take possession of your country”. He did that, slew his paternal aunt and ruled Ruhuna. The three girls meanwhile grew up to become beautiful and gifted women. Samgha was given in marriage to Uparaja Sena (son of Kassapa), and Tissa and Kitti were given to Mahinda, younger brother of Sena. A monastery was built on the Arittha (Ritigala) mountains and endowed with large revenues. At Jetavana he built a pasada of several storeys and had a gold image of Buddha installed. The pasada on the Mahaparivena which had been destroyed by fire was rebuilt. Together with his consort Queen Samgha, Sena built the dwelling house Samghasena in the Mahavihara. For the hair relic, a reliquary of pure gold was made and a festival was held. The three garments were given to all bhikkhus in the island. In Polonnaruwa, he built the Thusavapi tank and a large eating house where good food was distributed. Halls were built for the sick and food given to the destitute. For the

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198 SL Histary Chap.45-54 bhikkhus, Queen Samgha built a dwelling house called Mahindasena in the Abhayagiri Vihara. His ministers built many dwelling houses such as Dappulapabbhata Kassaparajaka Uttarasena and Vajirasenaka viharas. King Sena 1 died after a reign of twenty years while in Polonnaruwa, inspecting the damage done by the Pandu king.

KING SENA II (853 - 887 AD) His brother Kassapa’s son Mahadipada Sena, and his consort Samgha were consecrated king and queen. Sena II was pious, heroic, generous and impartial. He made his younger brother Mahinda, his uparaja, and sent him to Dakkinadesa. But Mahinda having been caught misbehaving, took his family and disappeared to Malayarata before he was punished. Queen Samgha had a son who was named Kassapa. On his name- giving day the baby was consecrated as Uparaja. His brother Mahinda meanwhile repented for his behaviour and was accepted by the king.

THE SINHALESE INVADE PANDU One day during a festival held for the Tooth Relic, Sena II ascended the Ratanapasada and saw the pedestal of the Buddha image empty. On questioning his councillors, he heard how the Pandu king in the time of his uncle Sena I had plundered the temples of Lanka. He felt ashamed, as though he himself had suffered the defeat and gave orders that an army be prepared to invade Pandu. Around this time, Prince Varaguna son of the Pandu king who was ill-treated by his father, came to Lanka and met the king. King Sena II treated him as royalty should be treated, and gave him a large army to go back and fight his own father the Pandu king. The Pandu prince and the Sinhala army led by General Kutthaka surrounded Madhura and laid waste the neighbouring country. The Pandu king Srimara, who was unprepared, was slain. His queen too was killed. The Sinhala army brought back many of the treasures that had been robbed previously from Lanka. The Sinhala Senapati (Army commander) consecrated Varaguna the son of the Pandu king and came back and reported his victory to King Sena II. The senapati was rewarded and a victory banquet was held. The king made the country peaceful and more prosperous, and the people felt secure. [This successful war against the Pandu king is mentioned in several inscriptions.]

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199 SL Histary Chap.45-54 King Sena reformed the three fraternities. A thousand gold jars filled with pearls were given to a thousand brahmanas. The gold statue which had been removed from the Ratanapasada was replaced and guards appointed to guard it. The Lova maha paya was restored and a gold mosaic Buddha statue, placed in it. The Buddhagama Vihara, Mahiyangana Vihara and Kutatissa Vihara were enriched by appointing maintenance villages. A hospital was built on the Cetiya mountain. On the Mahaweli Ganga, the dam was built. King Sena II had the whole of the Ratanasutta written down on a golden plate and had the Abhidhamma recited. The image of Ananda was taken round the city and bhikkhus were made to recite , and sprinkle Paritta (pirith) water to remove the danger of plague. On the four poya days, food and garments were distributed to four thousand people. On Vesak day food and clothes were given to beggars, the poor and to travellers. The Samghasenapabbata in Abhayagiri was built by the Queen and a dark blue diadem placed on the Buddha statue. Kutthaka, the Senapati of the king built the parivena called Senasenapati. His Uparaja Mahinda built the Mahindasena parivena and gave garments, umbrellas and shoes to the bhikkhus. Having done much merit Mahinda died in the 33rd year of King Sena’s rule, and the next brother Udaya became Uparaja. Sena II died after 35 years as king.

KING UDAYA II (887 - 898) Uparaja Udaya became king as Udaya II. He made his younger brother Kassapa, the Mahadipada. Kittaggabodhi, son of former Uparaja Mahinda and Princess Kitti, then went to Ruhuna and laid waste the whole province and rebelled against the king. The king asked his brother Kassapa’s son, Prince Mahinda to fight the rebel. Mahinda went with general Vajiragga, and all the people who had been oppressed by the rebel, joined him. The rebel who was in Gitimandala then withdrew to Mayarata. But Mahinda’s army chased him. Kittaggabodhi threw all his treasures into the river, and was caught hiding in a rock cave in the forest. When the people brought Kittaggabodhi to Prince Mahinda he handed him over to General Vajiragga to be taken to the king. Mahinda then went to Mahagama, capital of Ruhuna and became its ruler. Mahinda ruled Ruhuna justly. Gardens of fruits and flowers were laid out. The Menik ganga was dammed. He gave lavish alms to the poor and to the bhikkhus, and made Ruhuna a safe place for the people.

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200 SL Histary Chap.45-54 When general Vajiragga brought the rebel Kitthaggabodhi, to King Udaya in Anuradhapura, he was imprisoned under heavy guard. King Udaya had the thupa in the Thuparama covered with golden plates. A pasada was built for bhikkhus, and all damaged buildings were restored. During a famine he built alms halls and provided food for the people. Udaya died after ruling for eleven years, having subdued the Pandu king and the Ruhuna rebel. KING KASSAPA IV (898 - 914 AD) Udaya’s youngest brother Kassapa now became king. He made Prince Kassapa, the son of King Sena II, the Yuvaraja, and gave Dakkhinadesa to him. He made the Yuvaraja Kassapa’s daughter Tissa, his Queen consort. Mahinda, ruler of Ruhuna now decided to attack the capital. When Kassapa IV heard this he sent his own army to attack Mahinda, but Mahinda defeated the king’s army. The king then sent Mahinda’s father to induce the son to give up the attack. This was successful. Later Mahinda came to the king. He gave his daughter to Mahinda, and sent him back to Ruhuna. The king cleansed the Order of the three fraternities of bhikkhus, by expelling undisciplined monks. He put up three images and built Mandapas with ornamental figures for the three fraternities. In Abhayagiri he built a pasada and made bhikkhus dwell there. A village was granted to Mahiyangana vihara. His senapati, Sena Ilanga, who was of royal lineage, built a dwelling to the west of the Thuparama for the Theravada Bhikkhus. For the Dhammarucians he founded the Dhammarama and for the Sagaliyas, the Kassapasena monastery. For grove dwelling bhikkhus he built huts and on Rattamala mountain a pleasant and charming hut for ascetics. The Samuddragiri Parivena was built in the Mahavihara, and for the Mahavihara bhikkhus living in the forests, dwellings were put up. The Tissarama was built for bhikkhunis. In different parts of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, hospitals were built. Alms were given to the poor and animals were freed from captivity. Thus the senapati Sena Ilanga, did much meritorious work. A kinsman of his, called Rukkha built a vihara in Savaraka village for the Mahavihara bhikkhus. For bhikkhus the Grand Scribe Mahala Sena built the Mahalekhapabbata in the Mahavihara. A minister called Colaraja repaired the damaged parivena. Kassapa IV died after 17 years of rule.

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201 SL Histary Chap.45-54 KASSAPA V (914 - 923 AD) Kassapa the yuvaraja, son of King Sena II succeeded him. Dappula a member of the royal family was made Yuvaraja. The king was “pious, had attained the path of salvation, was as wise as one who had supernatural powers, as eloquent as Brhaspati, the teacher of gods, and as generous as Kubera.” He was a preacher of the doctrine and was versed in all the arts. The king kept himself free from all evil and hypocrisy. (Supernatural powers are - magic power, the heavenly ear, knowledge of thoughts of others, memory of former births and the heavenly eye.] The Sangha was reformed. Many young bhikkhus were ordained. The damaged Mirisaveti Vihara was repaired, and five hundred bhikkhus from the Thera school were made to reside there. Seated in a Mandapa, surrounded by bhikkhus, he recited the Abhidhamma, “with the grace of a Buddha.” He had the Abhidhamma pitaka written on tablets of gold. The Dhammasangani, the summary of the true doctrine, was adorned with jewels, and having built a temple in the midst of the town, he placed this book in it and had festival process- ions for it. His son was made Sakkasenapati, and was entrusted with the care of this sacred book. Every year the town was decorated, the book taken in procession, and a festival was held. The Ganthaka parivena in the Mahavihara in Mahamegavana was restored and a hospital built. In honour of his mother, Queen Samgha, he built the Bhandika parivena and the Silameghapabbata for the Abhayagiri. The king’s son, the Sakkasenapati and his wife Vajira, built parivenas in their names and gave to the Theravada bhikkhus. Deva, the queen built dwellings for forest bhikkhus while another queen named Rajini presented a cloth covering for the Hemamalika cetiya. This queen had a handsome son “beauteous as the god of Love” called Siddhattha, who was governor of Malayarata. When he died, the king built a hall for the bhikkhus and instituted an alms giving. During this time the Pandu king Rajasimha was vanquished in battle by the Cola king, Parantaka I. Having heard this, Kassapa V sent his son, the Sakkasenapati with an army to help the Pandu king, as the preservation of the Pandyan kingdom would have acted as a buffer between the powerful Colas and Lanka. But the Cola army was very powerful and the Pandu king gave up. The Sakkasenapati too died

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202 SL Histary Chap.45-54 of plague. When the king heard that his men were dying of plague, he recalled his army back to Lanka. The son of the former Sakkasenapati was given this title, and made the leader of the army. Paritta was recited in the country to ward off the dangers of plague and of bad harvest. Kassapa V died after ten years as king. He is described as, "a reader of the Tripitaka, a light of all knowledge, a ready speaker, a monarch among poets, a shining light in the presence of mind and determination, a teacher, a saviour gifted with wisdom, faith and piety, rejoicing in the welfare of others, wise in knowledge of the world, loyal to his people”.

KING DAPPULA III (923 - 924) AND DAPPULA IV (924 - 935) The Yuvaraja Dappula became King Dappula III. He was a good king but died after seven months. His Yuvaraja also named Dappula, now became King as Dappula IV. He appointed Adipada Udaya as his yuvaraja. Dappula III and IV are believed to have been brothers of Kassapa V, by different mothers. During this time the Pandu king, Rajasimha, through fear of the Cola king, came to Lanka by ship. Dappula IV was very happy and gave him an abundant income and a dwelling outside the town. He then prepared to send an army to fight the Cola king. But the ministers were not pleased and they stirred up a strife. When the Pandu king sensed this, he felt that his sojourn in Lanka was useless and he went to Kerala leaving his crown and valuables behind in Lanka. King Dappula IV died after a reign of 12 years.

KING UDAYA III (935 - 938 AD) The Yuvaraja Udaya (probably son of Mahinda, who was a younger brother of Sena II) succeeded him. He made his brother adipada Sena, his uparaja. In the inscription, Udaya III calls himself the son of Mihinda Mahaya and Kitta. At this time Court officials fell out with the king, and went to reside among the ascetic monks in the Grove of Penitents (tapovana). But the king found them and had them beheaded. The ascetics were upset and went to Ruhuna. The people too rebelled against the king. Soon through the influence of the bhikkhus, peace was restored. The king sought the pardon of the bhikkhus, and they came back to the city. Thereafter Udaya III conducted himself well but died after 3 years as king.

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203 SL Histary Chap.45-54 SENA III (938 - 946 AD) Sena the brother of Udaya III now became king and made his friend adipada Udaya, his yuvaraja. He was very religious and generous. The poya days and the eight precepts were observed and food and raiment given to the bhikkhus. Graceful pasadas were built. Ruined dwellings were restored at a cost of a thousand kahapanas. In the four large viharas, Jetavana, Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Mirisaveti he set up images and beautiful mandapas, and held festivals. The dams of the tanks were made firm with stones and earth. He died after 9 years as king.

UDAYA IV (946 - 954 AD) Yuvaraja Udaya was now consecrated King Udaya IV, with his son Sena as Adipada. The king was slothful and took to drinking intoxicants. The Cola king was pleased to hear of this and wanting to be consecrated king of the Pandu kingdom, sent a message to King Udaya asking for the crown and the valuables left behind in Lanka, by the Pandu king, Rajasimha. When Udaya refused, the Cola king sent a powerful army to Lanka. The Sinhala Senapati was killed in battle and Anuradhapura fell to the Colas. Then Viduragga was appointed Senapati. The king took the crown and valuables and escaped to Ruhuna. The Cola troops followed him, but they were unable to enter Ruhuna. At this time the Colas who had captured Anuradhapura received news that the powerful Rastrakuta Emporer Krisna III had invaded the Cola kingdom and killed the Cola King Parantaka’s son.(Paranavitane) Hence the Colas returned to India. The Sinhala general Viduragga, followed them to Cola and threatened the Cola king, and brought back the treasures he had taken away from Lanka. A lady of the palace, named Vidura, fashioned a diadem of jewels for the Buddha image in the Mahavihara. While King Udaya was getting the Manipasada which the Cola troops had burned down, repaired, he died in the eighth year of his reign. SENA IV (954 - 956 AD) Udaya’s son Sena, the Uparaja, became king, as Sena IV, and made his younger brother Adipada Mahinda the yuvaraja. Sena was “a wise man, an excellent poet, learned and full of pity and goodwill, and impartial to friend and foe.” The people were happy and without fear. He would sit in the Lovamaha paya, surrounded

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204 SL Histary Chap.45-54 by bhikkhus of the three fraternities, listening to the Suttras. A casket ornamented with gems was made for the Tooth Relic. Festivals were held at the four large viharas. A parivena was built at Sitthagama. He died after a reign of three years. KING MAHINDA IV (956 - 972)

Yuvaraja, Mahinda, Sena’s younger brother now became king, as Mahinda IV. He was " rich in merit, rich in fame and rich in military power." He overcame all the rebels and united Lanka under one umbrella. He had a princess brought from Kalinga and made her his first Mahesi (queen). She bore him two sons and a charming daughter. There are believed to be many inscriptions relating to this king in Vessagiri, Mihintale and Polonnaruwa, where he calls himself Sirisamghabodhi Abhaya. Around this time the Vallabha king from south India sent a force to Nagadipa in northern Lanka. But an army sent to the north by King Mahinda under Senapati Sena was able to defeat the Vallabha troops. The Vallabha king then made a friendly treaty with King Mahinda. This victory is mentioned in the inscription at Vessagiri. The king listened to the doctrine, honoured bhikkhus who preached the doctrine, sent food to bhikkhus who lived in the jungles and appointed physicians to treat the sick bhikkhus. All bhikkhus were provided with clothing, blankets and food as needed. He decreed that, “Future kings shall not take revenue from temple property”, and had it engraved on stone. Learned monks were made to recite the Vinaya. He had a commentary to the Abhidhamma written by Thera Dhammamitta of the Sitthagama parivena. Thera Dathanaga who dwelt in the wilderness was invited to recite the Abhidhamma. A pasada was built at Mirisawetiya and villages provided for its maintenance. A reliquary of jewels was made for the Hair Relic. The Thuparama cetiya was covered with gold and silver stripes and a festival held. A golden door was made for the relic temple. The beautiful temple of the four cetiyas in Padalanchana, the temple of the Tooth Relic, the Dhammasangani house and the Mahapali, which had been burnt down by troops from Cola, were restored. He had a mandapa built to sell betel, and earnings from this were given to the bhikkhus of the theravada school for purchase of medicines. The Mahamallaka home was built for theravada bhikkhunis, and the Manipasada which Udaya IV had started, was completed by him.

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205 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Four of the king’s officials built four parivenas in Jetavana. The king’s consort Queen Kitti, built a parivena west of the Thuparama.. To the Hemamalika cetiya she dedicated a golden banner. Her son built a hospital in the town, and the Sakkasenani built a hospital for bhikkhus outside the town. Medicines and beds were supplied to all hospitals. Criminals in prison were given food regularly. Raw rice was placed in heaps at the four viharas for the poor to take as much as they wanted. He had food supplied for all animals. Alms and couches were given to the poor. Mahinda IV died in the sixteenth year of his reign.

SENA V (972 - 982 AD) The twelve- year old son of Mahinda by the Kalinga princess succeeded as Sena V, and his younger brother Udaya became uparaja. He kept his father’s senapati Sena as his senapati. When the senapati Sena was away from the city settling some dispute in the country, the senapati’s brother had committed an offence with the Queen mother. The king had him slain and made Udaya, another court official, his senapati. When the senapati Sena heard about this he came with an army into which he enlisted ninety-five thousand Damilas. He was supported by the Queen mother. The king fled to Ruhuna, and from there sent his troops to war, but the senapati’s army annihilated them. This gave a chance to the Damilas to plunder the city. The Sinhala people through fear went away to Ruhuna and complained to the king. In consultation with his ministers, the king sent senapati Udaya to make a treaty with senapati Sena, while he himself went to Polonnaruwa. While he was there, the youthful king took to alcoholic drinks and went out of his mind. He died at the young age of twenty two, in the tenth year of his reign, leaving a son called Kassapa. “ The yielding to evil friends leads to destruction. Let those who seek their highest good here and hereafter avoid such evil friends as a snake full of deadly poison” (Culawamsa)

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206 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 37

ANURADHAPURA UNDER COLA RULE (1018-1055)

MAHINDA V (982- 1018 AD)

Mahinda, a younger brother of Sena V now raised the white umbrella in Anuradhapura and became king. The capital was full of strangers, Damilas and Keralas, brought into the island as mercenaries from India by Senapati Sena. The people stopped paying revenue, and the king had no money to pay these mercenaries who now surrounded the palace, demanding their pay and threatening to starve the king.

The king took all his valuables and fled through an underground passage to Ruhuna. In Sidupabbatagama he set up camp, and carried on the government from Ruhuna, but the rest of the country was being controlled by Keralites and other mercenaries from India. Parakesarivarman alias Ragendra Cola I, the Cola king, hearing about the chaos in Lanka, sent a strong body of troops to take over Lanka. In the thirty-sixth year of his reign, in 1018 AD, the Cola army came to Ruhuna and seized the Queen and the jewels, the diadem, a priceless diamond bracelet, the unbreakable sword and a relic of Buddha’s robe. When King Mahinda V tried to escape, he was captured by the Cola army and sent to their Monarch in India.

Thus in 1018 the Anuradhapura kingdom fell into foreign power. The Colas held sway over Anuradhapura with Polonnaruwa as their centre. They broke open all the relic chambers in viharas and stole the valuables. Meanwhile the king’s son, Kassapa, was hidden and protected from the Colas by the people. When the prince was twelve years old the Cola king sent a large army of about one-hundred thousand to capture the young prince. This army ransacked Ruhuna.

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207 SL Histary Chap.45-54 A Sinhala court official named Kitti and a minister named Buddha from Maragallaka decided to take on the Cola army. They took up positions at Palutthagiri, which is eight miles east of Tissamaharama, and killed a large number of Damilas. The remaining Damilas then fled to Polonnaruwa. Prince Kassapa was pleased and rewarded the two officials. King Mahinda lived in India for twelve years and died in captivity in 1029, the last king to reign in Anuradhapura and the first king to be taken captive to a foreign country.

VIKKAMABAHU I IN RUHUNA (1029 - 1040 AD) Kassapa, the son of Mahinda V was made king, under the name of Vikkamabahu I. He was still in Ruhuna while Tamils occupied Rajarata. The king collected money, and arms to defeat the Tamils. The Sinhala people gave lavishly. The officials got the diadem, umbrella and throne ready for the consecration, but he refused saying, “what is the use of a ceremony when the possession of Rajarata is not acheived”. He collected an army of one-hundred thousand men but in the twelfth year of his reign, the king died of a sickness.

KITTI AND MAHALANAKITTI, VIKKAMAPANDU, JAGATIPALA, AND PARAKRAMA PANDU IN RUHUNA (1040 - 1048 AD) Vikkamabahu was succeeded by a senapati called Kitti but he was killed in eight days by Mahalanakitti, who became king over Ruhuna. In the third year of his reign he lost a battle with the Colas and committed suicide. Then the Tamils took the treasures from the viharas and other buildings and sent them to Cola land. The only son of Mahalanakitti, named Vikkamapandu fled from Ruhuna and had his government at for about one year. A powerful Prince called Jagatipala who came from Ayodhya in India slew Vikkamapandu in battle and ruled over Ruhuna for four years. Jagatipala too was slain in battle by the Colas, who sent his queen and daughter Lilavati, to the Cola kingdom. Parakkama son of the Pandu King ruled for two years. But he too was slain by the Colas. LOKA (Lokeswara) in Ruhuna - 1048 - 1054 An army leader called Loka who lived in Makkhakudrusa, won the confidence of the people and took possession of Ruhuna, which he ruled from Kataragama. He wanted to fight the Colas and free the country.

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208 SL Histary Chap.45-54 At this time there lived a prince named Kitti who was a descendant of Dathopatissa. Kitti, Princess Mitta, Mahinda and Rakkhita were the four children of Princess Lokita and Moggallana. One of Loka’s powerful men, Budddharaja, fought with Loka and fled to Malayarata where he collected other powerful people like Kitti. An astrologer named Samgha came at this time to Buddharaja and said, “Kitti carries on him the marks of power and is gifted with insight and courage. Even in Jambudipa, he is capable of uniting the whole realm under one unbrella, how much more in Lanka?” This made Buddharaja resolve to support Prince Kitti. But Kitti became suspicious when Buddharaja sent messengers to him. So he left his parents house without their knowledge, and went to the village of Sarivaggapitthi. While there, he sent his men and captured the village of Bodhivala which belonged to Loka. Then Loka sent his army to fight Kitti, but this army was easily defeated by Kitti. Kitti next went to Cunnasala district and from here he was able to get the whole of Malayarata under his power. However Loka died after six years of rule. At this time a chief of Kesadhatus, called Kassapa took over Ruhuna and ruled at Kataragama. When the Colas heard this, they sent an army from Polonnaruwa to Kataragama but they were defeated. Prince Kitti who was only 16, came with a large army and took over Ruhuna, as King Vijayabahu I. At this time the Colas were ravaging Anuradhapura.

"Treasures which, in truth, bear on them the blot of the five faults (loss from fire, water, living creatures, confiscation, or brigandage), become, if they be acquired by individuals who are gifted with special wisdom, possessed of the five advantages (popularity among men, high esteem among the pious, fame, fidelity in fulfilment of lay duties and attainment of heaven after death), therefore let the wise man strive to have them thus.” (Mahawamsa)

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209 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 40

SINHALA KINGS GET BACK THE THRONE (1070)

VIJAYABAHU I (KITTI) (1055 - 1110) Vijayabahu I was a wise king. From Ruhuna he now made plans to fight the Colas who were destroying the capital city Polonnaruwa. When the Cola king, Virarajendra I (1063-69) heard about these preparations, he sent an army to Ruhuna, with his Senapati who was in Polonnaruwa. As the Cola army came close to Kataragama, Kitti knowing that his own army was not powerful enough, withdrew to the hilly jungles. The Cola army then plundered Ruhuna and went away. Vijayabahu then sent messages to the King of Ramanna (Burma) who sent ships laden with various gifts for the king. Vijayabahu who was at this time living in the Hiniduma area in , used these as gifts to entice people to join the army. The people of Rajarata had become hostile and refused to pay tribute to the Cola king, who then sent another large army which harassed the people and subdued them. Two of Prince Vijayabahu’s generals, Ravideva and Cala, fell out with the prince and with their men joined the Colas, giving the enemies more confidence. In the twelfth year of his reign Vijayabahu decided to conquer the Colas. He went up to the Paluttha mountain and took up his abode. The Cola army surrounded the mountain and a fierce fight took place between the two armies. The Colas were annihilated and the king’s soldiers pursued the Cola general and beheaded him at Tambavitthi in . They captured all the war implements the Colas had. His people told King Vijayabahu, “It is time for us to march to Pulatthinagara (Polonnaruwa)”. So he marched to Polonnaruwa with a large army. When the Cola king heard this, he sent a large force to capture Vijayabahu. Another fierce battle ensued and many people died. Vijayabahu then abandoned Polonnaruwa, and went to Villikaba and gathered a large army. Hearing that the Colas were pursuing him, he

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210 SL Histary Chap.45-54 fled to the Vatagiri (Vakirigala) hills in Kegalle district, where he built a stronghold and kept the Colas at bay for over three months. He then went to Ruhuna and from here sent armies towards Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa. For over one month the Sinhala army surrounded Polonnaruwa. His two generals who joined the Colas, came back and rejoined his army. After a great battle, the Sinhalese were able to acheive victory, and take over the city of Polonnaruwa. When the Cola ruler heard of his army’s defeat, he decided not to send further armies to Lanka. Thus by 1070, Vijayabahu had triumphed and the restoration of Sinhalese power was complete. According to Paranavitane, “Vijayabahu chose Polonnaruwa as his residence as well as the centre of administration. This city, which is probably Vijitapura, figuring in the campaign of Dutugemunu, was occasionally used as a royal residence from 8th to 10th century and was a military station designed to guard the Rajarata against possible inroads from Ruhuna. Hence it was also known as Kandavara or Kandavurupura (Camp City)”. VIJAYABAHU I IN POLONNARUWA Vijayabahu conquered all his foes and became king over all Lanka. His prolonged resistance to Cola rule and their expulsion ‘would by itself have ensured his position as one of the greatest figures in the island’s history, but his achievements in the more humdrum fields of adminstration and economic regeneration were no less substantial...... he established a firm control over the whole island and presided over both a rehabilitation of the irrigation network and the resuscitation of Buddhism’.(KMDS pg61). Powerful warriors were appointed to protect the coastline. For seventeen years, since he was Yuvaraja, he kept on record, narratives of what happened in the country. His coronation was held at Anuradhapura according to tradition, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and not in the then capital Polonnaruwa. He also took the name of Sirisamghabodhi and went to live in Polonnaruwa. Virabahu, his younger brother was made the Yuvaraja, and Dakkhinadesa was given to him. His youngest brother Jayabahu was made an adipada and sent to Ruhuna. He gave his ministers the task of collecting dues. Law and order were restored. During this period, three brothers - head of the Umbrella bearer, the President of the court of Justice and the Chief of the merchants rebelled against the king and went to India and returned in the ninteenth year

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211 SL Histary Chap.45-54 of the king’s reign. They roused the people in Ruhuna, Mayarata and Dakkhinadesa but the king marched to meet them and killed them. The Queen of Jagatipala who had been sent to India by the Colas who killed her husband, returned to Lanka around this time, with her daughter Lilavati. The king heard about her, and finding that Lilavati was of irreproachable descent, made her his Mahesi. By her Vijayabahu had a daughter who was named Yasodara. The king also had a charming princess from Kalinga (Orissa) in India named Tilokasundari as another queen. By her he had five daughters Subhadha, Sumitta, Lokanatha, Ratanavali, and Rupavati and a son named Vikkamabahu. The Cola king wanted to marry Vijayabahu’s younger sister Mitta, but his requests were refused and she was given in marriage to a Pandu prince of unblemished descent. Mitta had three sons - Manabharana, Kittisirimegha and Sirivallaba. Vijayabahu gave his daughters in marriage - Yasodara to Viravamma, Subhadha and Sumitta to his brothers Virabahu and Jayabahu, Lokanatha to Kittisirimegha, Ratanavali to Manabharana and Sugala to Sirivallabha. Rupavati had died young. Yasodara had two daughters, Lilavati and Sugala. Princes Madhukannava, Bhimaraja and Balakkara, kinsmen of Tilokasundari who came from Sihapura in India were treated well and allowed to dwell where they pleased. Their younger sister Sundari and Yasodara’s daughter Lilavati were given to his own son Vikkamabahu.

VIJAYABAHU I REBUILDS POLONNARUWA In Polonnaruwa Vijayabahu had a high wall built all round the city with a long, broad, deep trench and high parapets. Buddhism had suffered a setback, and Saivite-Hinduism had been given precedence, during Cola rule. Wanting to improve the Order, he sent a message to his friend the king of Ramanna (Burma), asking for bhikkhus who were well versed in the three Pitakas. A ceremony of world-renunciation was held, the Tripitakas recited frequently and Buddhism was made to shine again in Sri Lanka. Viharas were built, and given over to bhikkhus of the three fraternities. A beautiful temple was built for the Tooth Relic. He translated the Dhammasangani in the preaching hall every morning. Gifts were given to teachers of the true doctrine. Alms to the weight of his body were given to the poor on three occasions. The Tripitaka was copied and

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212 SL Histary Chap.45-54 presented to the bhikkhus. Gifts of costly pearls, precious stones and jewels were sent to the sacred Bodhi Tree in Buddhgaya in India. The Monarch of Karnataka and the king of Cola, sent envoys with costly gifts. The king responded by sending gifts to these countries. But the Sinhala envoys who went to the Cola country returned with their noses and ears horribly maimed. Vijayabahu went into a flaming rage. The envoys of the Cola king were immediately summoned and given this message. “Beyond ear shot on a lonely island in the midst of the ocean shall a trial of the strength of our arms take place in single combat, or after arming the whole forces of thy kingdom and mine, a battle shall be fought at a spot to be determined by thee. Exactly in the manner I have said, shall you report to your master.” The Cola envoys were then sent back clad in women’s apparel. King Vijayabahu went to Anuradhapura with his army and arranged for ships and troops to be used in the war with the Cola king. This was in the thirtieth year of his rule. The Velakkara Tamil mercenaries did not want to fight in this war. They slew the two generals who were preparing for the war and went about plundering around Polonnaruwa. They captured Mitta, the king’s sister, and her sons, and burned down the king’s palace. The king took all the valuable possessions to Vatagiri (Vakirigala in Kegalla) and hid them there. He then marched to Polonnaruwa with his brother Virabahu, the Uparaja of lion-like courage, and defeated the Tamil troops. The Tamil mercenaries were lined up with their hands tied behind their backs, around the funeral pyre of the two generals they had killed, and were burned to death. Troops were marched to the port to await the arrival of a message from the Cola king, but when it failed to come, the troops were dispersed. The tanks Mahaheli, Sareheru, Mahadattika, Katunnaru, Pandavapi, Kalalahallika, Erandegalla, Dighavatthuka, Mandavataka, Kittagga- bodhipabbata, Valahassa, Mahadaragalla, Kumbhilasobbhaka, Pattapa- sana and Kana were built by Vijayabahu. Damaged tanks were repaired, and the land made fruitful. By repairing the Tilavatthuka canal, water was obtained to fill the Minneriya tank. In Mahagama, in Ruhuna, he restored the relic-shrines destroyed by Colas. In Budalavitthi at the place where his parents were cremated, he erected five dwellings for bhikkhus. Many decayed temples were repaired and villages granted for their upkeep. To ensure that pilgrims climbing Adams Peak may not

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213 SL Histary Chap.45-54 become weary, the village of Gilimalaya was granted, and resthouses built on the Kehelgamuwa road. He had a stone pillar engraved with the words, “Future kings shall not take possession of these.” There is an inscription in Ambagamuwa confirming what the king did for pilgrims. Vijayabahu gave oxen to work for cripples, food for animals and birds, and villages to the blind and lame. Being a poet himself, villages and gifts of money were given to poets. Unprotected and widowed women were supplied with villages and clothing. The Uparaja Virabahu restored the beautiful Baddhaguna Vihara which the Colas had destroyed. Yasodhara, the king’s daughter, built a massive image house in Kapuramulayatana, and a lofty pasada in the Selantarasamuha Vihara. Many ladies of the Court did likewise. His brother Uparaja Virabahu, died at this time and the position of Uparaja was conferred on the other brother Jayabahu. Vikkamabahu, his own son was made adipada, and sent in charge of Ruhuna, where the capital was Mahanagahula. Vikkamabahu had a son named Gajabahu. Vijayabahu ruled for 55 years and died at the age of 80. During this time according to Paranavitana no trade missions were sent from Lanka to China after 702 AD, probably due to India having a monopoly of the maritime trade with China. But at this time Lanka introduced a gold coin, which appears to have been to counteract the monopoly of India in trade dealings with China. This gold coin of about 71 grains in weight, with fractional pieces of half, quarter and one-eighth of the unit had Nagari script on it, showing that it was intended more for external than internal trade.

KING JAYABAHU (1110 - 1111 AD) When Vijayabahu I died, his sister Mitta and her three sons and the bhikkhus met together, and instead of sending the news of the death to the king’s own son, Adipada Vikkamabahu who was in Ruhuna, they consecrated Jayabahu as king, and appointed Mitta’s eldest son Manabharana, as uparaja, thereby transgressing accepted Sinhalese Royal tradition. The three sons of Mitta and Jayabahu took possession of all the valuables such as pearls and jewels. They then left Polonnaruwa and went with a large army to seize Vikkamabahu. Meanwhile Vikkamabahu having heard of his father’s death was sorrowing that he could not pay his last respects to his father. So he decided to go to Polonnaruwa and “gaze on my father’s funeral pyre and assuage the heavy grief.” While he was marching with a seven

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214 SL Histary Chap.45-54 to eight-hundred strong army, he met the army of his cousins. Heavy fighting occurred. Vikkamabahu fearlessly defeated them. The three sons of Mitta, collected an army and confronted Vikkamabahu on six separate occasions, but Vikkamabahu was victorious each time. He finally entered Polonnaruwa, visited the place of burial of his father, and took over the city. Manabharana and his brothers then seized Dakkhinadesa and Ruhuna. Ruhuna west of Walave ganga (a province of 12,000 villages) was given to Kittisirimegha, and the area east of Walave (a province of 8,000 villages) to Srivallaba. Manabharana ruled Dakkhinadesa as King Virabahu. Meanwhile Mitta and her brother Jayabahu, stayed on with Kittisirimegha in Mahanagahula, the capital of Ruhuna. One year later, the brothers collected another army and advanced towards Polonnaruwa. Hearing of this, Vikkamabahu came with a large army to Dakkhinadesa and defeated the three brothers, who then went into hiding. To capture them, Vikkamabahu advanced as far as Kelaniya. At this time Viradeva, a warrior from India, came with an army and landed in Mannar, hoping to take the whole of Lanka under his control.

VIKKAMABAHU IN POLONNARUWA (1111 - 1132 AD) Vikkamabahu went with his army from Kelaniya to Mannar but Viradeva who came from India, defeated him. Vikkamabahu fled to Polonnaruwa, took all the royal valuables and went to Kotthasara near Kantalai. Viradeva tried to follow him but was killed. Vikkamabahu was then able to rule as Monarch in Polonnaruwa, as Vikkamabahu II. His cousins, the three brothers, ruled in their own provinces. The three brothers gave up their lust for war, and each lived in his own province. All four princes sought power and wealth, and fell out with the clergy and the people. Citizens were taxed heavily and their possessions taken by force. They took precious stones and jewels which the pious gave as offerings to Buddha. Their followers plundered the towns and committed highway robbery. The bhikkhus were angry and taking the Tooth Relic and Buddha’s Alms bowl, they went and settled down in different parts of Ruhuna. The soldiers of the different princes fought each other continually, set fire to flourishing villages, destroyed tanks, cut down useful trees and devastated the country. The people began to despise the kings.

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PRINCE PARAKRAMABAHU THE BIRTH The ruler Jayabahu and his sister Mitta, who were living in Ruhuna, both died during this period. Sugala, granddaughter of Vijayabahu, who married Mitta’s son Sirivallabha, had a daughter, Lilavati, and a son named Manabharana. The Mahadipada, Prince Manabharana, eldest son of Mitta, who married Ratanavali (the sister of Vikkamabahu) had two daughters, Mitta and Pabavati. He was very sorry that he had no son to defeat Vikkamabahu. So he contemplated giving up the worldly life and spending his days doing religious work. One n i g h t i n a d r eam, Manabharana saw a wondrous god in glittering raiment and ornaments, adorned with fragrant flower wreaths, who said to him, “Be content. A splendid son of courage whose splendour shall spread throughout the world will be born before long. Now go at once to the town where dwell your wife.” So he went to Punkhagama and related this to his wife and ministers. Another day he dreamt that he entered the sleeping chamber of his queen, holding a pure white elephant calf endowed with all the auspicious marks. When he related this to his queen, she said she also had dreamt that a white elephant walked round her bed, and when it stopped, she drew it close to her by its trunk and embraced it. On inquiring from soothsayers what these dreams meant, they were told that a son with the marks of power would soon be born to them. In due course a son was born as predicted. At the moment of his birth, cool fragrant gentle breezes blew from all sides. Trumpeting of elephants and neighing of horses filled the royal courtyard with a resounding din. Manabharana set prisoners free and gave alms to the priests. The people and ministers held festivals. The brahmins saw the baby prince and prophesied, “Apart from the island of Lanka, he is able to unite under one umbrella and to rule, even the whole of Jambudipa.”

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216 He was named Parakramabahu. Manabharana asked the brahmins if SL Histary Chap.45-54 there were any unfavourable signs they said, “The boy will have a long life but there is an unfavourable constellation for the father.” Messengers were sent to Polonnaruwa to give the good news to King Vikkamabahu whose sister Ratanavali was married to Manabharana. When Vikkamabahu heard the good news he was very happy. He said, “So that no harm befalls him, let the boy grow up in my immediate neighbourhood. To win unachieved and to keep achieved advantage this my son Gajabahu will in no case be able. My other son Mahinda, though gifted with heroic courage and other excellent qualities, stands lower owing to his mother’s origin, and is unworthy of the crown. The son of my sister will one day enjoy the dominion which is prosperous through the treasures I have amassed.” When Manabharana heard this from the messengers who came with gifts to take the boy to Polonnaruwa, he said, “These words have been spoken in thought for my good. But it is not meet to send away such a jewel of a son. And if he is taken there Vikkamabahu’s party will gleam with mighty flames, while our misfortune now so great, will become worse.” Soon after, Manabaharana fell ill and died. When the two brothers heard of this death, Kittisirimegha took Manabharana’s place, and gave his two provinces to Sirivallabha. Sirivallabha took his eldest brother’s queen Ratanavali, the daughters, Mitta and Pabhavati and son Parakramabahu to live with him in Mahanagahula in Ruhuna. The widowed Queen Ratanavali wanted her elder daughter Mitta to marry Gajabahu, the son of her brother Vikkamabahu, because Sundari the mother of Gajabahu, and his grandmother Tilokasundari, were princesses from Kalinga. But against her wish, Srivallabha insisted that Mitta be married to his son, Manabharana, whose mother was Sugala and grandmother was Yasodhara, daughter of Queen Lilavati and King Vijayabahu I. Meanwhile in Polonnaruwa, Vikkamabahu died after ruling for twenty- one years and his son Gajabahu took over as king. The brothers Kittisirimega and Sirivallabha thought it was an insult on them for Gajabahu, the young son of their cousin Vikkamabahu to rule Polonnaruwa, and they decided to buy over the troops with money. They bought over the Indian mercenaries. The people of Polonnaruwa sent messages with promises of support for these two brothers. But Gajabahu collected his army and marched against these two kings and defeated them. Thereafter the three kings lived in their own provinces without quarrelling.

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217 SL Histary Chap.45-54 But Parakramabahu who was well schooled in all the arts, intelligent and capable, did not care to live with his mother and sisters in comfort in Ruhuna, nor did he take delight in childhood games. He thought, “Princes like me, gifted with heroism and other like qualities, how can they live in such a secluded district? I will go to the land of my birth, where I may become Yuvaraja.” He decided to go to Dakkhinadesa, and perhaps become Yuvaraja. Kittisirimegha, who had no son, was delighted that Parakramabahu was coming. He had the town decorated with triumphal arches, and went out to meet the nephew. Embracing him, he kissed him again and again on the head and shed tears of joy, in front of the multitude that had collected to greet the prince. EDUCATION OF PRINCE PARAKRAMABAHU With his lightning like intelligence Parakrambahu learned easily and quickly. He studied Buddhism, politics as laid down in the books on politics by Kautalya, grammer, poetry, dance and song, the art of driving elephants and the manipulation of the bow, sword and other weapons. He studied everything according to the wishes of his uncle, King Kittisirimegha, and was never lacking in reverence. Kittisirimegha heard that his brother Sirivallabha had also died in Ruhuna and had been succeeded by his son, Manabharana, who had taken the two sisters of Parakramabahu, Mitta and Pabhavati as Queens. Each of these queens had a son. Pabavati’s son was called Kittisirimegha. When King Kittisirimegha heard that news, he was very happy. Parakramabahu was not happy living as he was. He wanted to bring Lanka under one umbrella. He recalled the great things that kings before his time, had done for the country and the religion, and thought, “When I hear of such a happy and incomparable life of those who are able to accomplish extraordinary deeds, then if I, sprung from noble stock, do not that which befits the best among noble heroes, my birth will be useless. They were aided alone by favourable conditions of the times but were they superior to me in insight and other qualities?” He thought he should go to Polonnaruwa and find out the conditions there, where his cousin Gajabahu (the son of his maternal uncle), was ruling, and “discover a weakness among my enemies favourable to my plans or not...... So under some kind of pretext I shall myself go to the other country and find out its conditions.” Since he knew his uncle, Kittisirimegha would not approve of this, “for fear that some evil may befall his noble son”, he left the house secretly in the night.

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218 SL Histary Chap.45-54 SPYING IN POLONNARUWA When Parakramabahu left in the night he was met by a few of his own men. Since they were going to the area of the Commander Senapati Sankha, who was in command of the frontiers, they were apprehensive that the king would find out, and send soldiers after them. When Senapati Sankha heard of the Prince’s arrival, he went out to meet him and saluted him. But secretly he sent messengers to inform the king of the Prince’s arrival. When the Prince suspected this, he gave orders to his men to carry out the killing of Senapati Sankha - “a brutal and senseless killing”. This deed brought terror to the people and they decided to join the Prince. He spoke to them and said, “The killing of the general was not out of enmity to my father, nor do I mean to take over this part of the kingdom for myself”. He said this, fearing that people may take sides and there would be civil war. Parakramabahu then went to Hiriyala in Kurunegala, but the villagers of the area fled when they heard of his arrival. Some people however banded themselves, and pursued him, to capture him and hand over to the king. But he fought them, with extraordinary courage and subdued them. He then went towards the Kalaveva area and sent a letter to King Gajabahu’s commander, Gokanna. Having heard about the heroism of Parakramabahu, the commander came to meet him with reverence. The prince praised him, and presented him with many ornaments. That night Gokanna had a dream, where he saw himself as the Senapati, whom Parakramabahu had murdered. He fell off his bed and in fear, ran out of the house into the jungle. Meanwhile Parakramabahu’s uncle, King Kittisirimegha sent three generals, Mahinda, Sena and Mangalana to capture the prince and bring him back by force. But the prince was able to fight all these men, and having won this war, he went to Bodhigamavara (probably Bogambara) to await the uncle’s next move. A second army sent by his uncle was also defeated, and he then went to Ranamure in aggala.Gajabahu's generals were now afraid. Still they tried to carry out the king’s orders and once again their armies were destroyed by the Prince. Parakramabahu next entered Gajabahu's territory in Polonnaruwa. When Gajabahu heard that the prince was gradually approaching his territory, he was alarmed. He discussed with his councillors and sent the prince many gifts of ornaments and raiment with a message. “Since hearing that you left your uncle, and that you have done great

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219 SL Histary Chap.45-54 deeds, my heart has rejoiced. This visit is like a Coronation festival for me. Since my uncle, in his old age has lost you and you have come into my hands, it is a reward for me. If we two are united, what foe will dare to make war on us? Once we have met, I have no difficulty in conferring on you, the royal dignity which belonged to your father.” He sent envoys with this message. When Parakramabahu got the message he thought, “It is very hard to see through the craftiness of princes. I will test him”, and sent forth his envoys to find out about Gajabahu. After finding out details about him, he went to Polonnaruwa. King Gajabahu came with his army to meet him. He got the Prince to mount the elephant that he himself was riding, and showed him the beauty of the town, before taking him to his palace. Parakramabahu lived in the palace with Gajabahu, but “secretly sent out his men to spy and gather information about the country”. He got his mother, to send Pabhavati, his charming sister, with a large amount of money. He kept the money, and gave his sister to Gajabahu in marriage, making Gajabahu trust him and leave all matters in his hands. Meanwhile he planned and executed his espionage activities very efficiently and ‘cunningly’ without leaving room for any suspicion. He got his men to take estimates of the King’s revenue, his stocks of grain, his troops and war materials and so on, by stealing into the various departments and making records. He got others to talk to the people and find their thoughts. “He took care that spies who were versed in the diverse rites and cermonies ...... should visit the different houses in the assumed garb of ”. [This chapter in the Culawansa is called “Spying out the Conditions in the other Country.” He is cunningly, and secretively spying out in the country of his cousin under whose roof he is being entertained! The Culawamsa compares Dutugemunu with Parakkramabahu. “In one case deeds of true heroism, culminating in the dauntless duel with Elara, in the other, big high sounding words as a prelude to an action of very doubtful courage and of still more doubtful moral justification...... He (Dutugemunu) is the real national hero of the Sinhalese, and his name still lives in the popular memory. Parakramabahu is almost forgotten, though he is nearer by more than one thousand years to the present, than the other”. Footnote chap. 65, Culawamsa]. Pakramabahu thought to himself, “If I wish to achieve the sovereignty I can do it by wrinkling my brows. But in that case my dignity, my extraordinary courage and the strength of my arms will have no

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220 SL Histary Chap.45-54 renown in this world. The incessant twitching of my arms will never cease without the pastime of a war game. I will go to the land of my birth, overwhelm this king by war and capture him and his retainers alive. Then I will bring my father King Kittisirimegha and by annointing him with the water of coronation, efface the shame of the defeat of my three fathers. Then my fame will spread to Jambudipa.” Mindful of the words of Buddha, “If one lets time slip away, time drinks up the best,” (In the passing of time, time drinks away the sap there of, meaning that a work loses its value if done with hesitation), He sent his followers away with instructions on, how to meet him to make an assault on the town. He also felt it was not manly for him to leave without giving notice to the king. So he came, and spoke to the King Gajabahu with a smile, “I must go back and visit my father and come back in haste.” Innocently Gajabahu wished him well and asked him to carry out his plans speedily. Parakrambahu went back to Dhakkinadesa but did not go to meet King Kittisirimegha. But when the king heard from watchmen that the prince was returning he was happy. Queen Ratanavali, his mother, hearing that Parakramabahu had returned, but had not gone to see the king, came herself to meet him, and took him and presented him to the king. The king was so happy, he said, “Today the arrow of anxiety as to who might look after me in my old age is taken away. It is not only a blessing for me but a reward for you, coming from an earlier birth.” He then commended the prince to his people and died shortly after. Parakramabahu took over the throne and carried out his uncle’s funeral rites. Gifts were given in abundance to bhikkhus. The news was sent through envoys to King Gajabahu and King Manabharana.. According to Paranavitana, “Parakramabahu was unprincipled and ruthless in the policy which led him to the throne of Polonnaruwa”.

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221 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 40

KING PARAKRAMABAHU (PARAKUMBA RAJA) 1153-1186 Parakramabahu set about improving his country. He told his people, “Not even a little water that comes from the rain must flow into the ocean without being made useful to man. Except at the mines where there are precious stones, gold, and the like, in all other places the laying out of fields must be taken in hand. For a life of enjoyment of what one possesses, without having cared for the welfare of the people, in no wise befits one like myself.....” Orders were given for the Kotthabaddha causeway, on the Deduru Oya, to be rebuilt. When officials started complaining about the difficulties and problems with the work, he asked, “What is there in the world that cannot be carried out by people of energy? Even Rama had a causeway built across the ocean by monkeys.” Wildernesses were cleared and fields laid out. The massive Parakrama Samudra, which included many existing tanks like Topaweva was constructed. On an island in the middle of the Samudra he built a cetiya on the summit of a rock, and at the centre of this, a beautiful three storey royal pleasure house. Many tanks were repaired. Village chiefs were entrusted with the task of cultivation ‘to ensure that the people never more knew the fear of famine.’He brought the irrigation system “to a pitch of perfection never attained before” Parks were laid out with fruit and flower trees and creepers. Collection Of Soldiers and Money : Parakramabahu summoned the king of Malayarata, who was also the leader of the Damila army, and sent him back with many troops and weapons. Officials of the frontier guard were summoned and given thousands of weapons and troops. People skilled in riding horses and elephants, in handling weapons, in use of foreign languages and in song and dance, were taken into service. Large numbers of tanks were constructed to improve irrigation of fields.

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222 SL Histary Chap.45-54 he was able to obtain a greater revenue than ever before. The finance administration was separated from the army and given to two officials. (Perhaps two ministries were set up - a Ministry of Internal Administration and a Ministry of War, each with an official). Centralised Form of Government in Polonnaruwa : His realm was divided in two, and a couple of auditors appointed to each half. From the sea coast where pearl fishing was carried out, from Ratnapura, where gems were mined, and from Malayarata and other districts, he selected land which had extraordinary value, and placed it under the “Office of the Interior.” Gems were exported by ship to increase the revenue. According to Codrington, “We hear of twelve governors of provinces, of eighty four rulers of smaller districts, and of chiefs in charge of borders, all with military and probably civil jurisdiction. The Nikaya Sangraha attributes to Parakrama the creation, or rather the reorganisation of the great offices of State, as well as the various departments to which the villages throughout the kingdom were attached. It seems that he.....established a centralised form of government for the whole island”. According to Dr K.M.de Silva, “the over-centralisation of administration in the Polonnaruwa kingdom appears to have had a deleterious effect on local initiatives, with the result that when royal authority collapsed at Polonnaruwa, adminstrative units in outlying areas were no longer capable of maintaining their sections of the irrigation networks, in good repair”. Under Anuradhapura kings, village institutions and regional administrations ensured survival of irrigation systems during periods of turmoil in the capital, such as civil wars and invasions. The size of the army and supplies of war material were increased. To test capabilities of soldiers, street fights were arranged, and those who were weak were sent to till fields. He was pleased with the outcome, and thought that with the arrangements made, ‘even Jambudipa (India) could be conquered.’ Rakkha, an official from Gajabahu’s army, was summoned and bribed with great favours and advised to take over Malayarata. When the residents of Malayarata heard this, they decided that they would kill Rakkha if he came there. But Rakkha came and took over Dumbara. He fought and took over many villages in Malayarata. Parakramabahu summoned him and conferred the dignity of Kesadhatu on him. When this news reached Gajabahu, he sent his army to fight Rakkha, but they were defeated and Parakramabahu’s troops gradually worked their way to the border of Rajaratta (Polonnaruwa). The people who supported Gajabahu helped by blocking roads, but nothing could stop the army of Parakramabahu winning at nearly every point.

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223 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Meanwhile Manabharana, Prince of Ruhuna, who had on several occasions suffered defeat at the hands of Gajabahu’s armies, was lying low, having already entered into an alliance with Gajabahu. Afraid that he would not be safe in Ruhuna, if Parakramabahu’s troops took over Polonnaruwa, he made an alliance with Parakramabahu. Parakramabahu summoned his chief Mayageha in Ambavana and told him of his plan to take over Polonnaruwa and capture Gajabahu. But to come to Ambavana which is in the region of the Ambanganga which flows through Matale, he had to have an excuse. So he secretly advised Mayageha to organise a festival for the Buddha and invite him, so that from there he could reach Polonnaruwa. When Parakramabahu’s chiefs came to find out his real intention, there was a clamour among them to join the fight to capture Gajabahu. Gajabahu’s army was no match for Parakramabahu’s army and finally Gajabahu was defeated. Although he went into hiding, he was captured alive. When Parakramabahu heard this, he sent costly garments and perfumes to the royal captive and assured him that “you shall live free of all fear of me.” Some felt that the people would refuse to accept Parakramabahu’s sovereignty as long as Gajabahu was alive. But Parakramabahu stopped them from killing the old king. Instead he wanted to protect him. “The gaining of the royal dignity is for the welfare of the Order and the people alone, but not for the sole purpose of slaying the Monarch.” He sent his army to Polonnaruwa to protect the king. Some low minded people used this period as an opportunity to plunder Polonnaruwa. When the people of the city saw this they went to Manabharana and asked him to come and take over the city. Manabharana foolishly thought that on the pretext of setting free Gajabahu, he would be able to get to Polonnaruwa and take over the city. At first he treated Gajabahu reverently, to allay any fears Gajabahu would have. But soon he killed all Gajabahu’s officers and put the old king into a dungeon. He seized elephants, horses, the wealth in the treasure houses, the sacred Tooth Relic and Bowl and brought down his mother Sugala, and his wives and officers from Ruhuna. Thinking that the troops in Polonnaruwa would not submit to him as long as Gajabahu was alive, he decided to kill the old king. DEATHS OF GAJABAHU AND MANABHARANA AND CONSECRATION OF PARAKRAMABAHU With the idea of slowly poisoning Gajabahu to death, Manabharana first gave him bad food and a bad couch. Unable to

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224 SL Histary Chap.45-54 tolerate this, Gajabahu sent a message to Parakrambahu to help him. “I see no other help for me, save through you. Therefore revive thou me, who am tortured.” Parakramabahu, filled with pity, despatched troops to Polonnaruwa immediately. These troops defeated Manabharana’s army and set free Gajabahu, who then fled to Kotthasara near Kantalai. The troops also took over Manabharana’s wives and children. Gajabahu’s army and Parakramabahu’s army continued their battles. When Gajabahu heard of this, he asked the bhikkhus, to intervene and stop the discord. The bhikkhus explained to Parakramabahu, that since Gajabahu had no children and was near to death, he should leave Polonnaruwa for Gajabahu. Thus Parakramabahu had to accept the advise of the bhikkhus and leave the kingdom, he had gained with so much trouble. Gajabahu settled down in Gangatataka. Manabharana sent gifts to him and attempted to keep up an alliance with him. Gajabahu refused all this. He went to Mandaligiri and had a stone engraved, stating, “I have made over Rajarattha to King Parakrama.” Shortly after this, he returned to Gangatataka and died, having ruled for 22 years. Parakramabahus’s people wanted him be consecrated as king. He accepted their advise and although he anticipated a war with Manabharana, the consecration was carried out on an auspicious day. Manabharana fought many battles against Parakramabahu’s armies, and lost.. Finally he died “by reason of a disease caused by fear of Parakramabahu.” Before he died he advised his people to stop fighting. Soon a second consecration was held, in the second year of his reign, in greater style, now that he was the sole undisputed king of Sri Lanka. Parakramabahu thought, “My people have been harrassed by kings of old who have turned away from the Order. The Order of the great Sage which has long been sullied by admixture with a hundred false doctrines, rent asunder by the schism of the three fraternities, flooded by various unscrupulous bhikkhus, whose whole task is the filling of their bellies; the Order which has still not survived five thousand years and is in a state of decay, may it once more attain stability.” He had the drums beaten for all those in need of help, to come together and gave them alms to last a year. All bhikkhus of the three fraternities and learned teachers, well versed in the rules of the order were called together, so that genuine ascetics may be separated from the false. He unified the three fraternities which had been disunited from the time of Vattagamani, and held a great

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225 SL Histary Chap.45-54 almsgiving. Four almshouses were built and cushions, pillows, carpets, beds, and a thousand cows that gave sweet milk, were provided. Great halls were built for the sick and special slaves assigned to look after them, with a female slave to prepare the medicines. Maintenance was paid to physicians. Being versed in the art of healing he checked the treatment given to the sick and taught physicians the correct art. On the four Poya days, he visited the sick. Mahinda, a very pious man who lived in the palace, caused a resplendent pasada to be built for the Tooth-Relic close to the palace. A consort, Queen Rupavati, who was a clever, beauteous, intelligent and religious woman, had a large golden thupa built in the middle of the town. The king had streets laid out and dwellings of one, two or more storeys came up along these streets. Bazaars and shops were set up. The incessant traffic of elephants, horses and chariots enlivened the people. Three excellent suburbs called Rajavesibhujanga, Rajakulantaka, and Vijita were laid down, and in these, the three viharas, Veluvana, Issipatana and Kusinara were built. (These are names of three important cities in ‘Buddhist-India’). The suburbs were adorned with three storeyed pasadas. Close to these suburbs sermon houses, image chapels and resthouses were built for the bhikkhus. In Polonnaruwa, small and large streets were constructed, and fourteen gates were erected - King’s gate, lion gate, elephant gate, and gates by the names of , Hanuman, Kuvera, Candi, Rakkshana, Snake, Water, Mahatitha, Gandhabba and the beautiful Maya gate. RESTORATION OF ANURADHAPURA Parakramabahu wanted to restore the former capital of Anuradhapura which the Colas had destroyed, as it was believed to have been hallowed by the visit of Lord Buddha himself, and because the Sacred Bo tree and relics were in Anuradhapura. The job was handed over to a high dignitary. The king also issued orders for collecting taxes from each district of the island without oppressing the people. For all creatures including game and fish, he commanded safety of life, at least on the Poya days. The death of Manabharana alarmed the people in Ruhuna that Parakramabahu would incorporate Ruhuna into his kingdom. So they went to Queen Sugala, mother of Manabharana and consort of Sirivallabha, and persuaded her to build fortifications along the frontier, and place barricades of sharp pointed briars and felled trees, to make the roads inaccessible. Sugala did not know what she was doing. She gave them her pearls, jewels and the rich treasures belonging to the

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226 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Tooth Relic. When Parakramabahu heard this news, he sent general Rakkha, with strong forces to take over Ruhuna. Since the king’s troops were engaged in Ruhuna, the Sinhala troops and mercenaries from Kerala living near Polonnaruwa banded them- selves together to take over Rajarata. The king sent forces and brought this uprising under control. Meanwhile Rakkha had strong opposition in Ruhuna and even after months of battle there were no signs of winning. Adhikari Bhuta, went with more troops to help him Parakramabahu was afraid that the Ruhuna rebels fighting against his troops, when defeated, would run away to India with the Tooth Relic and Alms bowl. He sent messages to his men that he would only be consecrated with these two valuable relics, hence they should try to recover these. ‘The Tooth and Bowl relics had by now become essential to legitimise royal authority in Lanka’. The king’s army recovered the relics after a many battles, and the loss of a great many lives! A festival was held for the relics. Meanwhile Rakkha died as a result of an attack of dysentry. Adhikarins Manju and Kitti, carried out the ceremonies of the dead with honour. When the king heard this news, he arranged for an alms hall with four entrances to be built at the place Rakkha was cremated, and once again he requested that the two relics be sent to him. When the relics finally arrived he honoured them with gifts as though they were the living Buddha. A splendid temple for the Tooth Relic resembling Sudhamma, the hall of Assembly of god Indra, was erected in the middle of the city. The Tooth Relic was placed in a priceless jewel which was hollowed out and filled with sweet smelling powder. This was placed in a casket of precious stones, and that in turn placed in a box of gold. The Bowl Relic was placed in a costly Mandapa sparkling with rays of various precious stones. People from Lambakanna clan were left to guard the relics. A great festival was held in honour of the relics and the relics were taken in procession. It is stated that large clouds gathered as though it was going to rain. The people were reluctant to start on the procession. But the king remarked, ‘What god, Mara or would be able to hinder this magnifi- cent procession. Have no fear but set forth.’ It rained heavily outside the area of the festival filling all ponds and rivers, but there was no rain in the area of the festival, which lasted for seven nights.

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227 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 41

CONQUESTS OF PARAKRAMABAHU

CONQUEST OF RUHUNA The rebel army in Ruhuna was not easily overcome. As one war was over, another erupted at another place and guerilla warfare continued. But after many had been killed, Parakramabahu’s generals realised that after so much of fighting to gain Ruhuna, the land they would be left with, would be reduced to a barren wilderness. Hence they decided to offer amnesty to those who surrendered. When this message reached the people of Ruhuna, merchants living in Weligama area came in large numbers to surrender. Many battles and many deaths later, Ruhuna was captured by a Tamil general of Parakramabahu. Queen Sugala was taken captive. When Parakramabahu heard the good news, he sent a message that Sugala should be brought to Polonnaruwa and the adminstration be left in the hands of Adhikaran Bhuta. When the triumphant troops returned to Polonnaruwa they were welcomed by the people with celebration. CONQUEST OF RAMANNA (BURMA) The rulers of Lanka and Burma, both being Buddhists, had been on friendly terms in the past, each sending to the other, costly gifts. But around 1160, the Monarch of Ramanna (Pegu, in lower Burma) having believed false reports from people who had returned from Lanka, decided to take a different course of action. He deprived envoys of the Sovereign of Lanka of maintainence formerly granted, ordered that no elephants be sold by traders to foreign countries, and raised the price of elephants from a thousand nikkhalas to two or three times that price. He also did away with the earlier custom Burma had, of donating an elephant to every ship in which gifts were conveyed. Once when he caught sight of a letter written in

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228 SL Histary Chap.45-54 gold by the king of Lanka, addressed to him, on the pretext that the envoys were going to , had the envoys seized, took all their money and goods, and cast them into prison in the hill country. This was in spite of the fact that he knew his own envoy, Tapassin, had been treated well in Lanka. The feet of the Lankan envoys he had seized, were fastened to logs of wood and they were tortured and made to work in prison. Another time, when a Prince Kassapa from India had sent him a letter in gold, this Monarch of Burma had forbad the envoys to land, and in an insulting manner asked them to take back the letter. One day he summoned the two Sinhala envoys, Vagissara and Dhammakitti and said thus. “Henceforth no vessel from the Sinhala country will be sent to my kingdom. Give us in writing that if envoys are sent, and in case we slay them, no blame will attach to us. If you do not give this declaration, you will not be allowed to return.” After he forced them to sign this, he took the paper from their hands, put the two envoys in a leaking vessel and sent them off. They reached Lanka miraculously. On another occasion he seized the goods and money sent by the king of Lanka to buy elephants and gave nothing in return. He also seized by force, a princess whom the ruler of Lanka was sending to Cambodia This was in the twelfth year of Parakramabahu’s reign. When he heard how Burma had treated the envoys from Lanka, he realised it was time to teach a lesson to this ruler of Burma. “Where in the whole of Jambudipa (India) is there a king capable of treating my envoys this way?” he remarked, and summoned his Ministers and ordered the capture or slaying of the king of Burma. Adicca, the Damila adhikaran, offered to undertake this adventure. Hundreds of ships were built. The coast all round was one great workshop. Provisions for one year, weapons and armour, different kinds of medicines, preserved in cow horns for healing wounds caused by poisoned arrows, and for curing diseases due to infected water in swampy areas, iron pincers for extracting arrow-heads which are sunk deep with the shaft broken, physicians and serving women and all essential items were taken into the ships. An army of many thousand soldiers joined the ships, and they all set out at the same time, giving the appearance of a floating island. Bad winds caused some ships to drift away. Some landed on Crows Island in the Andaman Islands, where a fierce battle was fought and the

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229 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Sinhala soldiers took some people from this island as prisoners. Five ships under the command of Nagaragiri Kitti, landed at Kusumi in Ramanna territory and slew hundreds of Burmese people. The ship with the Damila Adhikaran Adicca landed in the port of Papphalama in Ramanna, and slew many others. They burst into the town of Ukkama and slew the Monarch of Ramanna and took the country into their power. The heroes Kitti and Adicca rode round the city mounted on elephants and by the beat of drum declared the supremacy of the Sovereign of Lanka. [This campaign is confirmed by an inscription at Devanagala in Kegalle district]. The people of Ramanna held counsel and sent letters to the bhikkhus in Lanka stating that year by year they would send any number of elephants to Lanka in order to prevent the Ruler of Lanka destroying them, and pleaded with the bhikkhus to influence the king of Lanka to have mercy on them. Parakramabahu felt sorry and made a pact of friendship with the people of Burma. SINHALA ARMY HELPS THE PANDU KING The Pandu King Parakkama in Madhura was at this time being attacked by the Cola king, Kulasekera. In desperation he sent messages to Lanka for help. Parakramabahu sent General Lankapura with several shiploads of soldiers. They set off from Mannar for the port of Taladilla. By this time Kulasekera had slain the Pandu king, his queen and children. Only one son, Virapandu escaped. As the Lankan ships approached the coast of India, they were met by a rain of arrows from the Tamils. The Sinhalese protected themselves with shields of leather. Lankapura fought them and occupied Ramissara. (Ramesvara). Many Tamils were killed. Others were sent back to Lanka on the advise of King Parakramabahu, to repair cetiyas and other buildings which the Tamils had previously destroyed in Anuradhapura. Lankapura meanwhile built a strong camp in Kundukula in South India. Kulasekera sent his armies from time to time but Lankapura fought them successfully. Then Kulasekera himself came on his horse with his selected army. But his horse was wounded and Kulasekera fled leaving his throne and jewels behind. The Sinhala army captured and killed several of Kulasekera’s officers. Lankapura now heard that the Pandu king Parakkama’s son, Virapandu who escaped from being killed by Kulasekera, was in hiding in the mountainous areas of Pondicherry. Lankapura sent a message asking him to come to Madhura without fear.

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230 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Prince Virapandu came and took over. When this news was conveyed by letter to Parakramabahu he sent many gifts of gold and silver to the Prince. Lankapura and his army had many other battles with Tamil troops. In the meantime Kulasekera came back once again with troops. With more reinforcements from Lanka, Lankapura and his army once again put him to flight. Then Parakramabahu sent messages advising that Prince Virapandu be consecrated king. That was done and men, horses and elephants captured from the Colas were sent to Lanka. In memory of the victory in Pandu, King Parakramabahu founded the village of Panduvijaya. [In an Indian inscription it has been stated that after the initial victories, Lankapura himself was killed at war]. According to Paranavitana, Parakramabahu’s expedition to help the Pandyan King was successful but later he had to get aid from Srivijaya (Kalinga). This aid was apparently given on condition that the daughter of Parakramabahu, Subadra, is given in marriage to Nissanka Malla son of Jayagopa, Maharaja of Kalinga. Apparently, the Sangha did not approve of this. Besides the Culawamsa does not mention of Parakra- mabahu having had a daughter.

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231 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 44

PARAKRAMABAHU IN POLONNARUWA

PURIFICATION OF THE SANGHA Having made Lanka peaceful, Parakramabahu first set about improving the Order. He realised that there were few loyal bhikkhus. His first aim was to bring about unity among the three fraternities. This job was entrusted to the Grand Thera Mahakassapa, who knew the tripitaka and was well versed in the Vinaya. Arrangements were made for Thera Nanapala from Anuradhapura and his pupils, bhikkhus from the province of Sabaragamuwa, thera Mogallana, thera Nangindapalliya and all bhikkhus from Dakkhinadesa (province of the Yuvaraja), those from the three fraternities in Ruhuna headed by thera Nanda of Selantara monastery, and those from the Mahavihara, to meet in Polonnaruwa. The Colas having captured the Sinhala king at Anuradhapura shifted the capital to Polonnaruwa, and this became the from 1055 AD. Since the schism had lasted a long time, many of the bhikkhus would not hear of any reconciliation. Some left to go abroad, some left the order, and others wanted a sitting in the secret court of justice. But the king persevered in his efforts. He had the points in dispute settled as they arose. The king was present as the protector of the Court, with learned bhikkhus, of whom the oldest was Mahakassapa. He was able to establish harmony among those of the Mahavihara. Undisciplined bhikkhus were excluded from the Order, and lucrative jobs were given to them, so that they may not create trouble. Now he set about getting bhikkhus of the Abhayagiri vihara, who had separated from the Mahavihara since the time of King Vattagamani, and those of Jetavana who had separated in the days of King Mahasen into concord with those of the Mahavihara, but he was not very successful. The undisciplined were excluded from the Order, and he purified the Order to some extent. Every year bhikkhus were newly

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232 SL Histary Chap.45-54 ordained at a special Ceremony held on the bank of Mahaveli ganga. THE ECCLESTIASTICAL BUILDINGS OF POLONNARUWA Polonnaruwa had been neglected by the Tamils. It had lost its glory, only its name remained. Parakramabahu set about rebuilding it. According to Dr K.M.De Silva ‘His ambitious and venturesome foreign policy and the expensive diversion of state resources into irrigation projects and public works, civil and religious, sapped the strength of the country, and thus contributed to the sudden and complete collapse which followed soon after his death.’(pg.62). The age of Polonnaruwa is not known. Perhaps it may have been a military station when Anuradhapura was the capital. The Colas who captured King Mahinda V, the last king of Anuradhapura in 1029 AD set up their capital in Polonnaruwa, from where, control of the north and the south were easy. Vijayabahu I (1055-1110) who took the country back from Cola rule was consecrated in Anuradhapura, but used Polonnaruwa as the centre of administration. High walls and three trenches were built all round to fortify the city. Parakramabahu and the kings that followed left behind many ostentatious buildings. The centrepiece of Polonnaruwa is the Quadrangle, which according to K. M. De Silva has been described as, ‘among the most beautiful and satisfyingly proportioned buildings in the entire Indian world.’ It has twelve or more buildings such as the Atadage, Hatadage, Satmal Prasada, and immediately south of these, Mandapaya, the Vatadage and the Thuparama. North of the quadrangle are the Menik Vehera, the Rankot Vehera, the Alahena Pirivena with the Baddhasima Pasada, the Lankatilleke, the Kiri vehera, the Pacchimarama, the Gal vehera, and the Damila Thupa or Unagala vehera. Further south of all these are the Vejayanta Palace, the Kumara Pokuna and the Council Chamber. The ATADAGE so called, because it enclosed eight relics is said to have been built by Vijayabahu I as a temple for the Tooth Relic. The ground floor is decorated with ornamental pillars, on which are ‘embellishments...... which have no rival in the decorative art of the Sinhalese’. The HATADAGE nearby is a temple for the Tooth Relic claimed to have been built by Parakramabahu in sixty Sinhalese hours (one day), and probably restored by Nissanka Malla. It was adorned with glorious pillars, stairways and railings round the terraces.

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233 SL Histary Chap.45-54 It is 36 metres (120 feet) by 27 metres (90 feet) and the wall shows grandiose inscriptions boasting of Nissanka Malla’s deeds. The SATHMAL PRASADA (meaning Edifice of seven storeys) is east of the Hatadage. The builder or the date is not known. It is said to have had seven storeys, ‘each storey a receding replica of the one beneath.’ The topmost storey was small and resembled a box. The stairs go only up to the first floor, and perhaps the other floors were not used. It is believed to have been the residence of the Chief Monk. Nearby is the ‘stone book’ or GAL-POTHA a slab of granite 8 metres (26 feet) by 4 metres (14 feet). “...... the most instructive find of all was an immense slab of granite, the Galpotha on which was inscribed the story of King Parakramabahu’s mighty victories in Dambadiva, India, ending up with a saying that the slab itself was the king’s favourite seat when he wished to allay bodily weariness.” (HW pg. 149). But according to some historians the Galpotha or Stone book has inscriptions of Nissankamalla, of the Kalinga branch of the Sinhalese Royal family, “giving the most grandiose of all Nissanka Malla’s grandiose inscriptions expounding his invasion of India and his relations with other foreign states”. It also states that this stone was dragged there from Mihintale.(IG pg196) South of these is the LATA MANDAPAYA, a pavilion believed to have been built by Nissanka Malla, where he listened to the chanting of religious texts. ‘It is a unique type of Sinhalese architectural monument:, a cluster of granite columns shaped like lotus stems with capitals in the form of opening buds, within a raised platform...... ’.(KMDS pg. 75) The VATADAGE is a circular building claimed to have been built by Nissanka Malla but probably built by Parakramabahu. At each of the entrances are guard-stones and at the top of the steps at each entrance is a seated Buddha image looking out. The heads of these images appear as though fitted with a cap and not showing the usual black ringlets. A similar image has been discovered in Mankur in north India. (Paranavitana). At the centre of the building are remains of a dagoba. Dr K.M.De Silva describes the beautiful Vatage as one of the loveliest examples of Sinhalese architecture. THE THUPARAMA, believed to have been built by Parakramabahu, is the best preserved building in Polonnaruwa. It is not a dagoba but an oblong hall with massive walls, 25 metres tall and 15 metres wide, with brick walls about 2 metres (7 feet) thick, and corbelled overhead to form a vault or gedige. Inside are eight images which have a

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234 SL Histary Chap.45-54 glistening effect. In the inner sanctum is a ruined Buddha image which is older than the Vihara itself, perhaps having been installed from another deserted shrine. North of the quadrangle is the MENIK VEHERA where the dagoba is in ruins. Nearby is the RANKOT VEHERA (golden pinnacle) which is part of the Alahena Pirivena complex and is believed to have been built by Nissanka Malla. It is about fifty-five metres (180 feet) in height and width. “The only dagoba at Polonnaruwa, which rivals the magnificence of sheer size of the trio at Anuradhapura.”. North of this is the beautiful ALAHANA PARIVENA COMPLEX (cremation house). The tallest structure in the Alahana complex is the BADDHASIMA PASADA or Convocation Hall, built for celebrating the solemn rites of the bhikkhus. It is a twelve storey Uposatha house, 33 metres (113 feet) tall and 31 metres (106 feet) wide. It had numbers of apartments, halls and dwelling places and was dedicated to the bhikkhus. The abott's throne, and cells of the bhikkhus are still seen. THE LANKATILLEKE is a charming image house. It is a massive brick building 18 metres (60 feet) in width and height and 52 metres (170 feet) long. It is believed to have had five-storeys with figures of gods and and many apartments. It gives the impression of a church from outside, but it is meant for individual worship and not for congregation. (Paranavitana) A gallery runs round the three sides. In the image house is a gigantic brick image of the Buddha - now headless. An inscription in the building confirms it was built by Parakrambahu. The PACCHIMARAMA OR WEST MONASTERY with twenty- two parivenas and twenty-two two-storeyed long pasadas, forty-one two- storeyed small pasadas, thirty-five privies, and one sermon hall was also dedicated to the bhikkhus. THE UTTARARAMA OR GAL VEHERA (Rock shrine) is a ‘master-piece of Sri Lankan art’ where four large statues have been hewn out of a single huge granite rock, 9 metres (30 feet) tall, representing the three main positions, seated, standing and recumbent. The most southern statue is a seated Buddha image 4.5 meters (15 feet) tall in deep meditation. Behind the head is a halo. Next is a seated Buddha image within a cave, excavated about one metre deep into the rock with various dieties including Brahma and Vishnu around the Buddha figure. Next to this is an upright 7 metre (23 feet) tall figure of Buddha’s favourite disciple Ananda, grieving over his dying master at the moment of entry into parinibbana (death). This stands on a lotus

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235 SL Histary Chap.45-54 with the hands folded across the chest. Some believe that it is the figure of Buddha grieving over the misery of others. (But Buddha images do not normally have the arms folded). To the left of this is a colossal 14 metre (46 feet) long figure of the recumbent Buddha. According to Dr. K.M. de Silva “Galvihara sculptures are the glory of Polonnaruwa and the summit of it’s artistic achievement...... The consummate skill with which the peace of the enlightenment has been depicted, in an extraordinarily successful blend of serenity and strength, has seldom been equalled by any other Buddha image in Sri Lanka.” Writing about these statues, H. Williams states, “The Buddha has about his whole attitude, a marvellous verisimilitude to a resting figure. There is repose in every inch of the stone, and the head rests upon the right hand while the left arm fits naturally and easily along the curve of the thigh. This statue is 46 feet in length, a lovely piece of artistry, although many judges think the figure of Ananda is finer. Certainly the expression of grief on the face of this carved figure is uncanny. This most beloved disciple of Gotama stands there, 26 feet in height, an emblem of grief.” The JETAVANA MONASTERY in Polonnaruwa is said to have consisted of 500 buildings. The 12th Century LOTUS BATH built in tiers of eight petalled lotuses is part of this monastry. The Jetawanarama was a temple and not a dagoba, as the one with the same name in Anuradhapura. It was 30-metres (100 feet) tall, 52- metres (170 feet) long and 24-metres (80 feet) wide. The red brick walls are about 3-metres (12 feet) thick. The entrance is flanked by two huge awe inspiring columns. Against the back wall stands a 18-metre (60 feet) statue of the Buddha. (HW pg.146) ‘This temple was the holiest of all in the king’s city’. He made this monastery as beautiful as the Jetavana in Sravasti, which was presented to Buddha by the rich merchant, Anathapindika. Eight costly pasadas, three-storeys high, nine three-storey image houses adorned with images; long pasadas two- storeys high, seventy-five parivenas; one-hundred and seventy-eight small pasadas; thirty-four gate towers and two houses for book grottos, halls and sleeping quarters were also built. Parakramabahu also built the TIVANKA IMAGE HOUSE for the Tivanka image. It is 39 metres by 21 metres. The walls are covered with paintings of Jataka stories. Here, the standing image of Buddha, is bent thrice, with hips and neck bent in opposite directions. Outside the image house is an enclosed corridor running along three sides of the

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236 SL Histary Chap.45-54 building, with soft sandy floors, for walking meditation. Three sermon halls, eight cloisters, a refectory, eighty-five fire houses of brick and one-hundred and seventy-eight privies were built. Eight bath-houses of stone were erected. He made the bhikkhus take up residence in the Jetawanarama and provided them with all the necessities. In the beautiful ALAHANA PARIVENA (Cremation House) a splendid pasada was built, with rooms and terraces, and a choice of various apartments embellished with turrets, three-storeys high. Forty long pasadas and forty privies, eight small pasadas and the Subadha and Rupavati cetiyas were constructed. A Mahathupa called the DAMILA THUPA (now Unagala Vehera) was built by Tamil prisoners-of-war brought over after the Pandyan war. Being 580-metres (1950 feet) in circumference, it was the widest Thupa, compared to the Mahathupa in Anuradhapura with a circumference of 280-metres (929 feet), or that of Abhayagiri monastery of 330-metres (1115 feet). If completed it would have been the tallest dagoba - a proposed 183-metres(600 feet), but it remained unfinished at a height of 15-meters (50 feet). Today it is a mound of brick. North of the Lankatilleke is the KIRI VEHERA (called milk dagoba because of the white chunam coating), believed to have been built by Queen Subadra, one of Parakramabahu’s wives. It is the best preserved dagoba in Polonnaruwa, with the plaster still intact. In 1983-84, archaeologists discovered a cemetery, a hospital and bath and toilet site at this monastery. The Royal Palace of Parakramabahu is a large building named VEJAYANTA PASADA, in honour of the palace of the god, Indra. “...... A splendid palace like to a matchless structure of Vissakaman (the architect of the gods), charming and peerless”. Three of the seven storeys are left. It is said to have had ‘one-thousand rooms adorned with hundreds of pillars and with ornaments and beautiful climbing plants and flowers. Doors and windows were of gold. The thousands of beds in the rooms were of gold, silver and ivory with costly coverings. The Royal sleeping chamber had bunches of pearls hanging at the four corners, and a wreath of large, golden lampsteads which breathed out perfume of flowers and incense.’ The ground floor is 31 by 10 metres. Empty sockets on the walls of the three floors, show where wooden beams held the upper storeys. A broad stairway can still be seen. Parakramabahu’s Council chamber which is directly east of this, is a hall on a three-tiered stone platform.

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237 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Galpotha

Thuparama in Polonnaruwa

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238 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Two flights of stairs, each with a moonstone, are seen at the entrance. Coming out of the wall behind the palace at ground level is a clay pipe about 15 centimetres in diameter. Nearby are two large holes on the ground, each about one metre in diameter and lined with clay tiles which may have served as ‘septic tanks’ to collect the septic waste that came through the clay pipes. A short distance away is the KUMARA POKUNA, or royal bath. It is well preserved with a paved floor and is fed from Lankatilleke underground, by the Parakrama Samudra. Close to this are the changing rooms and banquet halls. Nearby is the hall in which ‘Courts’ were held. He built the Issipatana Vihara, Kusinara Vihara, Veluvana Vihara, and Kapila Vihara and dedicated them to bhikkhus with all the necessary articles. The COUNCIL CHAMBER of Nissanka Malla is among the most interesting of ruins, for here may be understood some of the pomp of Sinhalese Royalty. On each pillar where the king and court assembled in-state are carved the designation of the ministers and other officers. The king sat on a lion throne at the head of the chamber. On his right stood the heir apparent, the generals of the army, the prime minister and the cabinet, the finance minister and record keepers. On the king’s left, facing the prime minister were the regional governors, and behind them stood the district governors, business men and lesser nobles. (I.G.) There is a large statue which is believed to be that of Parakrambahu. “A bearded corpulent giant, looking out across the plains over which, for centuries the raiders from India swarmed like locusts, destroying, ravaging, looting. Cut in the living rock, he is a remarkable piece of statuary, forty feet high, (12 metres) holding in his hands an Ola or sacred book of palmyra leaves, no doubt as a mark of his deep piety.

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239 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Around his waist is a girdle, richly embroidered and the robe which covers the king’s body is beautifully carved by an unknown artist.” (HW) Today some believe it is of the god, Palasthi. (The statue is really only 5 to 6 meters tall.) Some of the architecture in Polonnaruwa is Hindu. Harry Williams has an explanation for this. “It is of course perfectly clear what had happened to make the Hindu influence so strong in the new capital of the Sinhalese. Driven from their own sacred city, existing for centuries in a state of constant strife, the Sinhalese, although they remained builders and masons, lost their native art. Parakramabahu found it necessary to import architects from south India, probably from the provinces he had conquered, and the bastard architecture is the result. The Jetawanarama and Thuparama in Polonnaruwa, are indistinguishable from similar buildings in India...... ” (pg. 146) Parakramabahu is believed to have built many other buildings such as the Hemamandira for the Brahmans; the Dharanighara or house of incantations; the Mandalamandira for listening to stories of the births of Lord Buddha related by a teacher appointed for that purpose; the Pancasattaimandira for reception of the magic water and the yellow thread given by ascetics; and a sermon house surrounded by coloured curtains and adorned with costly canopies, the interior of which was constantly lit by lamps with scented oil, and was adorned with many statues of Buddha placed inside. Next to his palace was the Sarassatmandapa, the “pavilion of goddess Sarasvati” (goddess of eloquence), where musicians and dancing girls could perform for his entertainment. It had glittering pillars of gold and paintings relating to his great deeds. There were many other buildings constructed during his reign. The Rajavesibhujanga Mandapa was a three-storeyed building adorned with many precious stones. The Ekatthambha pasada was adorned with a golden chamber and placed on a gold column. The Nandana gardens were laid out to look like the heavenly pleasure garden, Nandana. ‘Jasmine creepers which entwined on trees attracted many bees. It had many shrubs, fruit and flower trees. The twitter of birds in this garden and the cry of peacocks delighted people. There were many ponds in it, with red and blue lotuses. It had a large bathroom supported by pillars resplendent with endless rows of figures made of ivory.’ Here the water is said to ‘have come through pipes.’

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240 SL Histary Chap.45-54 A second garden called Dipuyyana or ‘island garden’ north of the present Rest House, was laid down on a promontory near the lake and in it was built the Vijja mandapa, for the various branches of science. Here also was the Dola Mandapa or swing pavilion, in which was a swing hung with tiny bells, and the Kila Mandapa or Sports Pavilion where the king and officials amused themselves. The Curtain or Sani Mandapa, the Peacock or Monara mandapa, and the Pavilion of Mirrors or Adasa mandapa were also built by him. “What we have seen represents only a shadow of the heart of the lost city, for it is known that the jungle for miles in all directions is full of ruins. It is an archaeological paradise ..... Lovely and lonely...... Polonnaruwa has a charm and fascination all its own”. (HW) In Anuradhapura, the originally nine-storey Lovamaha paya which had been destroyed by the Colas, and which was 69 metres (230 feet) in length, breadth and height was restored by raising its one-thousand six-hundred pillars. Ratanavaluka Mahathupa 54 metres (180 feet) tall, Jetavana Thupa 69 metres (232 feet) tall, Abhayagiri 72 metres (240 feet) tall, and Mirisavetiya 36 metres (120 feet) tall were also restored. The Mihintale Cetiya and sixty-four thupas were rebuilt. Laying out of Gardens To enable people to obtain articles of food, large gardens with Coco palms, mango, bread fruit, arecanut, palmyra and other fruit trees, and gardens such as Lakkuyyana, Dipuyyana, and many parks were laid out. In Rajaratta (Polonnaruwa) ninety-nine new thupas were built in villages and market towns. Seventy-three relic shrines and six-thousand image houses were repaired and three-hundred new ones built. Ninety- one Bodhi trees were planted, four-hundred and seventy-six kinds of images, two-hundred and thirty dwellings for bhikkhus, fifty-six sermon halls, nine cloisters, one-hundred and ninety-two chapels with alters for flowers, sixty-seven outer walls and thirteen-temples for Hindu gods, and for bhikkhus coming from foreign lands, twelve parks and two- hundred and thirty rest houses were built. In Dakkhinadesa where he was born, he built the 54 metre (180 feet) tall Sutighara cetiya. Twenty-two relic shrines, one-hundred image houses, fifteen caves, twenty-one dwellings for bhikkhus, eighty-seven rest houses, twenty-nine chapels, seven sermon halls and forty-three images were built and thirty-seven Bodhi trees planted. At the site where his mother, Queen Ratanavali was cremated, in

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241 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Gal Vehera

Kumara Pokuna

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242 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Khiragama in Badalkumbura, near Alupota in Ruhuna, half-way between Buttala and Medagama, the 54 metre (180 feet) tall Ratanavali Cetiya was constructed. Sixteen relic shrines, forty-three two-storeyed image houses, two sermon halls, thirty-seven dwellings for bhikkhus, fifty-nine rest houses for guests and four parks were built. Thirty-seven thupas, twenty-two Bodhi Tree terraces, two-hundred and seventy-four large image houses, a relic temple, seven temples for images in recumbent posture, forty caves, four brick houses, four long pasadas, twenty-nine sermon halls, three cloisters, one-hundred and twenty-six dwelling houses, one-hundred and twenty-eight houses for books, four rest-houses, twenty-four temples for gods, and one-hundred and three tower gates were restored. Over two-hundred leaking tanks like the Pandukolamba and Uruvela were repaired. Tanks and canals were constructed. He built the colossal Sea of Parakrama or Parakrama Samudra, “the life blood of the ancient city,” which still provides water to irrigate 18,200 acres of rice-paddy land through its 5,600 acres of water. It has an embankment rising to 12 metres (40 feet) and stretching for 12 kms (8.5 miles). It incorporated the Topaweva and Dimutuluweva. “One thousand men employed in the hand-labour of that period working 24 hours a day, could scarcely have completed the job in 12 years.” The stone blocks used, weigh over ten tons in weight. Water was diverted through a vast canal called the Akasa-ganga or ‘heavenly ganges’ (now Angamedilla Ela) from the Ambanganga through the Alahara canal. He also built the great tank called Parakramatalaka with a sluice of 45 metres (150 feet). Parakramabahu is said to have had a summer palace built on the Parakrama Samudra. Many new tanks were built and several damaged ones like Mihintale, Kalavapi and Padaviya were repaired. Five-hundred and thirty-four canals were constructed. Over three-thousand damaged ones, including the Jayaganga or Yoda Ela were repaired. Parakramabahu the Great, as he is known, died after ruling for thirty-three years, leaving his wife Queen Lilavati, but no son to succeed him. His reign marked the ‘zenith of Sinhalese greatness’ and ‘marked the peak of Sinhalese achievement in hydraulic engineering’. “The Polonnaruwa kings were heirs to several years of experience in irrigation technology...... But they made a distinctive contribution of their own to cope with the special requirements of the immense irrigation projects constructed at the time” (KMDS)

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243 SL Histary Chap.45-54 This was the last period when major irrigation project were under- taken. According to Tennent, the irrigation tanks were stupendous ruins, but yet “the proudest monuments...... of the former greatness of their country, when the opulence they engendered enabled the kings to lavish untold wealth upon edifices of religion, to subsidise mercenary armies and to fit out expeditions for foreign conquest” (KMDS 69). According to Paranavitana “Parakramabahu was unprincipled and ruthless in the policy which led him to the throne of Polonnaruwa, from his position as ruler of Dakhinadesa. But he made Ceylon economically prosperous and militarily strong”. Still all his achievements in reviving the ancient grandeur of the Kingdom proved to be the Indian Summer of Sinhalese greatness. (IG) Kings of and after did not expose themselves to the hazards of war. They entrusted the military operations to their generals, unlike Dutugemunu and others who fought in the war besides their troops. Parakramabahu is said to have drawn up detailed plans of the campaign and given them to his officers to carry out. The fullest detailed ground plan of a palace complex so far unearthed, is Parakramapura (Panduwasnuwera), where Parakramabahu resided when he ruled over Malayarata. The main building is 80 metres (268 feet) by 50 metres (168 feet) with a spacious courtyard in front...... The planner of this edifice had given thought to proper ventilation and to sanitary arrangements. (Paranavitana)

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244 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Vejayante Palace

Pictures

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245 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Lotus Bath

Tivanka image house

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246 SL Histary Chap.45-54 Statue of Parakramabahu (god Pulasthi)

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247 SL Histary Chap.45-54 picture

Sea of Parakrama

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248 SL Histary Chap.45-54 249

249 SL Histary Chap.45-54 CHAPTER 45

ELEVEN RULERS IN POLONNARUWA (1186-1236)

VIJAYABAHU II (1186-1187 AD) Vijayabahu the son of Parakramabahu’s sister succeeded him. He perhaps was the son of a Kalinga Prince, and was living in Simhapura, the capital of Kalinga, when Parakramabahu summoned him to Lanka. Pakramabahu himself was the grandson of Tilokasundari, who was brought from Kalinga to marry King Vijayabahu I. Vijayabahu II was a poet. He released all the people his uncle, the former king had put in prison and tortured with stripes or fetters He restored to the people, the villages and fields they had lost. He attempted to “reverse Parakramabahu’s policies” (Paranavitana). This tends to show him as a kind king in contrast to his uncle who had been “a severe, if not cruel king, who made his subjects slave that he might gratify his love of splendour”. (Culawamsa pg125-footnote). Vijayabahu composed a letter in Magadha language and sent it to the Monarch in Arimaddana, capital of Ramanna (lower Burma), to make a friendly treaty as his great-grandfather Vijayabahu I had done. Perhaps Magadha had been an international language at the time. [It is fortunate that these kings coming direct from a foreign country could get on so well with the people, who most probably would have spoken only Sinhalese.] Vijayabahu II, known as Pandita Vijayabahu, was like a Bodhisatta, and had noble qualities which endeared him to the people. He practised justice and was respected by the laity and the bhikkhus. He had ruled for one year when he was slain by one Mahinda of Kulinga clan, husband of a cowherd called Dipani. But this man himself was murdered in five days and the Uparaja of Vijayabahu, a prince from Kalinga, named Kirtinissanka who had come to Lanka on the invitation of Vijayabahu, became king as Nissanka Malla.

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250 SL Histary Chap.55-64 KIRTINISSANKA - KING NISSANKA MALLA (1187-96) Nissanka Malla was born in Simhapura in Kalinga, to King Jayagopa and Queen , and was perhaps a nephew of Parakramabahu. Vijayabahu II probably invited him to Lanka and made him Viceroy or Uparaja. He was the second prince from the pure Kalinga dynasty to rule Lanka. In the many inscriptions he left in all parts of Lanka, including that on the huge stone slab at Polonnaruwa named Galpota or stone book, “he is careful to inculcate the right of the family (Kalinga) to the throne of Lanka, basing this claim on the ancestry of Vijaya.” (Cod. pg 65). ‘Without doubt this right was much disputed, and it looks as if the bombastic style of Nissanka Malla’s inscriptions had the object of increasing the prestige of the new Kalinga dynasty in Ceylon’. (Culawansa footnote.) After his consecration as king, Nissanka Malla built a beautiful stone temple for the Tooth Relic in Polonnaruwa. He had his unusual throne on the colossal stone figure of a lion. (Probably to emphasise his connection to the Sinhala race). The Ratanaveli cetiya (south of Alahana parivena) built by Parakramabahu was restored and a gold tope put on it. Hence it is now called the RANKOT VEHERA, or golden pinnacle vihara. It is 36 metres (120 feet) in height and diameter, the second largest in Polonnaruwa. Surrounding it are an inner and outer wall about 30 feet apart. Within the inner wall is a cell for monks, and outside the outer wall is another residence for monks. The famous ROCK CAVES OF DAMBULLA, 75 kilometres (47 miles) north of Kandy, were embellished by Nissanka Malla and according to an inscription he called them the Swarnagiriguha. This is one of the most impressive of cave temples and comprises of five caves called Raja Maha Vihara. These were the rock caves in which King Vattagamini (103 BC) took refuge when he fled from a Tamil invasion. In these caves there are 48 statues of the Buddha alone! The king regularly ascended Adams Peak to worship at the foot print of Buddha. He had flower and fruit gardens, and a number of houses built for bhikkhus. Nissanka Malla is said to have been a very good king. Jambukola Vihara built by Devanampiyatissa in the very north of Lanka, with walls and pillars of gold and silver, and red lead floors, was restored and seventy-three statues of the Buddha placed in it.

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251 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Taxes were reduced and he gave generously to the Sangha. Milestones were set up along the road from Mahagama to Kataragama, and Buttala to Bibile. He attempted to surpass Parakramabahu in the magnitude and splendour of his buildings and tried to obtain the goodwill of his people by his liberality and good goverment. Around this time the larger gold coin disappeared from circulation showing the state of poverty the island had fallen into, perhaps due to the enormous expenses incurred in constructing the grandiose buildings of Parakramabahu and Nissanka Malla! According to Paranavitana, Parakramabahu I and his successors at Polonnaruwa issued copper coins “The transformation of Polonnaruwa into a gracious cosmopolitan city was the work of three kings, Vijayabahu I, Parakramabahu I and Nissanka Malla and this development could be measured in generations if not in decades, and not, as in Anuradhapura, in centuries...... The comparatively short period in which the architecture and sculptural splendours of Polonnaruwa were created, is no doubt testimony to the dynamism and creativity of its rulers, and people. It had its sombre side as well, for in retrospect the activity seems febrile, and this conspicuous investment in monuments, must have impaired the economic strength of the kingdom and contributed greatly to the rapid decline, that set in after the reign of Nissanka Malla”. (KMDS pg.77) “By now the proverbial resilience of the Sinhala kingdom of the dry zone was gone, because the latter’s resources of vitality had been impaired beyond replenishment by the feverish activity of the three major rulers of the Polonnaruwa kingdom”.(KMDS pg.81) Nissanka Malla died after ruling for nine years, and was succeeded by his son Virabahu who ruled only for one day - the shortest reign in history. With Nissanka Malla’s death there followed a period of nearly twenty years of political instability, with the Kalinga and Pandya factions fighting for mastery over Lanka.

VIKKAMABAHU II (1196) Vikkamabahu, the younger brother of Nissanka Malla, was the next king and in three months he was slain by his sister’s son Codaganga. CODAGANGA (1196-1197) Codaganga, nephew of King Nissanka Malla ruled for nine months and was slain by a powerful general named Kitti who put Queen Lilavati (1197-1200), Parakramabahu’s widow on the throne. She ruled

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252 SL Histary Chap.55-64 for three years. She was a daughter of Sirivallabha and Sugala. SAHASSAMALLA (1200-1202) Sahassamalla, probably a half brother of Nissanka Malla, and a courageous general, then took over and ruled for two years. According to an inscription in Polonnaruwa, Sahassamalla took the throne on Wednesday 23rd August 1200 AD. So this therefore is one of the dates absolutely certain in Sri Lanka’s history. QUEEN KALYANAVATI (1202-1208) Sahassamalla was deposed by another general called Ayasmanta from the Khandhavara family, who put Kalyanavati, the Queen of Nissanka Malla on the throne, and ruled the whole island wisely on her behalf. A vihara in her name was constructed in Pannasalaka and several villages and fields assigned to it. Ayasmanta sent Adhikarin Deva to Weligama where the Sarajakulavaddhana parivena and vihara were built in his name. He had a text book on law compiled. Then he raised to the throne a five-month old baby prince named Dhammasoka. But a great army from Cola headed by Mahadipada Anikanga, came over and slew Ayasmanta and the baby king and ruled for seventeen days. QUEEN LILAVATI AND KING LOKISSARA (1209-1212) A general named Vikkantacamunakka or Manakka Senevi slew Anikanga and carried on the government for one year with Queen Lilavati, the widow of Parakrambahu I on the throne. In 1210 AD Lokissara came from India with a Damila army and brought the whole of Lanka under his power, and ruled from Polonnaruwa for nine months. QUEEN LILAVATI (1211-12) : PARAKKAMAPANDU (1212-15) A general named Parakkama belonging to the family of Kalanagaras, who was endowed with power and courage took over the throne and consecrated Queen Lilavati the queen of Parakramabahu I in 1212 AD. This was the third time that Queen Lilavati ascended the throne. Within seven months of Lilavati taking over with general Parakkama conducting the affairs of the state, a Pandu king named Parakkama- pandu came from India with a large army and deposed Queen Lilavati and her general Parakkama, and took over. He ruled the whole island for three years as King Parakkamapandu II.

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253 SL Histary Chap.55-64 MAGHA (1215-1236 AD) The political instability in the island once more attracted the Colas and the Pandyans and culminated in a devastating campaign of pillage under Magha of Kalinga from which the Rajarata never recovered. In 1215 AD, Magha came from Kalinga, with twenty-four thousand troops and took over the country. According to the Culawamsa, “the great scorching fire (Magha) commanded his countless flames (his warriors) to harass the great forest (the kingdom of Lanka).” His troops boasting, “we are Kerala warriors” oppressed the people, tearing off their garments and ornaments, cutting off their hands and feet, destroying houses and cattle, ravaging the image houses, cetiyas and viharas, and tormenting bhikkhus. They flogged children and tore up and destroyed famous books. The Ratanavali cetiya and relics were destroyed. Magha captured Polonnaruwa and King Parakkamapandu II. The eyes of the Pandu king were put out and his treasures and jewels were plundered. These foreign warriors then consecrated Magha as king. “This Magha like a fierce drought, commanded his army of strong men to ransack the kingdom of Lanka, even as a wild fire doth a forest...... Even so did those giants like the giants of Mara, destroy the kingdom and the land...... a decisive blow from which the low country never recovered.” (HW pg. 73). According to Dr K.M.De Silva, “the orgy of destruction in which his cohorts indulged in are regarded as the climacteric in the deracination of Lanka’s hydraulic civilisation. Yet the fact remains that many of the invasions of preceding centuries, notably that of the Cola ruler Rajaraja, were just as destructive.....” (pg. 81) Magha ruled in Polonnaruwa. People were forced to adopt Hinduism. Property and relics belonging to Sinhalese were seized and given to Keralites. He continued his tyrannical reign for twenty-one years in Polonnaruwa. The viharas and parivenas were given to one or other of his warriors. After his death in 1255, Polonnaruwa ceased to be the capital and Sinhalese kings retreated to the southwest of the island, realising that Polonnaruwa was just as vulnerable as Anuradhapura. Magha “was no more than a satellite of the Colas” His south Indian chiefs established control over parts of the Vanni. “In the meantime Tamil settlers occupied peninsula and much of the land between Jaffna and Anuradhapura known as the Vanni; they were joined by Tamil members of the invading armies, often mercenaries, who chose to settle in Sri Lanka rather than return to India with the rest of their

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254 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Yapahu Rock Fortress

compatriots. It would appear that by the thirteenth century the Tamils too withdrew from the Vanni and thereafter their main settlements were confined almost entirely to the Jaffna peninsula and possibly also to several scattered settlements near the Eastern seaboard. By the 13th century an independent Tamil kingdom had been established with the Jaffna Peninsula as its base.” (KMDS pg 63) At this time the Colas were the dominant power in South India, and the Pandyans were struggling to maintain themselves as a distinct political power. “...... as long as Cola was the dominant power, Sri Lanka’s alliance with the Pandyans continued”. According to K.M.De Silva, Parakramabahu (1153-86) contributed to prevent the establishment of a Cola hegemony over South India. Had the Colas been left unopposed they could have been a greater threat to Sri Lanka., and it may have endangered Parakramabahu’s own position by espousing the cause of Sri Vallabha (a son of Parakramabahu’s cousin Manabharana) who was living in exile in Cola country at the time. Sri Vallabha’s invasion later was a failure. At this time not only was Cola involvement in Sri Lanka a strain on the island’s economy, it impaired Cola power and they were on the verge of being eclipsed by the Pandyas.

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255 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 46

DAMBADENIYA KINGS (1232 - 1270)

FOUNDING OF DAMBADENIYA (YAPAHU)

During the period under Magha, several virtuous Sinhalese fled to the inaccessible mountains and founded new towns. Polonnaruwa ceased to be the capital city. In the face of repeated invasions from south India, the Sinhala people and their rulers felt they had to retreat further south into the hills and wet zones. Senapati Subha founded Subhapabbata (now Yapahu) on the Subha mountain near Maho. Govindamala, another beautiful town in the province of Ruhuna town was founded by Adipada Bhuvanekabahu. A general called Sankha founded a superb town on the lofty mountain called Gangadoni in the district of Manimekhala, which was not very far from the city of Polonnaruwa. Thus they helped to protect the bhikkhus and the Order. VIJAYABAHU III IN DAMBADENIYA (1232-1236) At this time there was a king called Vijayabahu belonging to the line of King Samghabodhi, living in the Vanni in North-Central Province. He was a courageous man and is believed to have descended from the north Indian princes who brought the Bo sapling to Lanka. Bringing the Sinhalese under his influence, he marched to meet the foe. After a mighty battle he was able to eliminate the Cola enemies and free Mayarata (Dakkhinadesa). A splendid town, now called Dambadeniya, was built by him on the summit of Jambuddoni mountain. He was the first king to reign outside Anuradhapura or Polonnaruwa. Large numbers of the Sangha had left Polonnaruwa carrying with them the Almsbowl and Tooth Relic to live in Mayarata. There on Kotthumala mountain they carefully buried both relics for protection. Other bhikkhus headed by Thera Vacissara had crossed over to India. Vijayabahu now sent his dignitaries and requested all the theras to come back. Treating them with respect and with reverence he inquired,

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256 SL Histary Chap.55-64 where the Tooth Relic and Alms bowl were. When told where they were, he was filled with joy. He himself led his army to the Kotthumala mountain and after a festival performed round the mountain, the relics were brought to Dambadeniya. Here the pious people held a great festival. The king felt as though he had attained . He decided that the Relics should be protected so that no alien enemies could get at them. He ordered that Billasela mountain (now Beligala), a steep and isolated rock, be made inaccessible on all sides, by building walls and gate towers so that “save by the gods, it could not be trodden by any human foes.” On the summit of this rock a superb temple like a divine palace was built for the Tooth and Bowl Relics, and around the temple, parks for bhikkhus with pasadas and mandapas, lakes and bathing ponds were laid out. Deeply grieved that so many valuable books of Buddhism had been destroyed by alien foes, he called together those who were endowed with good memory and knowledge, were pious and well instructed, free from indolence and skilled in writing, and made them write down carefully the eighty-four-thousand divisions of the doctrine. He also brought about unity between the various groups of bhikkhus and the entire sangha was provided with the eight articles of necessity. A Ceremony of Admission to the Order was held. King Vijayabahu built a monastery and a park called Srivijayasundara in Dambadeniya. He gave all essential articles to the bhikkhus. A Convocation for the reform of priestly discipline was held around 1232 AD. In Vattalagama (Wattala) on the bank of Kelani ganga a little above its mouth, the Vijayabahu Vihara was built. The Kalyani Vihara (Kelani Vihara) and its image house which had been destroyed by Tamils, was repaired. The king ordered that all pasadas, image houses, viharas, parivenas, cetiyas, mandapas, gate-towers and all buildings in Mayarata be restored to the condition they were in before the enemy came. Reflecting that he was getting old, Vijayabahu III looked for bodily signs in his two sons, Parakramabahu and Bhuvenakabahu, to find out who was more suitable to succeed him. He felt that, “the elder son Parakramabahu would accomplish through the majesty of his power, the destruction of the enemy, would unite all Lanka under one umbrella, so that none shall be above him, and he will further the Order of the Omniscient one, will spread his fame over the chief and the intermediate regions of the heavens, will receive from the most diverse countries gifts

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257 SL Histary Chap.55-64 as princesses for his women’s apartments, and will be for long, a world ruler on the island.” When he realised this, his eyes were filled with tears of joy. He called his sons and kissed them. He then gave both his sons, Parakramabahu and Bhuvenakabahu, much excellent advice and made them by training, practised in all arts and accomplishments. He entrusted the elder son to the community of Bhikkhus headed by Samgharakkhita. He also entrusted the relics to this Thera and after four years as king, he passed away. King Vijayabahu III was cremated at Attanagalla. KING PARAKRAMABAHU II IN DAMBADENIYA (1236-1270) After the death of his father Parakramabahu became king and his consecration took place in 1236 AD. On account of his learning he was called Kalikala-sahicca-sabbanupandita which means, “a scholar who is familiar with the literature of the Kali Age” (the present Age). He conferred the dignity of Yuvaraja on his brother Bhuvenakabahu and gave him a part of the kingdom. Before going to war with the Tamils, he held a festival for the Tooth Relic. With great pomp and pageantry it was brought down from the Billasela mountain to Dambadeniya, and so that he could worship it three times a day, he had a Temple for the Tooth Relic built near his palace. A costly casket was fashioned out of a precious stone and the Tooth was placed in it. This was then placed in a large costly jewel case of bright precious stones. A second splendid chest of gold was made to place the casket, and a third chest of silver fashioned to place the second. He then took the relic in his hand and in the midst of the Great Community of bhikkhus made a declaration. “Our sublime Buddha visited this island thrice and having sojourned here, made sixteen places hallowed by his presence. There- fore it is that when Lanka is not under the power of a false faith, but under power of kings of true faith, it flourishes in the right manner. In the past, Asela son of Mutasiva conquered Tamils, Sena and Guttika, Dutugemunu vanquished Elara of the Cola race, Vattagamani defeated five very cruel Tamil rulers, Dhatusena subdued six Tamil kings, and Vijayabahu I put to flight the Colas and Tamils and protected the Order. Now I too must vanquish the insolent Tamils who have destroyed our Viharas, and the Order of

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258 SL Histary Chap.55-64 the Master, and still are living in Polonnaruwa, the two Kings Magha (Maghinda) & Jayabahu. If I after destroying the alien foe in war, may accomplish the furtherance of the laity and the Order, may the Tooth Relic now perhaps make manifest to me a fair miracle.” At this moment the Tooth Relic rose from the king’s hand, ‘assumed the form of the Buddha, diffused clusters of light of six different hues which illuminated the town, and then settled back on the palm’. The people and the bhikkhus who saw this miracle rejoiced and applauded. Parakramabahu said, “This day have I gained life. Having beheld such a miracle and having seen the blessing of merit richly earned by the people, I now have been enrolled among those earlier rulers of men famed for the fulness of their virtues in this Order of the Sage”. He then made an offering to the Tooth Relic and laid it carefully in the casket. This casket was placed in three other caskets one inside the other and placed in the relic temple. Parakkamabahu II built a vast and rich vihara in his birth place in Sirivaddhana, near Jambuddoni (Dambadeniya). The road from Sirivaddhana to Dambadeniya was levelled and strewn with white sand and adorned with flowers. The people were made to form a circle over a space of two miles, and give forth shouts of praise. The king decked in all his finery and accompanied by his four-membered army, placed the two relics on a costly chariot and brought them to Sirivaddhana. They were placed in a spacious mandapa, in the midst of the vihara on a covered Buddha seat. For three nights the whole area was lit with thousands of lamps and festoons of tiny camphor lamps, making it look like the starry firmament. His younger brother Bhuvanekabahu built in the Billasela Vihara, the Bhuvanekabahu Parivena, and embellished it with pasadas and mandapas and a seven-day long festival was held. In Hatthigiripura (‘elephant hill town’- Kurunegala), the Yuvaraja Bhuvanekabahu built the Mahamahindabahu parivena. The decayed five -storeyed pasada built in Kelani by Yatthala Tissa, son of Devanampiyatissa’s brother Mahanaga, was restored. The two-storeyed circular relic temple erected by Gothabhaya, at the spot where Sirisangabodhi gifted his head to the poor man in the Attanagala forest,

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259 SL Histary Chap.55-64 was repaired and made three-storeys tall. In this monastery, where his own father’s funeral pyre was, a superb cetiya and an octagonal image house with a stone image of the Buddha was built. Having heard that a single tooth of Thera Mahakassapa who had received the path of salvation in the time of Buddha, was preserved in a Vihara in Bhimatittha (), he went with the army and held a great festival. A grand Katina ceremony was held and robes given to eighty bhikkhus, in honour of the eighty disciples of Buddha, “who is the bridge over the shoreless terrible ocean of the cycle of rebirths.” LITERARY ACHIEVEMENTS In the reigns of the Dambadeniya kings, Parakramabahu II and his father, Vijayabahu III, a revival occurred in the field of literature. Parakrambahu, a scholar himself, is believed to be the author of Kavsilumina, an extensive poem based on the Kusajataka story. It was about 1266 AD that the Pujavaliya, the earliest classical Sinhala prose work, and the Saddharma Ratnavaliya, a compendium of Buddhist stories mainly based on the Pali Dhammapadakatha, were written. Here the author retells, in the language and idiom of the people, stories of the Dhammapada and by this, “captures the imagination of his readers and listeners, as much by a delightful lucidity of style and charming humour, as by the moral tone of the stories and their didactic purpose.” (KMDS 94) During the time of Parakramabahu II who recovered both Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa from invaders, the Vanniyars occupied the land between Jaffna and Anuradhapura. They were entrusted with the safety of Anuradhapura. The citizens felt great fear, and also joy and love for King Parakramabahu II and never wanted to transgress his commands. He reduced punishment for wrong doers. Those whose heads were to be cut off according to law, were put in fetters and later freed. Those who deserved to be banished from the country were fined instead. The king ‘set about subjugating the people by the power of his majesty and the might of his loving spirit’. All the small rulers in the Vanni, and the courageous men in the three states, were all brought under his influence. He then set about overthrowing the fortresses built by Tamil warriors. There were such fortifications in Polonnaruwa by Kings Maghinda

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260 SL Histary Chap.55-64 (Magha) and Jayabahu, in Kotthasara near Polonnaruwa, in Gangatalaka (now Kantalai), in Kakalaya, in Padi district, and Kurundi in Pihitirata, in Mantai and Mahatittha (Mannar) in the Gona district at Madhupa- dapatittha and Sukaratittha. There were over 44,000 Tamil and Kerala soldiers, who were chased out from their fortresses. They all fled to Polonnaruwa and decided to take their horses and elephants, precious stones and pearls and leave. On their way out they were intercepted at Kalavapi by the Sinhala army, who took their possessions and killed them. Thus Parakramabahu II was able to unite the whole country and bring prosperity to all Lanka. INVASION BY JAVAKAS IN 1247 AD But Sri Lanka was not destined to see the end of foreign domination. In the eleventh year of the reign of King Parakramabahu II around 1247, Chandrabhanu, a Javaka from , a petty kingdom in Malay Peninsula, landed with an army carrying blow-pipes and poisoned arrows, pretending to be Buddhists, and attacked Polonnaruwa. They harrassed the people and ravaged the country just as Magha did before. Parakramabahu sent his sister’s son, the heroic Prince Virabahu to fight the Javakas. The Sinhala soldiers were able to shatter the poisoned arrows that were shot swiftly from a machine by the Javakas. Virabahu was able to put all the enemy soldiers to flight and free Lanka from the foe. Chandrabanu fled to the north and set himself up in Jaffna and was the ruler in Jaffna at the time of Pandyan invasion.(KMDS pg 67) According to Paranavitane in “Sinhalayo”, Magha who came from Kalinga meddled in the politics of Kalinga while ruling in Polonnaruwa. He had his eldest son Chandrabanu installed as king of Tambralinga. Later Chandrabanu became Maharaja, and undertook two expeditions to Lanka. Paranavitana futher states that Chandrabanu’s rule in Jaffna “was the origin of Javaka (Yapane or Yapapatuna) kingdom in north Ceylon which later gave place to the kingdom of Ariya Chakravarti.” Names such as Chavakacheri meaning Javaka’s settlement, Chavankottai and Javakakotte meaning Javaka forts, came from this period. Virabahu erected a parivena called Nandana, in Devanagara () which means joy or delight. The king then gave back to the rightful owners all the property and fields that the invaders had taken from them and tried to ensure that people had enough food. All corrupt bhikkhus were disrobed. Gifts were sent to India to get down bhikkhus who had

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261 SL Histary Chap.55-64 moral discipline and were versed in the Tripitaka. He established harmony between the two Orders, Theravada and Mahayana. The Grand Thera named Dhammakitti, a highly principled bhikkhu, ‘radiant in the glory of moral discipline’ from Tambarattha in South India, was invited to Lanka. For the eight Grand Theras who dwelt in the eight sanctuaries, and for forest bhikkhus, communal monasteries. He sought out the really pious bhikkhus endowed with the virtues of renunciation who were steadfast in the precepts, and built for them a rock dwelling on the Putabhatta rock. “He made Lanka, through them, an abode of arahants.” Books were obtained from Jamdudipa (India) and arrangements made for many bhikkhus to receive instruction in the sacred texts, sciences and philosophy. Prince Bhuvenakabahu was advised to obtain instruction in the three Pitakas so that he could carry out the precepts for the theras and hold lectures of instruction for them.

DISTRIBUTION OF PERFORMANCE OF PIOUS WORKS Parakramabahu II thought, “Since I now wield dominion over all Lanka, it is a heavy burden to go hither and thither.....” Hence he decided to hand over to his pious dignitary, Devapattiraja the task of doing meritorious works. Clearing of the road leading to Adam’s peak, restoration of the five storeyed pasada built by Upatissa with a roofing of golden bricks, which had since fallen into disrepair, and laying out of a park in his name with coco palms, just as King Nissanka Malla had done in Bhimatitthavihara (Bentota), were all entrusted to him. Devapattiraja had a figure of Sumanadeva (Guardian spirit of Siripada- Adam’s Peak) made. He took this in procession to the village of Bodhitala. The jungles were cleared, roads constructed, rest houses were built, and the image taken to Adam’s Peak where a cetiya and mandapa were made for the footprint of Buddha. The mandapa was secured with strong chains to iron pillars. A stone inscription giving details was set up At Attanagala vihara, a three-storeyed pasada was constructed at great cost and handed over to Grand Master Anomadassin of the monastery. At Bentota at the mouth of the Kaluganga, a 38 metre (129 feet) long bridge was built and a park laid out between Kalutara and Bentota, with fruit trees. The vast Mahalabujagaccha forest was cleared and jak trees planted. A three-storey image house surrounded by Bo trees, was

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262 SL Histary Chap.55-64 constructed in the king’s name, as ordered. When he returned and told the king what he had achieved, the king took him to the Temple of the Tooth and dedicated him and his family to the Tooth Relic, and gave to him, the village of Mahalabujagaccha and other villages built by him, as his hereditary property. A FAMINE A great drought occured across the island and a famine arose. Parakkamabahu II held a great festival for the three sacred objects-- The Tooth, The Bowl and the Bodhi Tree, and had the bhikkhus recite pirith. Soon after, rain clouds gathered and rain with lightning and thunder resulted. The people were happy and said, “A king like him there has not been, and never will be”. THE HANDING OVER OF THE BURDEN OF DOMINION The Three Kinds Of Sons : Realising that running the whole of Lanka was a burden on him, Parakramabahu II invited his five sons, Vijayabahu, Bhuvanekabahu, Tibhuvanamalla, Parakramabahu and Jayabahu, and his sister’s son Virabahu, and spoke to them. “Dear ones hearken to my words. There are in this world three kinds of sons - the low kind, those of like kind and those of higher kind. Those who know not how to enjoy at its true worth the wealth of their parents, but destroy it, as monkeys would do to a wreath of flowers, and then live without wealth, the ancients have called them ‘sons of a low kind’. Those who enjoy those possessions as their fathers did, protecting them as family heritage are ‘sons of like kind’. Those who besides the family heritage, acquire many other possessions and as prudent people enjoy in happiness, these are ‘sons of a higher kind.’ From my father I inherited Mayarata. But I have conquered the other two provinces, brought the whole country under one umbrella and vanquished the Tamils and kings of the Vanni. I have brought here daughters from Jambudipa so that you have kinsmen in foreign lands. I have gathered enough wealth to last seven generations, protected honest people and brought amity to the Order. So I have become for my father, a son of a higher kind. As king Sagara of the race of Okkaka divided his empire among his sixty thousand sons, and just as in the past, ten brothers divided Jambudipa into ten parts and ruled wisely, you also shall divide this country and supporting one another hold sway in able fashion but never expose a weakness to your

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263 SL Histary Chap.55-64 enemies.” He then summoned the Bhikkhu Community and asked for their advise as to who should succeed him. They all decided in favour of the eldest son Prince Vijayabahu, who they said was “very religious and trusted by the people. Both old and young when they had problems, even children, who were beaten by parents, came to Vijayabahu for advice. Children even as young as three years of age when asked whom they wish to serve, voted for Prince Vijayabahu. When people had no money to pay taxes, he gave his own money and freed them from distress.” The king’s eyes filled with tears. He called his eldest son and told him what had to be done. “The Ratanavali cetiya destroyed by foes had to be restored. Polonnaruwa had to be restored to what it was before, and the sacred Relics taken there.” Thus around 1268 he abdicated, in favour of his eldest son Vijayabahu, piously hoping that the five sons and nephew will live in peace.

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264 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 47

KING VIJAYABAHU IV (1270 - 1272 AD) The eldest son of Parakramabahu II known as “Bosat” Vijayabahu gave his consent and became the next king. He was determined to show his old father that he was a ‘Son of the higher kind.’ He looked around for someone who could be ‘a friend among the seven elements of government - a ruler, minister, friend, trustworthy, clever counsellor, a comrade in misfortune, who speaks the truth and who would be good to me’. He realised that Prince Virabahu, the son of his father’s sister with whom he had been friendly since they played together as children, was the best choice. He summoned Virabahu and entrusted him with ‘the position of a devoted friend’. Vijayabahu had the Temple for the Relics in Dambadeniya completed. His brother Tilokamalla was given charge of the troops between Dambadeniya and the southern sea, and asked to reside in Wattala, to protect his father from the south. His other brother Bhuvenakabahu, was sent to Subhagiri (Yapahu) to protect his father being attacked from the north. The two younger brothers, Parakramabahu and Jayabahu were left with the father, and he marched with his cousin Prince Virabahu to Polonnaruwa, having first obtained permission from his father. The father was determined to go with him. But he kindly advised the father to remain in Dambadeniya. The old king then issued the order, “all who cherish my son, let them accompany him”. Many wanted to go with him. Certain dignitaries who were lazy were admonished by their wives thus, “You may come with us or not, but we are going with the king who seeks the best, and we shall dwell with him in the newly restored town”. A large gathering turned up, but Vijayabahu entreated most of them to stay behind. He marched with his army to the high fortress of Vatagiri (Vakirigala), built a palace there and deposited the treasures given to him by his father. A fine monastery was built for the Grand Thera of the Mahanettapasada. From here they went to Gangasiripura (Gampola) and restored the ruined viharas. The next stop was Hattigiripura (Kurunegala) where he paid his

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265 SL Histary Chap.55-64 respects to his uncle, Bhuvanekabahu, by erecting a three-storeyed image-house at the place he was cremated. A statue of him was placed there. He next went to Yapahu. A palace was built in Yapahu for his brother Bhuvenakabahu. SECOND INVASION BY CHANDRABANU Chandrabanu, the Javaka, who remained in Jaffna after he lost his battle with King Parakkamabahu II in 1247, now faced a Pandyan invasion and was forced to become a Pandyan satellite. But once again with an army of Pandyans, Colas and Malays, Chandrabanu landed in Mahatittha (Mannar). Having brought over to his side the Sinhalese living in the nearby areas, Chandrabanu marched to Yapahu, and sent a message to Vijayabahu, “I shall take Tisihala (the three states). Yield to me the dominion and the relics. If thou will not, then fight.” Vijayabahu went forth with Virabahu and a great battle was fought. The Pandyans who had been subservient to the Colas for 300 years, and rose to prominence in south India only after the fall of the Cola kingdom, now came to the rescue of the Sinhala king. Chandrabanu fled, leaving his beautiful women, his horses, elephants, and many treasures, but he lost his life. The Pandyans, not inclined to give the north of Jaffna back to the Sinhalese, now installed a son of Chandrabanu as the king of Jaffna. When he too became a threat to the Sinhala people, the Pandyans invaded and put their own man, Aryacakavarti, the leader of the Pandyan army of invasion, as king. But at this time Muslims overran Pandya and the Pandyan kingdom collapsed. By this, Aryacakravarti became an independent ruler of Jaffna. (KMDS 67) around 1247 AD. RESTORATION OF ANURADHAPURA AND POLONNARUWA The next step was to restore Anuradhapura. The forest that had grown around Thuparama was cleared. The restoration of the Ruvanveli Cetiya started by his father was re-commenced, and the chief Thera of the Senanatha parivena (which was built by Udaya II) was entrusted with the task of supervising the work. The Vanni Chiefs who visited him with gifts were charged with the task of protecting Anuradhapura. Vijayabahu IV then went to Polonnaruwa with Virabahu. He said to Virabahu, “This town which has lost all its glory, we shall again make glorious.” A message was sent to his father for advise. The old king was very happy. He summoned many different types of craftsmen and sent them to Polonnaruwa with large amounts of money. Vijayabahu

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266 SL Histary Chap.55-64 had the tanks repaired. Valuable fields were newly planted and the whole city restored to what it was before. It was now comparable to Mithila in Bihar, Kancipuri in south India,, Savatthi, Madhura on the river Jumna, Varanasi (Benares), Vesali, or Campapuri (now Bhagalpur). These were seven famous cities in India at the time. He then invited his father for his coronation which was held in the city of Polonnaruwa. The celebrations lasted for seven days. The 125 kilometre (75 mile) route from Dambadeniya to Polonnaruwa was widened and levelled, and the Relics brought by chariot to Polonnaruwa. A ceremony of admission to the Order was held at Sahassatittha, now Dastota, a ford over Mahaveli ganga, south of Polonnaruwa. The Vanni kings came with large amounts of rice and other articles needed. Bhikkhus who were deserving, were granted the ranks of Grand Master, Chief Thera and Grand Thera. “All this meritorious work I have done in the name of my royal father”, Vijayabahu announced. Soon after, Parakkamabahu II returned to Dambadeniya where he died in the 35th year of his reign, in 1270. “Bosat” Vijayabahu was a good king and did not enforce payment of taxes. Instead he supplied the deficiency from the royal coffers. Probably his death was due to his having failed to pay the mercenaries. The economy had suffered so badly, that by this time the gold coin had become a copper coin.! Vijayabahu was assassinated in October 1272 in the second year of his reign, by his general Mitta who paid a slave to slay the king. Bhuvanekabahu, the king’s brother, who was the rightful heir, fled to Yapahu in fear. The usurper however, failed to get support from the Rajput mercenaries, who then killed him. The mercenaries and Sinhala soldiers united to bring Bhuvenakbahu to Dambadeniya and he was crowned in 1272.

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267 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 48

TEN KINGS OF LANKA 1272 - 1477

BHUVANEKABAHU I IN DAMBADENIYA AND YAPAHU (1272-84) Bhuvanekabahu I made both armies obedient to his will. They drove out all Tamil foes who had landed in Lanka and in the Vanni. He lived in Jambuddoni (Dambadeniya) for several years and then went to Subhagiri () where he built an extensive Royal city. He was a just king who was able to win over the people. Scribes were paid to copy the whole of the Tripitaka, and copies were sent to the viharas for preservation. In 1283 he sent an embassy to the Sultan of Egypt proposing an alliance. This is believed to have been planned and carried out by the Arabs living in Sri Lanka.(KMDS pg.91). He died after a reign of eleven years. During this time foreign trade in Sri Lanka was improving, and use of money in transactions was increasing. The citizens also earned money for their arecanut. More Arabs were settling down in the island. They maintained their identity through their religion, but by intermarriage, they became more Indo-Arab in ethnicity than pure Arab. (KMDS) Kulasekera (1268-1308) the Pandyan king sent his Tamil Minister, Ariya Chakravarti in 1308 to invade Sri Lanka. He laid waste the land, invaded Yapahu and took away the Tooth Relic and many costly treasures to India. PARAKRAMABAHU III AT POLONNARUWA (1287-1293) There is a period of a few years where there appears to have been no Sinhalese king from 1284 to 1287. This was perhaps a period under Pandyan rule. Parakramabahu III, son of Vijayabahu IV was the next king after Bhuvenakabahu I and he ruled in Polonnaruwa. He was the last king able to rule in Polonnaruwa, probably because he was subservient to the Pandyans. He decided to get back the Tooth Relic

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268 SL Histary Chap.55-64 which had been taken to the Pandyan Kingdom. Unable to think of any other way, he went to India with some of his able warriors, to meet the Pandyan king, and by friendly negotiation he got back the Relics, and placed them in the former relic chamber in Polonnaruwa. Although his coronation was held in Polonnaruwa, the fear of Pandyan invasion made him rule from Dambadeniya. Parakramabahu suspected that there was a conspiracy by his cousin Buvenakabahu II (son of Bhuvanakabahu I) who was ruler of Kurunegala, to get the throne. He sent his barber to blind him. But Bhuvenakabahu fought and defeated him and seized the Tooth Relic and took it to Kurunegala where he lived. Parakramabahu III died after six years. Around this time Muslims had overun the Pandyan kingdom in India. Bhuvanekabahu II succeeded Parakramabahu III and ruled from 1293-1302. His son (Pandita) Parakramabahu IV succeeded him. The famous Marco Polo is said to have visited Lanka between 1292 to 1294. He mentions that the king was one ‘sendemain’. PARAKRAMABAHU IV IN KURUNEGALA (1302-1326) Literary Works Parakramabahu IV, known as Panditaparakramabahu, son of Buvenakabahu II who ruled in Kurunegala, came to the throne in 1302. During his rule, literary works of historical and legendary character appeared, based on the veneration of the Tooth Relic and the Bo tree. The Daladasirita, a work titled ‘Ceremonial of the Tooth Relic’ was composed by the king and a daily ceremony performed for the Relic. The five hundred and fifty Jataka stories were translated by him (or under his instruction), from Pali into Sinhala. They were recited before the Grand theras and after correcting them, he had them written down as the Pansiya-panas-jataka potha. ‘The thread woven through all these stories is the working of the karmic law, and how the perfected himself through a series of births’. They have been ‘the most powerful and pervasive single influence in the literature of this period and probably the greatest literary achievement of the century’, and have ‘remained an endless source of moral edification and pleasant diversion to successive generations of the Sinhalese people’. (KMDS pg 95) He built the Vijayabahu parivena, and in Tittagamuwa (Totagamuwa)

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269 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Vihara, a long pasada and a park, with five thousand coco plants. The Parakramabahu pasada in Weligama, and a new temple in Mayadhanu (Sitawaka), were also built by him. He died in 1326. BHUVANEKABAHU III (1326-35),VIJAYABAHU V(1335-41), BHUVANEKABAHU IV IN GAMPOLA(1341-1351), PARAKRAMABAHU V (1344-59),VIKRAMABAHU III (1357-1374), BHUVANEKABAHU V IN GAMPOLA AND KOTTE (1371-1408) Vanni Bhuvenakabahu III (1326-35) succeeded Parakramabahu IV. He was succeeded by Vijayabahu V (1335-41) and by Bhuvanekabahu IV who ruled from Gampola (Gangasiripura) (1341-51), while his brother Parakramabahu V (1344-59) was co-ruler at the time in Dedigama. Later Parakramabahu V at Dedigama and Gampola, and Vikramabahu III (1357-1374) at Gampola were co-rulers. By now the Sinhala kings were so weak that they had started moving south to escape Indian invasions. As K.M. De Silva stresses “malaria, it must be emphasised was not the cause of abandonment of the heartland of ancient Sri Lanka..”(pg 83). Gampola was more easily defensible than Kurunegala. The weakness of the kings made their ministers become more powerful and influential. Two such were Senadhilankara and Nissanka Alagakonnara. The fort at Jayawardenapura (Kotte) was built by Alagakonnara. The Alagakonnaras who were traders, had migrated to Lanka from Vanchipuram in south India, when Muslims invaded India. They became buddhists and when a descendent named Alakesvara married the sister of Vikrambahu III, their ties with the Sinhala royal family strengthened. Alakeswara or Alagakonnara was a great minister and a very virtuous man. During the reign of Bhuvenekabahu V (1371-1408) in Gampola, he had hanged the tax collectors of the Jaffna king who had come to the south. This caused King Ariya Chakravarti of Jaffna to attack by land and sea. When during these attacks the king fled, Alagakonnara rallied troops and repulsed the attack. Thus Alagakonnara became a defacto ruler. But such attacks made the Sinhalese move still further south to Kotte to protect the west coast and its rich cinnamon resources which the Tamils were anxious to gain control of.. He set about reforming the Sangha. Immoral priests were disrobed and the Sangha cleansed. Alagakonnara arranged for the Attanagalu- wansa to be translated in 1382. Bhuvanekabahu V built the Lankatilleke vihara and Gadaladeniya vihara and died in 1408 after ruling 37 years.

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270 SL Histary Chap.55-64 He was succeeded by his brother-in-law Virabahu. After the death of Alagakonnara, his son Kumara Alakeswara and later his other son, Vira Alakeswara wielded authority. IBN BATUTA VISITS LANKA Ibn Batuta, the Persian traveller visited Lanka around 1344, and saw ‘the stately city by the river,’ which was Gampola, ruled by Bhuvanekabahu IV. (It was from here that Cheng Ho carried off the Royal family to China in later years). Ibn Batuta found that the North was under the king of Jaffna, Aryachakravarti. In 1353 Aryachakravarti’s forces came as far south as Matale and sent naval forces as far south as . But their attempts were foiled by the Vijayanagar Empire in India, which took over Jaffna. VIRABAHU II IN RAIYGAMA Virabahu, brother-in-law and subking of Bhuvanekabahu V took over and ruled as Virabahu II in Raiygama for six years. Vira Alakeswara fled to India during this time. Virabahu was a pious king. He was succeeded by his two sons who had short reigns. Vira Alakeswara came back from India, seized the throne and ruled as Vijayabahu VI.

Pepiliyana Temple

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271 SL Histary Chap.55-64 According to a footnote in the Culawamsa, probably the four brothers of Vijayabahu ruled in Sri Lanka before him. . CHINESE EXPEDITION CAPTURES KING VIJAYABAHU VI When the Sinhalese thought they were safe in Gampola, a new danger came from an unexpected direction. Around 1405 a Chinese expedition of the Emperor Yung-lo, under the leadership of Cheng-Ho, a Chinese eunuch, visited Lanka demanding tribute to their emperor. They wanted to take away the Tooth Relic. Once before in 1284, the great Kubla Khan too sent a delegation for the same purpose, but went back empty handed. But Cheng-Ho was not going to take no for an answer. He came back five years later in 1409, and took King Vijayabahu VI (Vira Alakeswara), his wives, children and nobles as captives to China. The Chinese emperor ordered the captives to select another king from among themselves. They chose Epa who was sent back to Lanka with Vira Alakeswara, but there was no hope of Alakeswara, ever getting back the throne, after such humiliation. PARAKRAMABAHU VI IN RAIYGAMA AND KOTTE (1411-1466) Around 1411 Parakkamabahu VI came to the throne, and ruled for three years at Raiygama in Kalutara and then eliminated Epa and ruled in Kotte where his coronation was held. He is believed to have been a son of Sunetra Devi of the Royal family, who escaped with her two sons when the family was captured by the Chinese, and then remained in hiding from fear of Alakeswara. He faced threats from the Sinhala adversaries, from the and the Vijayanagar empire in South India. He successfully repulsed the threat from India and went on to take over Jaffna which was a satellite of the Vijayanagar empire. Before that he subdued the Vanni kings to prevent them attacking him. The Sinhala community in Jaffna rose in revolt against the Tamil rulers. (KMDS pg.88) Parakramabahu VI (1411-1466) was the first Sinhala king since Parakramabahu I and Nissanka Malla, to have brought the entire island under one king. (KMDS pg.86) He installed his adopted-son Sapumal Kumaraya as king of Jaffna. Different parts of the island were ruled by princes on his behalf in the form of a decentralisation of power, just short of semi-independent status. Although they were all under Kotte, this led to a weakening of the power of the king of Kotte.

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272 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Parakramabahu VI built a Tooth Relic Temple in Kotte and the Sunetra parivena and a monastery in Pappata grove (Pepiliyana Vihara near Dehiwela), in honour of his mother. An inscription in this monastery is dated in the 39th year of the reign of Parakramabahu VI (1514 AD). The Devale near Ratnapura which was built by King Parakramabahu II, the Mahiyangana cetiya and the Aramanapola Vihara near Pelmadulla were restored. In the fifty second year of his reign, the ruler of the hill country, Jotiya Bandara led a revolt, but he was deposed and a member of the Gampola royal family placed there. This was the ‘first expression of a Kandyan claim to autonomous status’. LITERARY ACHIEVEMENTS The reign of Parakramabahu VI was marked by the appearance of Sinhala literary works of a historical and legendary character, and a great outburst of Sinhala literature in poetry. During this time there was a departure from the traditional poetry, and the appearance of Sandesa kavya, the origins of which are found in Kalidasa's celebrated Meghaduta (cloud Messenger) in north India. The earliest sandesa kavya were Tissera and Mayura sandesas. The Dalada Sirita, in veneration of the Bo tree was composed at the request of the king. The jataka stories were translated in the form of the Pansiya-panas-jataka-pota, ‘by far the most powerful and pervasive single influence in the literature of this period and probably the greatest single literary achievement of the century’. ‘Sandesa poems reached their maturity in the Kotte kingdom in the cultural efflorescence of the reign of Parakramabahu VI. Sri Rahula Maha Sthavira the most distinguished bhikkhu in the kingdom and the foremost scholar of his day, was the author of the Paravi and Salalihini Sandesas, the latter a work of greater elegance and refinement than the former. The Gira and Hansa Sandesas (authorship unknown) also belong to the Kotte period. (KMDS pg95) ‘The Kavyasekera, a full fledged mahakavya and a work of considerable distinction, also belonged to the Kotte period, but the crowning achievement in its poetry was the Guttila da kava, traditionally attributed to Vattavethera - the story of the Guttila Jataka...... Its mellifluous simplicity has made it a thing of enduring joy...... The Kotte period especially in the reign of Parakramabahu VI was the high-water

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273 SL Histary Chap.55-64 mark of achievement in Sinhalese literature. Thereafter...... till the eighteenth century there was nothing of any significance’ 'The prose works, even the Saddharma Ratnakaraya showed a decline in literary skill. The sandesa poems were manifestly secular in spirit and tone ...... are a useful source of information on the social and political conditions of the country.' KMDS pg95) Parakrambahu VI raised the nation to “a height never attained since the days of Parakramabahu II and never afterwards rivalled”. After the death of Parakramabahu VI, his successors at Kotte faced revolts from their own people, till they were brought under control by Dharma Parakramabahu IX (1489-1513). This disputed succession after the death of Parakramabahu VI “destroyed the life’s work of an extraordinarily resourceful ruler’ who kept the Kotte kingdom under control, “by the personal influence and authority of a gifted ruler.” When he died in 1466 after 55 years as king without a male heir, his daughter’s son Jayavira succeeded him. BHUVANEKABAHU VI (SAPUMAL KUMARAYA) 1469-1477 Sapumal Kumaraya, adopted-son of Parakramabahu VI who was installed as king of Jaffna, came from Jaffna and killed Jayavira to take over Kotte as Bhuvanekabahu VI. This produced a relaxation of control in the outer provinces, resulting in Jaffna being taken over by Pararajasekaran (1478-1519) who ruled at Nallur, and had the allegiance of a few Vanni kings, who paid tribute to the king of Kotte. The decline of power in Kotte gave an opportunity to Kandy to become independent and when Bhuvenekabahu VI died in 1477, the authority of Kotte was restricted to a small region in the southwest and northwest of Lanka and was not in a position to regain control over Kandy or Jaffna. Parajasekeram was not inclined to challenge the authority of Kotte and the Kotte kings, preoccupied with their own problems, made no attempt to regain the north though they continued to assert claims of overlordship over Jaffna. Apart from a few principalities near Jaffna, the Vanniyars along the east coast to Yala and paid tribute to Kotte. (KMDS)

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274 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 49

FOUR KINGS OF LANKA (1477 - 1581)

PARAKRAMABAHU VII AND PARAKRAMABAHU VIII The Kotte Kingdom was the largest and most powerful and had the largest population. Trade and agriculture were most developed and the Kotte kings were the biggest land owners. The principle source of royal income in Kotte was land revenue and not trade. Arecanut was the source of income for the peasants. After the death of Bhuvanekabahu VI (Sapumal Kumaraya), his son Pandita Parakramabahu VII who was known for his learning, became king in 1477, but was slain the same year by his uncle Ambulugala Raja who ruled as Vira Parakramabahu VIII (1477-89) in Kotte. During this time a long drawn out rebellion which occured in Pitigal and Alutkuru korales, was brought under control by his son Dharma Parakrambahu IX(1489-1513). Vira Parakramabahu VIII had several sons. When in 1489 he was very ill, his two sons Dharma Parakkamabahu IX and Vijayabahu VI (who apparently were co-regents) were quarrelling for succession. These quarrels led to a weakening of Kotte’s political structure. Dharma Parakramabahu succeeded him as the elder son but his rule from 1489 to 1513 was uneventful, and he was succeeded by his brother Vijayabahu. ARRIVAL OF PORTUGUESE IN LANKA 1505 On 15 November 1505 Dom Lourenco de Almeida arrived in Colombo port. The Portuguese came by accident, “driven by the vagaries of wind and wave”, but the lure of cinnamon kept them in the island. The Portuguese impressed the Sinhalese who informed their king that “a people of fair skin .....who eat stone and drink blood..... whose cannon can shatter granite....” had arrived. They were taken to Kotte through a circuitous route which took them three days to cover the six miles. This fact is today a commonly used Sinhala proverb “Parangiya Kotte giya vagey” (which means ‘like the Portuguese going to Kotte’).

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275 SL Histary Chap.55-64 A rock carved with the court of arms of Portugal was in the custom’s premises until removed to Gordon Gardens later.(Cod 94) Twelve years later they came again, this time to trade. In spite of the Moors already trading in the island, they took the Sinhala king under their protection, in return for cinnamon as tribute, and built the fort in Colombo. They appeared to want a control of the trade, and did not aim at territorial conquest. VIJAYABAHU VI IN KOTTE (1513 -1521) In 1513 Vijayabahu seized the throne at Kotte. Instigated by the Moors who resented the Portuguese, he sent messages to the Samorin at Calicut, in India, who was then at war with the Portuguese, asking for help to attack the fort that the Portuguese had just built in Colombo. The Sinhalese lost the war. However on orders from Portugal the Portuguese demolished the fort in 1524 (Cod pg.96), but continued the cinnamon trade. Vijayabahu VI was married twice and had three sons by his first queen and one son by his second queen. When Vjayabahu attempted to secure the succession to the throne for his youngest son, the three elder sons got help from Jayavira (1511-1552) ruler in Udarata (Kandy), and killed their father and divided the kingdom of Kotte between the three of them. Jayavira’s father Senasammata Vikramabahu (1469-1511) had made himself autonomous ruler of the highlands. This killing in 1521 is referred to as the “Vijayabahu kollaya” or “the assassination of Vijayabahu”. Kandyan King Jayavira’s association in this killing was a cunning move by him to destabilise the kingdom of Kotte and pave the way for him to set up his own separate state in Kandy, because a decline of power in Kotte was essential for the rise of the Kandyan Kingdom. (KMDS pg.99) BHUVANEKABAHU VII (1521-1551) AND THE PORTUGUESE The eldest of Vijayabahu’s three sons, Bhuvanekabahu VII, ruled the richest and largest part of the Kotte kingdom. The second brother Rayigam Bandara got Rayigama, Walalawiti and Pasdun Korales and Kalutara. But the youngest Mayadunne who had Sitawaka, was more daring and ambitious and aimed at controlling the whole Kotte kingdom. [Sitawaka now known as Avisawella derived its name from the belief that Sita, the wife of Rama was hidden there by King Ravana] Fear prompted Bhuvanekabahu to become a satellite of the Portuguese

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276 SL Histary Chap.55-64 to obtain their protection against Mayadunne, who had support from the Samorin of Calicut. To Udarata (Kandy) too, Sitawaka was a greater threat than was Kotte. Hence the Kandyan ruler too was forced to seek the protection of the Portuguese and become another of their satellites. This resulted in the Portuguese being allowed to have a small force in Kandy and to send Catholic priests to Kandy. But due to mutual suspicion, the Kandyan king and the Portuguese failed to achieve their objectives. The Portuguese came back from Kandy and were received by Mayadunne whom they now favoured. The king of Kandy then decided on an alliance by marriage into the ruling family in Kotte, but that produced more problems. Nor did it ensure security from Sitawaka. At this time the Portuguese were interested in gaining control of Jaffna, because of the sea trade from Malabar coast in India to Sri Lanka, and also because of the Pearl fisheries in Mannar. Portuguese missionaries crossed over from India to Mannar and by 1544 had begun converting the fisherfolk to Catholicsm. The Hindu ruler in Jaffna reacted angrily and had many Portuguese missionaries killed. The Portuguese then sent a retaliatory expedition in 1560, which at first was forced to retreat, but soon they were able to get influence over Jaffna and to levy tribute from the ruler of Jaffna. At the next attack on Jaffna in 1591 the Portuguese killed the ruler of Jaffna, and left their protege on the throne. The Portuguese, anxious to get a monopoly over the trade in cinnamon, re-established the fort in Colombo for trading. But the Muslim traders in Kotte resented this loss to their income and the Sinhalese were more sympathetic to them. Bhuvanekabahu however could not support the Muslims and antagonise the Portuguese. He was actually forced to expel the Muslims from Kotte in 1526. The rulers at Sitavaka and Rayigama then took the side of the Muslims. MAYADUNNE IN SITAWAKA (1521-1581) Mayadunne had an ally in the Samorin of Calicut. In 1538 when his brother, the ruler at Rayigama died, Mayadunne quickly seized his territory. Bhuvanekabahu even gave his formal approval to this, hoping that this would make Mayadunne less hostile. But Mayadunne was not happy. He wanted overlordship of the island. Wars were continually waged between the two brothers from 1526, with the Portuguese

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277 SL Histary Chap.55-64 ’

backing Bhuvanekabahu and the Samorin of Calicut backing Mayad- unne. Mayadunne would have won the war, “but for the superior military technology of the Portuguese,” which helped Bhuvanekabahu. Mayadunne was forced to enter into a humiliating compromise with the Portuguese. They insisted that Mayadunne execute Paichi Marcar, the leader of the Malabris and his nobles, who had come to his assistance, and send their heads to the Portuguese. To the disgust of the Samorin, Mayadunne complied with this request. But as soon as the Portuguese forces had departed, he started winning over the provincial chiefs of Kotte. By 1541 large areas of Kotte were under his control. Bhuvanekabahu VII had two sons by a lesser queen and they could not succeed him. His only child by the chief queen was a daughter, Samudradevi, who married Vidiye Bandara and had a son, Dharmapala, by him. As Bhuvanekabahu had no male heir to succeed him, Mayadunne was his rightful heir. But in 1540, Bhuvanekabahu VII sent an embassy to Lisbon in Portugal, to secure guarantee of support to have Prince Dharmapala his grandson, declared as successor. In 1543 King Joao III of Portugal “solemnly crowned in Lisbon, Portugal, a golden statue of the young Dharmapala,” and pledged support for ‘this strange succession from the grandfather to grandson’. That this was being done with Portuguese help, was resented both by Mayadunne and the people of Kotte. To the Portuguese this was politically, a disaster. When soon after, a group of Franciscan monks arrived in Kotte, Bhuvanekabahu had no choice but grant permission in return for their recognition of his grandson’s accession. They built churches and made many attempts to convert the king, because his envoy had given them the impression that he would be converted. The king knew it would alienate him from his people. Their continuing efforts to convert him resulted in his resenting them and their relationship deteriorating. The Kotte kings, preoccupied with their own problems, made no attempt to regain the north though they continued to assert claims of overlordship over Jaffna. Apart from a few principalities near Jaffna, the Vanniyars along the east coast to Yala and Panama in the south, paid tribute to Kotte. (KMDS) According to Harry Williams, The Franciscans who came out to the island were given orders as follows: “Begin by preaching, but that failing, proceed to the decision of the sword.” (pg. 83)

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278 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Meanwhile Kotte and Sitavaka forgot their differences long enough to join forces against Jayavira, the Kandy ruler, who had earlier helped them in assassinating their father. They did not approve of Jayavira becoming an independent ruler. To Sitawaka, an independent kingdom in Kandy with Portuguese alliance, would pose a great threat from both the west and the east. Thus in 1545 a combined Sitawaka - Kotte attack on Kandy, and a delay in arrival of the Portuguese forces to help Jayawira, compelled the Kandyans to accept peace terms with Sitawaka and Kotte. PORTUGUESE IN KANDY The Portuguese did arrive in Kandy, though late, and then they harrassed the people and made so many demands on the ruler, that they were detested. Friendly relations between Kotte and Kandy made Mayadunne fear isolation and seek an alliance with the Portuguese. But before that materialised, the Portuguese-Kotte alliance was renewed. Then, despite the reluctance of Kotte, a Portuguese-Kotte invasion of Kandy took place in 1546. This ended in disaster leading to bitterness between Kotte and the Portuguese. But when in 1550 fighting between Sitawaka and Kotte started, the Portuguese once again supported Kotte. During this war Bhuvanekabahu was killed by a shot fired by a Portuguese soldier when the king was in his pavilion built over the Kelani river. Although this was claimed to be an accident, it was believed to have been pre-planned. However “the marksman Antonio de Barcelos is said to have confessed, when dying, that he shot at a pigeon and hit the king in error.” (HW pg84). The Portuguese Viceroy de Noronha, who was in Goa hastened to Colombo, “more with a view to extortion, than to assisting the new ruler.” When Mayadunne proclaimed himself as King of Kotte, the Portuguese supported by a section of the Sinhalese nobility, proclaimed Dharmapala as king with his father Vidiye Bandara as regent. “The memory of Bhuvanekabahu, poor, weak puppet, is abhorred and detested among the Sinhalese as the greatest traitor in the history of his country, and it is not surprising that his grandson Don Juan, found that he had inherited a mockery of a throne. Supported by the invader and despised by his few remaining subjects he was powerless. The rest of the island outside his few square miles of protected territory would have no dealings with him.” (HW pg.85).

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279 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 50

DHARMAPALA IN KOTTE RAJASINHA IN SITAWAKA

Dharmapala’s father, the energetic Vidiye Bandara organised a successful resistance to Mayadunne and drove back his forces from Kotte. The Portuguese Viceroy joined in with a large army and they moved into Sitawaka in 1551 and destroyed the temple at Berendikovil, the remains of which still exist, but did not press matters with Mayadunne when the opportunity presented. Mayadunne fled to leaving Sitawaka to the enemy. Being probably more interested in plundering Kotte, than chasing after Mayadunne in mountainous terrain, the Portuguese left Sitawaka. “The subsequent destruction of Kotte and the loss of the kingdom in a large degree is due to this man (Viceroy Noronha). He then sailed from Colombo leaving secret instructions for the kidnapping of the king’s father.” (Cod pg.102) Meanwhile in Kandy, Karaliyadde Bandara the elder son of the Kandyan ruler Jayavira, killed his rival and step-brother and expelled his ageing father, who now sought refuge in Sitawaka. In Kotte, the Portuguese expected Vidiye Bandara to be a regent with little power. But when they realised that he was a force to be reckoned with, he was treated with suspicion. Although he converted to Catholicism in 1552, the Portuguese imprisoned him. Vidiye Bandara escaped from prison in 1553 and raised a revolt against the Portuguese. Mayadunne came to his rescue, and together they were able to push back the Portuguese to the coast. But Vidiye Bandara’s exploits alarmed Mayadunne as much as they alarmed the Portuguese. Thus by 1555 the Portuguese and Mayadunne joined forces against Vidiye Bandara and defeated him. Sitawaka now emerged as the dominant and strongest kingdom in Lanka. The Portuguese pursued the policy of converting the Sinhalese to Catholicism. Their greatest success was the conversion of Dharmapala who became a Catholic and took the name John, in 1557,which was politically a disaster for him.. Dharmapala then proceeded to confiscate

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280 SL Histary Chap.55-64 properties belonging to the Sangha and Hindu devalas, and hand them over to the Franciscan monks. This enraged his people. Mayadunne now confidently marched into Kotte and a prolonged fight ensued. Had not the Portuguese cannon won the fight, their fortifications would have been destroyed by the Sinhalese. Finally in 1565, the Portuguese decided to abandon Kotte before losing more of their men, and to concentrate their forces in Colombo. Dharmapala was now left with no kingdom, Colombo being a ‘Portuguese fort’. Vidiye Bandara fled to the hill country and later to Jaffna where he was killed in a quarrel, and his treasures fell into the hands of the Jaffna king. RAJASINHA I (1581-1593) IN SITAWAKA Mayadunne’s son Rajasinha was barely sixteen when he led the army which defeated Vidiye Bandara at Palanda. There is a suggestion that he poisoned his father. However at the death of his father in 1581, Rajasinha became king of Sitawaka (now called Avisawella). He was determined to expel the Portuguese from Lanka. They in turn were determined to increase their stronghold and get back to the position they held earlier. They harrassed villagers in the outlying areas of Colombo, which owed allegiance to Sitawaka. When Dharmapala’s queen died in 1574 the Portuguese arranged for him to get a bride from Kandy, the very princess who had been denied to Rajasinha earlier, adding an element of humiliation to the story. Besides this, any link between Kandy and the Portuguese was a threat to Sitawaka. In 1561 Rajasinha attacked Kotte and defeated the Portuguese at Mulleriyawa. In 1564 he besieged Kotte, and the Portuguese abandoned Kotte and returned to Colombo with Dharmapala. When in 1574 he launched an attack on Udarata, the Portuguese moved into the offen- sive, destroying the coastal areas in the south and west. They harrassed the villagers, devastated crops and livestock, and destroyed the Rajamaha Vihara in Kelaniya, the Hindu temple in Munnesvaram and other viharas on the northwest regions. The naval power of the Portuguese, which was the key to their success, helped them set up centres along the coast, even as far as Jaffna. They built a fort in Galle between 1571 and 1582. The Vanni chiefs in Puttalam, and Trincomalee paid tribute to them.

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281 SL Histary Chap.55-64 In 1578 Rajasinha launched a fresh attack on Kandy, bringing under his control, the Balana pass which secured access to Kandy. But Portuguese attacks on the southwest and northwest coasts, forced him to abandon his fight with Kandy and concentrate on the Portuguese. PORTUGUESE UNDER SEIGE FOR TWO YEARS - For over two years, Colombo was under seige, from 1579 to 1581. The Portuguese were desperate, but they survived with fresh reinforcements from Goa and their naval power. But when in 1581 Sitawaka attacked again, the Portuguese were not inclined to counter the attack due to a shortage of manpower, though they kept up their pressure on Sitawaka. Rajasinha also built a fort at Kaduwela. The Portuguese were confined to the city of Colombo but had their military headquarters in Biyagama, ten miles from Colombo. Dharmapala meanwhile in 1580, bequeathed his Kotte kingdom to be passed on at his death to Dom Manuel, the Portuguese Monarch. The people and the Sangha in Sitawaka were getting sick of two decades of war and its consequent high taxation. Further Rajasinha was ruthless in his treatment of anyone who stood in his way. There was considerable opposition to him. Rajasinha became a Hindu. Whether this was the result or the cause of the opposition is not clear. There is a story that he had killed his father, and when he asked the Sangha they told him that he could not undo the crime, whereas the Hindu priests gave him hope that it was possible to undo the crime. In 1580 Rajasinha attacked Kandy again, successfully. The Kandy royal family escaped to Trincomalee where the deposed king died of small-pox, nominating his nephew (who was later baptised as Dom Philip) as successor, since his daughter Kusumasana Devi, was an infant. RAJASINHA’S DEATH Rajasinha was now ruler of the southern, southwestern and central areas of Sri Lanka. In 1582 the Portuguese expected him to attack Colombo. Hence they rebuilt the walls of Colombo Fort. But Rajasinha who had all three Sinhalese kingdoms, Kotte, Sitawaka and Kandy under him had more pressing problems in his own kingdom. At this time there was in Gampola, a scion of the Kandy royal family named Weerasurendra Bandara whom Rajasinha killed, suspecting him of conspiring against him. His son Konappu Bandara fled to Colombo and from there to Goa where he gained the confidence of the

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282 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Portuguese, and became known as Dom Joao of Austria. However in 1587-88 Rajasinha attacked Colombo again and would have won if he could have prevented reinforcements coming in for the Portuguese from Goa. Further Rajasinha, who had by now reached the zenith of his power, lost support from Kandy due to the cruel murder of Weerasurendra. Kandyans led by Konappu Bandara rose up in rebellion. When he took men from Sitawaka to quell this rebellion, the Portuguese moved into Sitawaka and destroyed the Sitawaka stockades at Biyagama and Kaduwela. Rajasinha’s campaign at Kandy too failed. On his way back, he died in 1593, of sepsis from a wound caused by a bamboo splinter piercing his foot. He was about 50 years old. “The first Englishman who ever visited Lanka, Ralph Fitch had met Rajasinha and was obviously impressed. He left a vivid pen-portrait of him where he stresses the fierce personality and indomitable will of the Sinhalese king...... His seige of Colombo was an astonishing achievement.... So close was he to success that at one time the Portuguese had to resort to cannibalism - pickling the flesh of the fallen - to stave off starvation.... The frightful barbarities of the Europeans, are calmly recorded by their own historians....” (H.W pg.46). Although he was a cruel king, his people had admiration for the last great king of the Sinhala race, and even today he is given divine honours in being referred to as 'Ganegoda Deiyo’ or Ganegoda god. (Sulawamsa pg 226 footnote) Rajasinha had done away with anyone who could have been a potential successor to him. Hence his death left a vacuum. For about seventy years Siitawaka had been the more powerful kingdom. They had mastered the techique of modern military technology. More than once Sitawaka nearly drove the Portuguese out of Sri Lanka. Without easily defensible borders such as mountain chains and unnavigable rivers, Sitawaka put up an incredible resistance to foreign domination and only the lack of naval support prevented success, “a resistance to foreign rule which has never been matched in the history of Western rule in Sri Lanka...... they proved to be a match, and often more than a match for the Portuguese. In this sense no Sinhalese rulers of the future bore comparison as warriors with Mayadunne or Rajasinha, nor did they confront the same heavy odds as those which faced the rulers of Sitawaka.” (KMDS pg111). But within two years Sitawaka crumbled due to infighting within the kingdom and due to Portuguese attacks. Rajasinha’s general Manamperi

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283 SL Histary Chap.55-64 deserted to the side of the Portuguese and helped the invaders to take over Sitawaka. The whole of the old Kotte kingdom and Sitawaka as it was in 1521, in the time of Vijayabahu VI before the subdivision, now acknowledged the sovereignty of Dharmapala and the authority of the Portuguese. “The fall of Sitawaka was more dramatic and precipitate than its rise and expansion had been!” Jaffna had been undisturbed by the Portuguese, in spite of the Jaffna massacre of Christian converts in Mannar in 1544. But in 1560 the Portuguese under Viceroy Dom Constantino de Braganza invaded the Peninsula and drove out the king of Jaffna. The king pretending submission, came back and forced the Portuguese to retire. But the Portuguese finally got Jaffna in 1591 and the Jaffna king lost his life. “From 1593 there were only two powers in the island, the Kandyans under Vimala Dharma Suriya and the Portuguese nominally fighting for Dharmapala.” (Codrington pg106). Most of the revenue at this time came from cinnamon, the key source of income for the Sitawaka kings. It was under state control, stored in royal ware-houses and sold to traders. Cinnamon grew in the forests of Kelani valley, and the west coast from to the Walave- ganga. Rajasinha partially emulated the Portuguese in burning excess stock so that prices rose spectacularly (KMDS pg112). Arecanut had been an important article of trade long before the Portuguese arrived, and the Portuguese insisted on buying it at a fixed price whatever the market conditions were. It was used to pay for rice and cloth which were imported from south India. Within a few years of Rajasinha’s death, Portuguese control over the south-west was extended and consolidated. With the decline of the Kotte Kingdom, where Dharmapala was only a figurehead, followed by the collapse of Sitawaka, and a protege of the Portuguese being in Jaffna, only the Kandy survived as an independent kingdom.

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284 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 51

VIMALA DHARMA SURIYA I IN KANDY (1591 - 1604

Konnapu Bandara the son of Weerasurendra, a scion of the Kandyan royal family came to Kandy with Dom Philip, the nephew of the last king who was the claimant to the throne of Kandy, and installed him on the throne. But Philip died mysteriously and then Konappu took over as king in 1591. He built a massive wall round the city of Kandy with eighteen tower structures placed at intervals. Sentries were posted to watch out for the enemy. Having Kotte and Sitawaka, the Portuguese now set their sights on Kandy, to bring the whole island under their control. An expedition led by Pedro Lopes de Sousa in 1594, took with them Kusumasana devi who by then had been converted to Christianity, under the name of Dona Catherina. She was the daughter of the king of Kandy deposed by Rajasinha, (cousin of Don Philip) and hence had the strongest claims to the Kandyan throne. They hoped to install her on the throne. But Konappu Bandara defeated them, captured Dona Catherina and married her, stabilising further his claim to the throne. Dona Catherina was the cousin of Dom Philip, in whose charge she was left by her father. Konappu Bandara was consecrated as King Vimala Dharma Suriya I of Udarata. Hearing that the Tooth Relic was in Labujagama vihara (Delgamuwa near Kuruwita in ), he brought it down and built a two-storeyed temple for it close to his palace in Kandy. As there were no bhikkhus capable of performing a ceremony of admission to the Order in Lanka, he sent officials to Rakkhanga (Arakan in lower Burma) and invited bhikkhus like Nandicakka to come over to Kandy. The ceremony of admission to the Order was held at Ganthamba and many sons of noble birth accepted admission to the Sangha. He held a great festival and gave the four articles to many bhikkhus. Wars against the Portuguese and their protege Dharmapala continued. In 1594 the Sinhalese destroyed a large force of Portuguese which had come to Kandy. Dharmapala king of Kotte died in 1597, childless, leaving the kingdom to the King of Portugal. On 27 May 1597, within

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285 SL Histary Chap.55-64 two days of his death, the Portuguese proclaimed their legal title over Kotte. The principal officers of Dharmapala were invited to Colombo by Don Jeronimo de Azevedo, the Portuguese Captain General, and they took an oath of allegiance to Portugal on behalf of the people of Kotte. THE DUTCH VISIT SRI LANKA Around this time the Dutch came through the East coast and their embassy under Joris van Spilbergen, visited the court of the king of Kandy. Even before Dharmapala’s death there were revolts by the Sinhalese against the Portuguese. Later rebellions occurred in Kelani and Kalu ganga basins and in the seven Korales. In 1602/03 Joris Silbergen, and later, Admiral Sebald De Weert entered into negotiations with Vimala Dharma Suriya. The king was pressed to go on board the flagship in June 1603, and while there, he was insulted by de Weert who was drunk. This led to the king killing him and several other Dutchmen. (Codrington pg108). At this time Jaffnapatam, under a protege of the Portuguese, was the weakest of the three major units, the poorest, and most vulnerable, being easily accessible by sea. The Portuguese used Sinhala troops against Jaffna, without fear of their desertion. The Portuguese had consolidated their hold on Jaffna by 1591. Ethirimanna Cinkam (1591- 1616) who owed his throne to the Portuguese pledged to favour Christianity. But the bulk of the Tamils remained Hindu, and resented any Portuguese interference with their culture, religion and their trade- ties with Tanjore. The Jaffna king’s conversion alienated him from his people. He made an effort to move away from the Portuguese, who by now were dissatisfied with him. In 1614 the Portuguese sent instructions to depose him, but he died in 1615, before it was carried out. Cankili Kumara, a nephew of Ethirimanna Cinkam, killed all the other princes save the three year old son of Ethirimanna Cinkam, and requested the Portuguese to make him regent of Jaffna. This was granted on the condition that he gave no assistance to Nikapitiye Bandara who had led the revolt in 1616-17 in the Sinhala areas. Cankili himself faced revolt from the Tamil Christians and had to flee to . The Portuguese to whom he was paying tribute, were reluctant to support him against the Christians. He had to appeal to the Nayak of Tanjore, who obliged with a force of five thousand men, and helped crush the rebellion. The Portuguese however suspected Cankili of

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286 SL Histary Chap.55-64 allowing mercenaries and supplies to the anti-Portuguese forces. Cankili made efforts to get the Kandyan King Senerat into opposition to the Portuguese and sought aid from the Dutch. When in 1619 five armed vessels of the Kunjali admiral of Calicut appeared in Jaffna and attacked Portuguese vessels, the Portuguese suspected Cankili, and captured him and took him to Colombo where he was tried and executed. Opposition to the Portuguese still continued in Jaffna. Two rebellions had to be fought in Jaffna in 1619-1621, and though the Tamils had forces from Tanjore, the Portuguese were successful. They had support from the Tamil Christian minority. Jaffna was brought under control and it remained under the Portuguese till it was captured by the Dutch in 1658. (Cod. pg112). The fort of our Lady of Miracles was built in Jaffna by the Portuguese. Now the Portuguese had control over the pearl fisheries, greater influence over the elephant trade from the Vanni, and safer access to Malabar and Coramandel coasts. Vimala Dharma Suriya died in 1604. His brother Senarat succeeded him. KING SENARAT IN KANDY (1604 - 1635) Senarat who had joined the order gave up his robes and taking his brother’s wife Dona Catherina as Queen, accepted the throne of Kandy. During this time the Portuguese were brutal and cruel to the Sinhalese. They laid waste the fields, burnt down villages, destroyed families, and broke into viharas, monasteries and image houses. The Buddha statues and Bodhi trees were destroyed, causing great harm to the Order. King Senarat brought the Tooth Relic to a safe place in Pancasata (Pansiyapattu-Dumbara near Kandy) which was impassable due to forests and hills, and entrusted it to the people who lived in that region, to preserve it and pay reverence. Taking his pregnant queen and her two sons, Kumarasiha and Vijayapala, who were the sons of his brother, he left Kandy and went to Mahiyangana. While there, Dona Catherina gave birth to a son, Prince Maha Asthana, who was born “under a favourable constellation, with the brilliant marks”. It is stated that General de Azavedo, the Portuguese General (1594- 1612), who had come to attack Kandy, had a bad dream. He saw a spark arising from the east and growing bigger until it came to Colombo and enveloped it. This dream frightened him so much that he went back

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287 SL Histary Chap.55-64 to Colombo. King Senerat therefore decided to return with his family to Kandy. But the actual fact is that Azavedo found Kandy deserted. So he placed a garrison in Balane, and returned to Colombo. Writing of Azavedo, Harry Williams says, “This depraved creature did not care for Colombo and established his headquarters at Malwana..... Here Azavedo held his judicial court and established huge elephant stables, and from the Raxapana rock he fed his crocodiles on living prisoners, throwing them into the river at the same place daily, so that the reptiles came to be fed with the regularity of cattle. He dismembered women and children alive, and before cutting off the heads of mothers, he forced them to hold their own babies while millstones closed upon them and ground them.” (HW pg.90). Manuel Mascarenhas Homem came as the new Captain General in May 1614 with strict instructions from the Viceroy at Goa to put down any oppression by soldiers and to cut off the king from his trade at Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Jaffna. In January 1615 the Portuguese took over Gampola, Maturata and , and in August they took Tumpane, Matale and Harispattu. With Nikapitiye Bandara who claimed to be a prince from Sitawaka, starting a revolt in the Seven Korales, with aid from Kandy, the Portuguese received a set back. But Senarat fell out with Nikapitiye Bandara who was then defeated. In 1617 Senarat was able to secure Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Panama on treaty from the Portuguese, paying two elephants yearly. Nikapitiye Bandara reappeared again in the Seven Korales but was beheaded by the Portuguese. (Cod. pg.111) Both Senarat and his brother before him wanted to rule Kandy in peace, but the Portuguese with Azevedo as Captain General, did not recognise them as rulers, and were intent on destroying parts of Kandy. The Kandyan kingdom survived only because General Azevedo did not have the manpower to subjugate it. The Portuguese, during the time of Nuno Alvaries Pereira (1616-18) entered into the Treaty of 1617 by which they finally recognised Senarat as ruler, with him recognising them as rulers of the maritime . When in 1619 the Portuguese annexed Jaffna, Kandy lost a potential ally and a means of easy communication with India. Batticaloa and Trincomalee on the east coast were acknowledged as part of the Kandyan kingdom, but soon the Portuguese captured Trincomalee and later in 1628, they took over Batticaloa, and Senarat

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288 SL Histary Chap.55-64 was afraid to confront them. The Portuguese Governor Jorge de Aluquerque (1620 -23) had forts built at Kalutara, Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Colombo, Galle and Menikkadawara. In 1626 the Moors were expelled from the south. They appealed to the king of Kandy, who then settled them in the neighbourhood of Batticaloa, where their descendants are still found. The king, annoyed at the forts being built by the Portuguese all round the island, sent troops to Jaffna hoping to create a diversion, but the Portuguese took their chance and attacked Kandy. Resistance to Portuguese rule over Kotte and Colombo continued. Two major revolts, in 1594 by Akaragama Appuhamy, followed by one by Edirille Rala in 1594-96, and still later by four other revolts - Kangara arachchi in 1603, Kuruvita rala in 1603 and 1616, and Nikipitye Bandara in 1616-1617 took place. In addition there were minor revolts in 1616 and 1619. Discontent over foreign rule, hostility to Christianity, the rigours of their land policy, the lawlessness of officials and the governments demands for services and goods from the people were the reasons. Kandy and sometimes Jaffna gave aid to the rebels. RAJASINHA II IN KANDY (1635-1687) Senarat wanted his son and his brother’s two sons to share the kingdom. He wrote the names of the three provinces on three leaves and placing them near the Tooth Relic, asked them to draw lots. The eldest Kumarasiha drew Uva, the next, Vijayapala, had Matale and his own son, young Maha Asthana drew the five highland provinces. Senarat died five years later in 1633, after a reign of 31 years. Maha Asthana son of Senarat became king as Rajasinha II in 1633 when Senarat died. But he had been co-regent from 1629. The three princes joined to fight their common enemy, the Portuguese, and had many successes. But this did not reduce their differences. In 1630 they had a brilliant victory at Randenivela in lower Uva, when Constanini de Sa de Noronha, the Portuguese Viceroy, himself was killed. In 1633 Kandy was threatened by renewal of war, and was forced to enter into the Luso-Kandy treaty giving Portuguese control over the Eastern ports. The Kandyan king was unable to get foreign assistance in time to prevent the Portuguese getting reinforcements. Rajasinha meanwhile dispossessed his half-brothers and took their

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289 SL Histary Chap.55-64 properties. In 1634 Kumarasinha was killed by poison. (This may have occurred even before the father’s death). Vijayapala led the Sinhala army successfully against the Portuguese. At Gannoruwa the Portuguese who under Captain General Diogo de Mello had occupied and destroyed Kandy, were surrounded and killed, and de Mello lost his life, in 1638. [These Sinhalese wars are related in the ‘Konstantinu hatane and Maha hatane’]. Rajasinha was a powerful and courageous king. Once when out riding with a companion and his horse sank in the mud, he sprang up and swung himself on to his companion’s horse, throwing off his friend.

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290 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 52

THE DUTCH AFTER THE CINNAMON TRADE

Since 1637 the Dutch had been in communication with Kandy, and were finally concluded in 1938. Each side hoped to use the other to their advantage. Three Sinhala envoys went to the Dutch Admiral Westerwold in Goa, and Dutch vessels appeared in Batticaloa where the Portuguese garrison lay. The united forces of the Dutch and the Sinhalese forced the Portuguese to surrender Batticaloa in May 1638. A treaty was made with Westerwold which was ratified in Batavia with two Sinhalese representing the king. In 1639 the Portuguese under Dom Antonio Mascarenhas recovered the low country areas for the King of Portugal. The Dutch were primarily interested in cinnamon. Rajasinha was willing to give them a monoploy of the trade, and reimbursement of the cost of the campaign to get rid of the Portuguese. But the Sinhalese were cheated. In 1639 the Dutch captured Battic- aloa and Trincomalee from the Portuguese and handed them over to Kandy, but kept for themselves, Galle and Negombo, the ports near the cinnamon areas, which they took in 1640. The excuse was that the Dutch were not paid their expenses. This led to souring of relations. Conditions in Kandy too got worse with war breaking out between the king and his step-brother Vijayapala, who then fled to Colombo from where he was sent to Goa, where he died in exile in 1654. However in May 1656, with Rajasinha supporting the Dutch, the Portuguese were finally expelled from Colombo, and two years later from Jaffna. The Dutch went on to capture the Portuguese ports in Tuticorin, Nagapatam and Malabar ending Portuguese rule in southern India and Sri Lanka by 1663, thus ensuring security for the Dutch in the Palk Straits and for their troops in Sri Lanka. The Dutch had the largest mercantile fleet in the world, superior resources in shipping, munitions and equipment, and were able to draw on Scandinavia and Germany for manpower if needed. Still Portugal, with a population of about a million did remarkably well to hold out in

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291 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Asia for so long, while retaining interests in Brazil and West Africa. “...... The Portuguese record of religious persecution, coercion and mindless destruction of places of worship sacred to other faiths was unsurpassed in its scale and virulence.” (KMDS pg128). Robert Knox who was a prisoner from 1660 to 1679 in Sri Lanka states that, “The Pagodas or temples of their gods are so many that I cannot number them. Many of them are of rare and exquisite work, built of hewn stone, engraved with images and figures; but by whom and when I could not attain to know... But sure I am they were built by far more ingenious artificers than the Sinhalese that now are on the land. For the Portuguese in their invasions have defaced some of them, which there is none found that has skill enough to repair to this day.” But the impact of Roman Catholicism brought by the Portuguese has survived longer than Calvinism, which was introduced by the Dutch with as much the same zeal. With Catholicism came new social changes such as monogamy and the sanctity of marriage, taking the place of polyandry and polygamy. Further, they introduced the building of dwelling houses of a more permanent kind and with this came the introduction into the Sinhala language of many Portuguese words associated with the building trade. Sixty years in Kotte and forty in Jaffna, the Portuguese made more changes than the Dutch did in over a century of rule. The Portuguese interfered little in the administration, using native administrators, mudaliyars, revenue farmers and renters already available. They introduced ‘thomboos’ or registers of agricultural holdings in which the revenue due to the state was set out in detail. They used the existing caste system to their advantage, such as using the Salagamas to maintain the cinnamon industry. In the Sinhala tradition land grants were given instead of salaries, even to their Portuguese officials.

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292 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 53

THE DUTCH IN SRI LANKA

The Dutch took over Portuguese possessions in Jaffnapatam in their entirety, but only about half the land area which the Portuguese had in other parts of the island. Rajasinha expected the Dutch to be ‘mercenaries’ he had hired, and hoped that after he got what he wanted from them, they would go back, leaving a few officers for trade. The Dutch claimed they were holding the lowlands as collateral security till the Kandyan king repaid the costs incurred in the expulsion of the Portuguese. When after the fall of Jaffna in 1658 the Dutch presented their bill it was a staggering sum. They had undervalued the income they got from cinnamon, areca, elephants and land revenue collected. Conflict arose with evidence of Dutch duplicity. Rajasinha retaliated with raids on territories occupied by the Dutch. Large tracts of land were devastated and made bereft of people. The Sinhalese remained loyal to their king. Admiral Ryklof van Goens was stationed in Colombo as the Dutch Commissary for Coramandel, Surat, Bengal, Malacca and Sri Lanka. In 1659 he siezed the Kandyan port of Kalpitiya, and sought to take over the eastern ports controlled by Kandy. But Batavia did not support him, being content to let Rajasinha have his lands provided they could exploit the economic resources of the areas they held. Van Goens was forbidden to embark on territorial expansion at the expense of the king of Kandy, and to pursue a conciliatory policy to restore good relations with Rajasinha. Van Goens gave in to Batavian pressure for the moment, but these restraints did not desist him from expanding along the coast. He was impressed with Ceylon’s potential as a centre of Dutch interest in south Asia, and he regarded Lanka as superior to Java, and that ‘Colombo and not Batavia should be the chief seat of Dutch power in the East.’ The port at Kalpitiya was thus opened again to the Kandyans. The Dutch resented the English and Danish merchants who

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293 SL Histary Chap.55-64 had been sailing into Kottiyar in Trincomalee Bay since the 1650s, encouraged by the Kandyan king. The British Company wanted a station in Ceylon to break into the Portuguese monopoly on cinnamon and also participate in the flourishing Indo-Lanka trade. The British tried to contact Rajasinha but the Dutch having come to know of these plans, tightened their naval watch over Kandyan ports. Negotiations between the English and Kandy fell, when they could not assure armed support to get rid of the Dutch. Van Goens managed to convince Batavia of the danger of leaving the east coast unoccupied, and he started pressing for the occupation of Trincomalee and Batticaloa ROBERT KNOX IN CAPTIVITY On 4 April 1660 the English crew from two ships which had entered Kottiyar were captured by Kandyan soldiers and taken prisoner to King Rajasinha II (1635-1687) of Kandy. Robert Knox who was only 19, and his father, the Captain of the ship named Ann, were among the prisoners captured. The father died soon after from malaria, but the son lived in captivity for 19 years and escaped on 18 October 1679. Knox wrote at length about Sri Lanka. He says “They have several sorts of fruits which they dress and eat with their rice, and taste very savoury called carowela, wattacul, moronga, cacorehouns etc which I cannot compare to any things that grow in England.” Knox also adds “They live to a great age, very often to fourscore and hale at that age; the king’s sister was near a hundred. They are healthy and of a sound constitution...... Here are no professed physicians and surgeons, but all in general have some skill that way, and are physicians and surgeons to themselves.” After years in captivity when Robert Knox and his friend Stephen reached Colombo, the European community was amused to see them with long blonde beards and hair, dressed in native clothes. But Robert Knox paints a very poor picture of the king. “His cruelty appears both in the torture and painful deaths that he inflicts and in the extent of his punishments, viz. upon whole families for the miscarriage of one of them. And this is done by the cutting and pulling away of flesh by pincers, burning them with hot irons, sometimes he commands them to hang their two hands above their necks and to make them eat their own flesh and mothers eat their own children, and so lead them through the city in public view to terrify all unto the place of execution, the dogs following to eat them.” According to Williams, he appears to have been “a demented

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294 SL Histary Chap.55-64 tyrant...... It is not suprising that the Kandyans themselves rose in revolt against this reign and, the king having fled, proclaimed his twelve -year old son the new ruler. But the child terrified by the proceedings, ran back to the father for comfort who greeted him with a dose of poison There being no other claimant he returned to the throne...... ” This incident about his child is not mentioned in books on Sri Lankan history and his son Vimala Dharma Suriya did succeed him). REBELLION AGAINST THE KING IN KANDY 1665 A major rebellion against the king broke out in Kandy led by Ambanvalarala in 1665 and Rajasinha was forced to seek Dutch help, giving an opportunity the Dutch never expected. He wanted Dutch troops in Kandy and naval patrols in the east coast. Van Goens who had come back for a second term as governor sent two Dutch detachments of troops into Kandy, three months after the request. These troops occupied Ruvanvella and Bibilegama, not to save Rajasinha but to expand their hold. The Sinhalese were encouraged to settle in these areas and cultivate unoccupied land. By 1667 Dutch power extended to Alauwa on the Maha Oya and to Trincomalee, and by 1665 to Batticaloa and Kottiyar. By 1670 the Dutch had twice the area they had in 1665, a greater population for labour, more rice lands, and a greater control of the coast with the ports in Kottiyar, Batticaloa, Colombo, Galle and Jaffna being in their control and Kandy having no access to the chief ports, and with complete dominance over trade and traffic in Lanka. Export of cinnamon, areca, elephants, chanks and pearls and the import of pepper, cotton goods, tin, zinc and other minerals became Dutch monopoly. Only rice imports were left out. The trade monoploy led to a reduction in trade, a shortage of food and clothing, and to a rise in prices, which in turn encouraged a thriving smuggling operation. To combat the rice shortage, the Dutch had to import rice in their own vessels. Therefore in 1694 the restrictions were relaxed and private trading permitted, and rice and textiles became more freely available. REBELLION AGAINST DUTCH - 1668-1670 Van Goens underestimated Kandyan resilience and strength, and assumed that the Kandyan kingdom was crumbling. He believed that the whole island could be annexed if the Kandyans were defeated. Resistance to Dutch rule broke out in September 1668 in Mada,

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295 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Kadawata, and Atakalan Korales, and by August 1670 it became a massive attack on the western and south-western frontiers, and on Kottiyar, Batticaloa and Trincomalee. The Sinhalese under Dutch rule were incited to revolt by the Kandyans. A French squadron under Admiral de la Haye was allowed entry to Kottiyar. The Kandyans attacked the Dutch on the east coast hoping the French would be drawn into the conflict, but they refused to be drawn in. The Dutch however drove the French out of Kottiyar. Though the rebellion quietened in 1675, Bibilegama, an important stronghold of the Dutch fell to the Kandyans. Rajasinha had shown that he was not the ineffective ruler the Dutch thought he was, but demonstrated shrewdness in his choice of attacks. In August 1667 unable to continue sending reinforcements, Batavia decided that the only way out was for the Dutch administration to make an offer in writing to Rajasinha, to restore back to him all lands seized after 1665. By then Goens had been replaced by his son as Governor in Lanka, and the senior Goens, who would not accept that decision, became Governor General in Batavia in 1678. Hence the offer was never made. But in 1681 Laurens Pyl (1679- 1692), who succeeded the younger Goens reviewed the position. He realised that Rajasinha was strong enough to paralyse economic activity in the lowlands and prevent peeling of cinnamon. He also realised that Rajasinha was stronger than the Dutch because he could field much larger forces. The Governor General in Batavia, Ryklof Goens who still refused to participate in these discussions, retired in November 1681 “a sick and broken man.” As the Dutch Council in Batavia saw it, “Dutch power in Lanka lay in the island’s cinnamon resources, and all other considerations were not merely subordinate to this, but should emphatically not be allowed to get in the way of the smooth functioning of the cinnamon monopoly.” In 1677 the Council in Batavia resolved to return all lands taken over after 1665 and to enter into a peace treaty recognising the pre-1664 borders. But Rajasinha’s refusal to negotiate till the lands captured were handed back, and his declining health at the age of 80, made the Dutch decide to adopt a ‘wait and see’ policy, till they knew what would happen with the next ruler. Pyl and the Dutch Council in Sri Lanka concluded that things should remain as they were and they would bargain with Rajasinha's successor. They were happy to open the ports

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296 SL Histary Chap.55-64 for trade for the Kandyans and persuaded Batavia to agree to it. Meanwhile they became friends with Rajasinha and sent gifts to him and showed much consideration and submissiveness even seeking his permission before cinnamon peelers were sent to the forest for peeling. According to Williams, Rajasinha liked flattery. ‘The Dutch general pocketed his pride and knelt before the king in meek humility, telling him that his name was known throughout the world, among other gross flatteries. This treatment they found efficacious, and did not allow pride to stand in their way when they wanted to repeat it’. Rajasinha II was married to a princess from Madhurai. He died after ruling for 52 years, leaving the throne to his son. Rajasinha was “despotic and tyrannical, suspicious yet far seeing..... He was a master in craft and double dealing, but met his equal in diplomacy in the Dutch, who found it impossible to act otherwise with so shifty an ally...... The Sinhalese proverb ‘I gave pepper and got ginger’ illus- trative of a bad bargain, was applied to his ousting the Portuguese by means of the ‘faithful Hollanders’. who ‘began as auxilliaries and allies and finished as undisputed masters.’(Codrington). ‘Rajasinha was an exception among Kandyan rulers in his committment to a policy of resistence to westerners in control of the littoral. No ruler before or after him purued such a policy so consistently’.(KMDS) It is significant that the one major rebellion against a Kandyan king occurred in 1664 against Rajasinha II.

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297 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 53

THE LAST TWO SINHALA KINGS

WIMALADHARMA SURIYA (1687-1707)

The only son of Rajasinha II succeeded him as Dharma Suriya II. He also married a princess from Madhura. When kings of Kandy wanted to get down princesses from India as Mahesis, the Duttch gave assistance to bring the bridal party to Lanka by ship. Vimala Dharma Suriya constructed a three-storeyed pasada for the Tooth Relic and had a reliquary made for it for twenty-five thousand pieces of silver. This was covered in gold and ornamented with eight precious stones to look like a cetiya and the relic placed inside it. The king went to Samanalakanda and offered jewels, pearls and offerings of gold and silver at the footprint, staying there for seven days. An umbrella of silver was placed over the footprint. A festival of admission to the Order was held in Ganthambatittha (Getambe) in 1697 for which thirty-three bhikkhus headed by Thera Santana from Rakkhanga in lower Burma was invited. were. The Dutch provided the ships for them. Thirty-three sons from good families entered the Sangha and one-hundred and twenty became samaneras. In 1688 the Dutch considered his demand for freedom of the ports and gave them back to him. Puttalam soon became the chief port for areca exports which was a loss to the Dutch who wanted to pressurise Vimala Dharma Suriya through trade. Hence instructions to their officials in Coromandel, Malabar and the Madura coast were sent to issue no passports except to Galle, Colombo and Jaffna. This antagonised the king who retaliated by periodically closing roads to stop Dutch trade with the interior. This was one of the few ways in which the Sinhalese people could retaliate. Vimala Dharma Suriya died on 4 June 1707 after twenty years as king.

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298 SL Histary Chap.55-64 SRI VIRAPARAKKAMA NARENDRASIHA (1707-1739) The last Sinhalese King Narendasinha, the son of Vimala Dharma Suriya was the last Sinhala king. He was a virtuous and religious king. Princesses were brought from Madhurai as Mahesis for him. Near Kandy he laid out a coconut plantation called which became a favourite residence for him. In fact he was even referred to as King Kundasale. A beautiful two-storeyed temple was built for the Tooth Relic. It looked like a mountain of silver. On the walls thirty-two jataka stories were shown in coloured paintings. At this time there was a samanera named Saranamkara, who led a moral life, was a poet learned in the scriptures, ready of speech, and a teacher of a host of disciples. The king honoured him. He had a reliquary made of gold for the Tooth, set it with 700 jewels and presented it to Samanera Saranamkara, together with many sacred books. He was given clothing and many people were assigned to serve him. To procure the long existence of the true doctrine, he requested Saranamkara to compose the Saratthasamgaha with eleven thousand sections, a commentary on the Mahabodhivamsa in Sinhala and a commentary on the Bhesajjamanjusa, which was composed by Parakkamabahu II who ruled in Dambadeniya. Dutch Governor Petrus Vuyst (1726 to 1729) was notorious for his inhuman punishments. His period is noted for maladministration and misrule when even the judiciary was affected. At his instigation a number of Dutch officials and were executed on trumped up charges. He finally was summoned to Batavia and executed. In the 1730s the Dutch wanted to extract a large portion of the agricultural production from the peasants. This led to discontent which was followed by unrest and the Kandyans were afforded an opportunity to embarrass the Dutch by inciting the people. In 1733 the peeling of cinnamon and the transport of elephants were forbidden by the king. The grievances of the people under Dutch rule were many. Fines for children not attending schools, unjust taxation, and other problems led to a rebellion in 1736, which the Kandyans supported. But when Kandy found that the new governor Baron van Imhoff (1736-39) was a tough man, things quietened and peace was restored in 1737. Imhoff in 1736 attempted to secure a peace treaty with the Kandyan

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299 SL Histary Chap.55-64 king, recognising Dutch sovereignty in return for some limited trade concessions and the right for Kandyans to send three vessels from Puttalam to India with goods which were not monopolised by the Dutch. He thought it would bind the Kandyan rulers to the Dutch. But the King and the Batavian government rejected this. Then Imhoff thought of a swift expedition to Kandy, to seize the king and enforce a peace treaty. Batavia refused this too. The king was ill and since he had no male heir, the Dutch expected a disputed succession and instability to follow, which they could exploit. King Narendrasinha, the last Sinhala King died on 13 May 1739. NAYAKKAR KING SIRI VIJAYA RAJASINHA (1739-1747) After the death of Narendrasinha in 1739, the younger brother of his Mahesi (Queen) who was from Madhurai, a Nayakkar, took over the throne of Kandy as King Vijaya Rajasinha. The Nayakkars were Telegu speaking people from , who had moved to the Coramandel coast when Muslims attacked India. They had ties with the Kandyan throne because the mahesies of both Vimala Dharma Suriya and his son Narendasinha were from Madurai. Vijaya Rajasinha was piously religious. The princesses from Madurai who married the king also took up Buddhism. They observed the precepts and had sacred books copied. Bhikkhus were given alms, and not being attached to worldly possessions, they gave very lavishly. Young people were encouraged to renounce, and good instruction in the sacred scriptures was given. Images and reliquaries were built. Dwelling places were erected and given over to samaneras. Saranamkara who dwelt in the Uposatharama was invited to make a commentary on the four bhanavaras (Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta and Anguttara Nikayas) in Sinhala. The placing of the relic in a new temple was entrusted to his people while King Vijaya Rajasinha was away in another town. The people tried to open the reliquary but no one was successful. This news was then conveyed to the king. He came back and having offered incense and flowers, took hold of the lock and without effort the lock of the reliquary opened. He then took the caskets out, one by one and beheld the Tooth of the Buddha. A great festival was held. The Relic Temple built by a former king was refurnished newly and the city was decorated for the festival. The road was strewn with rice

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300 SL Histary Chap.55-64 flakes (pori). The king dressed in all his festive clothes, fell on the ground and worshipped the Relic. Then taking the relic in his palm, he walked to the mandapa outside the temple and displayed the relic for the people to see. Having given this pleasure to all the people he brought it back to the temple. He ordered that in all towns and in cetiyas, on one and the same night, people should make an offering of lamps. In all 796,600 lamps were lit, making the island look like a star-strewn firmament. In addition hundreds of thousands of flowers were offered. Festivals of lamps were held at Sumanakuta, Mahiyangana and Anuradhapura. In Alokalena (Aluvihara near Matale), and in other viharas in Matale, life-size images of the Buddha were set up, some recumbent, some standing and others seated. Decayed religious buildings were restored and new ones built. Dwellings and sermon halls for large gatherings were put up with better masonry. Preachers were sent to various places and in this way the king made a spiritual offering. The Portuguese who were left behind in Lanka, endeavoured to bribe people and convert them. They showed no respect for Buddhism. When

Temple of the Tooth in Kandy

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301 SL Histary Chap.55-64 the king heard this, he ordered their houses and books to be destroyed. On realising that the Order was declining in Lanka he inquired where there were good monks. He learned from the Dutch that the Order still existed in Pegu, Rakkhanga (Burma) and Saminda (Thailand), and in all purity in Ayojjha (now Ayuthya, old capital of Thailand, north of Bangkok). One embassy was sent to Pegu and another to Siam with gifts and letters from the king, in ships provided by the Dutch. For the Tooth Relic he had a gold reliquary made, one-and-a-half cubits (60 centimetres) tall, encrusted with costly pearls and jewels. King Vijaya Rajasinha died before its completion. Although the Dutch provided ships for bringing the monks, the Kandyans continued their attacks on Dutch territory. The erection of a church and a school were stopped - first signs of anti-Christian prejudices. The Dutch as advised by Batavia, did not get into conflict in spite of numerous provocations. The Kandyans and the Dutch preferred a policy of peaceful coexistence. Both parties were aware of their mutual inter-dependence. The Kandyans used Dutch ships to get their royal spouses from India and also to keep in contact with other Asian Buddhist countries like Burma and Thailand. The Dutch depended on Kandyan goodwill for collection of cinnamon and transport of elephants to Jaffna. The Kandyan king could, if he wished, stop the cinnamon collection even in the coastal areas because all Sinhalese treated the king as their ruler, and Kandy was a refuge for offenders incurring the wrath of the Dutch. In 1733 the king did stop the collection of cinnamon, and pressure on the Dutch eased by 1740 due to internal politics in Kandy following the accession in 1739 of Nayakkars to the Sinhala throne. But incursions into Dutch territory continued and in later years the Kandyans meddling in affairs of the lowlands increased, leading to warfare in 1760 during the period of Governor Baron van Eck. Governor Julius van Gollenesse who took over in 1747 allowed the Dutch ships to bring Buddhist monks from other countries but before the last batch came from Thailand, King Vijaya Rajasinha died on 11 August 1747, in the eighth year of his reign.

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302 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 55

The Kandy Palace Complex

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303 SL Histary Chap.55-64 SECOND NAYAKKAR KING

KIRTISIRI RAJASINHA IN KANDY (1747-1782) A brother of King Vijaya Rajasinha’s Queen who had accompanied her when she came from Madhura with her father Narenappa Nayakkar, succeeded to the throne of Lanka as King Kirtisiri Rajasinha in 1747. Gifted with physical beauty, he was a delight to the eyes. He dwelt in Kandy and resolved to protect Buddhism. He did not associate with bad friends, enjoyed the company of learned people, listened to the scriptures, held festivals and built religious buildings. He brought to Lanka “the diplomatic ability and business acumen gained in India”. He gave gifts to bhikkhus who had come from foreign lands and those in Lanka. They recited pirith and other religious texts. Nine- thousand Kahapanas were spent and a golden book made. On these gold leaves the Suttas such as Dhammacakka Sutta were inscribed and he had them recited by preachers all night long. Scribes were made to copy the Digha Nikaya and Samyutta Nikaya, and he had these texts also recited. The king went to Anuradhapura, Mahiyangana and Polonnaruwa and made sacrifices at the sacred places to gain merit. He also visited the Rajata Vihara (now Ridi vihara), north of Kurunegala. THE The Esala festival was held each year to welcome the rainy season. It was first started in Anuradhapura in the time of King Sirimeghavana (AD 301-328) when the Tooth Relic was first brought to Lanka. The ESALA PERAHERA (a Buddhist procession) is held in many cities but the biggest one today is the perahera in Kandy, which was started in the time of King Kirthisri Rajasinha in the 18th century. It is called Esala because the month of August in the is known as “Esala”. The bhikkhus who were got down by Kirthisri Rajasinha from Siam (Thailand) to help restore the Theravada tradition that had started to degenerate, had protested that the predominant religious activity in Kandy’s Hindu Temples was unseemly in the Royal Buddhist capital.

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304 SL Histary Chap.55-64 The king therefore arranged for this annual procession to be held with the four devales incorporated in open homage to the Tooth Relic. This tradition is maintained even today. (I.G.) The Tooth Relic, which was the symbol of sovereignty, is taken from its enshrined place and carried in a procession, giving a chance for people to pay homage to it once a year. The Kandy Perahera as it is now commonly known worldwide, is one of the most spectacular pageants in the South Asia, if not in the world! Large numbers of foreign tourists come to see and photograph it every year. The four Hindu devales in Kandy lead the Perahera, each providing a colourful procession. This is followed by the procession from the Dalada Maligawa (Tooth Temple). The magnificent tusked elephant of the Temple, gorgeously adorned in clothes lined with tiny electric bulbs, carries on his back the illuminated howdah with the golden karanduwa - a replica of the dagoba-shaped casket in which the Tooth is enshrined. The genuine Tooth Relic is not taken out of the temple for security reasons. This elephant is followed by dozens of other elephants all dressed up in colourful attire, whose riders hold in their hands silver umbrellas, fly whisks and flowers. People carrying banners, and royal dignitaries join the procession. A “rain of flowers” is showered on the canopy. Then the procession sets forth with the people following behind the relic, (including the king), dressed in splendour. Behind them walks the , the chief trustee of the Temple and holder of the highest lay office in the island, followed by other officials of the temple in colourful clothes. In various gorgeous costumes, each giving their own performance, several hundreds of drummers, Kandyan-dancers, devil-dancers, stick- dancers, whip-crackers, fire-eaters and flame-dancers, and several other acrobats perform while going in the procession, followed by lines of school children carrying . For the first six nights it is known as the Kumbal Perahera and only shows a shadow of its splendour. On the seventh night the Randoli Perahera begins. The randoli or golden palanquins bearing the consorts of the deities of the four devalas, each borne by an elephant, joins the procession. Each night the length and grandeur of the procession increases and becomes most spectacular on the last night when there may be over one-hundred elephants in the procession. (From “Insight guides” Apa Productions pg.245.)

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305 SL Histary Chap.55-64 “The town at night and by moonlight has a quality of fairyland that I have never seen equalled...... The spectacle presents all that is inherent in the phrase ‘the glamourous East,’ the personification of beauty, shorn of all the problems that the daylight so surely reveals.” (HW pg.346) King Kirtisiri Rajasinha learned what other kings before him had done and he resolved to fulfil his duties as king. Through assistance from the Dutch, bhikkhus were got down from Siam in 1753 and the

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306 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Siamese Sect, Siyam Nikaya, was founded. The Mahavamsa which contained the past history of the kings of Lanka was examined and compared with similar books brought from Saminda (Thailand). Hearing that the Mahavamsa was deficient, he had it written from the time of Parakramabahu IV by the Mahanayake of the Malvatu Vihara in Tibbatuvava, and continued as the royal chronicle. He neither transgressed the precepts nor the commandments laid down for a king, and carried on the government in justice and peace. He did much good, practising friendly speech and generosity and care for the welfare of the people. Through the Dutch, bhikkhus were got down from Siam in 1753 and the Siamese Sect, Siyam Nikaya, was founded. The Mahavamsa which contained the past history of the kings of Lanka was examined and compared with similar books brought from Saminda (Thailand). Hearing that the Mahavamsa was deficient, he had it written from the time of Parakramabahu IV by the Mahanayake of the Malvatu Vihara in Tibbatuvava, and continued as the royal chronicle. He neither transgressed the precepts nor the commandments laid down for a king, and carried on the government in justice and peace. He did much good, practising friendly speech and generosity and care for the welfare of the people. rom the Dutch, bhikkhus were got down from Siam in 1753 and the Siamese Sect, Siyam Nikaya, was founded. The Mahavamsa which contained the past history of the kings of Lanka was examined and compared with similar books brought from Saminda (Thailand). Hearing that the Mahavamsa was deficient, he had it written from the time of Parakramabahu IV by the Mahanayake of the Malvatu Vihara in Tibbatuvava, and continued as the royal chronicle. He neither transgressed the precepts nor the commandments laid down for a king, and carried on the government in justice and peace. He did much good, practising friendly speech and generosity and care for the welfare of the people.

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307 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 56

TEMPLE OF THE TOOTH (DALADA MALIGAWA) IN KANDY

KANDY Kandy ‘the romantic hill capital, the heart of resistance to the encroachment of the white man till 1815’ was formerly known as Senkadagala, after a hermit who is said to have lived there. ‘The site of Kandy is superb. The Mahaveli ganga curves in a giant V in the hills and the town stands almost surrounded by water - a necklace of pearls’ Vimala Dharma Suriya I built his palace in Senkadagala but it was burned down by Azevedo, the Portuguese Captain (1594-1612). Although it was rebuilt by Senerat, invaders burnt it down again. Rajasinha II (1635-1687) built a new palace which was more substantial and elegant than the former palaces, but this too was burnt down by the Dutch. Kirtisiri Rajasinha (1747-82) built many new viharas and renovated old ones in the , but malaria and impenetrable jungle that had overtaken Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura, made it impossible for these cities to be reached for renovations. He constructed a temple in Gangarama, and another in Degaldoruwa, which is celebrated for its beautiful frescoes. DALADA MALIGAWA - TEMPLE OF THE TOOTH The present two-storeyed Dalada Maligawa is the pink double storey moated building constructed by Narendasinha (1707-39) in place of the three-storeyed one his father Vimala Dharma Suriya II had built, and which was on the verge of collapse. He also built the oldest of the Kandy temples, Natha Devale. The Maligawa is part of a tremendous complex extending from the King’s Palace north of the temple, to past the Queen’s Palace behind the temple. Slightly behind and to the north is the Audience Hall, the foundation stone of which was laid in 1784 by Rajadi Rajasinha but completed after the British took over Kandy in 1815. It is an open hall with elaborately carved pillars of teak and

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308 SL Histary Chap.55-64 halmilla wood. It was the venue of the conference held by the Kandyan chiefs when they surrendered the Kandyan kingdom to the British. The only part of the King’s Palace left today is the part which served as a residence for the British Government Agent. Weliwita Saranamkara, who since the time of Narendrasinha played a leading role in the revival of Buddhism, was made a Sangaraja before his death in 1778. But persecution of the Churches started by Vijaya Rajasinha in 1743 continued, and ceased only when the king felt that “certain calamities that befell the country were due to his actions.” (Cod.) Kirtisiri Rajasinha had two brothers. One of them had accompanied him, when he came with his father Narenappa Nayakker and his sister to Lanka. The other was born in Sri Lanka. The brothers were made uparajas and provided with retinue and vehicles. Each of them celebrated the festival of the Tooth, and continued to give alms to the bhikkhus. They arranged for a ceremony of admission to the Order. Dwellings were built for bhikkhus and they were well cared for. Unlike former kings who fought within their families, these three brothers shunned discord and were very friendly with each other. In 1760 a violent rebellion spread through the Sinhalese provinces under the Dutch. It was over new regulations adopted by Governor Schreuder (1757-1762). In 1761 the Kandyans invaded the low country and took over the Matara and forts and frontier districts. The Dutch marched into Kandy but were driven back. The Dutch however had a respite when in 1761 there was a conspiracy against the king by nationalists, opposed to the king being an Indian.

CLEANSING OF THE ORDER IN KANDY There were not many bhikkhus left in Sirivaddhana (Kandy). So a ceremony of renunciation of the world and admission to the Order was held, and many sons of good families entered the Order. The king had the Vinaya and the Suttras preached to cure them of mental problems and appointed two physicians well schooled in the art of medicine, and nurses to look after their physical illnesses. King Kirtisiri Rajasinha removed all bhikkhus who had taken up to unseemly professions like astrology and sorcery, and who led immoral lives. In 1749, after 2293 years since the parinirvana of Buddha, he realised that there were not enough bhikkhus for the long continuance of the Order. Therefore he sent an Embassy with many gifts and a

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309 SL Histary Chap.55-64 splendid letter to the town of Ayojjha in Thailand to fetch monks. The dignitaries went in ships provided by the Dutch and sailed to Saminda (Siam) where they presented the letter to King Dhammika of Thailand. He was deeply moved when he heard about the decline of the Order in Lanka. Dhammika himself is believed to have been a bhikkhu before, as was the custom for all males in Thailand. So he summoned the in Thailand, and other well instructed Grand Theras and took counsel with them. Ten virtuous bhikkhus with Thera Upali as head, were sent to Lanka with many books on the doctrine and on monastic discipline. He also sent a golden image of Buddha and a golden book, a magnificent royal letter and many envoys bearing gifts for the king of Lanka. The ship returned with the monks to Trincomalee. The road from Kandy to Trincomalee was decorated and rest houses built at various places. Then he sent the Mahasenapati and other dignitaries and made them fetch in the right order, the golden image, the sacred books and the bhikkhu community. When they had reached the vicinity of the Mahaveli ganga, the king met them, showed reverence to the Maha Thera and brought them to the city. In a graceful brick roofed building built by him in the Puppharama (now Malvatu Vihara on the Kandy Lake) he made the bhikkhus take up residence. He accepted the Royal letter brought by the envoys who had come, and showed them the respect they were entitled to. On the Esala full moon day in 1752 the king visited the monastery. He invited the Grand Thera Upali and the Thera Ariyamuni and other bhikkhus to take their seats. He then made them perform a ceremony of admission to the Order on over 3000 sons of good families. From among all these, he selected those who were full of zeal in preserving the study of the scriptures, and the rules on monastic life, and who were qualified for and worthy of becoming teachers, and had them instructed by the bhikkhus from Thailand. Bhikkhus in the Malvatte and Asgiriya chapters who were well versed in carrying out the duties of the Order were assigned positions of rank. He requested Grand Thera Upali and other illustrious bhikkhus to preach on the Digha Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, the Saddhammasamgaha and other sacred books. All the bhikkhus, samaneras and the people were invited to a great festival held for the Tooth Relic. The royal envoys who wished to visit Mahiyangana and other sacred

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310 SL Histary Chap.55-64 places were taken there by Sri Lankan officials, and were shown favours and sent back to Siam. Grand Thera Upali and other bhikkhus were taken to visit the sixteen sacred places as well as cetiyas in Kandy and other places. The sixteen sacred places in Sri Lanka are: Mahiyangana in Uva, Nagadipa in the very north, Kelaniya, Adams peak (Samantakuta kanda), Divaguha, Dighavapi, Mutiyangana in Badulla, Tissamahavihara and Kataragama in Ruhuna, and the Bodhi Tree, Mirisaveti cetiya, Ruvanweli seya (Mahathupa), Thuparama, Abhayagiri, Jetavana and Selacetiya in Anuradhapura. In three years, monasteries were put up and given over to the Bhikkhu community. King Dhammika of Thailand sent a further ten bhikkhus with the Grand Thera Visuddhacariya who was a mine of virtue and the learned Thera Varananamuni. They were also received with great honours and housed in Puppharama. When the Grand thera Upali had been here for three years, he was troubled with a disease of his nose. The king visited him and hearing that it was incurable, held a festival for the Buddha and ascribed all the merit to the Grand Thera. When the Thera died, many ceremonies and prescribed rites were carried out. King Kittisiri Rajasinha sent many gifts to Dhammika, king of Thailand. A model of the Tooth, fashioned out of a costly jewel, an image of the Buddha, a shell curved to the right (which is uncommon and is supposed to bring luck), a splendid artistic letter and many other gifts were sent through his Ministers, who accompanied the first group of the Siamese bhikkhus, when they wished to return to their country. King Dhammika was very happy. He gazed at the likeness of the Tooth for a long time and celebrated a festival in its honour. The Lankan envoys were given many books that were not found in Lanka, a beautiful likeness of the sacred footprint, sacrificial gifts for the Tooth Relic, canopies and umbrellas and a royal letter. The king arranged for bhikkhus, who had been admitted to the order by the first chapter of Thai bhikkhus, to take instruction from the Visuddhacariya and Varananamuni. The Sri Lankan bhikkhus were zealous and discerning. On a rock at a beautiful place east of Sirivaddhana (Kandy), a splendid standing image of the Buddha, 3 metres (13 feet) tall was hewn out, and overlaid with gold plates to make it appear life-like.

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311 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Round this a lofty massive stone wall was erected and superb stone pillars placed. A double storey temple with a roomy court, outer walls, mandapas and the like were erected. A great festival was held on the day the eyes of the image were put in. All this cost sixteen-thousand one-hundred and fifty kahapanas. Near the Mahaveli ganga the king rebuilt the Gangarama under the name of RAJAMAHAVIHARA. This beautiful vihara had been destroyed by the Portuguese in 1765. Nearby a monastery was built and a chapter of bhikkhus who devoted themselves to study were invited to take up residence. In a charming garden in Kundasale, a vihara was built with mandapas and images, and relics of the Buddha were placed in it. To this was dedicated a garden bearing breadfruit trees, mango trees, coco palms and other fruit bearing trees. The Hindus who in the time of Rajasinha I had been given permission to collect the income from the footprint on the Sumanakuta mountain, were ordered by the king to stop doing so. The flourishing village named Kuttapiti was dedicated to the sacred footprint and the income from it was assigned to the Order. The Majjhavela (Medavela) vihara built by King Vattagamani, which had fallen into decay was rebuilt. At the Majjhapalli (Medapola) vihara a great recumbent image of the Buddha was installed and the village of Malagama (Malgomuwa) dedicated to it. To the samanera Siddhattha he granted the Rajatavihara (Ridi vihara) erected by Dutugemunu, and arranged for the admission of this samanera to the Order. A figure of the Buddha in combat with Mara was cut out on the rock face, and a recumbent image of the Buddha was built of bricks. A thousand images of the Buddha together with one of Buddha’s disciple Ananda, and one of King Dutugemunu. were made for the Ridivihara Outside, Kirtisiri Rajasinha had images of gods and Brahma, and figures with flowers in their hands, as though they were coming to worship Buddha. Paintings were done of the sixteen sacred places in Lanka and the sacred footprint, as well as of several jataka stories, and many other subjects, like the five great renunciations, (surrender of the five precious possessions, wife, children, royal dignity, life and limbs).

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312 SL Histary Chap.55-64 In a delightful cave above this rock a vast image house was built. A large life-like sitting image of the Buddha and on either side, standing statues of Bodhisatta Metteya and of the lotus eyed god Vishnu were placed. Images of the twenty-four past Buddhas and their Bodhi trees, and imitations of the sixteen holy places and the five great councils and many other sacred scenes were made. Relics of the Buddha were brought there and a cetiya was built. On the vaulted ceiling of the image house, he had placed a sitting image of the Sage and his one- hundred followers, with Sariputta at the head. Bhikkhus were made to recite the Maha-mangalasutta and other sacred texts. This was in 1757. The cetiya too was repaired and a monastery and uposatha house were built nearby. A large park was constructed with fruit and flower trees and bathing ponds. Near the Dohala mountain, in Sukara monastery a councillor named Suvannagama built an Uposatha house and dedicated it to the ascetic Dhammarakkhita. CONFLICT WITH THE DUTCH The Dutch, who in the time of King Rajasinha II had been entrusted with the job of protecting Lanka, and who every year brought gifts to the king of Lanka now began to harrass the people. The king sent his dignitaries who fought battles with the Dutch and destroyed their strongholds. Baron van Eck who succeeded Schreuder as governor of Ceylon in 1762 was a very cruel and treacherous man. The star shaped Fort at Matara was built by him. During this time the king attempted to secure the areca and elephant trade for himself and he tried to hinder the Dutch Company in every possible way, especially in their exporting of cinnamon. The Dutch captured Chilaw and Puttalam and then sent forces to Kandy in 1763, but the Kandyans defeated them by their guerilla tactics. In 1765 with a great following consisting of Javakas, the Dutch attacked again and laid waste several provinces, viharas, temples, rest houses and bridges. One army led by Baron van Eck came from Colombo through Galagedera and another from Puttalam, reaching on Friday 16 February. The king then entrusted the Relics, the Mahesi and all valuables to his two brothers, and advised them to go to an area, which was protected by impassable mountains. But apparently the karanduwa in which the Tooth Relic was preser- ved fell into the hands of the Dutch, and van Eck took it to Colombo.

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313 SL Histary Chap.55-64 The Dutch meanwhile approached the city and destroyed sacred books. The king was now prepared to make concessions but negotiat- ions failed to satisfy both sides and the king left Kandy, which the Dutch then occupied. Van Eck left Kandy on 4 March 1765 and came to Colombo where he died a few days after. The Dutch troops left in Kandy died of starvation and disease. The Kandyans too faced starv- ation, having neglected their fields. J.W. Falck (1765-85) the successor of van Eck returned the karanduwa containing the tooth relic which resulted in the Kandyans allowing the Dutch soldiers left behind in Kandy, to return to Colombo. The king now began negotiations with the British emissary from the Madras Branch of the English East India Company, John Pybus, but that led him nowhere because the English appeared only interested in gaining a territorial foothold on the coastal parts of Lanka, with nothing to offer in return. The fact that the English were negotiating with the king, was a surprise to the Dutch who were planning a war against Kandy. This information only hardened the Dutch attitude towards the king. In his request for a territorial foothold on the coast, Pybus was not thinking of the port of Trincomalee, because they already had access to it through an arrangement with the Dutch. In 1762 a Dutch expedition was sent to Kandy but they were routed just as the Portuguese expeditions had been before. But the knowledge of the Pybus mission made the Dutch send another expedition in 1765 and this was more successful and ended with the Dutch being able to force Kandy to enter into a treaty in 1776. The famine which broke out in 1766 due to agriculture being neglected during the war years, was another factor which forced the king to enter into this Treaty of 14 February 1766 with the Dutch Governor Falck (1765-85). By this he made over to the Dutch all coastal areas, thus cutting off Kandy from the outside world. Magampattu, Puttalam and Chilaw in the south, and 200 square miles from Kumbukkan Oya in the southeast, to the Mahaveli in the east, were acquired by the Dutch. The king now had to rely on the goodwill of the Dutch for trade. The rigorous terms imposed by the treaty spurred Kandy to search for foreign assistance to expel the Dutch from Lanka. TRADE AND AGRICULTURE UNDER THE DUTCH The cinnamon was supplied to the Dutch by the people for a pittance. As peeling of cinnamon kept the peelers in the forests for eight

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314 SL Histary Chap.55-64 months of the year, it was a rigorous and unpleasant job which people tried to avoid. The Dutch put relentless pressure on the Sinhalese to increase production. They also needed supplies from the Kandyan Kingdom. In this respect the Dutch East India Company was vulnerable. They were overprotective of the cinnamon producing forests to the extent that they left extensive areas of cultivable land unutilised. The Dutch frowned on saying that “slash and burn” would lead to soil exhaustion, and finally destroy the cinnamon plants. Van Imhoff could not see the logic in leaving large areas of land uncultivated, and he encouraged the cultivation of secondary crops such as coconut which could give income from arrack, and coffee and pepper. But in 1740s when the price of cinnamon doubled due to demand in Europe, cinnamon production was stepped up and restraints on the use of land for other crops was imposed. Sri Lankan cinnamon was superior to that of other overseas competitors. In 1769 Falck experimented on growing cinnamon in Maradana. Soon other areas in the southwest coast started growing cinnamon successfully. He granted land to natives on the understanding that one third should be cultivated with cinnamon and the rest with whatever they wished. These were called “thunhavul lands”. This was followed by extending plantations to grow coffee, cotton and indigo. Coffee from Sri Lanka had been exported to Indian and Arabian ports since the early 1730s, but when Javanese coffee flooded world markets, the Dutch Company instructed its officers to discourage cultivation. Pepper and cardamoms too were grown for export. The Dutch encouraged these being grown on their lands so that they could be independent of supplies from Kandy. The desire on the part of the Dutch to vigorously step up production of these commodities resulted in the out break of a rebellion in 1798 extending from Matara to Chilaw and Puttalam. Batavia had to urge Governor Graf (1785-93) to slow down his energetic efforts. Rice production had been neglected by the Dutch. In spite of the imports of rice from India becoming expensive, the only effort made by them was to construct the Urubokka Dam in the south - the first new irrigation project since the time of Polonnaruwa kings. This supplied water to several thousands of acres. The only other project by the Dutch was to restore irrigation works in . Although there were plans to restore the Yodaweva in Mannar, Kantalai tank and

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315 SL Histary Chap.55-64 Pattipola (Galoya) in the east, they were not carried out. Apart from Falck’s unsuccessful attempt to drain the Muthurajavala swamp near Colombo no other major irrigation works were attempted by the Dutch. In 1781 war broke out between the British and the Dutch. Trincomalee which was accessible to the British earlier was denied to them by the Dutch. The British planned to seige Trincomalee but later they extended their project to capture all Dutch settlements in Lanka. Trincomalee was captured by the British in January 1782, but lost it to the French in August 1782. King Kirtisiri Rajasinha died in 1782 after ruling for 35 years, having fallen off his horse. (Cod pg.145)

THIRD NAYAKKAR KING: RAJADIRAJASINHA (1782-1798) The younger brother of King Kirtisiri Rajasinha ascended the throne as King Rajadirajasinha. He continued the religious work that his brother had done and gave alms and robes to the bhikkhus. He built an Uposatha house near the Pupparama (Malvatu Vihara) as the one built by former King Kirtisiri had decayed. Being an expert in language, he made a poem of the Asadisajataka in Sinhala. In 1782 a second diplomatic mission from the English East India Company led by Hugh Boyd, offered a treaty with Kandy to provide military assistance against the Dutch, in return for provisions for their soldiers left in Trincomalee But this was refused by Rajadirajasinha who had just ascended the throne. This plan of the English was more to stop the French using Trincomalee, than their wanting the port for themselves. Trincomalee was important as a safe harbour during the monsoonal and intermonsoonal storms in October and April. (KMDS 178) Rajadirajasinha wanted “more convincing proof of British good faith” before committing himself to any treaty which would have meant precipitating a war with the Dutch. Thus at the negotiations in 1783-84 the British were content to let the Dutch retain Trinco-malee, though at this time there was no cordiality between these two countries. De Graaf who succeeded Falck was anxious to extend Dutch control by taking over the Vanni and other low lying areas, leaving Kandy no room to contact the outside world except through Dutch territories. His plan was to provoke a reason to start a war against the king. Batavia realised the dangers of such a move without human and economic

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316 SL Histary Chap.55-64 resources and hence refused permission, and instead wanted De Graaf to seek a reconciliation with Kandy. Unwilling to do this he resigned. Around this time on information given by Pilame Talawa, the Dutch intercepted a letter written by the king asking help from the French. In 1789 a fierce rebellion against the Dutch started in Matara and spread to other areas under Dutch occupation, and was assisted by the Kandyans. This discredited de Graaf in the eyes of his superiors. A third English delegation led by Robert Andrews came to Kandy in February 1796, when relations between the Dutch and Kandy had sunk to a low level. Andrews offered provision for Kandy to maintain an outlet for external trade and to obtain supplies of salt and fish, and the right to employ ten ships for this purpose. Although it was less rigorous than the Dutch treaty of 1766 and contained some of the terms which Kandy had tried to obtain from the Dutch, and Kandy was more receptive to these offers than in 1782, still the king did not ratify this treaty, wanting more ports, and a guarantee that Dutch possessions would not revert to Dutch control. By now Kandyan relations with the Dutch under de Graaf had deteriorated, and no improvement occurred even under his successor who was his father-in-law, J.G.van Angelbeek (1793-95). A sympathetic uprising of the Sinhalese in the maritime provinces was also feared by the Dutch. By 1796 Napolean had overrun Holland and the Prince of had fled to Britian. The British suspected that the French were trying to secure the Dutch colonies of the Cape, Java and Ceylon. BRITISH TAKE OVER DUTCH POSSESSIONS (1796) The British invited van Angelbeek to place his colonies in the possession of the British, to be restored to the Dutch at a later date, but the Dutch refused. The British however in August 1795, took over Trincomalee and Batticaloa, and ten days later Jaffna, without resistance. British troops sailed along the coast from Negombo to Colombo and then advanced by land along the Kelani river and crossed over to Colombo without resistance. “The failure of the Dutch to take a stand is explained partly by the fact that the British held the sea and could have landed troops in their rear.” The Dutch had at their disposal 1617 men composed of 845 Europeans and 772 Malays while the British had 5500 men of whom 2700 were Europeans, and they also had the

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317 SL Histary Chap.55-64 command of the sea. (Cod pg.157) The Kandyan king sent his generals with part of his forces to co- operate with the British in Colombo. The British however did not want to make use of this assistance and their generals ware requested to send the troops back. Prior to 2 February 1796 the Kandyan general had occupied Matara which was subsequently handed over to the British on 24 February. (Colvin deS pg.50) But without any help from Kandy, on 15 February 1796 the English took over all the former Dutch possessions which included the entire coastline, to a depth of 20 miles into the interior, and Kandy was left with a powerful neighbour more capable of subjugating Kandy, than the Portuguese or the Dutch. A REVIEW OF DUTCH RULE IN LANKA The Dutch like the Portuguese maintained the Sinhalese adminstrative structure of Mudaliyars, Korales, Atukorales and Vidanes. They sought to win over the native headmen since they realised they would be invaluable as supports for their regime, but they were suspicious of the chiefs. The headmen system in Sri Lanka has been a complex one. In multi-caste areas there seem to have been headmen for each caste, even though the community had only few persons of their caste. But all the headmen were under a goigama disava and korala vidanes. The officials in the VOC administration indulged in corrupt practices, ranging from alienation of unoccupied land by these officials to participation in smuggling, illegal private trade, the smuggling of cinnamon out of the island, and the bringing in of textiles and areca into the island in collobaration with Indian traders. The decline in efficiency and personal integrity at all levels of the administration was of serious concern to the VOC. Proceedings were instituted against Governor Becker (1707-1716). Misrule continued, the worst being under Petrus Vuyst who was dismissed from office in 1729, summoned to Batavia, tried and executed. Reforms by van Imhoff in 1736 brought back respect for the office of Governor. The Dutch found that the Tamils had their laws codified in the Tesavalamai and Muslims had their own Islamic laws, but the Sinhalese had no customary laws. This fact was responsible for the Dutch introducing the Roman Dutch Law which dealt with monogamy, the sanctity of marriage, the inheritance of property and the concept of

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318 SL Histary Chap.55-64 private property. Dutch territories extended from Colombo to Galle in the south, and Jaffna in the north. As Galle and Jaffna were distant they were administered by Commanders assisted by a council. Dutch officers placed in Kalpitiya, Negombo, Kalutara, Mannar, Trincomalee and Batticaloa. Conversion to Calvinism was encouraged, by offers of high posts. In 1743 they had 53,219 members in Colombo, and by 1758 there were 200,233 members and 37 churches in Jaffna. School teachers were paid by the state and they acted as Registrars of deaths, births and marriages. Registration of marriages emphasised the concept of monogamy which had been introduced by the Portuguese. Two seminaries were set up in Colombo and at Nallur in Jaffna (1690) for higher education and the talented students from other schools were sent there at state expense. These trained as teachers, catechists and clergymen. Some were sent to for higher studies. In 1737, during Imhoff’s administration, a printing press was set up in Colombo and Christian literature was produced in Sinhalese and Tamil. Father Jacome Goncalves, a Konkani Brahaman from Goa, who came to Sri Lanka secretly, found refuge in Kandy and learnt Sinhalese and Tamil and wrote many books relating to the scriptures in Sinhalese and Tamil, composed devotional hymns and compiled Portuguese - Sinhalese and Portuguese-Tamil dictionaries. The Dutch also built canal systems for communication from Kelaniya through Muthurajavala to Pamunugama which was later ex- tended to Puttalam and Kalpitiya and from the Kelani river through Nedimala and Kotte to the Kaluganga, and this was extended through Kaluamodera to Bentota ganga. Similar canal systems were built in Galle and Matara, in Batticaloa, Grandpass and Bloemendhal. These became useful in agriculture.

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319 SL Histary Chap.55-64 CHAPTER 57

FREDERICK NORTH FIRST BRITISH GOVERNOR (1798-1805)

On 12 October 1798 Hon. Frederick North became the first civil British Governor and Commander in Chief of the coastal regions of Sri Lanka. From October 1798 to 1 January 1802, Colombo was under dual control of the Madras branch of the East India Company and the British Crown. Governor North was also Treasurer and President of the Supreme Court. North sent to Sri Wickrama Rajasinha the usual letter of greeting “in the conventional terms of formal flattery”. By 1st January 1802 however all Dutch settlements in Sri Lanka became Crown Colony under ‘His Majesty’s Council’ which consisted of the Commander in Chief, the Chief Justice, and Chief Secretary of the Civil Service. The Kandyans now had a very powerful neighbour in place of the weaker Dutch. By a decision taken in London, Europeans were prohibited from holding land outside Colombo town. Although Sri Lanka was viewed by early governors as “a military station with a mercantilist economic tradition,” the Europeans were not happy with this decision. They believed this would be detrimental to economic development of the island. Hence they pressurised London and succeeded in 1812, resulting in Europeans being permitted to “purchase or receive up to 4,000 acres of land”. The East India Company was given the sole right to buy cinnamon from Lanka for the European market. In 1822 when this contract expired the Colonial government did not renew it and instead took it under its control. Lanka’s monopoly on cinnamon was due to its fine quality. The Colonial government resorted to restrict its production and maintain artificially high prices. That grown in Java and parts of India was coarser and was substantially cheaper and soon the Sri Lankan product was forced to lower its prices. Arrack, coconut oil and other

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321 SL Histary Chap.65-81 articles like tobacco and coffee were exported, and articles needed for the Europeans in Sri Lanka and the elite in Colombo were imported. Among Sri Lankans the barter system continued. The Kandyans bartered dry-grains, areca and jaggery in exchange for salt, salt-fish and cloth, with traders from the coast. Those in Jaffna bartered salt, tobacco and cloth for areca, cotton and beeswax from the south-west. Education which had been neglected was revived by North and in 1801 there were 170 schools. The school masters were also notaries and Registrars. There was also in Colombo an Academy with three preparat-ory schools. Many changes were made to the judicial system. RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL CHANGES UNDER BRITISH : REBELLION AGAINST THE BRITISH Around this time there was a religious revival through Valivita Saranankara’s activities in the Kandyan kingdom. He started the Silvat Samagama (brotherhood of the pious) in 1698-1778. This society called for piety, devotion and a sound knowledge of the scriptures, rather than family influence and connections as the qualifications to enter priesthood. The non-goigama castes which were refused higher ordination, sent a mission to Burma to obtain higher ordination for their monks. This was the origin of the sect, which came into existence around this time, in defiance of the Kandyan Siyam Nikaya denying ordination and higher ordination (upasampada) to non-goyigama persons. Under the British, Roman Catholics obtained more religious freedom than under the Calvinist Dutch. The British used the schools for the spread of their religion. Children were taught reading, writing and Christianity. The administration of the Madras East India Company maintained these schools. The chief sources of revenue came from the Pearl Fisheries, cinnamon, arrack, areca and tobacco. Taxation and restrictions placed on the people by the Dutch were relaxed. Roman Catholics and Muslims were given more concessions, such as the right to marriages and burials according to their religious faiths, which the Dutch had prohibited. Robert Andrews, a senior official introduced a set of far-reaching social and economic reforms about which even his superiors had misgivings. His immediate superior Colonel James Stuart predicted a rebellion and in December 1796 he was proved right. A rebellion broke out and spread throughout 1797. The British had to use their full range of armed forces to quell it. The Kandyans, the Dutch and French

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322 SL Histary Chap.65-81 officials in the island lent aid to the rebels. It was only after the government gave an undertaking, to revoke the reforms and restore the old system of taxes, that the rebellion was given up. A Committee of Investigation was appointed to investigate the causes of the rebellion and recommend measures to address the grievances. The Committee revealed that there had been abuses and malpractices and discontent over the the introduction of reforms, taxes, and powers conferred on South Indian officials which encroached on those of the headmen. Hence a decision was taken to restore rajakariya, and uliyam and to reinstate headmen, and to continue the employing of Dutch officials. North tried to reintroduce rajakariya but after being free of it for a few years the people did not want to accept it. He agreed that the caste system should be upheld. As part of his committment to this, he took the unusual step of declaring himself head of the caste and making Robert Arbuthnot, a senior civil servant, the head of the caste. This led to people paying more attention to caste differences, and persons of ‘lower’ castes were not allowed to assume authority over those of ‘higher’ castes, so that higher posts were automatically reserved for the goigamas and vellalas. North also pursued with greater vigour the complaints by the people against the Dutch. This benefited the Muslims and the numbers of Muslim renters increased and since their trade brought in more revenue. He refused to impose tax on them. The Muslims were appointed to recruit soldiers. He was also anxious to open Muslim schools as they were not happy attending normal schools. Catholics who already had been disadvantaged under the Dutch, and Buddhists and Hindus were not so fortunate. Their licenses to build places of worship or to build schools were not granted. Gregory thought they should attend state schools which were religious in orientation. State funds were used to repair churches and missionaries were encouraged to tour the country. The requirement of the Dutch, that the headmen should be Protestant Christians was strictly enforced. The Dutch possessions in Ceylon were handed over to the British in March 1802.

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323 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 58

THE KANDYAN KINGDOM

SRI WICKREMA RAJASINGHE (1798-1815) King Rajadi Rajasinghe died of a fever in August 1798. Like his predecessor he had no heir. Pilame Talawa the first adigar, who was a descendent of the Sinhala Royal family, and who had signed the treaty of 1795 with the British, was a powerful man. He decided to install a protege as king. Konnasami, an 18 year old, Sri Lankan born Nayakkar who was a son of the former queen’s sister, was his choice. Of course his aim was to nominally have this king and either run the country as he wanted, or the less likely alternative, to later eliminate this young king and get himself crowned, and re-establish a Sinhala dynasty. The latter would have resulted in a revolution and torn the country apart, as he himself would have known quite well, since he was not popular. Konnasami was crowned as Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe, the third Nayakkar king. Pilame Talawa’s plans did not work. The king became too independent. So the adigar had no choice left, but plot the downfall of the king he had placed on the throne. But at this time there was another claim to the throne from Muttusami, a brother of one of the three Queens, who stated that Rajadi Rajasinghe had nominated him. Pilame Talawa promptly placed him and his three sisters in confinement.

BRITISH LOSE THE FIRST KANDYAN WAR Muttusami escaped to British territory and took refuge in Jaffna. So Pilame Talawa started negotiations with the British. At an interview with Governor North in Avisawella in December 1799, Pilame Talawa wanted assistance to kill the king, so that he could become the king, “in return for which he would make the English, masters of the country” (Cod 162). This was rightly rejected. North informed Henry Dundas,

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324 SL Histary Chap.65-81 the President of the Board of Control for India, of a scheme for getting the Kandyan king to accept a treaty whereby his kingdom would become a British protectorate, British troops would get a regular supply of victuals and a road connecting Colombo with Trincomalee through Kandy. But North continued to deal secretly with this disloyal Adigar, who came up with fresh proposals to make himself the ruler of Kandy. The governor on the other hand proposed, that the Sinhalese king remove his court to British territory, and allow Pilama Talawe to rule Kandy as his deputy, with an embassy and military force from the British. Pilame Talawa continued his intrigues with North, playing a double game, though the governor had nothing to offer. North did not have official approval from Dundas or the East India Company to embark on these negotiations with Pilame Talawa - to get rid of a ruler whose title he had recognised and who had given him no cause for quarrel! Pilame Talawa’s only interest was the deposition or assassination of the king. ‘Nothing can be said for North’s weak and vacillating policy, if indeed he had one. It was not even justified by success...... The only honest policy to have been adopted was an absolute refusal to enter into the Adigar’s intrigues at the outset...... ’ (Cod) Pilame Talawa should have known that British assistance would be only on terms determined by them. He may have thought that ‘once his objective was achieved, British influence could be reduced or eliminated, by the dextrous use of the traditional Kandyan policy of fomenting trouble for them, by sporadic but planned acts of harassment or through the use of another foreign power.’ There was the possibility of Sri Lanka ending up as a satellite state. To the British, Sri Lanka without Kandy was an expense in terms of defence, and a serious drain on human and financial resources. Conquest of Kandy would eliminate the need for an internal frontier. North saw in Pilame Talawa’s plan ‘an opportunity for the establishment of a controlling British interest in Kandy.’ Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe was not liked by his people. He was a tyrant who molested his people mercilessly during his reign of terror. He had people brought to different spots by the hundreds and had them impaled, merciless as death. Wealth that had come to them by inherit- ance was confiscated by him. When his Adigar Ehelapola suspected of conniving with the British, fled from Kandy, “he subjected the wife and

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325 SL Histary Chap.65-81 children of this man to hideous torture before killing them, that even the hardened executioner is said to have fainted with horror and disgust, and the people retired into their homes for two days as a sign of mourning”. Some British subjects who had been captured had their ears, noses and hands cut off. This was enough provocation for the British to strike! (HW pg 111) BRITISH LOSE THE FIRST KANDYAN WAR On 12 March 1800 an embassy under General Macdowall set out, both to gather intelligence on the Kandyan kingdom, and to offer the terms that the governor had discussed with Pilame Talawa, but a large part of the escort was forced to stop at Ruwanwella. Macdowall met the king, who refused the treaty by which the Governor undertook to send troops to Kandy, whenever needed. The king put forward counter proposals which included the right to have an establishment on the seacoast, and the right to have ten ships. On 18 February 1801 instructions were issued to Governor North from London. Ceylon was made independent of the East India Company and all powers civil and military, vested solely in the governor. The maritime provinces became British Crown property. The British succeeded in gathering the necessary intelligence. North resolved to remove the king. Pilame Talawa had led North to believe that the king was unpopular, and that the people would prefer British rule to that of the king. But they found that the king had no real enemies except perhaps, Pilame Talawa. In February 1802 an embassy from Kandy under the second Adigar, Migastenne went to Colombo and “demanded the cession of three small islands as well as the right to ten ships. Privately, the ambassador renewed Talawe’s proposals to dethrone the king, but North declined to listen to him. The First Adigar was also refused an interview, till he could convince the Governor of his sincerity.” (Cod pg164) But on 31 January 1803, British forces set out from Colombo under Macdowall, and from Trincomalee under Barbut. They found the city evacuated. The British occupied Kandy on 21 February and Prince Muttusami who had fled to British territory was brought to Kandy and installed as king on 8 March. He entered into a treaty with the Governor. ‘By this treaty, the forts at Girihagama and Galagedara in Tumpane, and the road to Trincomalee were to be ceded to the British; the king

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326 SL Histary Chap.65-81 could not enter into relations with any foreign power; he had to pay for British troops if he needed them; a British Minister was to reside at the Court when required; and frontier duties were to be abolished and free trade allowed between Kandy and the maritime provinces. This was to reduce the Kandyan provinces to a British protectorate’. Thus the position of the king was reduced to that of a vassal of the British Crown. Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe was at large and a search was made on the advise of Pilame Talawa. Prince Muttusami had no following in Kandy. On 28 March a conference was held, and it was decided that Rajasinghe should be delivered to the British, and Pilame Talawa given supreme authority in Kandy, and Muttusami moved to Jaffna. On 1 April 1803, General Macdowall left Kandy, due to ill health, leaving his troops in charge of Barbut. They had lost many of their men through malaria. “It transpired that the Adigar (Talawa) had intend- ed to kidnap the Governor, who was saved by the timely appearance of Barbut from Kandy! Barbut died on 21 May leaving the garrison to Major Davie”. (Cod) On 24 June 1803 the Kandyans attacked but were repulsed. The British decided to send their able bodied men with Muttusami to Trincomalee. But the Mahaweli was in flood and they could not leave. Rajasinha now having the English troops at his mercy, demanded Muttusami’s surrender, and he was immediately executed. He also demanded that the British troops under Davie, return to Kandy unarmed. But they were intercepted and massacred at a place which is named “Davie’s Tree” on the outskirts of Kandy, on 26 June. Only Davie and three others escaped. “The First Kandyan War had gone the way of earlier Portuguese and Dutch attempts to conquer Kandy”. The ill-conceived expedition undertaken on the good faith of Pilame Talawa whom the governor knew to be thoroughly unscrupulous, thus ended in disaster. Guerilla tactics by the Kandyans in the rugged terrain, malaria and poor roads made it impossible for westerners to win the war. “North sought to extricate himself as well as possible from the consequences of the Kandyan disaster and found a convenient scapegoat in Pilame Talawa. But the real cause of the disaster was the inadequacy of his own planning for an expedition of this magnitude” (Cod.). The Kandyan war dragged on for two years. North, like Azevedo

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327 SL Histary Chap.65-81 persisted in his policy of harrassment and continued forays into border provinces, solely for destruction and pillage. Towards the end of July the Sinhalese invaded British territory and the king ‘with the usual ignorance of the outside world hoped to take Colombo with a few six-pounder guns’. They came within 15 miles of Colombo. They were completely routed and on 6 September the king fled, ‘never stopping in his flight till safe within his own dominions.’ Occasional wars continued from time to time, and the English lost many men through disease. In February 1805 there was a massive attack by the Kandyans, and they took over the small frontier fort at Katuwana. In 1805 Sir Thomas Maitland took over from Governor North. The king in 1808 divided the Seven Korales among his chiefs. This was done after an uprising that took place, which was successfully suppressed by Pilame Talawa and his son-in-law Ratwatte. In the meantime, jealousy between the king and the chief Adigar Pilame Talawa was increasing. Pilame Talawa, found guilty of conspiring against the king was beheaded in 1811. Ehelepola succeeded him as Chief Adigar. In 1814 Ehelepola was sent to Sabaragamuwa as Dissawa. Complaints against him too reached the king. But when he was summoned to Kandy he fled to British territory and Molligoda was appointed in his place. The king in anger took revenge on Ehelepola’s wife, children and relatives by “killing them with a barbarity that shocked even the Kandyans” - ‘a story of incredible horror’! Other Kandyan chiefs now offered their aid to the British to overthrow the king. Governor Sir (1812-1820) was hesitant as he had not received instructions from Whitehall. BRITAIN TAKES OVER KANDY (1815) A Britisher, John D’Oyly was an expert on Kandyan affairs. By 1814 his efficient intelligence network had succeeded in finding out, that the Kandyan aristocracy was sufficiently alienated from the king for the British to intervene. There had been a change in British policy towards Kandy since the arrival in 1805 of Governor Sir Thomas Maitland, and later Governor Brownrigg. The punitive raids on border districts which North had organised were suspended. Every chief including Ehelapola’s successor Molligoda was in league with the British and were waiting for an excuse to start a war. In November 1814, ten merchants who were British subjects, were suspected of being British spies on Kandyan

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328 SL Histary Chap.65-81 territory, and were robbed and mutilated. Brownrigg could have used this as an excuse, but Whitehall protested since the incident was not on British territory. But Brownrigg had already decided to invade Kandy, and had prepared his plans with the help of Ehelapola. So in early 1815 the British army moved in, two divisions each from Trincomalee, Galle and Colombo and one from Batticaloa and Negombo. War was declared on 10 January 1815. A proclamation was issued. The reasons given were “the cruelty to the ten British subjects, the animosity of the king, and his unwillingness to enter into a treaty”. The objects of the war were to secure “permanent tranquility of the British settlements, the vindication of the honour of the British name, the deliverance of the Kandyans from their oppressors and the subversion of the Malabar dominion”. The Kandyan chiefs who continued their intrigue with the British, were promised a continuation of their positions. Molligoda had arranged to pretend defence, until his family and he had safely crossed over to the side of the British. Kandy was captured on 14 February 1815 and King Sri Wickrema Rajasinha captured on the 18th. He was sent to Colombo and then to India where he died in exile on 30 January 1832. His only son died childless in 1843. The king had lived in fear of his life, “never sleeping two watches of the night in the same room.” This also led him to drink and towards his end he became a “bloodthirsty despot” who even executed buddhist priests. He had alienated his people and the aristocracy. Still the people had not supported, either the rebellion of Pilame Talawa (1810) or Ehelepola (1814) against the king, nor did they support the British. So the turmoil of this period was not a civil war, where people rose up against a ‘bad king’, but a conspiracy hatched by the chiefs against a ruler ‘who was a threat to their interests’. The fall of the Kandyan kingdom was a “case of political suicide, and the king and the chiefs share the blame in this self-destruction”. It succeeded for the British because they found in it a tempting opportunity to achieve their objectives! The Kandyan kingdom divided against itself was an easy prey to the British who already were in control of the coast. The chiefs perhaps had failed to realise that the British would seek control, if not possession of their country! The king attempted to defend the middle and lower classes, from the upper classes and thus incurred the displeasure of the aristocracy. He pursued

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329 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The Kandy Lake

Th The Throne and Crown of the Sinhalese Kings with picture of the last king in the background i those who displeased him with ruthlessness, in a persistent effort to curb and restrict their priviledges, till it came to a point of no return. The Crown and Throne of the Sinhalese Kings were taken to England, and returned around 1937. It is now in the Colombo Museum. THE KANDY LAKE Sri Wickrama Rajasinha was responsible for the construction of the Kandy Lake and the Octagon. It is said that his ministers were against the building of the lake which was completed in 1807. “Although the lake’s great aesthetic beauty was indisputable, Kandyan commoners argued that it served no useful purpose. Built with compulsory labour, it irrigated no fields”. But it had been popular among the western governors and the British, who loved it. They laid the promenade and the parapet around it. Rajasinha too had built his ‘Royal Summer house in an islet on the lake and his harem is believed to have been housed there’ all the year round.(IG). Williams describing the beauty of the lake at night states that “all round the lake, at varying heights in the velvet jet blackness of the hills, the lights from bungalows glow, to live again in the waters of the lake”.

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331 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 59 CHAPTER 59

SRI LANKA - A BRITISH CROWN COLONY 1815

The Official Declaration of the Settlement of the Kandyan Provinces states, “Led by the invitation of the chiefs and welcomed by the acclamations of the people, the forces of His Britannic Majesty have entered Kandyan territory and penetrated to the capital. The ruler of the interior provinces has fallen into their hands and the government remains at the disposal of his Majesty’s representative.” (Cod) “The Kandyan chiefs in their intrigues against the king had failed to realise that it was inevitable that the British should seek complete control of the whole island, if not possession of it.” A Convention was held in Kandy on 2 March 1815. The Governor, Sir Robert Brownrigg (1812- 29) and the chiefs representing the people, signed the terms as drafted by John D’ Oyly. At this Convention, “the king was deposed, his dynasty excluded from the throne, the chiefs guaranteed their rights and privileges, and the Buddhist religion, its rites, ministers and places of worship are to be maintained and protected.” (Cod.174). The document was read to the assembled chiefs and headmen of the districts gathered outside. The people took no part in the ceremony, and indeed, the townsfolk showed not the slightest interest in the proceedings. Brownrigg sent a copy to the Colonial Office explaining that “the secure possession of the Kandyan domains hinged upon this point. I found it necessary to quiet all uneasiness respecting it by an article of guarantee couched in the most unqualified terms,” and “more emphatical than would have been my choice,” as it was vitally important to quiet the apprehensions of the Kandyans and the Buddhist clergy about their religion, because to the Kandyans the connection between the State and Buddhism was hallowed by tradition.

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332 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Only by making sure that the fifth clause would be scrupulously observed, was it possible to get the support of the bhikkhus and chiefs. The Kandyans in 1815 thought the British would accept this responsibilty as the Nayakkar dynasty had done. This was approved by the home government with some reluctance, since the guarantees on religion were considered too emphatic (KMD pg 231). The Kandyan Convention of 1815 preserved intact the powers and privileges of the chiefs, the laws, customs and institutions of the country, and more importantly the Buddhist religion. Adigars formed part of the Great Court of Justice from which there was no appeal except to the Governor. The Sinhalese system of government was retained. Molligoda was made Chief Adigar as Ehelepola refused the position, hoping to succeed to the throne. His intrigues had been directed towards the one end of securing the Kandyan throne for himself. The chiefs though they disliked the British, preferred them to Ehelepola. At an interview with D'Oyly, Ehelepola begged to retire unless he obtained the honours of regal office, and asked for an act acknowledging his services with the title of “Friend of the British government”. He was given a present of 5,000 star pagodas, certain royal villages and an allowance, and his lands were restored. According to Dr. Colvin R.de Silva the king is supposed to have said, “had my people behaved as they ought to have done, I would have shown you whether I was a man or woman. Twice during my reign you obtained possession of the town of Kandy and twice have you been very glad to get out of it.” “This bitter remark condensed the circumstances to their essence.” Brownrigg himself testified, “I have no hesitation in saying this enterprise could not in any common prudence have been entered upon except with the most credible assurances of the concurring wishes of the chiefs and people, nor could even have been brought to a successful issue without their acquiescence and aid.” The convenient arbitrator became the permament master. The Kandyans accomplished their own political doom. The Kandyan kingdom divided against itself became a tempting prey to the British. (CRdeS). REBELLION AGAINST THE BRITISH - 1817 When the chiefs invited the British to take over Kandy they did not think of the prospect of continuing to be under foreign rule. When the

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333 SL Histary Chap.65-81 reality dawned on them it was distasteful. Although the British maint- ained intact most of their traditional system, the Kandyans could not reconcile themselves to being ruled by the British. The people yearned for monarchial rule. By the beginning of 1817 there were unmistakable signs of discontent. In mid 1817 a pretender to the throne appeared in the guise of a Nayakkar prince. Vilbave, a Sinhala ex-bhikkhu posed as Doraisamy, a member of the deposed Nayakkar family. In July 1817 soon after the annual festival at the shrine of Kataragama, he announced that the god of Kataragama had chosen him as king. The people unhappy with the British, immediately accepted him. In September 1817 a rebellion broke out in Uva, in the most sparsely populated and most remote areas. Coming at a time when the British forces in the island were depleted, and the rivers swollen by the rains had made communication impossible it took the British by surprise. Attempts were made to localise it to Uva and Wellassa areas, but it soon spread, and intervention by the rebels made co-ordinated action by the British forces more difficult. Probably in Uva, the Sinhalese had being angry over the local Moors being provided with a separate Moor headman. It spread to . Keppetipola, the Dissawa of Uva, and brother-in-law of Ehelepola who was sent to control the rebellion joined the rebels and became their leader. Martial law was introduced. In May 1818 at Vellawaya the pretender was initiated at a solemn ceremony. He took the name of Kirti Sri. Keppetipola knew that Vilbave was an imposter, but he concealed it from the people, his intention probably was to discard him after his plans were realised. Every important chief, except Molligoda was involved in the rebellion. It was a truly national uprising. The rebellion soon spread to Dumbara (where its dissawa, Madugalle became the rebel leader), to Hevaheta, to Sabaragamuwa, the Seven Korales, and the whole of Kandyan provinces with the exception of lower Sabaragamuwa, the Three and Four Korales, Udunuvera and Yatinuvera, had joined the rebels. Ehelepola was arrested on 2 March 1818 and sent to Colombo where he remained in custody till 1825 after which he was sent to Mauritus where he died in 1825 aged fifty six.. The situation was so bad, that by April-May “arrangements were made by the British for withdrawl from the interior.” The British then resorted to starvation of the villages which were affected, and the use of fire-power. Molligoda was the only chief who remained loyal to the English, and

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334 SL Histary Chap.65-81 with him, the Four Korales remained loyal. Reinforcements sent from India helped to quell the disturbances. Further, the British captured the Tooth Relic and this discovery was regarded by the Kandyans as “a sign of the destiny of the British people to rule Kandy.” The British were able to expose Vilbave as an imposter. The rebellion of 1817-18 was the most formidable insurrection during the British period. The people realised that there was nothing to gain by rebelling. On 30 October, Keppetipola, and on 26 November, Madugalle were captured and executed. There was one section among the inhabitants which was staunch in its attachment to the British. “The Moormen”, wrote Major Hardy, “are so numerous and so entirely our own that I do not think a detachment of soldiers necessary in this country”. They received their immediate reward in a Proclamation of 2 March 1818. ‘All Moors in the Kandyan provinces were excluded from the executive and Judicial jurisdiction of the Kandyan chiefs, and all cases to which they were a party should be tried by British officials only’. (Colvin RdeS) British were now masters of the whole island of Lanka. For the first time since Parakramabahu VI of Kotte (1411-1467) the island was under one single power. The British did not set up a unified administrative system for the whole island. Two administrative systems were maintained, one for the maritime provinces which had been under British influence and one for the Kandyan districts which preserved the social and cultural patterns of traditional Sinhalese society. The establishment and expansion of plantation agriculture in Kandyan areas was undertaken. The building of roads broke the isolation of the Kandyan districts. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN THE EARLY NINTEENTH CENTURY : The East India Company retained its control of external trade especially that of cinnamon. The revenue from cinnamon was the mainstay of the island’s finances. In 1802 the Company had the sole right of buying cinnamon from Sri Lanka for the European market. But in 1822Bar when the contract expired the colonial government pressed for it not to be renewed. Sri Lanka was reputed for the finest-quality cinnamon. High prices soon stimulatedBarter severe competition from Java and India where the cinnamon was cheaper though of a coaser variety. Competition also came from cassia lignea which was grown in south India, Philippines, the Dutch East Indies and Southern China. The

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335 SL Histary Chap.65-81 island’s trade, mainly in the hands of the government, consisted of exports of cinnamon, arrack, coconut oil and other articles and the importation of items needed by the Europeans and the elite in Colombo. In 1824 major European Agency houses established in the island won a breakthrough in trade when Governor Sir Edward Barnes yielded to their agitation and stopped importing on account of the government. The European firms also had a monopoly in the exports of coffee to Britain and Mauritius. The island was considered to be a potentially attractive field for European investment with cinnamon being the main attraction. But the government insisted that investors go in for other crops and coffee was the popular crop. Applications for loans and wasteland by coffee investors were readily accomodated. The government experimented on 200 acres attached to the Peradeniya Botanical gardens. Another source of revenue for the government was salt on which it made 1,100 percent profit. The high price of salt however caused hardship to the average consumer and hindered the fish-curing industry. This led to Magampattu the chief salt-producing area going into desolation. Rrajakariya, or forced labour, which existed in the time of Kandyan kings, was continued by the Portuguese and the Dutch. The British, though they thought it was obnoxious, still relied on it though they found it harder to enforce voluntary labour. There were two types of rajakariya. One was where those who had obtained land from the king rendered service in return. The other was where all landholders were expected to provide labour for public works. Most of the Public works were related to caste, as was the cinnamon industry. Under the British, public works meant mainly working on roads construction and maintenance. To the British this was the easiest and cheapest way of getting roads built in the rough terrain of the highlands but to the people this was this was ‘the most obnoxious feature of the British administration.’. In the coastal regions the people could obtain salt, textiles and rice from ‘imports’ from adjacent regions. But the island had to get rice from South India. The general picture was one of stagnation in agriculture due to lack of capital and the abscence of industry. Obtaining income tax in cash instead of in kind and improvements in agriculture techniques were believed to stimulate capital formation. Proposals were made to introduce European colonists who would invest capital, and

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336 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Indian and Chinese immigrants ‘who would set an example to the indolent Sinhalese.’ The use of rajakariya was highlighted. Barter system was the prevalent custom and tradition in the island. The Kandyans bartered dry grains, areca and jaggery for salt, saltfish and cloth while Jaffna people bartered salt, tobacco and cloth for areca, cotton and beeswax from the southwest. Once the Kandyan kingdom was taken over, barriers were lost and trade improved and political stability increased. By the 1820s economy was on the mend. The economy was exploited by men from coastal areas who set themselves up as traders in the coastal areas and the hill country and engaged in wage labour. The Kandyans too participated in growing coffee as a garden crop. This enthusiasm and the building of roads helped integrate the Kandyan provinces into the greater economy of the island, though they still maintained themselves as a separate identity. By the 1830s the economy had improved. The appointment of the Colebrooke-Cameron Commission was an indication of Britain deciding that a new phase in the island’s development should begin. These commissioners saw little in the prevailing pattern of economic activity, the discriminatory administrative regulations and the overwhelming

Paddy fields

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337 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Tea Estates importance of the State monopolies. They gave priority to abolishing of the cinnamon monopoly and insisted that the State should restrict itself to growth of private enterprise, encourage entry of foreign capital, mainly British, to invest in plantation agriculture such as cinnamon and rice production on a commercial basis, and the abolition of the oppressive rajakariya which was an obstacle to the free movement of labour and the creation of a land-market which was esential to the establishment of the laissez-faire state. Economic improvement and growth of educational facilities were the most powerful stimuli of social changes in the nineteenth century but it was the elite, especially the headmen of the goigama caste who benefited and used these opportunities to strengthen their positions in local society. The Dutch had conferred many privileges on the salagama caste in recognition of their contribution to the cinnamon trade. But Governor North withdrew these privileges. The salagama people sent a petition to London complaining that they had been reduced ‘to the same equal footing with the natives of other castes.’ The salagamas then resorted to registering their children under names of those who were not attached to the Cinnamon Department. This was the reverse earlier, when non-salagamas registered themselves as salagamas to enjoy the privileges conferred on cinnamon peelers!

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338 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Coconut Estate

Caste problems featured even in religion. The Upasampada (higher ordination) was restricted to the goigama caste (the Siyam Nikaya) and was a setback to the other castes, the salagama, karava and durava. This made them send a mission to Burma and obtain valid higher ordination for their monks. This resulted in the formation of the Amarapura Nikaya. The recovery of Buddhism was due to the relaxed attitudes of the British. In the first two decades of Britsh rule the government was inhibited by a fear that religious controversy might provoke political difficulties, especially in Kandyan regions where under the Kandyan Convention of 1815 there were treaty obligations to protect and maintain Buddhism. With the passage of the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act in Britain the position of the Catholics in Sri Lanka improved, and it recovered from the desperately poor position it had fallen to during the Dutch period when Protestantism was promoted. Even during the British period neither the Buddhists nor the Roman Catholics could match the 'vigour and vitality of the British Protestant missions seeking to establish themselves.' The Dutch reformed Church deprived of government support during the British, period lost many of its members showing the superficiality of the conversions of the 'government Christians' and 'Christian Buddhists.'

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339 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Rubber Estate

But inspite of the State not actively offering support to British Missions they grew in strength and confidence. They used the schools for their evangelism, where children were taught reading, writing and Christianity. However when the Kandyan provinces came under British rule, Brownrigg discouraged Weslyan missionaries establishing a mission station in Kandy. But by 1818 this had changed and the first vernacular school was opened by the Church. By 1823 they had five schoools. The Kurunegala-Kandy road was opened by Lieutenant Governor Sir Edward Barnes. The Colombo-Kandy road was completed in 1825, Kandy-Matale in 1831 and extended to Dambulla and Trincomalee in 1832. This brought the interior more firmly under control, and helped to overcome guerilla warfare at which ‘Kandyans were masters.’ Coffee was introduced into the interior. As advised by Colebrook, the administration of Kandy was amalgamated with the rest of the island, and instead of a Kandyan province and a maritime province, the island was divided into five provinces, each province having a Government Agent. In 1833 a new Supreme Court was erected and soon afterwards District Courts were set up. The Colebrook-Cameron Commission reforms of 1832 provided the legislative and administrative, (including judicial) framework for Sri

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340 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Lanka’s unification and gave the island’s political development a more liberal form of government, than which prevailed before 1833. The recommendations reversed the trend towards concentration of power in a Governor, and with these changes ‘the British colony of Ceylon’ became the ‘Constitutional pioneer of the non-European dependencies of the British empire between 1833 and 1870’. The recommendations were far ahead of anything prevalent at the time in India or the other non-white colonies. This was Colebrook’s contribution to the legal system. But one of the flaws in the legal system was that it was not based on the country’s legal traditions and did not give what the people needed most, “a system that would investigate disputes and administer justice...... in a plain and summary manner” The Colebrook-Cameron reforms were the first well-integrated system of reforms, and marked the “first successful attempt to breakaway from the Dutch pattern of colonial administration”. With the suppression of the rebellion of 1817-18 the British found a way of reducing the power of the chiefs by making them function completely subordinate, and under direct supervision of British officials who then became the ‘real organs of Power’, while the chiefs became mere stipendaries. But as the chiefs were the only medium of communication between the British officials and the peasants, they continued to maintain their influence.

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341 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 60

AN ERA OF REFORM AND RECONSTRUCTION (1833 - 1850) Stewart McKenzie was Governor from 1837-41, and like most Britons, he believed in the urgency to convert "heathens" to Christianity. The Secretary of State, Lord Glenelg had laid it down that 'conversion of the people to Christianity should be a vital aspect of state policy' and it implied that all Christian missions were supported alike by the state. Education :- The schools opened by the British were mostly in English medium. The primary aim was to convert children to Christianity, and to educate the elite. Colonel Mackenzie failed in his attempts to introduce vernacular schools, but through efforts made by a Burgher Wesleyan missionary, Rev D. J. Gogerly, vernacular education was recognised in the years 1843-48. The British took a paternal interest in the aboriginal Veddhas protecting them and attempting to convert them to Christianity. Jobs :- Rajakariya or “compulsory service for the king” which had been prevalent in Sri Lanka, was abolished in 1833. In Sri Lanka there were no glaring social ills asssociated with the religion such as , thagi, meriah sacrifices and rituals, and no untouchability with regard to caste as found in India. Slavery too was less of a problem. The British gave high jobs without reference to caste, and they were not limited to the goigama caste as was done before. In 1845 Gregory De Zoysa and Mathew Gomes who were non-goyigamas, were appointed Mudaliyars and soon after in 1853, Jeronis de Soysa of Moratuwa, a karawa, and the wealthiest Sinhalese of the day, was appointed Mudaliyar, thus changing from the earlier pattern of appointing only goigamas to the coveted positions. The goigamas opposed, this and tried to get de Soysa appointed to a lower post such as Mudaliyar for Moratuwa, the town from which he hailed, but the Governor, Sir George Anderson, stood b

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342 SL Histary Chap.65-81 firm by his earlier appointment. Buddhism :- Until 1840 the connection of the state with Buddhism was maintained as was accepted by the terms of the Kandyan Convention. But the government was under pressure from successive Secretaries of State and the missionaries to dissociate Buddhism from the state. But British officials in Sri Lanka hesitated, as they had doubts about the “morality of abrogating the solemn undertaking given at the signing of the Kandyan Convention in 1815,” and reaffirmed in 1818, that Buddhism would be protected. There was the fear of civil strife breaking out. But the Colonial Office where James Stephen was an ardent supporter for dissociating Buddhism from the government, treated Buddhism as though it had a central organisation akin to Christianity and did not see the need to establish a central body to protect and maintain the religion once the state severed connection with it. Nor were they conscious of the moral obligation in this regard, and thus local officials had no alternative but proceed with the dissociation, since pleas to the Colonial office for caution fell on deaf ears. PLANTATION ACTIVITIES Experimentation in plantation crops begun in the mid-1830s, and especially with the success with coffee, the economy radically changed within 15 years. The late 1830s saw great progress in coffee cultivation in Udugama hills near Galle in the south, and in Gampola, Peradeniya and Dumbara, in Kandy district. The Galle ventures failed. But by 1847 there were over 500-600 coffee plantations covering over 50,000 acres, mostly in the Kandyan districts, and about 5 million pounds sterling invested in coffee cultivation. The ‘coffee mania’ in Britain and Europe was the stimulus for the expansion of coffee cultivation in Sri Lanka. But the depression in London, a fall in consumption and in prices abroad, and over-production resulted in a near-collapse of the coffee iindustry, although it did recover to some extent with new plantations being opened in the 1850s. The cinnamon industry had by now declined. The imposition of an export duty on cinnamon by the Colonial government, resulted in it failing to recover the position it had enjoyed before 1833. British Civil servants whose salaries and perks had been reduced by Colebrook, pursued plantation activities, even to the extent of neglecting

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343 SL Histary Chap.65-81 their official duties. Development of roads, such as the one linking Colombo to Kandy enabled greater expansion of plantation activity, especially coffee cultivation. Indian immigrant labour which began in 1830s increased to a steady flow. Sinhalese peasants “had no incentive to work on the plantations. They had their own paddy fields, their cows and fruit gardens and tending these occupied their attention. Their wants were easily supplied, and unless they wished to present their wives with a new cloth or to procure a gun for themselves, they had no inducement to work on the coffee plantations”. “The Kandyan had such reverence for his patrimonial lands, that were his gains to be quadrupled, he would not abandon their culture...... Besides working for hire is repulsive to their national feelings, and is looked upon as almost slavery. The being obliged to obey orders and to do just what they are commanded, is galling to them.”(KMC pg 273) To south Indians, the coffee-picking in mid-August to November suited them, to earn extra money during the time they had no work in rice fields in India, although the trek from the coast through malaria- infested country to the plantations, took a heavy death toll. By 1843 revenue from coffee reached a record high but this lasted only for two years and coffee faced a grave crisis during the depression in 1846-47. REBELLION OF 1848 Two minor rebellions arose in 1848 in Colombo and in plantation areas in the Kandyan provinces of Matale and Kurunegala. The cause for these is not clear. Increasing landlessness, peasant agriculture being adversely affected due to neglect arising from greater emphasis being placed on plantation agriculture, in which the British were involved, friction between planters and peasants due to village cattle trespassing on plantations, were probable causes. Landlessness among the Kandyan peasants increased and by 1848, over 250,000 acres were in the hands of the European coffee planters. However by the end of the century the pattern changed and 72% of the crown land was bought by native Sinhalese and Tamils. Low country settlers and Indian labour coming into plantations, tended to increase crime and lawlessness in Kandyan provinces. The excise policy of the British, encouraging the opening of taverns also contributed to this. The British alienated the Kandyan aristocracy and clergy by

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344 SL Histary Chap.65-81 attempting to dissociate the state from Buddhism - a gross betrayal of the undertaking given in 1815. The fact that the British had really done nothing to improve the lot of Kandyan peasants resulted in the people being dissatisfied, and feeling that they had no reason to support the British. Thus the gap between the State and the people widened. Even if it was known by the administration they did nothing about it. Peasant agriculture had declined and irrigation works had been neglected, both in the Kandyan and southern districts, giving the impression that the British, the planters and even the headmen were unconcerned about the peasants. The Kandyans suffered from the machinations of corrupt headmen, as much as by the neglect of British officials. The rebellions of 1848 were led by peasants, both in Kandyan areas and on a minor scale in the low country. They wanted to return to ‘the Kandyan pattern of life with a Kandyan king’. These rebellions were easier controlled, unlike the Great Rebellion of 1817, largely due to accessability as a result of the better road system. One of the immediate consequences of the rebellion was a reappraisal by the British of their Buddhist policy, and a realisation of their mistake of alienating the aristocracy and the Sangha. This was facilitated by the departure of James Stephen from the Colonial Office. THE PLANTATIONS AND THEIR EFFECT ON ECONOMY Coffee slowly recovered by mid-19th century and in the 1850s it became a profitable commercial venture. Prices did not attain the heights reached in the previous decade, but with improved techniques in production and management there was adequate profit. Governor Sir George Anderson (1850-55) wished to establish an equilibrium in the finances of the island. As such he refused to give into the demands of the planters, backed by the press, for more generous government expenditure on improving communications, state-sponsored immigration of Indian labour and increased welfare measures for the Indians, and ready availability of crown land for their plantations. Road construction did progress. The new road from Ginigathena gap to Yatiyantota helped facilitate coffee transport from Ambagamuwa and Kotmale to the Kelani river, and from there by boat to Colombo. By 1860 the island had 3000 miles of good roads with bridges, built at a cost of over one million pounds sterling. Coffee plantations increased from 21,198 acres in 1845, to 50,000

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345 SL Histary Chap.65-81 in 1847, and 80,000 in 1867, with 48,000 being owned by peasants, and in 1870s it reached its zenith, with about 273,000 acres being cultivated with coffee. The Railway from Colombo to Kandy was opened by Governor Sir Charles Justin MacCarthy (1860-63), and extended to Nawalapitiya through Peradeniya by 1871, with a branch to Matale. It was later expanded south from Colombo to Kalutara. With the opening of the Suez Canal, more ships came to Galle and Colombo and Sir William Gregory took the decision to develop Colombo as the main port. But all this could not stop the undoing of the coffee industry caused by a leaf disease, ‘hemileia vastratrix’, which starting in the Madulsima area in 1869, spread relentlessly to plantations across the island, and by 1890 the coffee industry collapsed, never to recover. An attempt was made to cultivate sugar and cotton as in the West Indies. Sugar plantations were opened in Negombo, Kalutara, Badde- gama, Udugama, Peradeniya and in the Kandyan provinces. Cotton was grown in the eastern province and Jaffna peninsula. None succeeded as did coffee. By 1860s coconut emerged as a promising crop. Europeans had plantations in Jaffna and the eastern province in the 1840s but they were affected by the depression and it was only in the 1860s that production of coconut expanded. From 1880 to 1910 the plantation sector recovered to an extent which matched the coffee era, but never surpassed it. Tea, rubber and coconut, especially rubber, improved after the coffee industry collapsed. The 1850s saw the coconut industry improve with acreage increasing from 250,000 acres in 1860s to 850,000 acres in the early 1900s. This was mainly in the coconut triangle of Colombo-Kurunegala-Chilaw, and also in Jaffna and the eastern province. It required much less capital than tea or coffee, was easier and cheaper to maintain, and needed much less labour. The local Sinhalese labour was prepared to fit this into the cultivation patterns of their fields. It also provided a stimulus to expand railway and road communications. Railways were extended south to Matara (1877-95), north to Negombo (1907-09) and later to Chilaw and Puttalam, in addition to an extension through Kurunegala to Jaffna (1894-1905). The planters turned to tea and cinchona (for quinine) to fill the void

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346 SL Histary Chap.65-81 in the plantation sector caused by the collapse of coffee. Tea had been started in 1860s as a crop which planters grew alongside coffee at no additional cost. By 1880s there were 14,000 acres under tea, of which 6000 acres were in the Central province. Cinchona was also interplan- ted with coffee, the island’s cinchona being of a superior quality. But extensive production in Java caused a disastrous drop in cinchona prices. Tea however survived. It expanded by 20,000 acres a year till 1897 and by the turn of the century, tea exports brought in Rupees 53.7 million out of the island’s total export earnings of Rs 90.8 million while coconut brought in only Rs 16.3 million. Sri Lanka tea replaced China’s tea on the London market. Labour was needed all the year round and soon immigrant Indians who were seasonal workers, became permanent residents, and settled down in the tea estates. Although the first world war reduced the coffee acreage and supply, the high quality of the Ceylon tea fetched good prices. Coconut attracted European and British planters, but rubber introd- uced in 1877 became popular in the 1890s. It spread from Kalutara to the western, central and southern areas. With the rapid extension of the motor industry, rubber prices went up swiftly. The rubber boom of 1905-1910 induced many small holders to convert their properties to rubber estates. Work being less exacting than in tea estates, this attracted local villagers who came for part-time work, which they could fit into their work-patterns in their fields. By 1910 rubber had replaced coconut as the second largest export product, next to tea. Advances in communication by sea and the extension of railways within the island by the turn of the century speeded up transport and brought down costs of freight. Due to expansion of exports, despite a rapid growth of population, both by natural increase and immigration, the island would have had a self-sustaining growth, if not for the thirty -year depression after the First World War. Sri Lanka had a standard of living well ahead of that in South Asia and S.E Asia with the possible exception of and . Indigenous planters, capitalists, small holders and peasants played a much more prominent role in plantation agriculture than their counterparts in S.E Asia. Indigenous labour was greater on rubber and coconut plantations and more so in the low-country and Sabaragamuwa areas. Specialised jobs such as clearing of forests were almost entirely performed by them. Transport was almost a Sinhalese monopoly, (in spite of British attempts to break this monopoly), first by carts, and later by

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347 SL Histary Chap.65-81 motor buses and lorries, till railways were introduced. Indian labour resident in the plantations was 123,000 in the coffee era of the 1870s, but by 1891 had increased to 235,000. In addition to plantations they worked in the construction of the railways, roads, and in the harbour, and in ‘hard, unpleasant and menial jobs’ in towns, and lived cut off from the local population, both by language and culture. The population of the island in 1824 was 851,940 but by 1911 had reached 4,106,300 with a natural increase that was among the highest in Asia. Internal migration occured within the island with the plantation expansion attracting traders, craftsmen and technicians from other areas. PLANTATION ECONOMY : PEASANT AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION WORKS (1850-1910) In the first 60 years of British rule, the irrigation network had suffered. The Colonial government showed little concern for the welfare of the peasant population. All the attention was on plantations. In the early 1850s coffee culture became profitable again and continued to improve, reaching its zenith in the 1870s with the area under coffee rising from 196 acres in 1871 to 273,000 acres in 1878. The export crop reached one million cwts. in 1868. But by the turn of the century, the coffee industry had once again completely collapsed. Rice lands had gone out of production. Abolishing of Rajakariya was in itself counter-productive. Otherwise the tanks would have been kept in a state of repair and rice cultivation by the peasants would have sustained them. The rebellion of 1848 made Governor Ward realise that, it was in the interests of the government to restore the irrigation systems because that meant increase in grain revenues and a reduction in rice imports. The Great Rebellion of 1817-18 had destroyed the irrigation complexes in Uva. The Urubokka and Kirama dams which collapsed in 1830 had not been repaired. Sir Henry Ward (1855-60) initiated the move to revive ancient tanks and irrigation channels. In 1856 the Uma Ela restoration was started in upper Uva. Its success made Ward undertake more such projects. But the sparsely populated dry zones, with the prevalence of malaria and yaws, and lack of roads, forced the abandonment of the restoration of Kantalai in 1856 and Yoda ela in 1858. Instead, restoration of irrigation works in Batticaloa and Magampattu in the south, were undertaken. In 1847 colonisation of dry zones was revived by Sir James Tennant.

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348 SL Histary Chap.65-81 He hoped to establish colonies of Indian labourers in the north central province, but Governor Ward planned to get peasants from the eastern province. The venture however never got started. Still Ward made a substantial contribution. The combination of financial assistance, technical supervision from the state and voluntary local labour (called “grant in aid” system) helped to improve irrigation works. His successors continued these programmes he had pioneered. Sir Charles Justin MacCarthy (1860-63), who succeeded Ward, felt that the improving of irrigation works was not profitable and suspended such activity between 1860-65. Instead, he financed the railway from Colombo to the coffee areas. The Secretaries of State after 1870 were conscious of the bad effect that neglect of irrigation had produced, and encouraged Sir Hercules Robinson (1865-72) and later Sir William Gregory (1872-77) to restart these projects again. Robinson renewed large scale investment in restoration of irrigation projects. Although Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, the ruined cities, had been discovered around 1820, the massive tropical forest enveloping these ancient cities, and the malaria mosquitoes breeding in the numerous unused tanks, were insuperable obstacles to the restoration work. The appallingly poor communications, accentuated the isolation of these scattered, ill-nourished, disease-ridden, numerically- declining populations from the rest of the island. (KMDS pg 301) Sir William Gregory had the full backing of the Colonial Office in London to expand the irrigation programme even before the improvement of transport facilities. A new province was formed, called the North Central Province, which incorporated Nuverakalaviya from Northern Province, Tamankaduva from Eastern Province, and Demala Hatpattu from North Western Province. Village tanks were repaired with villagers shifting the earth and the government providing the sluice and masonry work free of charge. Gansabhavas provided the administrative machinery needed at grass root levels, and as was the ancient custom, villagers undertook the repair and upkeep of the tanks. In 1877 hundreds of tanks were being restored in the North Central Province, and soon similar requests were coming from the Western, North-western and Northern provinces. Gregory extended the project to larger tanks like Kantalai and Kalaweva. The roads from Kandy to Jaffna and to Trincomalee through Tamankaduwa were opened up, in spite of the menace of malaria.

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349 SL Histary Chap.65-81 ‘The wretched half-starved dying-out’ people in these areas soon became ‘plump, well-fed, sleek, healthy and well-to-do from the spread of irrigation’. Gregory with understandable pride remarked, “Never was a great social experiment more speedily and entirely successful.”. Governor Arthur Gordon (1883-90) financed the completion of the work on Kalaweva. In 1877 when the representatives of European planters in the Legislative Council disapproved the restoration of these tanks, Gordon provided an Irrigation Fund to which annually a quarter of the proceeds of grain tax went. When the grain tax was abolished in 1892, money for the fund was obtained from import duties on rice and paddy, and Rs 200,000 was annually set aside for this. Between 1855 and 1904, Rs 13.5 million had been spent on irrigation works. With tanks being restored, the area under rice cultivation increased. Seasons of food scarcity now became less frequent. But by 1905, inspite of an Irrigation Department being set up, investment in irrigation works decl- ined and ceased. Nevertheless this program helped the conversion of irrregular into regular cultivation, and an expansion of the area cultivated. The greatest impact on irrigation was in the districts of Batticaloa in the Eastern Province, and Matara and Magampattu in the Southern Province. The populations in Magampattu increased by 46.5% compared with the 3.9% increase in the previous decade. Batticaloa had a surplus of rice, which was ‘exported’ to Uva by road, and to Jaffna by sea. When the Kirindi Oya project was completed in 1876 there was a substantial increase in the area cultivated. Between 1850 and 1900 the area under rice cultivation increased by about 200,000 acres, of which 70,000 acres was in the Western Province, where it was not that important. However, except in Batticaloa, there was no surplus for export, as the population increase kept pace with the increase in rice production. Further, techniques of cultivation did not change from the traditional methods farmers had always used. Thus productivity in rice lands in Sri Lanka was among the lowest in Asia, and remained so till late 1930s. Still, this was a significant achievement especially as with this expansion, there was also expansion of the areas under coffee, coconut, tea and rubber. Only Jaffna with a dependable water supply, from wells sunk into the limestone and with no malaria or yaws, could support an efficient system of agriculture. With their vigorous and pains-taking techniques, such as heavy manuring of soil, they had better yields, and they

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350 SL Histary Chap.65-81 exported a coarse variety to South India.N They had additional earnings from garden crops and fishing. Another factor which did not help rice production was the fact that the growing of other export crops was more profitable. Besides Indian migrants and the upper classes preferred to eat the easily available, inexpensive, more efficiently marketed and higher quality rice imported from Burma. The fact that the government failed to take a more positive attitude towards peasant agriculture, except in the revival of the irrigation systems, was responsible for the failure to “modernise rice production” and change the peasant from “a subsistence cultivator, into a producer for the market”. Chena cultivation which was important in the dry zone, and generally practised by peasants, was considered by the British as “a primitive, wasteful, destructive and demoralising form of agriculture”. Hence it was allowed only on permits issued by the government. These were strictly controlled in the wet zones, and were allowed only to some extent in the dry zones, where chena cultivation was the only means of avoiding food scarcity during the long months of drought, such as in parts of Uva and north western province where lack of rain, sometimes for years, prevented paddy cultivation. Mannar, , Uva, Wellawaya, Bibile, Buttala, Alutnuvera and Valapane in Nuvera Eliya district, were areas where great distress occurred due to crop failure, consequent to failure of rains for nine years. Throughout the last quarter of the last century and the first decade of the twentieth, famines, near famines, rural poverty, destitution and starvation occurred in many parts of the country and even after a century of rule “the British adminstration had not succeeded in improv- ing the living standards” of the peasants, though they had brought peace and stability to the country. A startling report made in 1888 by C. J. R. Le Mesurier, Assistant Government Agent of Nuvera Eliya, that ‘1048 villagers...... died of starvation...... within sight of the sanatorium where our governors and high officials resort for health and lawn tennis...... ’ drew attention once more to the grain taxes. These deaths are alleged to have occurred between 1882-85 due to enforcement of the payment of grain tax; and the strict implementing of it, which was, to seize and sell the land of those in arrears, to recover the tax.(KMDS pg 312) There was much opposition to the grain tax. T. B. Pannabokke and

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351 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Ponnambalam Ramanathan were outspoken critics of it in Council, supported by the Ceylon National Association. The campaign for abolition of this tax, was also supported by the ‘Ceylon Independent’ newspaper in Sri Lanka and the Manchester Guardian in U.K., while the Ceylon Observer and Ceylon Patriot were against the abolition. Governor Havelock however successfully convinced the Colonial Office, and got this tax abolished in 1892. Governor Gordon made a half-hearted defence of the tax in the House of Commons, but privately accepted the accuracy of Le Mesurier’s report.

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352 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 61

CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH RULE

After the rebellion of 1848, the British woke up to the fact that they had to pay more attention to religious sensibilities of the people, and be more sympathetic to their needs, especially of the Kandyans. Except in education there had been ‘a lack of innovation in all fields.’ In 1856 provision was made for the establishment of gansabhavas with powers to control cultivation and use of water in villages. In 1871 this was extended to control other aspects of village life. The marriage laws in the Kandyan district which recognised polyandry were changed. A policy of resuscitation of aristocratic influence in the administration, begun by Gregory, to build up a bloc of loyalists as a counterweight to the emerging elite, was continued by Gordon and McCallum. Gregory also revised the boundaries of the provinces and the new province called the North Central province was established. The area covered by this province had a Kandyan population, while the population in Jaffna was Tamil, and it was too large an area to be governed by a Government Agent residing in Jaffna, who was more conversant with Tamils than with Sinhalese. Soon after, the in 1886 and the Sabaragamuwa province in 1889, were also established. The provinces were divided into twenty-one districts. Government Agents had executive authority and was in overall control of the provinces, while the Assistant Government Agents were in charge of fourteen of the districts. The network of roads, which expanded in the late part of the nineteenth century to keep pace with the growth of plantations, facilitated communication between Colombo and outstations, while the telegraph, and later the railway, helped closer supervision of the provinces. In 1873 Gregory arranged for the first of a series of annual conferences of Government Agents to be held, the idea being to promote uniformity in provincial adminstration.

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353 SL Histary Chap.65-81 In the processes of consolidation of British rule, attention was also given to such problems as - 1. The barriers to the entry of Sri Lankans to positions of influence in the higher bureaucracy, 2. Reconciliation between the British and traditional elite, 3. Retreat from the policy of evenhanded treatment of caste problems. Higher Education, Social Change and the Bureaucracy The admission of educated Sri Lankans to positions in the higher bureaucracy such as the Civil Service was jointly in the hands of the Secretary of State and the Governor of Sri Lanka. Since 1845 nominees of the Secretary of State had to pass the Haileybury Entrance examination, and after 1856, they had to pass the open competitive examination instituted by the Macaulay Committee. However those nominated by the governor did not have any examinations because the governor believed that personal selection was best. But his successor MacCarthy in 1863 introduced an examination for all, which was of a lower standard, than that set by the British Civil Service Commission. However by 1870 there was a common examination for London and Colombo. By 1880 this facility was removed, and Sri Lankans had to go to London to sit for this examination. This was a ruse to make Sri Lankans go to England for their studies. But the excuse given was that it was good for them to go to London and “shake themselves free of local ties...... and insular narrowness.” This injustice was hardly mitigated by , offering ‘Queen’s Scholarships’ to Sri Lankans to study in London. In the Civil Service around 1868, there were seventy-four Britons and ten Sri Lankans (including Burghers). By 1881 this was reduced to eighty-four and seven, thus excluding Sri Lankans from the higher bureaucracy, in contradiction to the expectations raised by successive governors in 1870s and 1880s for more locals to join the Civil Service. The argument put forward was, that it would lead to a lowering of standards and efficiency in administration. Being unable to totally exclude them from the Civil Service, those who had got in, were soon diverted to jobs in the judicial service. Thus ‘the less able, and less socially acceptable’ were appointed judges, and to posts which were less prestigious and less desirable, and where they

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354 SL Histary Chap.65-81 had less chance to show initiative or influence policy. This trend continued well into the twentieth century whereas in India, Indians could choose between administrative or judicial jobs. No Sri Lankans became Government Agents or even Assistant Government Agents. The rationale for this restriction of Sri Lankans was, that Sri Lankans would do better in fields of medicine and law, because ‘they had not demonstrated qualities necessary in the more pragmatic field of administration, where the ability to direct and control people was the key requirement’. Till the first decade of the twentieth century, Sri Lankans had opportunities in the Medical, Education and Public Works departments, where decision making was minimal, while the British exclusively continued to hold jobs in Railway, Irrigation and Survey departments. To appease Sri Lankans seeking entry to the Civil Service, a local subordinate division was created in 1891 and six Sri Lankans were selected for this division. Governors Gordon and Havelock had little sympathy for those Sri Lankans aspiring to join the higher bureaucracy, and argued that the examination system would shut out those who were most entitled to higher employment, such as those who had ‘served well as presidents of Village Councils, Rate mahatmayas or mudaliyars’. Governor Havelock in a statement to the Secretary of State had said, “If the Governor could exercise such a power of appointment in favour of the de Sarams, de Liveras, Bandaranaikes and de Soysas etc, a much better class of officer would be obtained than the present system (of examination) is likely to procure.” Sir (1896-1903) however sought to reverse this and wished to encourage more Sri Lankans entering the bureaucracy. Though this raised expectations, it did not take effect. In spite of two Burghers, Richard Morgan and Samuel Grenier, having served as the Attorney General, Walter Pereira, an eminently qualified Sinhala lawyer who ‘acted’ as Attorney General with distinction, was not confirmed in this position, because according to Whitehall, “the Attorney General must be a good lawyer and ought to be pure white.” While the British were resistant to educated Sri Lankans getting into the bureaucracy, they showed more sympathy towards the native (Kandyan) chiefs. These chiefs were indispensable in the lower levels of administration, and their elimination would have meant more expense in getting British officials. Besides British officials felt more comfortable

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355 SL Histary Chap.65-81 with them, than with the more educated Sri Lankans. This reconciliation between the British and the Kandyan chiefs extended to the low country where the traditional elite were included. This was due to the anxiety to build ‘a counterweight to the more assertive sections of the educated elite, who were demanding a share of power in the colony.’ Besides, the goigama caste accounted for nearly half the Sinhala population. Thus by the end of the nineteenth century, all Presidents of Village Tribunals were Kandyan chiefs and the six Sinhala Police Magistrates were all from the same traditional elite families - the Diases and Dias Bandaranaikes. This was again a reversal of the commitment made by the Colebrook-Cameron reforms to discourage caste privileges claimed by the goigamas, and to discourage caste distinction. In the mid-nineteenth century however, non-goigama Mudaliyars and Maha-Mudaliyars such as Louis de Zoysa, were appointed. But the attitude of Governors like Gordon and MacCallum in wanting to recognise caste as a ‘determinant of the elite status’ was a disappointment to the other castes. Gordon’s predecessor Longdon had declared that the job of Ratemahatmaya ‘is one which demands...... not so much efficient training as that the occupant should have among the natives, the sort of influence that pertains to high birth, landed property and experience in affairs.’ Gordon too intervened in support of the goigama claims and refused to appoint a successor to Louis De Zoyza, a non-goigama Maha Mudaliyar who died in 1884, although both the Sinhalese and English press strongly backed the appointment of either Gate Mudaliyar Samson Rajapakse (salagama), or C.H.de Soysa (karava) to that post. This action of Gordon provoked pamphleteering campaigns which challenged the superiority of the goigamas, especially by the , who expressed their disappointment that the relevance of caste was being emphasised in the determination of elite status. This led to the feeling that the government recognised caste discrimination, so that even in selection of minor employees for jobs, the non-goigamas were being discriminated. Apart from Gordon supporting the goigamas because of their having being treated as superiors in the past, others followed this pattern because goigama caste being more than half the population, their support was necessary for any political movement to make an impact. By 1871 the gansabhas whose powers originally had to do only with rules for control of cultivation and the use of water in villages, were

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356 SL Histary Chap.65-81 extended to cover other aspects of village life. The gansabha consisted of landowners presided over by the chief headman, and under supervi- sion of the Government Agent. The village tribunals were local courts to try breaches of village rules and minor criminal and civil cases. Education and Social Change By the turn of the century in Sri Lanka there was a new elite being produced. They were the western educated anglicised Sri Lankans, who were referred to by Governor Mac Callum in 1890 as ‘being anglicised and alienated from the people, and different from the traditional elite’ who were mainly the principal landowners. The new elite however, were ‘self-made men eager to grasp the new economic opportunities open to Sri Lankans and were much more adept at doing so.’ The tradit- ional elite resented the new men for their anglicised lifestyle, but both parties aspired to posts in the bureaucracy, power, prestige and a measure of influence over the people. The recommendations of the Colebrook-Cameron reforms were motivated partly by a desire to reduce the influence of the mudaliyars and the Kandyan aristocracy in the administrative structure, but they continued to remain the essential channel of communication between the government and the people. With the remarkable success of coffee, others began to amass wealth and the traditional elite found they could not maintain their economic superiority. They resented the new elite for adopting a lifestyle which previously belonged exclusively to them through inheritance. But very soon the new elite dominated in numbers, wealth and education. Education in the nineteenth century was limited to a primary education and secondary education became a reality only around 1869. Primary education was mainly in the vernacular, to equip the village child ‘for the humble career which ordinarily lies before him’. (Revised Education Code, by Charles Bruce). English education was left to the missionaries, and the few English schools run by the government, which charged discouragingly high fees were closed down, whenever missionary schools were started in the vicinity. The government aim was to restrict English education to a few. The number of schools increased from 140 with 8751 pupils in 1869 to 1178 schools with 67,750 students by 1878. But they were mainly vernacular schools with incompetent teachers providing an education of poor quality. In 1883 two thirds of school age boys and five-sixths of girls did not attend school.

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357 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Most of the interest in education was in the southwest coast, North- western Province and Northern Province. In addition to the government and missionary schools, wealthy philanthropists began building schools, mainly in low country areas, with the result that the low country Sinhalese and the Tamils in the north were far ahead of the Kandyans in education, and many of the educated naturally came from Christian families. Though small in number, educated Sri Lankans were an important fraction, and by the middle of the nineteenth century there was a small group of Sri Lankan civil servants and professionals who enjoyed greater prestige and higher salaries, than the mudaliyars or the Kandyan aristocracy. The larger numbers of educated Burghers were soon outnumbered by English-educated Sinhalese and Tamils. Civil Service was the aim of the ambitous, and after that came the professions of law, medicine and church ministry. For the children of Mudaliyar families, a legal career was an attractive alternative to civil service, which still remained the restricted profession. Many studied in Britain and obtained professional qualifications at the Inns of Court, while some went to Calcutta and Madras. The British, who had little sympathy for the aspirations of the average Sinhalese to study, were supported by men such as J.P. Obeysekera, the Sinhala representative in the Legislative Council who “castigated ignorant villagers who got into debt because of the fastidious notions of their English-educated children”, and argued for the imposition of the severest restrictions for entry to schools so that, “the children of the rural poor would be forced to follow such avocations as they are fitted for by nature.” He was expressing the views of his own social groups and their fears that education would stimulate processes of social change which would undermine their privileged position in the country. MEDICAL COLLEGE IN 1870 : LAW COLLEGE IN 1874 The curricula in Colombo Academy and the prestigious schools run by the missionaries was in line with that of British public and grammer schools. But higher education had not been available except for those who could go to England or India, or those who sat for External examinations of the London University.su However with the Medical College opening in Colombo in 1870 and Law College in 1874, this a void was filled. Education did give the elite an anglicised outlook, but did not cut them off from the locals. The British believed there was a huge gap between the educated few and the ‘English-illiterate’ masses, because they failed to see the personal and social ties that helped to bridge the gap. Nor did education ‘confer immunity from the virus of caste- prejudice endemic in the country’. To Sri Lankans a knowledge of English had an advantage. It gave him an enhanced status, more self confidence, a greater interest in political issues and easier access to the rulers of the day. There was no taxation, no death duties or land tax and people were able to amass great wealth from coffee, tea, rubber, and cinnamon and from graphite mining and arrack, with the result there were many local capitalists. With the abolition of the land grant system after 1832, and the introduction of the sale of waste land by the state through auction, land became accessible to all classes of people. By the mid-nineteenth century, the karavas of Moratuwa were the pace-setters, particularly the de Soysas, who were the most affluent in the island. Even the collapse of the coffee trade hardly affected them. Revd. R.S. Spence-Hardy wrote thus in 1864: The description of the place given fifty years ago as ‘wretchedly poor is no longer applicable. A young bride married a few months ago was dowered with a richer portion than ever princess of Ceylon carried over to any of the courts of the continent. There is scarcely an estate in the island that has not contributed to the wealth of Moratuwa...... The profits of arrack farms have been greater, but more questionable sources of revenue; and much wealth has been gained by farming tolls and ferries’. The arrack trade in Moratuwa is estimated to have brought as much as Rs 30 million between 1877 and 1897, and ‘the affluence of the karawa leadership was on a scale that had no parellel in the past’. The Sinhalese in low-country areas were more successful than the traditional elite of Kandy. They had no contempt for trade and no sentimental attachment to land, nor did they consider paddy cultivation to be the most honourable vocation. Soon non-goigama groups grew sufficiently confident to become more assertive and claim for top positions. The Kandyan group of the traditional elite was left far behind in education. The Kandyan mudaliyars hankered after headmen’s posts and other trappings, and stuck to traditional agriculture, while the more influential yearned for nomination to the Legislative Council. The British attempted to support the Kandyan elite, and the low country educated

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359 SL Histary Chap.65-81 people did not have a chance inspite of their organising several public campaigns. The Moratuwa karavas campaigned to gain positions in public life commensurate with their remarkable in new-found affluence. Each each time there was a vacancy in the Legislative they campaigned to catch the Governors eye for nomination, but were unsuccessful. Thus by the end of the nineteenth century, the elite had expanded in numbers.

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360 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 62

REVIVAL OF BUDDHISM AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM (1870-1900) The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the end of Kandyan resistance. The low country Sinhalese, especially those in the Western Province started to play their part in the resistance to British rule. This took the form of a religious revival, formation of political parties and trade-union activity. However they had no support from Kandyans who were now satisfied with their new role as ‘associates of the British.’ Revival of Buddhism and resistance to conversion of people to Christianity was the first step. Leadership came from bhikkhus, mainly from the Amarapura Nikaya and wealthy entrepreneurs and traders from the low country. By the 1860s public debates and verbal confrontations took place. Between 1865 and 1873 there were five public debates, and Buddhists stood up to their opponents with confidence and conviction. The most notable of these was the ‘Panadura debate of 1873’ where Ven Migettuvatte Gunananda proved himself to be ‘an excellent debater, mettlesome, witty and eloquent.’ He was described as ‘the terror of the missionaries..... the boldest, most brilliant and most powerful champion of Sinhalese Buddhism .... the leader of the present revival’. The establishment of the “Society for the Propagation of Buddhism” at Kotahena and the Lankopakara Press at Galle in 1862 marked the first phase of recovery of Buddhist confidence. This was enhanced by the establishment of the Ramanna Nikaya as an offshoot of the Amarapura Nikaya in 1865, and the founding of the Vidyodaya Pirivena in 1872, and the Vidyalankara in 1875. The Ramanna Nikaya laid greater stress on vows of poverty and humility. Its establishment appeared to be a conscious effort to cleanse the Sangha. Newspaper reports of the Panadure Debate reached the United States and attracted the attention of Colonel Olcott, founder of the Theosophical Society in 1875. He sent to Migettuvatte Gunananda a mass of pamphlets and tracts critical of Christianity. Gunananda in turn translated these to Sinhala and distributed them throughout the island. When

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361 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Olcott and his Russian counterpart, Madame Blavatsky came to Sri Lanka in 1880, they were received with great religious fervour. With their Christian background they were able to help the movement against the Christian forces in Sri Lanka. Further they gave the Buddhists, “a lesson in techniques of modern organisation to match the expertise of the Christian missionaries”, This, and the fact that Westerners were championing the cause of Buddhism, greatly enhanced the confidence of the Buddhists. Colonel Olcott started the Buddhist education movement, an Education Fund and a Buddhist National Fund, a revival of the celebration of Vesak, and succeeded in getting the Vesak day declared an official holiday. He was instrumental in the design and adoption of a distinctive Buddhist flag (1885). The Buddhist movement was a stepping stone in the recovery of national pride. The movement for revival of Buddhism had several limitations. It was mainly in the low-country - in the Western and Southern Provinces, and was led by wealthy entrepreneurs, traders and prosperous landowners. It had support from the Amarapura Nikaya, but had no influence in Kandyan areas which were under Malwatte and Asgiriya chapters of the Siyam Nikaya. Further, all attempts to bring the rival nikayas together proved futile. Governor Gregory’s (1882-87) expression of interest in Buddhism and Oriental learning was to the advantage of the movement. But it had a political motive. With this came a contribution from the state for the repairing of the Ruvanweli Seya, followed by the gift of two lamps to the Dalada Maligawa - demonstrating a more than courteous regard for Buddhism. These tended to imply the change in the attitude of the state, to becoming neutral where religion was concerned, instead of being partisan, and appeared to indicate an acceptance of the state having a special obligation to Buddhism. Govenor Gordon,(1883-90) readily accepted Olcott’s opinion that, “the British government had too hastily severed the state’s association with Buddhism.” He accepted Olcott’s proposal to make Vesak day a Public Holiday and endorsed the view that “the state should interest itself in taking in hand the problem of Buddhist temporalities.” The riots in Kotahena on Easter Sunday in 1883 gave a boost to the Buddhist movement. Kotahena, a predominantly Catholic area had

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362 SL Histary Chap.65-81 stepped up its Buddhist activities after Ven. Migettuvatte Gunananda had taken over the Kotahena Vihara. A pinkama organised ‘on a scale of unusual significance in honour of the completion of a large reclining statue of Buddha’, continued well into the Easter week. This angered the Catholics in the nearby Roman Catholic Cathedral. Riots broke out and many Catholics were arrested, but were released on the evidence that Gunananda’s fiery speeches had incited the Catholics. The government decided to restrict all processions and pinkamas. An official inquiry was to be held by the Colonial Office. On a special invitation, Col. Olcott and Madame Blavatsky returned to the island on 27 January 1884. The next day he organised a Buddhist Defence Committee which decided that Olcott himself should make representations in person at the Colonial Office in London. Although his visit to London did not help redress the greivences of Buddhists over the riots, it was fruitful in other ways. In 1886 Olcott returned and organised support for Buddhist education. Administrative regulations regarding education at this time were devised to protect Protestant missions. Roman Catholics too found that registration of their schools was being hindered. The buddhists in addition were faced with more difficulties such as financial, lack of skilled administr- ators and teachers, and above all the apathy of the majority of Buddhists. Although Olcott organised a series of lecture tours across the island to arouse enthusiasm, it was difficult to sustain the enthusiasm without a permanent administrative structure. This he provided by forming the Buddhist Theosophical Society. By 1890 the society had established forty Buddhist schools under the administrative skills of men like A.R.Buultjens and Bowles Daly the Manager of Buddhist schools, with financial help from Buddhist philanthropists. The schools broke the monopoly of the Christian Missions and produced buddhist students who in the twentieth century took their place in politics and education and helped ‘quicken the pace of political agitation and engendering a pride in Buddhism, the Sinhalese language and the cultural heritage associated with these.’ The revival of Buddhism gained ground by 1870s. It brought with it a growth of national conciousness and the recovery of national pride. Before it became a dangerous political weapon, Gregory and Gordon sought to guide it into ‘a more conservative mould’. Gregory, a Protestant Christian and a Liberal Irish landlord, showed an active

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363 SL Histary Chap.65-81 interest and sympathy for the Buddhist movement while he stressed the government’s neutrality. At the same time he was engaged in an attempt to disestablish the Anglican Church in a demonstration of neutrality. By the turn of the century a temperance movement linked to Buddhism gave Buddhist revival a greater momentum. Buddhist activists were appalled at the inefficiency in administration of temple-lands, Buddhist temporalities, and the ‘corrupt diversion of revenue to the pockets of those entrusted with the control of these properties’. In spite of insistent demands for state intervention, the government had failed to keep to its promise made in 1852, that some method would be devised to protect these temporalities. A commission was appointed in 1856 by Ward, to examine claims to temple lands and to register those which were well-founded. Apart from this, nothing was done to solve the problem of administration of Buddhist temporalities. Inefficiency and corruption continued. The wealthy Kandyan viharas and devales did not complain, but were perturbed by the demands of activists, that some of the revenue from temples should be used for Buddhist schools. The government under Sir James Longden(1877-83) was prepared to confine itself to establishing an organisation to control Buddhist temporalities, and frame the laws and regulations necessary for the Buddhists to check the evils existing in the administration of temporalities, but not to go any further, as that would give the impression that there was official recognition for a connection between the state and Buddhism. Although legislation was prepared for the better administration of Buddhist temporalities it was not introduced in the Legislative Council. The Colonial office was not prepared to legislate, to allow temple revenue left over after costs of maintaining the temple, to be used for educational purposes. But Gordon who succeeded Longdon, viewed the question of legislation on Buddhist temporalities as the fulfilment of an obligation which the British government owed to the Buddhists. Thus in 1888 by ordinance, the control of Buddhist temporalities in each district was transferred to a committee of Buddhist laymen, elected by the bhikkhus and the people. This committee elected their own trustees for the temple or devale in their area. These district committees were under supervision of provincial committees, with a further check on accounts under the direction of the courts. Although there was some opposition, Gregory steered it through the Colonial Office.

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364 SL Histary Chap.65-81 This ordinance was too complicated nor did it solve the problem of corruption among the trustees. Buddhist activists agitated for stronger measures to combat corruption. The Colonial government had to rethink the legislation. In 1905, Ordinance 8 was introduced to “consolidate and amend the law relating to Buddhist temporalities.” Provincial committees were abolished, district committees were enlarged and strengthened, and entrusted with disciplinary control over the trustees of viharas and ‘basanayake nilames’ of devales. The activists wanted the state to assume direct responsibility for the administration of Buddhist temporali- ties, but the government was reluctant to do so. TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT :- By the turn of the century, the Buddhist movement was concerned with the intemperance prevailing in the country. The distilling and sale of arrack was contrary to religious and traditional values of the Sinhalese. But the manufacture of arrack was being done by Sinhalese, most of whom were karava Christians, although some Buddhists too had large investments in the industry. To the British government excise duties were a valuable source of revenue. The Buddhist movement stepped up its agitation, although the money supporting it came from “wealth amassed from the liquor trade” or inherited from parents who were in this trade, “conscience-money from Buddhists who thus repudiated a lucrative source of income.” This movement at times indulged in criticising the “Christian government.” But the British administrators chose to ignore them or treat them with contempt, although they were concerned that the hostility generated could disturb the placid, political life of the country. It tended to generate a feeling of hostility towards the colonial regime- an anti-British and pro-Buddhist feeling. The missionaries noted that, “...... the Buddhist revival is the attempt to identify Buddhism with patriotism, and to urge upon the people that loyalty to the country implies loyalty to the religion...... ”. RECOVERY OF HINDUISM The recovery of Hinduism occurred one generation earlier. The Hindus were at an advantage in that they could draw on resources in India. The Tamil elite inspite of an English education did not take up to the anglicised lifestyle the Sinhalese elite adopted, despite the fact that there were more missionary societies in Jaffna, and an efficiently run network of schools.

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365 SL Histary Chap.65-81 HINDUISM The recovery of Hinduism owes its success to one man, Arumuga Navalar. He worked with Christian missionaries for over a decade and absorbed their skill in organisation and propagation of Christianity, and used these skills to resist the spread of Christianity in the north. Although he never converted to Christianity, he helped them by trans- lating the Bible into Tamil. In 1849 he opened the first Saivite school, the Vannarponnai Saiva Prasaga Vidyasalai, long before the first Buddhist schools. He wanted to establish Saivite schools in every village, with specially prepared text books. The Saivangala Vidyasalai launched by him in 1872 was to become the Jaffna Hindu College, the premier Hindu English school in the island. Navalar was “a man of enormous erudition and massive energy who left an indelible mark on the Hinduism of Tamils of Sri Lanka...... He was a protean figure, a man of amazing versatility, whose acheivements in any of the fields he performed so creatively would have placed him in the first rank among the unusual talents of his time. He excelled in a number of fields. In 1849 he established a printing press at Vannarponnai and from this poured forth a succession of tracts and pamphlets expounding Hindu doctrines and defending them against the strictures of the missionaries - in lucid Tamil prose designed to be understood by the common man.” (KMDS) He was a classics scholar and a gifted speaker. But he was no social reformer and caste distinctions among the Tamils continued to have religious sanctions. Untouchability, non-existent among the Sinhalese, was and still is, very much a problem in Hindu society. Temple entry was forbidden to some castes. ‘The hierarchical dominance of the vellalas (the Tamil counterpart of the goigama), who also held a commanding numerical superiority over other castes’ proved to be the main beneficiary of the new opportunities provided by the British. ISLAM Islam too successfully resisted the efforts of the Christian missionaries. Since English education available was mainly Christian in content, they preferred to sacrifice the advantages of an English education rather than endanger their children’s faith, resulting in the Muslim community missing out on the benefits of a good education. But a lawyer named M.C.Siddi Lebbe, realised the dangers, and made his community understand the importance of education. Arabi

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366 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Pasha, the leader of the abortive Egyptian uprising in 1882, who was

. CHAPTER 63

POLITICS AND CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM IN LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The Legislative Council set up in 1833, was looked upon by the

exiled in Lanka from 1883-1901 joined Siddi Lebbe in this struggle to make Muslims accept an English education. Although their task was a more formidable one than that of Arumuga Navalar, they too established Muslim schools. A Tamil Newspaper called the Muslim Naisen was used to campaign for educating the people. Unlike the Buddhist movement, which was never free of political overtones, neither the Hindu nor the Muslim revival had any such problems. Arabi Pasha stayed on in Sri Lanka even after the death of Siddi Lebbe and spent his days in thecause of English education for Muslims and in advocating and initiating reforms in religious practice.

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367 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Colonial Office as a check on the Governor and an independent and reliable source of information, on the affairs of the colony, to the Secretary of State. Between 1833-70 Ceylon was the ‘constitutional pioneer’ of the non- European dependencies of the British empire, with a more advanced constitution than all the others. The Council however felt that a Councill set up on the lines of Colebrook.’s concept of a Legislative Council, was too restrictive. Unofficial members of the Council and the News- papers in the country expected it to be the local parliament, and started agitation for the council to become a more representative one. Although its powers were enlarged on three separate occasions, there was no increase in members nor was the mode of nomination altered. Unofficial representatives were appointed by the Governor and fixed as three Europeans, and one each from Burgher, Sinhalese and Tamil communities. The governor consulted the Chamber of Commerce and Planters Association to nominate the Europeans. But in the case of Sinhalese and Tamils, nominations appeared to be restricted to members from the same families. Petitions sent to the governor recommending nominations, had no effect. In 1840s Dr Christopher Elliot, a Medical practitioner, who was also an outspoken journalist, led the agitation for a reform of the Council and to make it more representative. His demands were rejected. In early 1850s Earl Grey (Secretary of State) stated : ‘If they were to be established in such a form as to confer power on the great body of the people, it must be obvious that the experiment would be attended with great danger or rather with the certainity of failure.’ That was his answer to people like Elliot! Claims for reform came also from planters, European settlers, Burghers and Dutch descendents wanting an increase in unofficial representatives. They were also dismissed. ‘If.....the system of representation were so contrived as to exclude the bulk of the native population from real power, in order to vest it in the hands of the European minority, an exceedingly narrow oligarchy would be created...... ’(KMDS pg358). Successive Secretaries of State merely expanded on these themes.

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368 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The Governors however felt that any political concessions by way of reforms had to be preceded by improvement in education and literacy. Nothing came of the agitation. However by 1876 William Digby, an English journalist residing in Sri Lanka, pointed out that since 1883 when the constitution was introduced, the economy of the country had improved through the success of coffee, the revenue had increased leading to rapid social changes, such as advances in education and literacy, and in every sphere but not in the constitutional and political spheres. The rejection of constitutional reforms in Sri Lanka seemed illogical when smaller colonies far less advanced in education, literacy, economy and revenue were granted constitutions far in advance of that in Sri Lanka, especially when Sri Lanka had been “the constitutional pioneer of non-European dependencies” of the British empire, having a more advanced constitution than others. Digby’s arguments fell on deaf ears, more so because Sri Lankans themselves were not pushing for reforms. Perhaps if they did, it would have ‘marked the beginning of a new era.’ CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT By the end of the nineteenth century colonies like Jamaica, Mauritius and Trinidad were far ahead in constitutional development. By 1880 Jamaica was the pioneer. ‘It had elected members in the Legislative Council, the grant of a provisional elected majority and a veto on financial proposals which could be exercised by any six of the elected members subject to the overriding power of the Governor’. Similar reforms were introduced in Mauritius and Trinidad before the end of the century. An observation was made that Sri Lanka was different to these colonies, in that in Sri Lanka the Europeans were only temporary settlers and not a ‘true plantocracy’ with permanent European settlers with an abiding interest. Besides others were plantation colonies while Sri Lanka was not, though it too had plantations. Further, in Sri Lanka there was a large indigenous population with an indigenous elite. There was lack of enthusiasm and agitation among the Sinhalese for reforms and apart from a claim from Buddhist activists for a member to represent them, they did not show much interest. The Sinhala representatives were invariably Christians, and came from one family group - the Alwises and Obeysekeras.

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369 SL Histary Chap.65-81 In 1882 C. H. de Soysa of Moratuwa, the wealthiest of the karawa entrepreneurs, formed the Ceylon Agricultural Association to safeguard the interests of the indigenous planters. Later when in 1888 the Sinhalese seat in the Legislative Council fell vacant, the Association changed its name to a distinctly political one - the Ceylon National Association, which could lead agitation for constitutional reforms. It did arouse the concerns of Gordon. To foil the moves of the Association, Gordon created two additional unofficial seats in 1889 and allotted them to the Muslim and Kandyan representatives, two groups which showed no interest in reforms - and hoping to conciliate the other groups, such as the Buddhist movement, he said, he “hoped that the Kandyan member would be a Buddhist and a spokesman for Buddhist opinion.” Gordon further proposed that all unofficials would be appointed for a five year term instead of being “for life”, which perhaps was intended to curb the independence of unofficial members. But this did not work and nomination was for life! James Pieris returned to Sri Lanka in 1887, after a brilliant academic career, a double first and the Presidency of Cambridge Union, an impressive career at Cambridge and Lincoln Inn, plus a marriage to an heiress - the daughter of Jacob de Mel of Moratuwa,- to begin his career in politics. In 1900 his claims to represent the Sinhalese was supported through petitions and well attended public meetings, but S.C Obeysekera was nominated for the post. Again in 1905, he lost to Obeysekera, who was renominated. A claim for a separate karava seat was put forward and lost. This only served to divide the elite. To the British, what counted more was a “family tradition of loyal service to the British in the office of principle Mudaliyar, notwithstanding mediocre intellectual talents”. By 1905 the conspicuous affluence of the karawa community made them sufficiently confident to ‘question the claims of the goigama caste to superior status.’ While the British adminstration had embarked on a policy of propping up the goigama establishment, it was a fultile attempt on the part of the karavas. The traditional elite with their willingness to collaborate were more useful to the administration as a ‘counterweight to the brash and affluent karava dominated capitalist’ elite who formed the Ceylon National Association. Politics in Sri Lanka at the turn of the century had become “passive, even stagnant” and attempts to convert the National Association to the

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370 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Ceylon National Congress on the lines of the politically active Indian National Congress, were not tolerated. John Ferguson, owner-editor of the Ceylon Observer, in his book “Ceylon in 1893”, made a plea for reform of the Constitution and “an increase in number of unofficial representatives with some to be elected on the basis of a restricted franchise”. It was not considered by the government. When in 1902, Ferguson, one of the unofficial European representatives in the Legislative, sought to organise public meetings or a conference to secure the adoption of a resolution on reforms of the constitution, he had no support from the public figures of the day. He said, “The Sinhalese are our great difficulty. Obeysekera objects to elections and James Pieris as District Judge (in embryo) has not replied at all.... They would not trust power to their countrymen.” In 1904 a resolution was moved by Ferguson in the Legislative Council for an additional seat for low country Sinhalese. But it lapsed for want of a seconder and with Obeysekera being hostile to this proposal. The lack of interest by James Pieris was inexplicable, in view of the fact that he himself had staked a claim for the Sinhala seat in 1902. The low country Sinhalese like James Pieris and Dr (later Sir) , who, by their educational and social background, were, during this period, fitted for leadership in politics and public life, were more interested in plantation agriculture and trade in plumbago, liquor, coconut and rubber. There was “a lack of real downright earnestness in political agitation.” A British Newspaper, the Daily Graphic, at this time commented ‘Ceylon is one of those happy possessions of the British Crown...... While other countries make a noise in the world, Ceylon makes money.’ Dr Marcus Fernando returned from London after an exceptionally distinguished academic record, but his medical practice took second place to planting. Sri Lankan businesses were not in competition with those of the Europeans. They were complementary to each other. So much so, that when the wealthy Sinhalese did go into politics they were careful not to stir up agitation as had happened in India. The only articulate political group was the Chilaw Association led by the wealthy landowning Corea brothers. They wanted the railway extended from Negombo to Chilaw and Puttalam. They also opposed the Waste Lands Ordinance of 1897, in defence of the Sinhalese peasants, and unlike the moribund Ceylon

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371 SL Histary Chap.65-81 National Association, agitated to introduce the elective principle for ‘representation of native interests in the Legislative Council’. But even this agitation did not match the broadbased temperance movement. The Sinhalese were disinclined to take the lead in agitating for Constitutional reforms and it was left to the Tamils and men like Ferguson to give the lead. As a local Newspaper had said, “The intellectual and political activity noticeable among the Tamils, is a favourable sign of the times..... In matters political it is gratifying to notice their activity.” (1889). The Tamils had Sir Muttu Coomarasamy in the Legislative Council and he was succeeded by his nephews Ramanathan and Coomaraswamy, while a third brother Arunachalam, a distinguished civil servant, kept up a lively interest in politics, although he could not take an active part. At Arunachalam’s initiative Ferguson called a meeting of public men to adopt a memorial on Constitutional reforms. Ferguson also published two pseudonymous letters of Arunachalam in his ‘Ceylon Observer’ of early June 1902 arguing a case for political reform, which were an expansion of the same arguments made by his close friend, William Digby, in his pamphlets of 1876. “None of the Sinhalese representatives of this period - the last quarter of the nineteenth century - matched the intellectual dynamism, independence of outlook and political maturity of Ramanathan and his brother Coomaraswamy. The one exception was James Alwis, but even he lacked vision in many spheres of activity most notably, religion. As a staunch Anglican he would do nothing for the Buddhists; this task fell by default on Ramanathan, and his services to the Buddhist cause elicited a fulsome tribute from the leading Buddhist journal of the day, the Sarasavi Sandarasa in 1899. ‘[Ramanathan]’ it asserted, ‘not only looks after the welfare of his own constituents, but also all matters connected with various interests on the island....It might well be said, judging from the active part he has taken, and the amount of time and labour he has devoted in Council affecting the Sinhalese alone, that he was their representative...... Buddhists owe Mr Ramanathan a deep debt of gratitude. His interest in the question of the Wesak holiday and the Buddhist Temporalities Bill...... and a host of other services towards Buddhism, have endeared him immensely to the Buddhists of Ceylon.” When the question of grain taxes came up in the Legislative Council,

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372 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Alwis ‘gave unstinted support’ for the continuing of the tax, while Ramanathan and the Kandyan representative, Panabokke, played a leading role in getting it abolished. Coomaraswamy the elder brother, and successor of Ramanathan to the Tamil seat did not have his eloquence, but was a man of strong convictions and independence. But when his term of office ended in 1889, he was not renominated. Instead Rockwood and Kanagasabhai were elected as Tamil representatives. With this appointment ‘the Sri Lankan unofficials in the Legislative Council all reached a comfortably even level of mediocrity in intellect and conservatism in outlook; all of them were unimaginative men who showed not the slightest interest in political reform.” Obeysekera was reappointed each time his term ended. The Tamil political activity attracted from the Colonial Office such criticism as, ‘the Tamils in Ceylon are the most intriguing section of the population.’ The economic resources of the Tamils were much more limited than that of the low country Sinhalese. The level of English literacy was highest in Jaffna, and educated Tamils who took to the professions and to service in the bureaucracy emigrated to and East Africa for clerical and teaching jobs. When jobs became scarce overseas, they "migrated" to Colombo and the Sinhalese areas, and competition between Tamils and Burghers, for clerical posts in Colombo, became intense. Tamils students who went to India for University education and absorbed the political influences in India, came back and sought to stimulate political activity in the island. At this stage ethnicity was not a divisive factor in Sri Lanka. “A local journal commented in 1899 that ‘among the different races to be found in Ceylon, the existing relations are far more cordial than.... in any other British dependency in the East.’ (KMDS 369)

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373 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 64

SRI LANKA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

By the end of the nineteenth century, Kandyan resistance had ended. From 1905 to 1919 there was a growth of resistance movements in the low-country, especially in the western province, and particularly against British rule - political associations (both regional and national), trade unions and welfare associations, together with a resurgence of Buddhism and sustained temperance agitation. The Buddhist revival was more a recovery of national pride. Without support from the Kandyans they ‘developed into a force of no little significance.’ It was a revival of Buddhism and a rejection of missionary organisations. who was in the forefront in Buddhist revival advocated a Sinhalese-Buddhist domination of the island, similar to that made by Tilak, champion of Hindu resurgence in West India. The attacks by Christian missionaries on the spread of taverns and the greater spread of drunkeness in the island was taken up by the Buddhist revivalists, who linked liquor consumption with westernisation and ‘Christianisation.’ THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT Temperance societies sprang up around Colombo and other parts of the island due to the pursuit of revenue by the state. It brought the elite and masses together. The Hapitigam-complex of temperance societies around 1903-05, were efficiently organised and drew crowds of over 20,000 to its meetings, when the population of Colombo was only 6000. Don Spater Senanayake, the father of F.R, D.S and D.C who had made a fortune in plumbago was behind this movement, and with this began the entry of the Senanayake family into national politics. The temperance movement petered out around 1905, but the organisational apparatus survived and was revived in 1911. It covered a greater area and grew stronger with the establishment of the Total Abstinence Central Union in 1913, which grew to become a movement with the potential to become a political struggle. The government was

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374 SL Histary Chap.65-81 opposed to reforms, as it affected the revenue and hence it discouraged headmen from associating with temperance activity, and even issued orders prohibiting them from joining temperance societies. Public servants who wanted to join such societies had to get prior permission from the government. But criticism in the island and abroad forced the government to withdraw such orders, thus boosting the morale and confidence of the temperance societies. In spite of this movement being such a powerful one, no efforts were made to expand it into an effective political one. Although Dharmapala advocated ‘Swaraj’ or national independence he neither had support from the Buddhist temperance leaders, nor the support of the Christians and Burghers, who dominated the political life of the island. They were suspicious of an organisation which showed the potential to develop into a vehicle for ‘Buddhist nationalism.’ NATIONALISTS AND REFORMERS Around this time there were several different movements in Sri Lanka. Buddhist activists were more volatile and vigorous than the political activists. The nationalists wanted more political changes such as reform of the Legislative Council and an increase in the numbers of Sri Lankans entering the higher bureaucracy, while a few like Dharmapala were committed to swaraj (independence). The constitutionalists joined nationalists in the temperance movement but did not support the campaign against the missionary movement, nor did they support public meetings and political demonstrations. The small number who comprised the ‘traditional elite’ did not want any reforms. With their representatives in the Legislative Council, they were influential with the colonial adminstration. The Colonial office was not averse to allowing limited reforms, ‘to prevent dissatisfaction from becoming disaffection’, but the lack of agitation by the masses convinced the Colonial Office that ‘there was no serious dissatisfaction’. Governor Henry MacCallum (1907-1913) was firmly opposed to any reforms. The Ceylon National Association which should have spearheaded the movement for political reforms was more or less dead. The Dutch Burgher Union, the Low country Products Association and Plumbago Merchants Union showed no interest in agitating for changes. The Chilaw Association and Jaffna Association were not afraid to agitate, but they were not a substitute for national agitation. As a local Newspaper, the Ceylon Morning Leader of 13 June 1908 had declared, “Even in England the people did not earn their enviable privileges by sitting quiet.” A Sri Lankan who had pressed the subject of political reform on

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375 SL Histary Chap.65-81 an official from Whitehouse, received a similar reply, “Why dont you agitate for it?” Caste and creed divided the Sinhalese. But finally James Alwis took the lead for the educated elite to have a greater share in the administra- tion of the island. The British government refused to accept the need for reforms and refused to acknowledge the claims that the English educated elite was speaking on behalf of the masses. They could only see the wide gap that separated the educated from the illiterate masses, and disregarded the close personal and social ties that brought the educated and the illiterate together in Sri Lankan society. Even when on the initiative of Lord Crewe, Secretary of State for the Colonies, the elective principle in a limited form was conceded to a small segment of the English educated in 1910, Governor Henry MacCallum persisted in opposing it, even after the concession was granted. Every concession however small, given to the colonies, was viewed by British as a diminishing of authority of the government and its officials. He also argued that ‘the real representatives of the people were the senior and experienced civil servants, whose work for years had brought them into daily and intimate touch with the peasantry’. The franchise was confined to a tiny segment of the people, ‘the English-educated elite.’ The Buddhist press too deplored the injustice of the Sinhalese-educated not being considered qualified for franchise. Even the movement for constitutional reform led by James Pieris, H.J.C. Perera and E.W Perera ‘who were deeply attached by sentiment and political inclination to British institutions and the British empire, was only slightly less suspect in their eyes, than the nationalist agitation linked with the temperance movement and Buddhism.’ THE RIOTS OF 1915 There was an upsurge of nationalist sentiment around March 1915 with the commemoration of the Centenary of the Kandyan Convention and this continued into the Sinhala and Tamil New Year celebrations in April. Instead of this being a turning point in the island’s political history, it led to a racial riot between the Sinhalese and the Coast Moors who had recently migrated from the Malabar Coast in South India. They apparently were readier than the Sinhalese traders to give credit, but sold their wares at a higher price, thus earning the hostility of both the Sinhalese people and the other traders - mainly low country Sinhalese traders. At a time when there was a resurgence of Buddhism

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thisEn brought the Moors into conflict with the Sinhala Buddhist masses. It also made the British treat the riots as part of an organised conspiracy against the government, and instead of using police and the bureaucracy to settle it, the army was used to harshly treat the alleged Buddhist leaders of the conspiracy. Three sets of arrests were made. Firstly, the prominent temperance leaders who had actually attempted to restore order, and had even given protection to the Moors and their property, were arrested and jailed. This included the three Senanayake brothers, F.R; D.S; and D.C. Senanayake; D. B. Jayatileke; W.A. de Silva; C. Batuwantudawe, and Edmund and Dr C.A Hewavitharane, the two brothers of Anagarika Dharmapala. Secondly, members of the new political organisation called Young Lanka League which included A.E Goonesinha, were jailed. Thirdly, trade union activists in the railway workshops in Colombo were arrested and twenty eight of them ‘deported’ to the eastern province - ‘the Siberia’ of Sri Lanka.

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377 SL Histary Chap.65-81 THE YOUNG LANKA LEAGUE T “The first signs of ‘trade union consciousness’ and agitation had appeared in the island” by the last decade of the last century. By the second decade of the twentieth century, there was much unrest in Colombo and its suburbs. The Young Lanka League formed around 1915 was the first radical and nationalist group to be formed with a political programme, to oppose British rule, and their pledge was to secure national independence for Sri Lanka. Unrest and discontent among the people continued, mainly among the skilled workers around Colombo, such as railway workers, due to poor working conditions and living standards. When they resorted to strike action, the British officials who were used to workers being docile, were taken by surprise. The workers were found to have had close links with the elite activists. In the Legislative Council, Ponnambalam Ramanathan, the elected representative of the educated Sri Lankans, “in a series of impassioned speeches notable alike for their fearless condemnation of the excesses committed by the British forces in suppressing the riots, and the cogently argued refutation of the conspiracy theory,” rose to the defence of the Sinhalese leaders. He opposed the Act of Indemnity, which placed the military and civil authorities beyond reach of the law, and the Riots Damages Ordinance which imposed a levy on Sinhalese residents of specified localities, with no regard to whether they were involved in the riots or not. For two years he persisted in a fruitless attempt to have a Select Committee appointed to investigate the charges made by Sinhalese leaders against the soldiers and other officials. In this he was strongly supported by Harry Creasy, one of the respected English residents and the European representative in the Council. But all efforts to seek redress were nullified by the opposition of the nominated Sinhalese representative, S. C. Obeysekera “Who despised his fellow Sinhalese as social inferiors and whose aspirations to political leader ship were anathema to him”. E. W. Perera and D. B. Jayatilleke who went to England soon after the riots to attempt to rouse British public opinion in sympathy with the grievances of the Sinhalese and to secure the appointmnt of a body of commissioners from Britain to inquire itno the incidents connected with the riots spent an unsuccessful four years in England.

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378 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 65

THE CEYLON NATIONAL CONGRESS

The riots of 1915 were a set back to the political agitation that had built up through the temperance movement, which potentially had been ‘the basis of a popular political movement with a genuine grass-roots appeal’. But attempts were made by the elite leadership to show the British that it was only a religious movement. The militant Buddhist activists of Dharmapala’s time took a back seat. F.R Senanayake and D.B Jayatilleke, ‘the constitutionalists’. took over the Buddhist movement and ‘kept a tight rein on religious enthusiasm.’ In 1917 the Ceylon Reform League was first set up with Sir as the obvious choice for president. He took the leadership with little support from the Sinhalese and Tamil Constitutionalists, to agitate for constitutional reforms, and soon after the Ceylon National Congress, a counterpart of the Indian National Congress, (which had been ‘a cherished dream’ of his, from his days as an undergraduate at Cambridge), was formed. ‘Those who shared Arunachalam’s political outlook saw in the new Ceylon National Congress, a symbol of unity and racial harm- ony that prevailed between the Sinhalese and Tamil leadership’. The Young Lanka League played an important role within it. They hoped to convert the movement into a nationalist movement on the lines of the Indian National Congress with the goal being ‘swaraj’ and opposition to British rule on Gandhian lines. On the other hand ‘constitutionalists’ who dominated it, were the influential ones, who wanted to negotiate along ‘proper channels’ to ‘secure for the people of Ceylon, responsible government and the status of a self-governing member of the British empire’, and to achieve by ‘constitutional methods’ a reform of the existing form of government and administration. Goonesinghe and his youth movement like the Indian National Congress opposed British rule and wanted Swaraj. As radicals they introduced ‘the technique of mass politics and tactics of agitation based on the

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379 SL Histary Chap.65-81 politicisation of the urban working class’ which was different to the conservative approach of the Congress, ‘whose membership was more elitist and tended to neglect the deeper social problems of the country’. The politics of the island could be looked at from this period onwards as being ‘conservative’ or ‘radical.’ MANNING (1919) AND HIS POLITICAL MACHINATIONS The ‘constitutionalist leadership’ of the Ceylon National Congress who gained control, did not perform the role of the political party that Arunachalam and the younger radicals wanted it to be. The arrival of Sir William Manning (1918-25) did not help either. Manning regarded the Congress as an intolerable challenge. He resisted constitutional reforms and regarded any adjustments as being detrimental to the British position. He watched the Congress ‘with a jaundiced eye’ and devised means to upset it. In this he succeeded within two years. He turned to the Kandyans and pandered to the fears they had of the Congress being a low-country dominated one. A pamphlet by J.A Halangoda (1920) titled, “Present politics and the Rights of the Kandyans” argued that the ‘lawful and just aspirations of the Kandyans were threatened by the demands of ‘contitutionalists’. ‘Where the Kandyan heritage begins’ said the author, ‘there the low country Sinhalese claim for it ends.’ The Kandyans were urged to regard the British as ‘trustees of Kandyan nationality under whose guidance and tutelage there should be a separate administrative structure for the Kandyan provinces with full control over internal management’. Soon after, Halangoda with T.B.L Moonemalle and G.E. Madawala (all Kandyan lawyers), visited London with Manning’s blessings, and were received by the Secretary of State, Viscount Milner on 22 June 1920 as a three-man delegation of Kandyan representatives. They urged that Kandyans should be allowed to elect their own representatives through communal electorates. ‘Unremitting pressure’ from Manning forced Milner to accede to this, and be convinced that the Congress delegates (who led by Arunachalam met Milner the very next day) were trying to get the administration into their hands, and thus dominate the weaker minorities. The Kandyans had many reasons to seek protection from the British. Although the plantations were in the Kandyan region, the low country Sinhalese and Tamils were far ahead of them in trade, commerce and planting activity, and in education and the professions. When a high level of education and property qualifications were laid down as pre-requisites for the exercise of the vote, the

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380 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Kandyans found that the low-country Sinhalese and the Tamils had an advantage and they were incapable of meeting the challenge. Thus the Kandyans were willing to support Manning in his attempts to frustrate the demands of the Congress for reform. When in 1920 there was a rift between Sinhalese and Tamils in the Congress, Manning got the opportunity to detach the Tamils from the Congress, and their association with the low-country Sinhalese. The old Legislative Council had equal numbers of Sinhalese and Tamils, but the first elected Council returned thirteen Sinhalese and two Tamils in 1920. The influential Tamils began to campaign for restoration of the former proportions. Although James Pieris and E .J Samarawickreme, as successive Presidents of the Ceylon National Association, had given an undertaking to the Jaffna Association in 1918 regarding the creation of a special seat for a Tamil representative for the Western Province, they said that it was not a precise committment. This soon led to a controversy which ended with Arunachalam leaving the Congress. Although Arunachalam did not approve of his brother Ramanathan’s communal politics and the opposition Ramanathan had shown to constitutional reform, he had no alternative but join him and Tamils like Ambalavanar Kanagasabhai, who by now had come to think of them- selves as a minority community. Arunachalam now made it clear that he was against far reaching constitutional reforms, and against the principle of an elected majority in the Legislative Council. The Tamils as a minority community looked to Ramanathan for leadership. The one who benefited by these changes in the political scene was Manning. Collaborating with Ramanathan, Manning held two conferences to reconcile the Tamil and Sinhalese leadership, but they failed, because the Tamils did not give up their demand for a special reserved seat in the Western Province. Manning, with public expressions of support for the Tamils, and the other minority groups supported this claim for communal representation, and viewed the Congress demand for a legislature as a threat to their interests. The Congress not only antagonised the Tamils, but also rejected the demands of radicals like A.E. Goonesinghe who wanted more forceful agitation. The Congress persisted with their agitation, but were careful not to disturb Manning, and not to resort to boycott or non-cooperation, because they believed that the methods proposed by the radicals would be self-defeating and irrevocably

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381 SL Histary Chap.65-81 alienate the minorities. Congress had given an undertaking that in the 1924 elections, the low country Sinhalese would not contest seats in the Kandyan provinces. This was something Congress could not have controlled. When only three Kandyans were returned, the explanation that it was a ‘result of their lack of sophistication in political matters’ afforded no consolation. It was another triumph for Manning. The Kandyan members of the Congress, like A.F Molamure, Dr T.B. Kobbekaduwa and P.B Ratnayake joined the demand that ‘the Kandyan race should be separately rep- resented in the Legislative Assembly, and that our entity as a separate and distinct community should be recognised and maintained’. In 1923 a separate organisation, the Kandyan National Assembly was formed in opposition to the Congress, and in 1927 they put forward the demand for a federal state with regional autonomy for Kandyans. Manning and Sir , his successor, were both sympathetic to their demands, and hoped to ‘use the Kandyans as a conservative buffer against the forces of political agitation.’ Around this time, others such as S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, a Congressman himself, at the head of the Progressive National Party, also favoured federalism as a solution to bring about better understanding between ethnic groups. This idea of federalism lasted for more than a decade. But neither the Sinhalese nor the Tamil political leaders were receptive to demands for a Federal constitutional structure. SINHALA MAHAJANA SABHA In 1919 the Ceylon National Congress set up a network of local sabhas or associations in various parts of the island, to involve the masses. Peasants and farmers joined the membership of these. The aim was social reform and rural regeneration with emphasis on religious and cultural activities including temperance agitation. The Senanayake brothers and D.B Jayatilleke gave leadership. F.R.Senanayake who was president from 1919 till his untimely death in 1925 at the age of forty four, spent lavishly to keep the movement going. His brother D.C.Senanayake succeeded him as President. With the increase in numbers of the sabhas, political activity gained momentum. Their proceedings were conducted in Sinhala and sponsored the cause of Buddhist candidates and opposed Christian candidates. Buddhist activists, ayurvedic physicians, traders, teachers, cultivators and the Sinhala-speaking intelligentsia kept up the religious nationalism in the tradition of people like Anagarika Dharmapala. They emphasised ethnicity

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382 SL Histary Chap.65-81 and religion. Without the leadership of F.R.Senanayake, the society survived without a sense of direction, and it was S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike who in mid-1920s came to the rescue, by forming his Sinhala Maha Sabha. RADICALISM AND THE YOUNG LANKA LEAGUE A.E.Goonesinghe and his Young Lanka League, continued their interest in trade unionism and labour activity. While Mahajana Sabhas politicised the peasants, Goonesinghe politicised the urban working class in Colombo, which though small in numbers was more cohesive and volatile. In 1920, soon after World War II, there was a shortage of rice and prices of foodstuffs increased without an increase in wages. This sparked off a series of strikes among railway workers and the first major strike in the Colombo harbour. Goonesinghe stepped in where Consitutionalists had failed, to provide a more forceful leadership. The Young Lanka League opposed the poll tax which required all adult males to pay Rs 2 annually, or in lieu of it work six days on road construction. This was resented by the poor, who were forced to work on the roads. However by 1922, through agitation by Goonesinghe and his associates, this tax was abolished. Goonesinghe found that the Ceylon Workers Federation controlled by the ‘Consitutionalists’ which was merely ‘a mechanism for conciliation between employers and workers in the event of disputes’ was insufficient. He formed a new model union, the Ceylon Labour Union on 10 September 1922. This showed its strength when in February 1923 it led Colombo’s working class in a general strike that crippled the economy. The strike eventually collapsed, but it sent a clear message to both the ‘constitutionalists’ and the government, that the working class was ‘making its entry into the political arena, bringing with it new styles of action, making novel demands, and introducing a new and less deferen- tial tone into politics’ and would not tolerate a return to labour practices of the past. By 1923 Goonesinghe was ‘a popular figure, a folk hero and a politician of great promise...... with a keener appreciation of the political potential of the masses’. The Ceylon Labour Union, the most radical force in politics, was affiliated with the Congress in 1922. Goonesinghe hoped that tactics similar to what was applied against the poll tax, could be used in national politics. But he was considered by the elitist constitutionalists as a ‘trouble maker’ and was given no support when

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383 SL Histary Chap.65-81 he called the general strike in 1923. He got support only from C.E. Victor Corea, militant nationalist, and Anagarika Dharmapala, now in the last phase of his career, who ‘looked upon strikes by Sri Lankan workers as a manifestation of a spirit of nationalism’. The ‘constitutionalist’ leadership in the Congress showed very little interest in the problems of the working class, and showed ‘no initiative in securing the introduction and adoption of legislation on issues affecting the working class, such as the right to form trade unions, the principle of statutory minimum wage, unemployment relief, and workmen’s compensation through insurance against industrial hazards’. SUFFRAGE Consitutionalists in the Congress were not interested in the extension of suffrage. Arunachalam had been a strong advocate of ‘manhood suffrage’ as early as 20 September 1919, “in his address in Sinhalese, at the inauguration of the Lanka Mahajana Sabha”. But after Arunachalam left the Congress, Goonesinghe got no support from the Constitutionalists. Goonesinghe who realised the political potential of the urban working class felt that manhood suffrage would be ‘an effective challenge to the position of the educated elite in the public life of the country.’ Revd. A. G. Fraser the principal of Trinity College Kandy, in an article in ‘The Times of Ceylon’ had made the first call for manhood suffrage, on 24-25 April 1919. He was struck by the moderation of the proposals of Ceylonese Reformers, and hence argued that ‘an essential prelude was to have a broad franchise. Personally I would like to see manhood suffrage.’ Goonesinghe’s differences with the Congress leadership was brought to light when in 1925 he vociferously opposed the move to collect money from the public to commemorate the award of a KCMG to Maha Mudaliyar Sir Solomon Dias Bandaranaike. The Congress struck back in 1926, by supporting S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, the son of the Maha Mudaliyar, who successfully contested him in the election to the Maradana ward of the Colombo Municipal Council. This stunning defeat however was only a temporary setback to Goonesinghe’s political career. He had ‘made a notable contribution to the growth of nationalism in Sri Lanka, first by giving leadership in the process of politicising the working class and then by demonstrating the dynamic role of social and economic reform.’

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384 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 66

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY (1910-1928)

PLANTATION AGRICULTURE During the war years, 1914-1918, tropical countries faced a recession. Rubber fared better than tea and coconut during the war. At this time the area under rubber expanded by 25,000 acres and between 1918 and 1920 it increased by a further 32,000 acres. But a fall in prices and a glut in production brought the price of rubber down to 7d (seven-pence) a pound, which was well below the cost of production. Rubber recovered in 1924-25 when the price per pound rose to 2s. 3d, but this could not survive the Great Depression, which had a greater impact on rubber than on tea. By 1930 rubber had fallen to around 5d and in 1932 to around 2d. On the other hand, tea producers in India and Sri Lanka placed voluntary restrictions on tea production, and when prices improved by 1936, the restriction was abandoned. Between 1920-30 the area under tea expanded by 53,000 acres. But teas from India and Sri Lanka had to compete with teas from Dutch East Indies in addition to the problem of the Great Depression, when the demand for tea fell sharply and with it the prices. Coconut fared far worse than tea or rubber. PEASANT AGRICULTURE During war years while plantation agriculture became stagnant, peasant agriculture and irrigation were revived. The establishment in 1900 of the Department of Irrigation, and in 1912 of the Department of Agriculture, were aimed at improving peasant agriculture. The wartime disruption of food supplies helped to awaken an interest in food production and made Sri Lankan politicians take a greater interest in developing the dry zone and even conjure up ‘visions of a revival of past glories’ and achieve a more even balance of population.

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385 SL Histary Chap.65-81 After nearly two decades the area under irrigation in the dry zone expanded by 20,000 acres. The government showed a willingness to provide crown land for the purpose, though the British were aware of the enormous problems involved in developing the dry zone. But in 1914 when food supplies became scarce they turned to the dry zone, to increase food supply from within the island. Commercial companies then took an interest in rice production. In 1919 the Minneriya Development Company was formed by a group of Sri Lankan capitalists to develop agriculture in in the region supplied by the Minneriya tank. When they failed the Sinhala Maha Sabha took over and tried to establish a colony in Nachchaduwa, but was unsuccessful due to inadequate finance and managerial and technical skills. But when after the war, food stuffs started to be imported, the interest in the dry zone dwindled. Malaria and the isolation of the North-Central Province, due to poor road and rail communication, were some of the obstacles. The beneficial effects were, that after nearly two decades the area under irrigation expanded by 20,000 acres and the war time deprivations and post-war inflation made people realise the need to become self- sufficient in rice and other foods. THE LAND COMMISSION In 1920 ‘an extraordinarily imaginative British official’ named C.V Brayne experimented with a new tenurial system in . Crown land was given out to carefully selected peasants who were granted leasehold tenure, but they were prohibited from selling or mortgaging without official authority. When this proved workable, the process was introduced to Matara, and later to Hambantota districts. In 1927 came the most important decision, the appointment of the Land Commission by Governor Sir Hugh Clifford. Some of the elected representatives of the Legislative Council, among whom was D.S.Senanayake, and C.V. Brayne were appointed to the Commission. After sitting for two years at an exhaustive study, the Commission made several far-reaching recommendations. Brayne’s tenurial arrangements formed the basis of the report. It was agreed that ‘the preservation of the peasantry as a social group, should form the basis of the new land policy’. It was recommended that in future, alienation of crown land should be centralised and regulated through a special officer, the Commissioner of Lands, and that allocations be made

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386 SL Histary Chap.65-81 according to the needs of the government and the people, with peasants having first priority. Land granted by this scheme could not be sold or leased without official authority, but should pass on to a nominated successor or heir at the death of the grantee. Colonists were to be carefully selected and some financial help given while self-help was the guiding factor. But the low priority attached to the dry zone in their calculations was the cause of failure in colonisat- ion of the dry zone. The recommendations of the Land Commission however showed a fundamental change in the British land policy and a reversal of trends that had been in force since mid-nineteenth century. Population Increase and Immigration The mid-nineteenth century population of Sri Lanka was 1.73 million. At the 1901 census it was 3.56 million, by 1921 it was 4.5 and by 1931 it had risen to 5.31 million. This caused over-population in the south-western part of the island where about one-fifth of the island’s population lived. The hill country, central Uva and Sabaragamuwa provinces also showed an increase while the dry zones remained sparesly populated except for Jaffna. Quoting Bacon’s aphorism, ‘The true greatness of a state consisteth essentially in population and breed of men’, Sir Clifford added ‘An increasing population was one of the most certain signs of the well- being of a community’ in an attempt to show that the peace, security and a large measure of material prosperity the people enjoyed under the British had contributed to the increase in population.. The overall density of the island rose form 141 per square mile in 1901 to 263 in mid 1940, with the greatest increase being in the western and southern areas which contained at least two fifths of the population.. The population pressures resulted in peasant agriculture in the wet zone being unable to compete for land with the plantations especially in the west and south, where coconut and rubber were grown and in the hills where tea was grown. Another sad feature of the population growth was the increasing numbers employed in skilled and non-skilled jobs on low wages, and poor living, long hours of work and working conditions with little or no job security. The clamour for better wages was a stimulus for them to join trade unions. Most discontent was among the railway workers. The colonial government initiated welfare measures at improving working conditions in the estates and facilitating travel from India and

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387 SL Histary Chap.65-81 back for immigrant south Indian workers. They also had free housing, free medical facilities, and schools and free meals for children. In addition they received statutory benefits from the government which was denied to local workers. Politicians including D.S Senanayake expressed disappointment that the indigenous working class were deprived of these benefits. Faced with this charge of discrimination, the Controller of Immigrant Labour said that this ordinance had been introduced at the request of and under pressure from the Indian government. Although the Indian labour in and around Colombo joined the indigenous labour in trade union agitation, there was no attempt to unionise the plantation workers and the working class in the island remained divided into two separate mutually suspicious if not hostile groups. Natesa Iyer, a colleague of Goonesinha’s in trade unionism, became the leader of the Indian workers and extended his work to the plantations, thus widening the gap between the immigrant and the indigenous sectors.. EDUCATION : Christian missionaries were much in control of education in spite of protests by Buddhists and Hindus. Between 1920 and 30 however, the government schools had increased from 919 to 1490 and Christian schools from 2122 to 2502. There were three types of schools- English, bilingual and vernacular. The numbers attending schools increased from 441,372 in 1925 to 539,755 in 1930 and hence the literacy rate increased. The policy of the government was to promote mass vernacular education with ‘basic instruction for living in a community with very limited horizons’. Education was compulsory between ages five to fourteen and free in the vernacular schools and the rate of literacy increased. Bilingual schools taught vernacular in the mornings and English in the afternoons, but were not popular. The English schools had two levels - elementary ones catering for those in search of white collar jobs, and secondary schools which offered an education that prepared them for higher education in British universities and the professions. The English schools levied fees. There had been no progress with regard to agricultural, technical or commercial education. However in 1916 the School of Tropical Agriculture was established in Peradeniya. Before the First World War there were two reports on education, by Bridge and by Macleod. Bridge recommended that the mother-tongue should be medium of education in elementary schools, that local

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388 SL Histary Chap.65-81 examinations should replace Cambridge examinations, that a local University should be the apex of the educational system with very strict restrictions on entry to secondary education. Macleod’s report however was against both local languages and local examinations, and its committment to a university was less encouraging. Unlike in British India there was no university and students had to go to England for higher education, or sit for external examinations of the University of London. However with pressure from the elite in 1900s, the ‘university movement’ arose, with two outstanding people, Ananda Coomarasamy, the great Orientalist, and Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam, in it. Although the government endorsed the recommendation made by a subcommittee of the Legislative Council in 1912, to house the University in the new block of the Royal College in Colombo, it was not implemented till 1921. Then too it was a ‘University College’ affiliated to the London University, not what Coomarasamy and Arunachalam had agitated for. The legislation for transformation of this to ‘a University’ was ready by 1925, but the choice of whether it was to be in Kandy or Colombo, and whether to be residential was under debate, and Colombo was finally chosen. This however had the usual opposition. “We must avoid the dictates of noisy impetuosity and rhetorical exaggeration, and guard against flooding the country with ‘failed BAs’ Although draft constitution for establishing a University was ready by 1930, it was only in 1942 that it was established in Colombo, and ten years later, in 1952 the University in Peradeniya came into being.

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389 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 67

RECOMMENDATIONS OF DONOUGHMORE COMMISSION (1927-1931)

Governor Sir Hugh Clifford, sent a monumental despatch to the Colonial office in 1926, stating that the 1923-24 constitution ahould be regarded as a transitional one and a greater measure of responsible government should be given. At first glance it was considered a ‘masterly analysis’ of the defects he saw in the island’s constitution, and with it he had prescribed some rather radical remedies. Later it was considered an embarrassment, because it was perceived as indiscreet with unsympathetic comments on the politicians and ethnic groups in Sri Lanka. But William Ormsby-Gore the Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, thought it was ‘a skilful diagnosis of the diseases of all democracies as illustrated in Ceylon’, and ‘worthy of study by all liberals of all countries’. He thought it was necessary to appoint a Royal Commission to review the constitution before the next election. The announcement that a Special Commission for constitutional reform was to be appointed made the President of the Ceylon National Congress, E.W.Pereira call for the publication of the ‘secret despatch’ that Governor Clifford had sent. Although the Colonial office decided not to publish it, the government did reveal brief extracts from it. One such was, “It is reasonable to assume that His majesty’s government in granting during the past fifteen years, successive measures of constitutional reform and holding out hopes of still further reforms in 1929, has entertained the intention of conceding to Ceylonese politicians sooner or later, some form of self government and is persuaded that the adoption of this course at some future date at any rate is not only desirable but practicable.” The news of the appointment of a Commission headed by the Earl of Donoughmore almost exactly one century after the Colebrook Com- mission had the effect of increasing political and communal tensions in the island with “individuals and groups making exaggerated claims and

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390 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The of Sri Lanka

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391 SL Histary Chap.65-81 demands in the hope of influencing the commission’s work and the political-constitutional structure it would recommend”. At this stage there was a weakening of the Ceylon National Congress. Goonesinghe and the radicals ended their uneasy association with the Congress, within which differences of opinion also surfaced. Most of the Congress members, though they wanted self government, did not recognise as Goonesinghe did, “the need for far-reaching social and economic changes as the concomitant of political reform”. While Congress wanted constitutional reforms, Goonesinghe since 1920, had been advocating ‘manhood suffrage’. Now he raised the issue of Universal Suffrage. When the Congress was preparing its brief for presentation to the Commission he wanted this included, but he was defeated on this issue. When Goonesinghe went before the Donoughmore Commission, which was appointed in 1927, and advocated ‘Universal Suffrage’, the Congress delegates led by their president E.W. Perera, and joint secretaries S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and R.S.S. Gunawardene stated that ‘franchise should be restricted to those earning at least Rs 50 a month, arguing that, almost the entire adult population who were fitted for the exercise of the vote would thus be enfranchised. If they went a grade lower, the delegation asserted, there was the danger that they might get a class of person who would not use the vote with any sense of responsibility and whose votes might be at the disposal of the highest bidder.’ This deputation was prepared to ‘extend the franchise to women over twenty five years of age, but with either a rigid literacy test or property qualification’. The Commission, particularly one member, Dr Drummond Shiels, realised the ‘insensitivity of the Congress delegation’, who were 'determined to maintain the sectional interests of the landowners and capitalists in preference to the larger interests of the people as a whole.’ Shiels developed a close association with Goonesinghe whom he regarded as ‘the representative of the democratic and radical forces in the country’. While E.W Perera, D.B. Jayatilleke and Francis de Zoysa, insisted that Congress must demand responsible government without a further transitional period, older people like James Pieris and E.J Samarawickreme argued that Sri Lanka was not ready for such a step. The latter were supported by the newly-formed Ceylon Unionists Association -a small

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392 SL Histary Chap.65-81 group of ‘pukka sahibs’ in Colombo, who had no connection with the political groups and much less with the people, but were influential only through the esteem some of them enjoyed in official circles. They said ‘Sri Lanka was not ready for self-government, because elected members of the Legislature had little or no experience in the art of government.’ The Kandyan National Association too distanced itself from the Congress call for self-government and instead urged a federal political structure for Sri Lanka, arguing that most of the grievances that Kandyans had was due to the amalgamation of government in 1833 and that ‘the fundamental error of British statesmanship has been to treat the subject of political advancement of the peoples of Ceylon as one of the homogeneous Ceylonese race.’ THE DONOUGHMORE REPORT : The report of this Commission is described as ‘the most remarkable state paper on Colonial affairs of the twentieth century’. It has been compared to the ninteenth century document on colonial administration, -the Durham Report on solutions of the problems in Canada, with the difference that the report on the Canadas ‘was irrelevant to non-western communties...... ’ The Donoughmore report found that the basic issue in Sri Lanka was the divorce of power from responsibility.’ It rejected demands of the Congress for full responsible government, and recommended a semi-responsible government and conceded a very substantial measure of responsibility to the local politicians with commensurate power, and instead of the familiar cabinet or quasi-cabinet, there was to be a system of executive committees modelled on those of the League of Nations and the London County Council. The members of the unicameral legislature, State Council, were grouped into seven executive committees. Their aim, quite explicity was to give members not merely responsibility but administrative experience and political education. While elected members were to have a large measure of administrative responsibility for internal affairs, there were clear limits to their powers. Three of the most important executives departments were assigned to Officers of State with responsiblity to the Governor alone. In addition the Governor had his reserve powers, more precisely defined than before and strengthened.

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393 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The Commission was unwilling to consider conferment of semi- responsible status without widening the prevalent franchise under which only 4 percent of the population could vote, which would have meant the transfer of power to a small oligarchy at the expense of the poorer classes. They recommended all males over 21 and females over 30 years should be eligible to vote. But when this was implemented in 1931 the Colonial Office brought down the age to 21 for females too. Thus Sri lanka became the first British colony in Asia, and the first Asian country to enjoy universal suffrage. Quite deliberately no provision was made for communal representation, although the minorities were almost unanimous in it being retained. The report stated, ‘It is our opinion that only by its abolition will it be possible for diverse communities to develop together a true national unity...... Communal representation in Ceylon has no great antiquity to commend it, and its introduction into the constitution with good intentions has had unfortunate results....’.

Responses lkkk to the Dououghmore Report The minorities did not approve of this as it would guarantee permanent Sinhalese domination of politics. Sir Ponnambalam Raman- athan on behalf of the Tamils paid a fruitless visit to White House and T.B Jayah sent a memorandum entitled ‘Muslims and Proposed Constitutional Changes in Ceylon’. to the Colonial Office on behalf of Muslims, protesting that the ‘Muslims were being forced to submit to a scheme wholly unacceptable to them.’. None of the important political groups were satisfied. The Ceylon National Congress expected the grant of full-fledged Parliamentary type of government. For them this represented ‘an outsider’s view of what was good for Ceylon.’ The universal franchise which would include Indian plantation workers, they felt, would be a threat to the Kandyan Sinhalese. Thus the Kandyan leaders and the Congress opposed the unrestricted extension of franchise to Indians in Sri Lanka. Only Goonesinghe’s Labour Union and the Ceylon Unionist’s Association supported the Donoughmore proposals unreservedly. The Ceylon National Congress leadership was irked by the device of the Executive Committees and the maintenance and strengthening of the Governor’s reserve powers. They had expected full-fledged parliamentary institutions as the logical goal of the constitutional evolution that had

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394 SL Histary Chap.65-81 begun in 1910. In the Legislative Council the report was accepted by 19 to 17 ( the vote having been restricted by the governor, Sir , to the unofficial members) after a long debate, and, only after the Colonial Office imposed restrictions on the franchise for Indians in Sri Lanka, in spite of vigorous opposition from India. The minorities and the two low country representatives voted against the proposals, but for different reasons. E. W. Perera and the other Sinhalese representative voted against, because they felt the proposals ‘did not go far enough in the direction of self-government.’ Goonesinghe now became a colourful Labour politician. He went to London and studied the political and trade union activity of the British Labour Party and came back to form the Ceylon Labour Party and the All-Ceylon Trade Union Congress. His influence was at a peak from 1928-31, heightened with major strikes led by him - Colombo Harbour strike in 1927 and Colombo tramways strike in 1929, followed by the Maradana riots where clashes occurred with the police. After the tramways strike, the working class came out into the streets in full support of Goonesinghe and in defiance of the Colonial government. The government was forced to recognise the trade unions, and rights of workers. As a result, the Employer’s Federation was formed and in June 1929 the first collective agreement between this body and the Ceylon Trade Union Congress, was signed. In December 1929 when the Labour Party came to power in Britain and Drummond Shiels was appointed under-secretary to the Secretary of State, he was able to keep a protective watch on Sri Lanka’s young labour movement. Although with the implementation of the Donoughmore reforms, Goonesinghe’s political influence was expected to increase, unfortunately that did not happen.

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395 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The Congress was not in a position to demonstrate their dissatisfaction of the Commission’s recommendations. The honary secretaries of the Congress, S.W.R.D Bandaranaike and R.S.S Gunawardene in an official memorandum emphasised the point that ‘Ceylon is one of the few British possessions in which the demand for political reform has never passed from constitutional agitation to hostile demonstration. Our appeal has always been to reason and justice.’ At their annual sessions in December 1929 the Ceylon National Congress finally decided to accept the Donoughmore proposals for a short period, ‘pending a revision of the constitution.’ This led to the President of the Congress, E.W. Pereira, who had led the delegation to the Donoughmore Commission, but had been the most out-spoken critic, breaking away and forming his own party - the All-Ceylon Liberal League which attracted to it young persons with political and legal talents such as S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike and G.G. Ponnambalam - two outstanding orators of this period, who were ‘soon to distinguish themselves as the most notable exponents of the divisive politics of ethnicity.’ The Tamil political leaders too, after an initial rejection and the failure of Ramanathan’s visit to London, decided to give the new constitution a trial. But the Jaffna Youth League, composed of teachers and students, opposed the Donoughmore scheme and demanded immed- iate swaraj. At a meeting in Jaffna presided over by the Indian politician Kamaladevi Chattopadhaya, it was decided to boycott the State Council elections in 1931. This resulted in no nominations being submitted for any of the seats in the Northern Province except in Mannar-Mullativu, which the League was unable to prevent. Moderate Tamils were unable to stop this boycott. The death in 1930 of Ramanathan, one of the few who could have stood up to the Youth Leaguers, and the decision of Vaithialingam Duraiswamy to join the Youth League, helped their boycott. Within two years however politicians in Jaffna were able to persuade the Governor to hold new elections, and when they were held in 1934, four Tamils were elected to the State Council. G. G .Ponnambalam, who was elected to the seat, soon assumed leadership of the Tamils. The All Ceylon Liberal League was formed to agitate for a more significant advance to responsible government. Instead the lawyers in the

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396 SL Histary Chap.65-81 league began instead to concentrate on opposition to the introduction of income tax and matters of economic policy.

CHAPTER 68

TRANSFER OF POWER : FIRST PHASE (1931-1942)

THE FIRST STATE COUNCIL, 1931-1935 D.B.Jayatilleke and D.S Senanayake were two of the Congress politicians in the first State Council. Jayatilleke was official leader, and Vice-Chairman of the Board of Ministers and Leader of the State Council. He enjoyed the confidence of British officials in the island and in the Colonial Office. He was better known as the undisputed leader of the Buddhist movement. D.S Senanayake was less known, and unlike his elder brother, was less interested in the Buddhist movement. Besides the British were suspicious of him being anti-British. However, the leadership in the Council was shared by them, and there never was any disagreement between them on any issue. Jayatilleke was in power till 1942 when he decided to retire from politics and accept the post of Ceylon’s Representative in New Delhi. His position in the State Council went to Senanayake, which included the position of Vice Chairman of the Board of Directors, and leader of the State Council. The first State Council (1931-35) took office during the Great Depression of 1929-31. An unusally severe drought in most parts of the island, followed by an epidemic of malaria, devastated the Kurunegala and Kegalle districts and caused a lot of misery. The economic depression and the epidemic were so ‘cataclysmic in their impact’ that they baffled the government in coping with ‘the mass of misery they created.’ The Donoughmore constitution placed the Treasury under the Financial Secretary, who was one of the three British Officers of State, who balanced the budget by the conventional method of ‘vigorous retrench- ment’. To the elected members constitutional reforms had priority. Universal suffrage introduced at the first State Council in 1931

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397 SL Histary Chap.65-81 helped the constitutionalists to consolidate their power in the national Legislature. Goonesinha’s power in the trade union field was being eroded due to the massive unemployment following the Depression, and and younger rivals were planning to replace him. Hence the radicals had no base in the State Council and the balance of power within it was not affected. Due to the boycott in Jaffna, the Tamils were less represented, and had no articulate spokesman, till G.G Ponnambalam came in 1934. REFORMS PROPOSED IN 1932 The ‘constitutionalists’ in the Council continued to agitate for reforms as early as July 1932, and this was inititiated by E.W.Perera, a senior politician and leading spokeman of the Liberal League, who was not a member of the Board of Ministers. Their demands were introduced as seven resolutions for debate in the State Council. Among these were, a reduction of the Governor’s reserve power, the abolition of the crown’s power to legislate by Order-in-Council and the replacement of the Executive Committees by a form of Cabinet or quasi-cabinet of ministers. They were all endorsed by the Council except the one on Executive Committees.. There was also continuing pressure for the Ceylonisation of the higher bureaucracy. By 1931 the ministers were bent on reducing the numbers of European ‘cadets’ recruited to the Ceylon Civil Service and the abolition of privileges, such as payment of passage for officers going on home-leave. Although Governor Stubbs seemed to support these, the Colonial Office opposed it on the grounds that ‘the maintenance of an European element (in the higher bureaucracy) was essential to the proper exercise by the Governor, of the powers reserved to him, by the constitution.’ Nor would they agree to any reduction in the emoluments and priviledges of the Civil Service. Any change in the system of Executive Committees where the appointment of Ministers was concerned, was also opposed by the minorities who felt that, it would further weaken their position. They had the same faith in the Executive Commitees, as a buttress of their weak political position, as they had in communal representation. Hence any reform had to be postponed till after the next election in 1935, because the Colonial office felt that though there was agitation about reforms there was no great urgency. The war veterans who were dissatisfied over the handling of the moneys raised by the sale of poppies on Remembrance day, started a

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398 SL Histary Chap.65-81 campaign called the ‘suriya-mal campaign’, to rival the poppy campaign and they formed the Ceylon Ex-servicemen’s Association, in 1926. The Marxists entered politics through this campaign. In the early 1930s the Marxists took over the leadership of the Youth League and the suriya-mal campaign and continued such activities as an anti-imperialist body, with no reference to war veterans or disabled soldiers. In the malaria epidemic of 1931 the Marxists organised relief work in the affected areas, especially Kegalle, providing medical and other aid, which in later years, ensured a safe seat in the Ruvanwella constituency, for the Marxist leader Dr. N. M. Perera. During the great Depression the Marxists made their prescence felt at the expense of Goonesinghe and his Labour Party. They preached the need for sterner committment to nationalist goals. They were more concerned with radical Marxism while the Constitutionalists were more concerned with ‘politics of ethnicity’. THE SECOND STATE COUNCIL - 1942 : At the elections, both D.B. Jayatilleke and D.S Senanayake were uncontested as in 1931. Most of their associates were elected to their seats, although they faced elections as individuals and not as a party. E.W. Perera, their most persistent critic was defeated. The aristocractic members in the first Council had all been defeated or had retired. A Marxist Association, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) formed on the eve of the elections had two of its stalwarts elected - Dr N. M. Perera to the Ruvanwella seat and its most dynamic figure Philip Gunawardene, who defeated a leading Congressman, a scion of the Obeysekera family, to win the seat in neighbouring Avisawella. This party was against the policies of the Ceylon National Congress and the Labour Party. At the same time the granting of Universal suffrage, brought on a resurgence of religious and national feeling. This was more significant than the entry of Marxists into national politics. The leadership in this was taken by SWRD Bandaranaike’s Sinhala Maha Sabha which was the successor to F.R.Senanayake’s Sinhala Mahajana Sabha. ‘This was inherently divisive in its impact, but no less democratic’. The entire Board of Ministers returned to power and were all Sinhalese. This aggravated communal feelings. They considered their return to power was an endorsement of their demand for reforms. Hence a memorandum was submitted by the Board of Ministers to the

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399 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Governor, Sir in March 1937, without consulting the State Council, setting out its priorities for Constitutional reform. The proposed reforms were: 1. The curtailment of the Governor’s powers; 2. The abolition of the posts of Officers of State and 3. The replacement of the executive committees by the ordinary form of cabinet government with a Chief Minister either appointed by the governor or elected by the State council. The minorities however felt that the Cabinat system would deprive them of any participation in the government. Stubbs too felt that the Donoughmore constitution was ‘a proved failure’, but he was not certain what the alternative should be and he did not want to support this memorandum. Around this time Mark Anthony Bracegirdle, a young communist came to Sri Lanka in 1936 from Australia (a recent migrant from Britain) to work in a tea estate company. He took an active part in trade union activities and appeared on Marxist platforms in planting districts. For this he was dismissed from his job and his deportation was ordered in April 1937, by the Inspector General of Police and the Chief Secretary. The LSSP challenged the deportation order. This incident provoked a constitutional crisis and it was seen as one where the Chief Secretary was encroaching on the functions of an elected member, Mr D. B. Jayatilleke, who was Minister of Home Affairs, Vice-Chairman of Board of Ministers and Leader of the State Council. The uproar that followed brought the LSSP into the limelight. The Sinhala leaders amongst whom Governor Stubbs had become unpopular, took their chance to embarrass him further, with D.S Senanayake supporting the LSSP on this issue. S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike Minister for Local Government, even appeared on LSSP platforms. The final result was that legal action was taken against the police, and the validity of the order challenged before the Chief Justice and the Senior Puisne Justice, “who held that Bracegirdle could not be deported for exercising his right of free speech, which in fact was all that he had done.” The LSSP by securing the support of the Board of Ministers, Goonesinha and the majority of State Councillors, was able to demonstrate that “negotiations on the Constitution conducted at official level between Whitehall,m the Governor and Board of Ministers were strangely remote

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400 SL Histary Chap.65-81 from the realities of the political situation in the island.” Stubbs had received a rebuff, and Jayatilaka emerged with his reputation tarnished as a result of his poor handling of the case. The LSSP benefited in gaining prestige and publicity.

CHAPTER 69

CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS (1937-1939)

On 10 November 1937 the British Cabinet approved an Order-in- Council amending the Donoughmore Constitution to authorise the Governor to legislate independently of the State Council in all matters concerning ‘public faith, public order and the essentials of good government.’ He could proclaim his ordinances direct, and the State Council’s right to discuss or delay such measures was removed. This Order-in-Council was introduced in January 1939. This caused much public agitation, most vociferously from the LSSP, who assumed it was a response to the Brace Girdle affair. But it was not so. The Colonial Office had been critical of Stubbs actions on the Bracegirdle Affair. The political situation in Sri Lanka did influence the thinking of the Colonial Office. On 5 July 1937, the Colonial Office ‘expert’ on Sri Lanka, H. R. Cowell noted, ‘...... Jayatilleke is not physically strong, and if he is succeeded by Mr Senanayake as Leader of the Council, we must expect these attacks on the Governor’s reserve powers to be intensified.’ Stubbs who was hostile to D.S.Senanayake had convinced the Colonial Office that Senanayake was anti-British and a danger to British interests. Sir who came as Governor in 1937 was asked by W Ormsby-Gore,Secretary of State for the Colonies, to review the situation, obtain views of all sections and report. In 1938 Caldecott received eleven formal delegations who placed before him a wide range of views, including limitation of franchise, establishment of a second chamber and the ‘fifty-fifty’ demand from Mr G.G Ponnambalam asking that minorities and the 70 percent majority community get equal number of seats in the State Council. Caldecott was opposed to all this. Caldecott rejected all communal representations, but advised the

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401 SL Histary Chap.65-81 setting up of a new committee to revise electoral boundaries, so as to create more seats, particularly in areas where there were large concentrations of minorities. He rejected the executive committee system, and recommended a cabinet form of government (which the Board of Ministers had been agitating for) headed by a chief minister, chosen by the Governor, as the person most likely to command support of a majority in the Legislature. The Officers of State were not to be members of such a cabinet and many of their functions were to be transferred to ministries, and the Governor’s reserve powers were to be increased. This increase in reserve powers was not acceptable to most. Caldecott was then advised by London to submit them to the State Council. They were all accepted after much discussion but without much modification. Thus in 1939 ‘a concensus on constitutional reforms had been successfully negotiated’. The next step forward was the evolution to responsible government. But the outbreak of World War II postponed all further action. The LSSP, through its two members however, continued to proclaim in the State Council under parliamentary immunity, the need to obtain ‘purna swaraj’- ‘national independence’ and opposed all links with the Commonwealth, the acceptance of imperial honours, the celebration of royal birthdays or the coronation of George VI. The elections due in 1940, where the LSSP had hopes of increasing their seats, were postponed. In 1940 the LSSP expelled the Stalinists, and proclaimed themselves as the Trotskyist party, but in June that year the LSSP leaders were arrested under Defence Regulations, and detained without trial. The party went underground and in 1942 was declared an illegal organisation. But before that, they created a series of strikes and disturbances in the estates, in an attempt to break the trade-union monopoly that Natesa Iyer enjoyed, and the LSSP held a spectacular rally on May Day in 1940 in Badulla, which perturbed planters and British Officials. The planters demanded action against the LSSP. A notable achievement of the LSSP was that they compelled their oppon- ents to take action on issues which they normally would have ignored. The Sinhala Maha Sabha of SWRD Bandaranaike established in 1937 directed its policies at ‘building a political programme out of the religio-linguistic nationalism of the early twentieth century.’ The members of the Sinhala Maha Sabha could not conceive of any Sri Lanka polity that was not ‘essentially Sinhalese or Buddhist in character’ and thus w

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402 SL Histary Chap.65-81 provoked ‘charges of communalism from Tamil politicians’ who resisted the grant of self-government without adequate safeguards for minorities. The Sinhala Maha Sabha of Bandaranaike opposed G.G. Ponnambalam’s, and his associates ‘ethnic politics’. But Bandaranaike and Ponnambalam had ‘much more in common than either would like to admit. They were the outstanding orators of their day but the language they expressed themselves with such fluency was English and not their own.’ They both advocated social and economic reform and both had critics in the leftist camp, ‘who despised their programmes but conceded a grudging admiration for their political skills.’ Both their political programmes were divisive, and served to ‘emphasise ethnic and religious differences’, although for Bandaranaike, unlike for Ponnambalam,

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403 SL Histary Chap.65-81 religion was an intrinsic element in his political activity, while D. S. Senanayake, D. B. Jayatilleke and the LSSP were more intent on forging links between ethnic and religious groups. Ponnambalam represented the main stream of the political activity of his community. His basic aim was to win political concessions for Tamils. His associates in these campaigns were the British and Muslim minority groups. ‘The fatal flaws in Ponnambalam’s campaign were the breadth of his demands. He pursued his ‘50-50’ demand, ‘nothing less than an equal division of seats in the legislature’ in spite of the main ethnic group representing over two-thirds of the population. His aim was to win ‘concessions for the Tamils as a price of their acquiescence in the grant of responsible government.’ He alienated Governor Caldecott, without whose support his many visits to Whitehall became ineffective. The politics of Bandaranaike too were as suspect as that of the LSSP at a time when Jayatilleke and Senanayake were attempting to forge links with the minorities. During 1939, younger members of the Ceylon National Congress, J.R.Jayawardene and Dudley Senanayake, attempted to revamp the Colombo-based Congress by formulating a party programme, comprehensive and forward-looking, and securing its adoption by the party. They made an attempt to extend it to other parts of the island. The annual sessions in 1940 were held in Mirigama, and the next two in Dummaladeniya (in Chilaw district) and Kelaniya. After the Dummaladeniya Congress sessions the Times of Ceylon which had been a critic of the Congress, conceded that the Congress had ‘Mass appeal at last’! The journal, Young Lanka of December 1941 stated, ‘...... a distinct change has come over the Congress. It is seeking ideas not policies, it is pursuing the public good not sectional welfare, it is evolving a national consciousness, not for the party or community but for the nation and the people.’ To maintain discipline they decided to refuse membership to eight communal organisations and though the Sinhala Maha Sabha was not one of them, it brought the two Associations into collision. However with many Congress men being in the Sinhala Maha Sabha, such as Bandaranaike, CWW Kannangara, JL Kotelawela and

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404 SL Histary Chap.65-81 thirteen members of the State Council, and neither party being strong enough to impose its will on the other, it remained with the Congress and another rift was avoided.

CHAPTER 70

THE PASSAGE TO DOMINION STATUS (1942-1947)

Sri Lanka in 1948, was in contrast to India and Burma, ‘an oasis of stability, peace and order.’ The transfer of power in Sri Lanka was dominated by one man, D.S.Senanayake, and it was unique with ‘power being transferred through the electoral process and completely democratically and constitutionally from the original legatee of the British to a successor.’ It was smooth and peaceful, compared to the civil war and the massacres that occured in India and the assassination on the eve of Independence for Burma, of Aung San, the youthful leader of Burma’s Independence struggle, who thus did not live to see the signing of the treaty which he had negotiated. These two countries had their independence from Britain granted just before Sri Lanka. The last British governor of Sri Lanka became the first governor of the new dominion. The constitution was of British origin, in contrast to the ‘autochthonous’ constitution drawn up for the Indian Republic by a constituent assembly. D.S.Senanayake in all his negotiations was guided by a ‘strong belief in ordered constitutional evolution to Dominion Status’ He insisted that it ‘should be attained in association with, rather than in opposition to the British’ even though in that he went against the prevailing opinion of the Ceylon National Congress. He also understood the implications of Sri Lanka being a plural society and hence his policies for transfer of power were framed on that realistic basis. He was guided by the conception of Sri Lanka being a multi-racial democracy ‘without any special or exclusive association with any ethnic group’ and he was committed to ‘the ideal of a secular state in which the lines between state and religion were scrupulously demarcated.’ In this he was in opposition to Bandaranaike who ‘viewed the Sri Lanka polity as being essentially Sinhalese Buddhist in character and rejected the concepts of a secular state and a multi-racial polity.’

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405 SL Histary Chap.65-81 In 1942 Senanayake took over as leader of the Ministerial group from the ‘ageing and scholarly’ Sir D.B.Jayatilleke who left to become Sri Lanka’s Representative in New Delhi. A robust personality and an astute statesman, Senanayake came to dominate the State Council and the Board of Ministers. The outbreak of the Second World War made the Colonial Office, in spite of protests from Caldecott, decide to postpone the question of Constitutional reforms. Sir Geoffrey Layton was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in Sri Lanka on 5 March 1942, and his authority was extended to the civil government. Senanayake soon developed a cordial working relationship with both Sir Caldecott, the Governor and Admiral Layton, and the Board of Ministers gave full support to the war effort. Early in 1942 Layton and Caldecott took between them the initiative to urge Whitehall to ‘respond with a new declaration of policy on constitutional reforms that would meet the desires and aspirations of the moderate elements in Ceylon.’ The views of the British government on reforms of the constitution, which were made known in December 1942 were regarded by both Caldecott and Layton as ‘falling well short of what was required to meet the wishes of Senanayake and the Board of Ministers’, and they warned the War Cabinet that unless a more positive declaration was forthcoming, they expected ‘immediate and progressive loss of co- operation and decrease of war effort, coupled with the deflection of now moderate opinion, towards intransigent nationalism and the demand for the right of secession’. They also sent back a carefully drafted document for Whitehall’s approval, which was endorsed by the War Cabinet, in which ‘full responsibility for government under the Crown in all matters of civil administration’ was promised after the war’. The only matters to be reserved were external relations and defence, nor was the right of secession included. In external affairs a major concession was made with regard to the question of status of Indian workers. The Donoughmore Commission recommendation of extending the franchise to Indian workers in estates had raised protests from the Sinhalese politicians, that it may lead to an Indian domintion of the highlands. When in November 1940 D.S. Senanayake led an official delegation, consisting of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, G.C.S. Corea and Financial Secretary H.J Huxham to Delhi to discuss this with the Indian Government, it meant that External Affairs which normally would have been under the purview of the Chief

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406 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Secretary, was now been delegated to the Board of Ministers, giving them the right to speak on behalf of the country on matters concerning external relations. Thus there was a transformation in practice where the Board of Ministers became a quasi cabinet and D.S Senanayake very much a chief Minister. Hence there was a corresponding reduction in power and influence of the State Council and Executive Committees. Senanayake resigned from the Ceylon National Congress in 1943, perhaps in protest over the entry into the Congress, of Communists, ‘a party which had not regained the confidence of the minorities’. It also helped him to have a free hand in negotiations on Constitutional reforms and to keep them under his control, although he consulted his colleagues in the Board of Ministers when necessary. He also masterminded the election of a Tamil, A.Mahadeva, (a son of Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam,) as Minister of Home Affairs in place of Sir D.B.Jayatill- eke, thus abandoning the principle of a pan-Sinhalese Ministry. From 1942 the Communist Party was closely associated with the Congress. They urged the rejection of the declaration of May 1943 and instead advocated a demand for the attainment of independence without the intervening stage envisaged in that declaration. The task that now confronted Senanayake was to prepare a draft constitution on the basis of the conditions laid down in the Secretary of State’s declaration of 26 May 1943. There were three important points in this. First that the Donoughmore system would be abandoned and there would be a return to the Westminister model in Sri Lanka’s constitutional structure. Secondly that the semi-responsible status conferred in 1931 would be further strengthened though it would fall short of responsible government, and that the internal control of the imperial government - the Governors reserve powers and the Officers of State - would be abandoned, and there would be full responsible status in internal civil matters, while the Crown’s reserve powers would be retained as the basis of the external control of the imperial government. The three important features of the Crowns reserve powers would be: limitations set upon the scope of the Sri Lanka legislature in regard to legislation discriminating against religious or communal minorities; the Crown’s constitutent powers, and finally the control of defence and external affairs. The third feature of the declaration was the requirement that ‘a constitution framed on these lines had to be approved by a three-quarter majority of all members of State Council, excluding the three British Officers of State, the Speaker or any other presiding

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407 SL Histary Chap.65-81 officer, a degree of support which was beyond the reach of any draft constitution which did not incorporate meaningful concessions and guarantees to the minorities.’ THE MINISTER'S DRAFT CONSTITUTION OF 1944 By the beginning of 1944 the Minister’s Draft Constitution was ready for submission to Whitehall. It was completed speedily because nobody outside the Board of Ministers, not even the members of the State Council were invited to participate. ‘It bore the stamp of Senanayake’s influence, especially in regard to concessions made to minorities.’ Senanayake and his Ministers were supported by Caldecott and Layton and by Lord Louis Mountbatten who, as Supreme Allied Commander, South-East Asia Command, was consulted, ‘and whose views were responsible for overcoming the original reluctance of the Colonial Office and the War Cabinet.’ In July 1944, an official announcement made of the appointment of the Soulbury Commission to visit Sri Lanka was not received cordially by Senanayake and the Board of Ministers, who therefore did not appear before the Commission at its public sittings, but had their views communicated to the Commission. This Commission’s terms of reference were widened to include consultations with ‘various interests and the minority communities.’ Senanayake and the Ministers pointed out that 'the requirement of a three-quarters majority in the State Council was quite adequate as protection for the minorities’ and urged that the scope of the Commission should be restricted. But this was overruled. It apparently was due to criticisms made by minority groups mostly Tamils. As soon as the Soulbury Commission left, Senanayake went to London in July 1945 in time for the publication of the report, hoping that, if it was favourable he would ask for Dominion Status. He found that Soulbury Commission had endorsed the main principles of the Minister’s draft constitution of 1944. Senanayake urged that ‘if the legislation required to confer Dominion Status was likely to be time- consuming, the British government could resort to an Order-in-Council for the purpose of granting self-government immediately, together with an agreement for the purpose of safeguarding the defence of the island and providing the same relations in external affairs as in the case of a Dominion.’ When he met Colonial Office officials he produced a ‘comprehensive draft of a constitution...... based on the fundamental

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408 SL Histary Chap.65-81 assumption that, pending the conferment of Dominion Status on Ceylon by the amendment of the Statute of Westminister, full self-government would be established by Order-in-Council subject to an agreement about Defence and External Affairs and the general relations between the and Ceylon’. The Labour Government which came into power at this time in Britain, accepted the Soulbury report ‘as the basis for discussion’, but firmly opposed the immediate grant of Dominion Status. Senanayake and his adviser, Sir Arthur Ranasinghe came home disappointed but hopeful that Sri Lanka would achieve self government before long, because they found that G.H. Hall, the new Secretary of State for Colonies had been more sympathetic to them than his Cabinet colleagues, and they believed they had been able to extract a verbal promise from him. However the Colonial office and Hall were not willing for Sri Lanka to reach self-government before India and Burma. Sri Lanka did not have long to wait. In less than two years Senanayake’s objective was achieved. In early 1947 with elections scheduled for August-September 1947, he pressed Whitehall for a more precise statement of policy. India’s Independence was announced in February 1947 with the partition of the subcontinent to India and Pakistan, and Burma was granted independence soon after. Sir Oliver Goonetileke handled the negotiations with Whitehall on behalf of Senanayake. Britain was aware of the increasing pressures that Senanayake was having from the left-wing forces. Arthur Creech-Jones, successor to Hall was more receptive to the request from Senanayake. Thus on 18 July 1947, it was announced that the island would receive ‘fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations.’

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409 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 71

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES 1931-1947

After the Second World War the economy improved, more than during the war years and money was readily available for social welfare. The politicains had a more realistic understanding of the need for welfare than had been the British who balanced the budget by rigorous retrenchment. 1931 - 1939 During the Great Depression of the 1930 the markets for rubber and tea were bad though it was worse for rubber. Tea had fared better by merging small and middle-sized plantations or absorbing them into larger plantations under common management to make them moreeconomically viable. There was overproduction of tea. In 1933 an international restriction scheme was negotiated by which India, Sri Lanka and Dutch East Indies were allocated export quotas based on a fixed percentage of the maximum quantity of tea exported during 1929-31. The Tea Control Ordinance introduced a system of coupons allocated to tea exporters. by such methods and by a gradual recovery of the industrialised countries from the Great Depression, tea prices recovered. With rubber too an attempt was made to reduce output and as that was not sufficient, a International Rubber Agreement was negotiated between the rubber producing countries. A Rubber Control Ordinance was approved under which planting of new areas with rubber was 410 prohibited. Coconut was less affected. There was a steadily increasing demand for the manufacture of soap and margarine, and its price was determined by international prices of fats and oils. Since the coconut industry was 410 SL Histary Chap.65-81 largely controlled by Sri Lankans the near collapse of the industry affeted the economic well being of the indigenous planting community. It recovered in the middle and late 1930s due to a demand in the world and over 100,000 Indians went back to India taking with them to India their problems of unemployment. Even managerial and clerical staff were retrenched. Retrenchment and curtailment, the standard remedies of the British for economic malaise, aggravated the problems. Relief work was provided by the Colombo, Kandy and Galle municipalities and these were extended by the central government to include repairs to roads, canals, flood protection embankments and swamp reclamation work. It affected the villagers too. As prices of rice fell the living standards deteriorated. As the country recovered from the Depression, the worst malaria epidemic swept across the wet and intermediate zones - the Kegalle and Kurunegala districts. The left-wing political parties who stepped in doing relief work were able to make a strong impression on the people. It called for more financial resources than were available. One long term benefit that came out of this epidemic was that preventive health facilities were extended to rural areas, especially in areas where malaria was endemic, and it became a success by early 1940s. It also highlighted the inadequacies of the hospital system and new hospitals in rural areas called cottage-hospitals were set up which ‘had a notable impact on the living conditions of the people.’ In the mid 1930s rubber and tea prices improved and unemployment figures fell. Persons employed in the public service increased from 61,000 in November 1933 to 66,000 by November 1937. Social welfare had to be considered. Educational reforms were needed. D.S Senanayake was interested in peasant colonisation of the dry zone. In 1934 a Workmens Compensation Ordinance was passed. A scheme of Maternity benefits was introduced. The Trade union Ordinance of 1935 made registration of trade unions compulsory and devised methods of securing trade union funds and preventing misappropriation. In 1938 an Employment exchange was established in Colombo. The question of Buddhist temporalities which had been a problem since the middle of the nineteenth century was settled in 1931 allowing state intervention and supervision of the administration of Buddhist temporalities. An ordinance was passed in 1942 for the preservation of the sacred city of Anuradhapura. This lent itself to a reassertion of the link between religion and nationalism, although the government prided itself on its neutrality in religious affairs. The next problem was educational reform which had the support of

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411 SL Histary Chap.65-81 radical groups. The concept of free education ‘with its connotations of social justice and equality’ appealed to the electorate. But being a part of the campaign of Buddhists activists against the Christian missions, it aroused opposition from Christians as well as some powerful Sinhalese politicians. They were against pressures from the vociferous Buddhists groups who agitated for state control over mission schools. The Education Ordinance of 1939 of the Minister of Education Mr C.W.W. Kananagara was resisted by influential colleagues in the Board of Ministers. This is believed to be due to many of the Ministers though Buddhists, being alumni of Christian schools and having a deep regard for the achievements of the mission schools. Even Buddhist and Hindu denominational schools resisted the change. However in the early 1940s the role of the state in education was enlarged and a Special Committee was appointed. They produced a report in 1943 which recommended radical changes. D.S. Senanayake holding the portfolio of Agriculture had a great influence on initiating and implementing irrigation projects, and he ‘had a visionary zeal in peasant colonisation of the dry zone - as a return to the heartland of the ancient irrigation civilisation of the Sinhalese.’ The colonisation of the dry zone seemed the only way out of the economic cirisis of the Great Depression. Even before the government promoted it there was a steady stream of migrants moving towards Minneriya. By the Land Settlement Ordinance of 1931 the policy of the Colonial government on Chena cultivation was reversed. No direct financial support was given to settlers in colonisation schemes, but with the Minneriya scheme the government provided the cost of clearing the land and colonists were exempted from payment of water rates for three years. Ownership of land in the colonies was restricted to Sri Lankans Malaria still being a formidable problem in the dry zone, more land was alienated in the wet zones. SRI LANKA FROM 1940 - 1947 The outbreak of the Second World War gave a boost to plantation industries especially rubber, with Sri Lanka becoming the main source of rubber for the Allied powers after the Japanese overran Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. Production was encouraged and people resorted to ‘slaughter tapping.’ With Sri Lanka having to sell all her tea and rubber to Britain, the island did not get the full benefits. With the establishment of South-East Asia Command and its network

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412 SL Histary Chap.65-81 of bases in the island, heavy military expenditure by the Allied powers had an invigorating effect on the economy. The country still depended on imported food. There was an urgency to become more self sufficient. Investment on peasant colonisation was increased and incentives for food production were introduced. The Guaranteed Price Scheme was introduced and was increased from Rs 2.50 a bushel in 1942 to Rs 6.00 in 1943. Rice imports during the war was half of what Sri Lanka imported in 1930, but from 1945 the imports steadily increased, and self-sufficiency became ‘a distant dream.’ Senanayake supported most of the welfare schemes. He opposed J.R. Jayawardene’s motion to make Sinhalese the official language, but together with S.W.R.D.Bandaranaike supported the amendment to make Tamil and Sinhalese the official languages. He opposed Kannangara’s was preparing for a new election to Parliament. The Education Ordinance was eventually approved and grant-in-aid to all schools stopped after September 1948. Soon the State which had one central school - Royal College, set up Central Schools in rural areas where education was modelled on lines of the Christian mission schools. In 1942 the University of Ceylon was set up with the Colombo Medical====++====+++ College being one of its faculties. Its student enrolment increased education reforms but in this he had no say because under the Donoughmore scheme social reforms were in the hands of members of the Board of Ministers. Kannangara wanted ‘free education’ in state and denominational schools. He wanted to revise the grants-in-aid provided by the state on which the majority of private schools survived. His proposals were supported by Bandaranaike and Jayawardene and the younger members of the Sinhala Maha Sabha and were endorsed by the State Council in June 1945 when Senanayake was in Britain discussing questions relating to constitutional reforms. Senanayake was opposed to this, because it was too great a financial burden on the country, and also because it exacerbated fears of the minorities at a time when he was involved in negotiations for the new constitution which needed minority support for three-quarters majority vote in the State Council.

There was now a new polarisation of forces with Catholics leading the resistance and wanting the issue postponed, hoping that with the new parliament and a new Education Minister it may be possible to change the situation. But a Central Free Education Defence Committee representing Buddhist interests took the issue to the electorate, which413

413 SL Histary Chap.65-81 from 904 in 1942 to 1554 in 1947 despite the availability of external degrees from London University. A residential University in Peradeniya , was established in late 1940s. Unemployment reduced with the war providing employment in military bases. The working class cost of living index increased 35% between 1942 and 1945. The government tried to cushion the effect of rising cost of by raising wages, but wage increases could not keep pace with rising inflation. Controlling prices, rationing essential consumer goods such as food and textiles, freezing prices of imported items and subsidising others, and taking over of distribution were some of the measures introduced. Population increased at an unprecedented 25.4 percent between 1931 and 1946 with a decline in the Crude Death Rate. Immigration of Indian labour increased. The density of population in Colombo increased from 855 in 1901 to 1758 in 1946. The school system provided greater access to education and a greater demand for white collar jobs.

CHAPTER 72

SRI LANKA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

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414 SL Histary Chap.65-81 When the new Parliament was formed, G.G.Ponnambalam who had led the Tamils in their political campaigns since 1934, joined his old rival, D.S.Senanayake bringing with him into the government most of the leadership and members of the Tamil Congress. This was not only an advantage to G.G.Ponnambalam, but there were the attractions of office which gave him power and the ability to influence policy. It was also a sign that Ponnambalam acknowledged the sincerity of Senanayake’s interest in the minorities. D.S. Senanayake was quite convinced that Sri Lankan polity was “one and indivisible” and that it was essential to give “generous concessions to the minorities to ensure political stability in a plural society” such as was found in Sri Lanka. Minority fears were allayed, firstly by incorporating into the Soulbury constitution guarantees preventing legislation discriminating against minorities. These guarantees had been borrowed from the Minister’s draft constitution of 1944 into which they had been added on Senanayake’s initiative as a gesture of generosity and reassurance to the minorities; secondly by forming the (UNP) which included minority groups, and thirdly by preventing all attempts to abandon the concept of a secular state and the principle of the state’s religious neutrality. The UNP was to be a political party representative of the majority community, but acceptable to minorities. When S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike with his Sinhala Maha Sabha joined the UNP and the Tamil Congress in 1947 crossed over (though a part broke away) to the government, and Muslims and Christians accepted the UNP, the ‘equilibrium of political forces which Senanayake had sought to establish, was stabilised at an acceptable level.’ Only the Indians who had no roots in the country, were deliberately left out. In 1947 the left parties launched a series of major strikes and one of their demands was the rejection of the Soulbury constitution. They ‘dismissed the grant of independence as a cynical deal between Britain and their agents in Sri Lanka to preserve the old order under a guise of independence.’ In the general elections the left parties gained about one-fifth of the seats. This was partly due to poor organisation by the UNP, where in some electorates two or three of their candidates ‘cheerfully’ contested the same seat, thus splitting the UNP vote. The

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415 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Indian vote had been anti-UNP and where there was no candidate from the Ceylon-Indian Congress they had voted for the ‘left’. Their candidates sat in the opposition and supported the left parties. Senanayake introduced the ‘Citizenship Act of 1948’ by which Indian and Pakistani residents in Sri Lanka were deprived of their citizenship- rights and franchise. This assuaged the fears and suspicions of the Sinhalese, particularly those in the hills, where the prospect of Indian domination existed, and also fears that the Indians in the central hills may join the indigenious Tamils for political strength. It also reduced the left vote. Despite the substantial gains made by the ‘left’ at the 1947 election, the left-wing split up soon after, due to ‘personal conflicts and ideological disputes’. The largest opposition group, the LSSP, wanted their leader Dr N.M. Perera as leader of the opposition but the Trotskyist Bolshevik Samasamaja Party and the Communists did not agree. But in June 1950 Dr N.M. Perera did become leader of the opposition, without Communist support. Hence at the 1952 election the UNP was at an advantage. With Ponnambalam of the Tamil Congress, ‘and his formidable oratorical and forensic skills’ joining the UNP, its position improved substantially. But those in the Tamil Congress who opposed this, formed a rival group, the Tamil Federal Party in December 1948. Social welfare schemes were continued beyond 1947 partly to prevent a challenge from the Marxists. Sri Lanka, though poor, had a higher standard of living than India and Burma and was able to maintain the welfare measures at that time. Later they became an unsupportable burden for a developing country whose economy depended on fluctuating world markets. Meanwhile unnoticed by the government and the left-wing, the injustices perpetrated on Sinhalese culture and religion by western rule, were being looked at with resentment by the Sinhala school-masters, ayurvedic physicians and notaries, more than by the bhikkhus. The withdrawl of state patronage to Buddhism was resented. This was responsible for the island being torn apart within the next decade, and the UNP and Left parties which placed emphasis on the multi-racial concept of the island, losing their popularity. The Sinhalese tended to equate Sinhalese nationalism with Sri Lankan nationalism and that in turn with Buddhism. D.S. Senanayake firmly believed in a multi-racial society. His version of nationalism was a

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416 SL Histary Chap.65-81 ‘softening of Sinhalese dominance by the establishment of an equilibrium of political forces’, ‘emphasis on secularism’, and ‘a refusal to mix state power and politics with religion, even though the concept of a special responsibility for Buddhism was tacitly accepted’. This concept was first challenged by Bandaranaike when he crossed over to the opposition in July 1951, and formed the in September 1951. This new party was a democratic alternative to the UNP and opposed to Marxists. He aimed at getting the anti-UNP vote that went to Marxists for want of an alternative. The left was considered as being ‘unsympathetic to the religious, liguistic and cultural aspirations of the Buddhist activists’, as was the UNP. So it was to this group, 'with its deep sense of grievance, its social and economic discontent and its resentment at being neglected’ by the UNP and the Marxists, that Bandaranaike’s new Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), the successor to the Sinhala Maha Sabha turned for support. The Sinhalese Buddhist majority who assumed that Sinhalese nationalism and Sri Lankan nationalism was one and the same, was beginning to assert its national dominance. Its first casualty was the concept of ‘a multi-racial polity, a Sri Lanka nationalism and a secular state’ which D.S. Senanayake had tried to promote. Don Stephen Senanayake, the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, died on 22 March 1952, having fallen off his horse on Galle-Face Green one morning. A bitter squabble for leadership ended with his son Dudley, aged 40, becoming Prime Minister. Dudley Senanayake, though he shared his father’s views on secularism, communal harmony and the resistance to demands of Buddhist activists, was more amenable to granting concessions to the Buddhist movement and trade unions. Hence in July 1952 he led the UNP to a remarkable victory over more formidable opponents like Bandaranaike, the Marxists and Tamil Federal Party. This may have partly been due to the wave of sympathy over his father’s death and also a show of appreciation by the people, of D.S.Senanayake’s long committment to politics, and an endorsement of the father’s lifework. Bandaranaike did not make an impact in the rural areas. Even the Federal leader S.J.V.Chelvanayagam lost his seat to a UNP candidate. The SLFP emerged as a viable alternative to the UNP and Bandaranaike became leader of the opposition. The Marxists in Parliament were divided and they preferred Bandaranaike’s leadership to that of N.M.Perera.

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417 SL Histary Chap.65-81 The Marxists were given to strikes and protests against the government. The rubber boom that Sri Lanka had enjoyed during the Korean war was followed by a fall in prices. Sri Lanka could no longer afford the food subsidies which former Prime Minister D.S.Senanayake had allowed. The price of rice rose from 25 cents a measure to 72 cents. The Marxists took the opportunity to call a mass stoppage of work- a hartal which Bandaranaike refused to join. Police opened fire killing several demonstrators. This had fateful consequences and was one of the factors which led to Dudley resigning in October 1953. Sir John Kotelawala who took over as the third Prime Minister of Sri Lanka had ‘neither his political vision nor any substantial reserves of committed public support beyond the ranks of the urban elite.’ He inherited a parliamentary majority large enough to stabilise his position. He could even afford to exclude some of the members in the earlier cabinet. But his political judgment went astray when he dropped a man of G.G.Ponnambalam’s ability and standing from the cabinet. His lack of sympathy for religion, language and culture did not appeal to the people. A few MPs crossed over to the opposition. Religion, language and culture became the issues, to which Kotelawela was unsympathetic. The Sinhala educated found that rewarding careers in government service were closed to them because English was the language of the state, and they also felt that Tamils because of their English education had an unfair share of jobs and power. Further they believed that in its spiritual home, Thervada Buddhism and the culture associated with it, was not being given the respect and support due to it. The celebration in 1956 of the 2500 th anniversary of the parinibhana (death) of Buddha, and a report made by eminent Buddhist personalities, on the deplorable state of , afforded the activists an opportunity for their campaign. There was the fear that if the Sinhala language fell into decay in Sri Lanka, ‘its religious and cultural tradition would die with it’. The report by the Buddhist personalities had charged that the ruling elite was ‘completely dominated by an alien outlook and values, and estranged from their natural history and culture.’ To Buddhist activists, Kotelawela was ‘both an anachronism and a philistine’. They wanted to replace him. Dudley Senanayake was first choice, but he refused on account of ill-health. Bandaranaike was the next choice, and he, having advocated similar policies for quite some time, was only too willing to step in. Kotelawela faced pressure from

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418 SL Histary Chap.65-81 the Sinhalese to make Sinhala the official language in breach of the compromise on language reached in 1944. He could not satisfy them, because the Tamils feared that such a step would disadvantage them in competition for government jobs. Late in 1955 while on an official tour of Jaffna, Kotelawela made a public statement that he would make constitutional provision for parity of status for Sinhala and Tamil. This antagonised the Sinhalese. The SLFP which like the UNP and other national parties had stood for Sinhala and Tamil as the official languages, now declared that they favoured Sinhala as the sole official language with ‘provision for the reasonable use of Tamil’. By February 1956 the UNP also reversed its position and expressed a committment to make Sinhalese the official language. The ‘patent insincerity of the conversion discredited’ both the UNP and Prime Minister Kotelawela, and made no change to his position with the Sinhalese. He lost the Tamil support, but did not gain Sinhalese support. Still Kotelawela thought this change would help him to win the election, as the left parties were still talking of parity of status. Even some members of the SLFP thought so and crossed over to the UNP. Kotelawela brought forward to 1956 the elections due in 1957, in spite of the Buddhist activists advising him not to hold elections in 1956, the year of the Buddha Jayanti, which they wanted kept free from political agitation. He aggravated the offence, by initiating the first phase of the Buddha Jayanti celebrations before the elections, which the bhikkhus regarded as a ‘blatant exploitation of religious sentiment, by a man they believed to have neither a sense of occasion nor any genuine love for Buddhism.’ The UNP was up against a formidable opposition. The SLFP led by Bandaranaike had a no-contest pact with the LSSP and the CP, the two Marxist groups. Philip Gunawardene who broke away from the LSSP, and two small Sinhala parties joined Bandaranaike and formed the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna- (MEP- Peoples United Front). Their common pledge was the committment to make Sinhala the sole official language. The Eksath Bhikkhu Peramuna (United Bhikkhu Front) also supported him. The Tamil parties had left the UNP. Dudley Senanayake and his family gave no support to the UNP. The UNP suffered a defeat beyond everyone’s expectation. THE ECONOMY

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419 SL Histary Chap.65-81 At this time the economic situation was fairly stable and there were hopes of it improving further. Though the population was rapidly increasing, compared to the rest of South Asia, Sri Lankans were well fed, more literate, compared to other countries in South Asia, the country’s assets were not unimpressive, and ‘there were large sterling balances accumulated during the war.’ But after the war the foreign income began to fall and the cost of imports escalated, resulting in the island’s balance of payments, which were ‘a handsome surplus’ in 1944, falling to a heavy deficit in 1947. The country’s economy depended largely on the exports of tea, rubber and coconut, which earnings fluctuated widely from time to time. There was no industrial sector. Although the government declared that the island could not depend on agriculture alone, little was done to embark on industrialisation. The island could not produce enough rice and other foodstuffs. Most of these had to be imported. 1950-55 was a good period for the country’s exports. 1950 saw a record trade surplus of Rs 396 million. But after 1951 the demand for exports fell sharply. Under D.S. Senanayake the UNP attempted to develop peasant agriculture, land development schemes, colonisation schemes, and irrigation schemes such as the Gal-Oya scheme. Rice production increased from 16.7 million bushels in 1947 to 22 million in 1950 and 37.7 million bushels in 1955. The population growth increased sharply from 2.5% in 1946 to 3.0% in 1950. While the crude death rate which was halved by 1953, fell to 8.6 in 1960, the fall in birth rate was much slower, falling from 39.6 in 1946 to 36.5 in 1955-56. Dr. Ivor Jennings, Vice Chancellor of the University, Colombo, in 1949 warned that the rate of population increase ‘was the fundamental problem of Sri Lanka’s economy.’ FOREIGN AFFAIRS At the time of granting of independence, D.S.Senanayake had willingly signed Agreements on Defence and External Affairs with UK. The main reason was the ever present suspicion of future aggression from India, the consciousness of Sri Lanka being in a strategic position and its inability to defend itself. He was one of the first protagonists of Non- alignment and neutralism, and in 1948 along with other Asian powers, he came out strongly against Dutch police action in Indonesia. In 1951 speaking over the BBC in London he “wished his country to follow a middle path in international politics.....” Senanayake’s government adopted

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420 SL Histary Chap.65-81 a negative attitude towards Communist countries and refused to establish cultural and or diplomatic links with them. There was the fear that they would strengthen the local Marxist parties. Besides this, the Soviet Union had vetoed Sri Lanka’s membership of the United Nations, stating that she was ‘too much in the shadow of British power’, thereby refusing to acknowledge her status as an independent state. However under Dudley (1952-53) and Kotelawela (1953-56) relations with the Communist countries improved. There was a trade-pact with China in 1952, followed by trade relations with Poland, Czechoslavakia and Romania. These agreements went to demonstrate Sri Lanka’s “independence in external relations and her capacity to withstand pressures from the Western powers.” Kotelawela was anti-communist and showed his alignment to the west by allowing landing rights to United States Air Force planes ferrying troops to Indo-China. At the Colombo Conference in 1954 which was initiated by him, he advocated the adoption of a resolution which condemned ‘aggressive communism’ in addition to one critical of ‘colonialism’ which the majority of the delegates favoured. He took this up again at the Bandung conference in 1955. It was during his time in 1955, that Sri Lanka was admitted to the United Nations and trade links were established with some communist countries, but not diplomatic relations.

CHAPTER 73

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421 SL Histary Chap.65-81 S.W.R.D. BANDARANAIKE IN POWER (1956-1959)

In spite of another set back at the election held in 1952, Bandaranaike, made a remarkable comeback at the 1956 election using the ‘Sinhala only’ theme. As the Prime Minister and a liberal democrat he maintained parliamentary democracy. Since Nehru too had opted to remain with the Commonwealth, SWRD saw no reason to end Sri Lanka’s connection with the Commonwealth. He also maintained the Soulbury Constitution, which he himself had seconded when D.S Senanayake moved it in the State Council in November 1945. Although in Dudley’s time, with a two third majority, Sri Lanka could have opted for Republican status, and in spite of rumours to that effect, it was not done. Bandaranaike set out to satisfy himself that there were no curbs and limitations on Sri Lanka’s sovereignity and that the Defence Agreements with Britain were not detrimental to the island’s status as a free and sovereign state. They have not been abrogated yet. SWRD Bandaranaike has been acclaimed as ‘the architect of neutralism in Sri Lanka’s foreign policy and the man whose initiatives in this sphere turned Sri Lanka decisively in the direction of non-alignment as the guiding principle of its external relations.’ He declared that it should not be construed as being directed against the west. He was careful. His criticism of Russia in the Hungarian issue, and China in the Tibet issue were mild. Over the Tibet issue he suffered criticism from the Sri Lankan Buddhists. In 1956 at the Prime Minister’s Conference he secured the agreement of his fellow-Premiers to Sri Lanka's transition to republican status within the Common wealth. A joint Parliamentary Select Committee on Constitutional Reform was set up in 1957 but political instability present at this time prevented any constitutional amendments. When the Official Languages Act was introduced in the House of Representatives soon after Bandaranaike’s landslide victory in 1956, the Speaker ruled that a two-thirds majority was not necessary, as it was not a Constitutional Amendment.

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422 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Bandaranaike demolished the balance of political forces which D.S Senanayake strove to establish. This amounted to a rejection of the concept of a ‘Sri Lankan Nationalism’ which Senanayake had attempted to promote, and in its place was substituted a ‘democratic and populist form of nationalism which was fundamentally divisive in its impact on the country.’ Sri Lanka being the land of the Sinhalese, ‘where Buddhism existed in the purest form,’ took precedence in the minds of the Sinhalese, over it being a multi-racial or multi-communal country. Sinhalese nationalism was considered identical to Sri Lankan Nationalism, and the concept of a multi-racial polity was not accepted. The minorities, especially the Tamils refused to accept this view. In 1951 the Tamils at the first national convention of the Federal Party, asserted that they were a distinct nation with a separate historical past. In August 1956 at a convention held in Trincomalee, the Tamils outlined their demands: - autonomy for the Northern and Eastern Provinces under a federal constitution, parity of status for Sinhalese and Tamil languages, and a satisfactory solution of the problem of the Indian Tamil plantation workers. The introduction of the ‘Sinhala Only’ Bill had brought on racial riots, and its implementation had to be postponed to January 1961. Bandaranaike who in 1952 as leader of the Progressive Nationalist Party made a case for federalism, ironically became the strongest opponent at any attempts to establish federalism. To the Sinhalese, who outnumber Tamils in Sri Lanka by more than three to one, but are themselves outnumbered by the Tamils in India by six to one, the demand for federalism was a demand for separatism. They feared a link between the Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Tamils. Bandaranaike however continued to negotiate with the Tamil Federal Party. In July 1957 the terms of his compromise with them were made public. 1. Tamil was to be an official language for administrative purposes in the north and east, 2. As a concession to the Federal demand, a scheme of devolving administrative powers to regional councils to be established. 3. The settlement of Sinhalese colonists in irrigation schemes in the north and east, to be restricted, so that indigenous Tamils could maintain their majority.

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423 SL Histary Chap.65-81 As soon as the terms of this pact were made public, the radicals in his own party and those in the UNP protested. Bhikkhus performed ‘satyagraha’ on the lawn of his private residence in Colombo. Race riots broke out in May 1958 and he was forced to abrogate the pact. Still the terms of this pact, were for about ten years used as the basis for negotiations on the Sinhalese-Tamil issue. However, to satisfy the Tamils, he got parliamentary approval of the Act, in August 1958, to permit the ‘reasonable use of Tamil’ in administration. This did not satisfy the Tamils nor was the bill passed in Parliament till 1966, when Dudley Senanayake as Prime Minister had it passed. The issue of making Buddhism the State religion was a sore point and after the problems faced with the “Sinhala Only” Bill, no one was prepared to raise another contentious issue. Dahanayake as Minister of Education resisted pressure from Buddhist activists who wanted Catho- lic schools brought under state control. But Bandaranaike in February 1957 appointed the Buddha Sasana Commission to examine questions relating to a reform of the Sangha and to make proposals regarding the general principle of ‘according to Buddhism its rightful place in the country’. State Patronage for Literature and Arts In 1956 after the victory of Bandaranaike’s M.E.P, a Ministry of Cultural Affairs, to channel state patronage for literature and the arts, and a department of Official Language Affairs to implement the language policy, were set up. This coincided with several achievements in the arts. First came Martin Wickremasinghe’s novel Viragaya, which ‘in terms of signifi- cance of theme and sophistication of technique is perhaps the most out- standing work in modern Sinhalese fiction’ and then came Saratchandra’s Maname, ‘a theatrical tour de force which breathed new life into the folk tradition in Sinhalese drama, and is by far the greatest achievement in the history of the Sinhalese theatre’. This was followed by Lester ’ Rekava, ‘a bold attempt to escape from the melodramatic steroetype which thrived under the shadow of the South Indian cinema’, and to raise the Sinhala film to world standards. Bandaranaike’s ‘’ promised social change, economic independence from foreign powers, and a ‘sense of dignity to the

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424 SL Histary Chap.65-81 common people and fortified their self respect.’ The left, especially the L.S.S.P was engaged in alerting the country to the divisive effects of Bandaranaike’s policies. The Communist Party and the LSSP who had underestimated the strength of ‘linguistic nationalism’ and had advocated parity of status, were now treated with suspicion. The strikes they launched discredited them. It surprised them that liguistic nationalism appealed not only to the peasant but to the Sinhala educated elite. They lost what they had gained. From being treated ‘as an alternative government’ they were reduced in 1960 to an appendage of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP). Although the Buddhist movement was hostile to Marxism, it was not opposed to Socialism. Bandaranaike established diplomatic relations with the Communist states of Soviet union and China. The UNP had had no diplomatic relations with the Soviet union because it had vetoed Sri Lanka’s application for membership of the United Nations saying that ‘she was too much under Britain’s tutelage’, and it was only after Sri Lanka gained admission to the U.N in 1955 that Kotalawela had decided on an exchange of diplomatic representatives, which of course did not take effect, before Kotalawela lost the election. In 1957 a transfer was made of Britain’s military and naval bases in the island to the Sri Lanka government. Although Bandaranaike while in the opposition had been critical of the Defence agreements with Britain, while in power he did nothing to abrogate them. While in the opposition he was critical of ties with the Commonwealth, when in power he supported the connection and ‘stressed the importance of material benefits accruing from it’. The UNP did not conceal their suspicions of India, but SWRD was willing to work with Nehru and ‘follow his lead.’ Bandaranaike was committed to nonalignment. He is acclaimed as the architect of neutralism. He made this known to the world in the Suez crisis, when he expressed his displeasure at the invasion of Egypt. The political turmoil that existed during his short term as Prime Minister, ‘prevented concentration on major structural changes in economy.’ He was not inclined to encourage hopes of nationalisation of plantations which the left agitated for, and the economy remained in the hands of both British and local commercial organisations. Two important measures of nationalisation were introduced - bus transport and the Colombo port. In 1958, his Minister of Food and

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425 SL Histary Chap.65-81 Agriculture, Philip Gunawardene, introduced the Paddy Lands Act which gave greater security of tenure to cultivators. The euphoria that followed his success at the election of 1956 brought with it hopes of ‘redistribution of wealth’ and ‘in that atmosphere no great attention was paid to economic growth’. Population growth increased the consumption needs. Trade unions pressed for increased salaries with no attention to improvement in productivity. All this resulted in greater imports and a decline in assets. External assets fell from Rs 1,275 million in 1956 to Rs 541 million in 1960. His term of office as Prime Minister was beset with strikes, administrative breakdowns and racial riots ‘as if Sri Lanka was paying on deferred payment terms, and at a fearfully high rate of interest, for the peace and stability which she had enjoyed in the first decade of independence.’ ‘Bandaranaike was a visionary but no idealogue. He gave leadership to forces, the strength of which he failed to grasp and which he sought unsuccessfully to bring under control. For both these reasons, despite all the dramatic changes he initiated and all the new directions in policy he charted, his years in office have left behind the impression of a regime drifting along without much sense of priorities. ‘His administrative skills never matched the demands imposed on him by his ambitions as a statesman. Throughout his career he demonstrated a buoyancy in the face of difficulties, but swift decisive moves were not his forte. Although resilience is a tremendous asset to a politician, it was often accompanied in Bandaranaike by an almost masochistic tolerance of indiscipline and turmoil.’ During the frequent periods of turmoil the Governor General Sir Oliver Goonetileke took control and served Bandaranaike as devotedly as he had served D.S.Senanayake. This reliance on Sir Oliver showed ‘the paucity of administrative talent and experience among the SLFP members of the Cabinet; in this sense the burdens imposed on the Prime Minister would have been intolerable had he not been able to call upon Sir Oliver to assist him in moments of acute crisis.’ Bandaranaike respected the intellectual and administrative skills, the sense of priorities and purposeful approach, and the integrity of the three left-wing members of his cabinet - Philip Gunawardene, William Silva and M.W.H.De Silva who were not SLFPers. Pressure from the rest of his cabinet forced him to impose restraints on them and by 1959 they left the cabinet leaving him with ‘a cabinet of mediocrities.’

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426 SL Histary Chap.65-81 This bitter struggle for power ended with his assassination on 26 September 1959, ‘by a bhikkhu, and the conspiracy was hatched by the most powerful political bhikkhu of the day’ who had made a significant contribution to his triumph in 1956 and ‘who had engineered the elimination of the left-wingers from the cabinet.’ Mr W. D. Dahanayake took over as Prime Minister from September 1959 to March 1960.

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427 SL Histary Chap.65-81 CHAPTER 74

THE 1960s : A NEW BALANCE OF FORCES

THE SLFP IN POWER

At the next elections held in March 1960 with several factions against the UNP, and Mr. Bandaranaike’s widow Sirima leading the SLFP, the UNP won with a small majority and formed a minority government under Dudley Senanayake. The old forces against the UNP combined to bring down the government in three months. In July 1960 Mrs Sirimavo Bandaranaike entered into a no-contest pact with the left forces. ‘Riding on the emotional wave of sympathy generated by Mr. Bandaranaike’s assassination’ on 26 September 1959, she won the election and became the world’s first woman Prime Minister. At this election, the new demarcation of constituencies effected in 1959 was introduced, which ‘worked on the principal of counting the total population of a province in computing the number of seats to which it was entitled, without regard to the fact that in plantation districts the Indian workers had been largely excluded from the franchise. This anamolous situation worked in favour of the Kandyans who with twenty-six percent of population had forty-four percent of the seats.’ For a short time the left parties supported the SLFP, but later the SLFP continued alone with the large majority it had. In 1963 the left parties, the LSSP, the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna of Philip Gunawardene and the Communist Party joined to form the United Left Front (ULF). The SLFP due to a ‘manifest incompetence of its own Ministerial ranks’ decided to form a coalition with the ULF. But only the LSSP joined in June 1964, resulting in the collapse of the ULF. Mrs Bandaranaike’s own deputy C.P de Silva, now crossed over to the opposition with a group of his followers, thus bringing down the government at the end of 1964. At this period in 1963 in India there was a vociferous campaign for a separate Tamil state in , and Nehru introduced the

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428 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of India making it mandatory for those running for Office to take an oath stating that ‘I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India.’ Since then Tamil politicians holding Office in India could not campaign for a separate state but those in the opposition continued to harbour this dream. This inspired the Sri Lankan Tamil leaders to campaign for a separate Tamil country. (R.Guneratne) Mr SWRD Bandaranaike had negotiations with the Tamils over their grievances, and a settlement was reached by him and the Federal Party in 1957 and this was to be the basis for future negotiations on solutions to the problem of indigenous Tamils. After his death in 1959, asssurances given to the Federal Party that they would be implemented by Mrs Bandaranaike, made the Federal Party vote to defeat the UNP government in early 1960. But pressure from extremists in her party made Mrs Bandaranaike break the pledge. In addition she insisted on Sinhalese becoming the language of administration throughout the island from January 1961, as envisaged in the ‘Sinhala Only’ Bill of 1956, without substantial concessions to Tamils. The Federal Party protested by staging a civil-disobedience campaign in March-April 1961 in the north and east resulting in a state of Emergency being declared in those areas. Mrs Bandaranaike’s next step was to bring all fee-levying schools which were financed by the government, under state control. The Marxists supported the Buddhists in this as ‘that would eliminate...... the main instrument of conversion to Christianity under Western rule.’ Most private schools, Christian, Buddhist, Muslim and Hindu, were forced to accept this decision with reluctance, except a few which decided to continue without state aid. This however generated much tension and bitterness between the religious groups. The Roman Catholics, being the biggest losers, particularly resented it, just as much as the Tamils were resenting the decision on the language issue. The dissatisfaction of the Roman Catholics with the government led to the abortive coup staged in 1962. ‘The reality of administrative incompetence and economic failure’ of the government was making it unpopular. This coup gave it the rationale for giving patronage to Buddhist activists. One of the important achievements of Mrs Bandaranaike’s first government was the understanding reached with Lal Bahadur Shastri, (who became the Indian Prime Minister in October 1964 following the

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429 SL Histary Chap82 - ... death of Nehru in May), on the question of the Indian minority in Sri Lanka. Though many of the Indians had been deprived of citizenship by the legislation of 1948, they were still in Sri Lanka, and India could not be persuaded to take them back. The Nehru-Kotalawela pact of 1954 could not solve this problem, and SWRD Bandaranaike had no time to look into this issue. Mrs Bandaranaike was able to reach agreement for the compulsory repatriation, over a 15 year period, of 525,000 Indians to India and for the absorption of 300,000 Indians as citizens of Sri Lanka. The future of the balance 150,000 was to be negotiated later by the two countries. But the attempt by the government to place all persons of Indian origin, some who had already obtained Sri Lanka citizenship, on a separate communal electoral register was condemned as discrimination by the Ceylon Workers Congress led by S. Thondaman, who then left the government and joined the UNP, for the first time, since 1947. Thus by the end of 1964 two allies of the SLFP, the Federal Party of Sri Lankan Tamils and the CWC of Indian Tamils had become her opponents. The Catholics also turned against her over the schools issue and openly supported the UNP, while the Muslims whom her government attempted to woo, could not be made to sever traditional links with the UNP. Her government had also antagonised them by failing to pass legislation conferring judicial status on the ‘quasis’, who presided over a system of domestic relations courts for Muslims, and who already had jurisdiction in respect of marriage and divorce for Muslims. THE UNP BACK IN POWER IN 1965 Thus at the next election in 1965 the minority groups supported the UNP which came back with a strong coalition government which included the Federal Party. The UNP Prime Minister, Dudley Sena- nayake, now had to ‘make ethnic and religious reconciliation the keynote of his policy,’ and this unleashed a virulent barrage of racist propaganda by the SLFP, although in fact the UNP was implementing what had been ‘the language provisions of SWRD Bandaranaike’s agreement with the Federal Party’. The SLFP in their massive campaign were joined by the LSSP and CP who were now espousing the very cause they earlier spurned. Such is Politics! The separate register for Indian Tamils (which Mrs Bandaranaike had wanted), was abandoned, and compulsory repatriation was relaxed as the CWC and FP were now in the UNP.

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430 SL Histary Chap.82- ... On the policy of ethnic and religious reconciliation, Dudley Senanayake’s government was committed to the limits set by the two Bandaranaikes in the decade 1956-65. Firstly, the acceptance of the language policy was established by SWRD. Thus when the Federal Party joined the UNP, it was tacitly accepting that language policy. Secondly, there would be no tampering with the country’s unitary constitutional structure of the island. Even Dudley Senanayake’s assurance that the district councils would be under government control could not satisfy the Sinhalese. Thirdly, the electorate had to be reassured that protection of Buddhism as the National religion, was a special obligation of the state. When on 24 March 1965 Dudley Senanayake and SJV Chelvanayagam met to discuss important issues, the Senanayake-Chelvanayagam Pact was signed. District Councils were to be established, ‘under the control and direction of the central government’, which was a key feature in the Bandaranaike-Federal Party agreement of 1957. The Regional Councils were to be vested with powers over subjects mutually agreed by the two leaders; Tamil would be the language of the North and East, and a Tamil person should be entitled to transact business in Tamil throughout the island; legal proceedings in courts in the North and East to be Tamil; and the Land Development Ordinance to be amended, for citizens of Ceylon to be entitled to the allotment of land. Senanayake agreed that land in the north and east should be firstly granted to landless in that district, secondly to Tamil speaking-people resident in the north and east, thirdly to other citizens of Ceylon preference being to Tamils. When in mid-1968 Dudley Senanayake attempted to set up ‘district councils’ there was opposition even within the UNP. The Sinhalese in the Parliamentary group opposed it on suspicion that it may lead to a "fully fledged federal structure, which in turn would be the precursor of a separation of Tamil units of such a federation, from the Sri Lanka polity." The bill had to be abandoned. Assurance that the District Councils would be directly under the government could not win the Sinhalese support. Although the Roman Catholics had always supported the government, and openly supported the UNP, making Buddhist activists suspect the UNP to have links with the Catholics, the UNP could not relax the steps taken by the SLFP on the schools take-over, as expected by the l

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431 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Catholics. Besides the introduction of the Poya-day as a public holiday by the UNP to reassure the Buddhist movement, meant that Sunday was not a holiday for Christians and Catholics. This caused dissatisfaction among Catholics, although the Catholic hierarchy ‘officially’ accepted it. Apart from the inconvenience of the irregularity of the weekend holiday, this affected the island's business with other countries! FOREIGN AFFAIRS IN 1960s Mrs Bandaranaike’s first government in 1960 followed ‘an activist foreign policy with distinct anti-Western, particularly anti-American tilt’ which became obviously strained after the nationalisation in late 1963 of the distribution of petroleum products, which had been earlier controlled by Western oil companies. When negotiations over compensation for the assets of the nationalised companies broke down, the US government stopped its aid programme to Sri Lanka. At this time, friendly ties with China survived the Sino-Indian crisis of 1962, during which Mrs Bandaranaike remained neutral, despite pressure from her party and the UNP to support India. Mrs Bandaran- aike was an enthusiastic supporter of non-alignment, and this allowed Sri Lanka to have stronger trade ties with the Third world on a basis of barter, and thus enjoy a greater diversity in patterns of external trade. When the government changed in 1965, with Dudley Senanayake becoming Prime Minister for his third and longest term, he regarded active foreign policy as ‘an expensive luxury for a small country like Sri Lanka’, facing many severe economic problems. He was less pro-China and less anti-Western and less activist in expression. A settlement was negotiated for compensation for the nationalised oil companies, and the US resumed its economic assistance to Sri Lanka, which was viewed by the left parties as ‘incorrigible subservience’ to the West by the UNP! Relations with China were less cordial than under the SLFP, but Sri Lanka gave support on the question of China’s admission to the United Nations, and hence there was no reduction of China’s economic aid. However Dudley Senanayake was suspicious of Chinese policies in Asia and this clouded his judgement in dealings with China. India had been concerned over Sri Lanka’s attitude in the Indo-Sino crisis in the 1960s, particularly because of Sri Lanka’s strategic position. Both India and Russia appreciated the change in Sri Lanka’s relations with China, and relations between India and Sri Lanka strengthened. Senanayake policies were a committment to non-alignment whether it

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432 SL Histary Chap.82- ... was in relation to Vietnam, Rhodesia, Namibia, Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia or the Arab-Israel conflict. The policies were more liberal and humanitarian than abrasive or socialist, and its allies were the less assertive and more moderate countries of the Third World. THE ECONOMY IN CRISIS Since the collapse of the tea boom in 1954-55, tea prices kept falling and the situation did not improve with either tea, which provided two thirds of the foreign exchange, nor with rubber and coconut. The country’s external assets which in 1956 stood at Rs 1,275 million, fell to Rs 541 million by 1960. Most had gone for imports. The external assets were used to cushion the economic consequences of this fall in foreign exchange earnings and to finance the imports. By 1960 external assets had fallen so much that very little of this had been used to finance investment. Imports of all luxuries and later even essential items had to be curtailed and even then, Sri Lanka faced a ‘permanent foreign exchange crisis.’ International borrowing was needed to foot the import bill. This instigated the State to extend more control over vital segments of the economy, such as having control over food distribution. Hence State controlled Co-operatives distributed a wide range of consumer goods including rice, wheat and wheat flour, sugar and other foodstuffs. Life Insurance and general insurance was made a state monopoly. The Bank of Ceylon, the only locally owned bank in the island, was nationalised. The distribution of petroleum and kerosene was nationalised, and assets of oil companies operating in Sri Lanka were taken over by the State. But production did not improve, except a little in respect of rice production and a little in some fields of industrial development, which again were hampered, since most industries, especially those established in the early 60s were heavily dependent on imported material. The Green Revolution of the UNP government The change in government from SLFP to UNP in 1965 did not help. Tea and coconut prices kept falling in 1966. Income from exports declined by 12 per cent compared to the previous year, while import prices soared. The stagnant economy resulted in the GNP increasing a mere 1.8 percent in 1965 but sinking further by 1.6 percent in 1966. To rearrange patterns of consumption to benefit the poor, ‘in the hope and belief that equity and growth would go hand in hand,’ the UNP government in 1967 launched the ‘green revolution’. By 1969 rice

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433 SL Histary Chap82 - ... production increased to 68 million bushels compared to 50.1 million bushells in 1964, and by May 1970 when elections took place it had reached a good 77 million bushells. Industrial production too rose from Rs 70 million to Rs 252 million between 1965 and 68, and the GNP rose from 4.4 per cent in 1967 to 8 per cent in 1968. Dudley Senanayake, who like his father had a passion for agriculture, believed it was the key to economic regeneration. These figures however were known only to the educated, and their effect only felt by the rich minority. It would have taken some years for the ordinary man to realise their benefits. Thus the leftists were able to vociferously exploit consumer fears of higher prices and to attribute them to the government’s agricultural programmes. But inflationary pressures and the balance of payments crisis persisted due to increase in prices of imports and the devaluation of the rupee ’ since 1967 and also because of slack demand and falling prices of exports. The net foreign debt doubled between 1964 and 68, and the island incurred substantial overseas debts to meet import costs. Population figures also showed an increase during the 1946 to 1960 period, with the 15-65 age group (working group) increasing from about 5.25 million to 7.5 million. Those seeking work outran the demand for labour, generated by a stagnant economy. Unemployment went up from 370,000 in 1959 to 550,000 in 1969, with about 14 per cent of the work force being unemployed. Private and public consumption needs increased. Cost of welfare services, unequalled by any other Asian countries, kept increasing for education, health services, irrigation projects, land distribution schemes, and subsidised transport in the form of cheap buses and rail fares. Above all that, the food subsidies, were a drain on the diminishing resources of the state. After 1960 state expenditure on primary and secondary education was one of the highest in Asia. University education had been free since the mid-1940s. Literacy rate, excluding the 1-4 age group was 85 percent of the population - one of the highest in Asia, and Sri Lanka in the 1960s became an ‘outstanding example of the growing global phenomenon of educated unemployed.’ Dudley Senanayake expected the agricultural programmes to absorb the growing numbers of unemployed, but they were not interested in such type of work after a University education. Hence they became

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434 SL Histary Chap.82- ... receptive to the opposition’s criticism of the State’s economic and political policies. This had serious political implications. Although Sri Lanka was one of the first countries in the world to lower the age of voting from 21 to 18 in 1959, it really came into effect for the first time at the 1965 elections. By 1970 the number of youth voters was larger and resulted in Mrs Bandaranaike and her allies in the LSSP, CP and ULF winning on a common programme, with a large majority. They highlighted the flaws in the agricultural programme and did not accept that agriculture could improve the economy. ‘For them and the intelligentsia, the key to economic development and the most effective means of solving the unemployment problem was industrialisation! It was not evident yet, that industry could not provide the impetus for the growth of the economy as a whole, nor was it geared, with the island’s factories being so capital-intensive, to the provision of productive employment.’ But Mrs Bandaranaike and her allies were able to convince the young unemployed. The cut in rice subsidy in 1966 was shown as a cut in welfare services. Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake ‘paid the penalty for disturbing the most cherished of the sacred cows in Sri Lanka’s welfare system - the rice subsidy.’ The opposition had a landslide victory, as the ‘United Front’, with Mrs Bandaranaike becoming Prime Minister for a second term. (1970-77)

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435 SL Histary Chap82 - ... CHAPTER 75

SRI LANKA 1970 to 1975

The first decision of the United Front was to honour the election pledges they had made from their party platforms, ‘assuring purposeful, systematic, and fundamental changes in every sphere of activity,’ and to demonstrate their new style of government, by restoring the cuts in the rice-rations made by the UNP in 1966. For the first time political appointees in ambassadorial posts were recalled before their term ended. Diplomatic recognition was given to North Korea and the German Democratic Republic, while links with Israel were severed. JANATHA VIMUKTHI PERAMUNA : AN INSURRECTION By the end of the first year in power, the UF popularity was waning. Having won 120 of the 157 seats, the government was still unable to solve the problems of unemployment, rising prices and scarcities of essential items of consumption. The government faced a deadly threat from the educated unemployed- the disadvantageously unemployed- youths from an ultra-left movement called the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP). This youth movement had made its prescence felt during the ‘violent and threatening demonstrations - which the UF government had condoned’ following their victory. Within ten months the youth were dissatisfied with the pace of changes and reforms made by the SLFP which came to power with their help. Soon JVP meetings were held all over the island, which gave a warning to the government and its socialist policies, and highlighted its incapability to fulfill its election promises. It made no secret of its readiness and determination to overthrow the government if the desired changes were not introduced. In April 1971 the insurrection broke out. If this was a surprise to the government it was because it had not believed, or had misread the intelligence reports, or had refused to believe that their supporters who

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436 SL Histary Chap.82- ... brought them to power, and shared their socialist aspirations, could react against them. This was the first ‘large scale revolt against the government by youth in this country, and also perhaps the biggest revolt by young people in any part of the world in recorded history, the first instance of tension between generations becoming a military conflict on a national scale,’ “an ultra-left movement against the established left - the populist SLFP with LSSP and CP”. ‘It was secondary to the class factor, the insurgents being mainly poor, rural, Sinhalese Buddhist youth. Other ethnic or religious minorities were not involved. It was a result of ‘exploitable social problems - the economic inequalities, exacerbated by one of the highest birth-rates in Asia, creating a poverty stricken, unemployed and frustrated element ranging from articulate university graduates to the landless unemployed.’ Perhaps one could also blame the liberal free-education system introduced in the mid-1940s. Into these youths, the JVP movement ‘instilled a group-conciousness, fashioned an ideology, planned a strategy, built up an organisation and provided the leadership’- the youth, who otherwise would have put up with many deprivations and frustrations in silence. Athough they had the numbers they were not trained, were poorly equipped and did not have the backing of the rural or urban working class. Once the original thrust was repelled they were unable to sustain their attack in spite of having the numbers. The rebellion was put down ruthlessly but the rebels though defeated, played a part in shaping the future. ‘Sri Lanka was pushed more rapidly towards a socialist society.’ The insurgency ‘left an indelible mark on Sri Lanka.’ The moves made by the UF in 1970 for an autochthonous constitution for Sri Lanka were hastened. A series of radical economic and social changes adopted by the UF included the Land Reform Law of 1972 and the nationalisation of plantations in 1975. ‘State control in trade and industry was accelerated and expanded to the point where the state established a dominance over the commanding heights of the economy’. There were other consequences. The army and police were given better training and equipment to face future threats. Countries like UK, US, India, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Egypt and Pakistan offered assistance. Ties with the US and the Commonwealth were strengthened. The most significant consequence was that the government became more authoritarian even long after the rebellion had been controlled.

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437 SL Histary Chap82 - ... By the beginning of 1972 the economic situation worsened, the balance of payments deteriorated further, prices of food imports rose without a corresponding increase in prices of exports. People of Sri Lanka were over-dependent on imported food, including much of its rice, which had to be imported and given at subsidised rates. Thus ironically, the government which made ‘cuts in food subsidy’ a political issue to win the election, was forced to adopt the very same measures they had criticised in the days of the former UNP government. Trimming of food subsidies and cuts in welfare spending began with the second UF budget in November 1971. A ceiling on incomes, land reform and limits on ownership of houses, intended to affect the rich, did not help to reduce the unpopularity of the government. The foreign exchange crisis made the government pay more attention to agricultural development and self sufficiency in food which the UNP had earlier practised, although the left had preached industrialisation as the solution to the problems the country faced! Under the UNP, rice production had reached a record level of three-quarters of Sri Lanka’s requirements. Had this level of development been continued by the UF, by 1974 the dependence on imports of rice would have been marginal, and by 1976 the country would have been totally independent in this respect. Instead rice production dropped sharply from 1971 onwards. The UF government contributed to this by the dismantling of the administrative machinery, and even the dispersal of the scientific staff who were associated with the food programme. ‘By the beginning of 1972 the government had lost its self-assurance and confidence it had exuded in its early days.’ The serious balance of payments it had inherited deteriorated further, the prices of imports rose to unprecedented levels without a corresponding rise in prices of exports. It took two years to rebuild the dismantled administrative structure. The harvests of 1974-75, 75-76 showed a definite improvement though still below the levels reached in 1969-70. Although the government raised the ‘guaranteed price of rice’, hoping to encourage production, that did not help. With the high level of inflation and the sharp rise in costs of fertilisers and agricultural chemicals, the decision of the government to establish a monopoly for the purchase of rice, meant the producer could not sell it for a higher price in the open market, and the consumer could not get off-ration rice when needed. The strong measures used to protect this monopoly were resented by the peasants, who were the core of the electoral support for the SLFP.

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438 SL Histary Chap.82- ... The alternative food to rice was bread, which had to be made from imported wheat flour. Due to the poor foreign exchange resources and the steep rise in wheat prices in world-markets, wheat imports had to be restricted. Colombo and the suburbs now had long ‘bread queues’. In desperation substitutes for rice like manioc, yams and dry grains were encouraged. People were advised to eat less rice and reorientate their food habits, although in election pledges before coming to power the government promised ‘to increase the rice ration and abolish the rationing of subsidiary foodstuffs’. Prices of wheat, sugar and rice going up in world markets was bad enough, but now even oil prices went up. The average man had no understanding of foreign exchange and balance of payments, but he could only see that the government he put into power, was unable to provide him with the essential items he needed. A NEW CONSTITUTION - 1972 A new constitution was adopted in May 1972. “Its salient feature was the establishment of a uni-cameral republican structure, a centralised democracy in which the dominant element was the political executive...... While the National State Assembly was described as the supreme instrument of the state power of the republic, the most notable feature of the constitution was the dominance of the executive and the abscence of meaningful institutional or constitutional checks on the exercise of its powers”. This was followed by the government ‘showing scant regard for any sense of public integrity’ and taking an action which was unprecedented in the annals of constitution-making in any democratic state. It used its overwhelming majority in the Constituent Assembly, to increase its term of office to seven years, instead of the five to which it was elected. The emergency powers had been used by all governments since independence and even after the insurgency was crushed they were extended, since they were convenient in dealing with dissent. The power of the courts to hear ‘appeals against mala-fide administrative decisions’ was drastically curtailed, thereby removing restraints on the misuse of administrative power for political purposes. After that the government ‘had little hesitation in using the machinery of the state and administrative regulations to harass and intimidate its political opponents.’ Acquisition of land, houses, shops, moveable property such as vehicles, 'ostensibly for public purposes but in fact to deter known opponents from political activity’, was carried out. Freedom of the press was

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439 SL Histary Chap82 - ... curtailed. The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, the main newspaper group in the island, which was the main government critic was closed for three years from April 1974. ‘The Times’ newspaper just succumbed. With all broadcasting being entirely under government control, criticism was limited to party newspapers and news-sheets, which again were restricted due to limited funds, government control of allocation of newsprint, the witholding of advertisments by the government, and the reluctance of businesses to advertise in opposition newspapers for fear of victimisation. The only avenue left to people to voice their dissent - public meetings - could not be held due to the state of emergency, unless government permission was obtained. These restraints affected only the opposition. The first relaxation came with the by-elections in September 1972 The UNP had now recovered and showed a regain in popularity by winning three out of four seats in the first by-election held in October 1972. Thereafter a series of propaganda meetings held by the Opposition across the country attracted large crowds. Death of Dudley Senanayake On 13 April 1973 Dudley Senanayake died after a brief illness. ‘....it led to unprecedent scenes of spontaneous grief and mourning throughout the island. Nearly half the entire population of Sri Lanka filed past his bier during the week beginning April 14, and the cremation of his body on 21 April attracted the largest crowd ever gathered together for any occasion in the island’s history...... The millions who braved the elements and underwent great physical discomfort, standing for hours in endless queues that stretched for miles along Colombo’s streets, were doing something more than paying tribute to a much-loved national figure. It was a silent but expressive demonstration by a politically sophisticated people, who were unable at that time - because all local government elections had been postponed, among other reasons - to articulate their feelings over the problems they faced. The degree of popular participation in the funeral ceremonies and the depth of grief displayed (which bordered on mass hysteria) were almost without precedent, even in a country where organisation of political funerals was a well-developed art. It was a week that shook Sri Lanka, and frightened the government’. The outstanding demonstration of grief shown over Dudley Senanayake’s death encouraged the UNP, which then won several by- elections. A large number of rallies were scheduled to be held across

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440 SL Histary Chap.82- ... the country by the UNP in late April 1974, in what was to be a civil disobedience movement. But ‘a curfew was imposed’ and severe emergency regulations were introduced and ‘a ban imposed on meetings of the UNP for almost one year.’ The government now staged the first of a series of political rallies, the first since the insurgency. The full resources of the state were used to get the crowds, which included radio, newspapers, vehicles and personnel. ‘State employees, especially in lower rungs of the administration, teachers, those working in the state sector of the economy in distribution, services and manufacture, and workers in the nationalised plantations, were compelled to participate under threat of dismissal of temporary employees, and transfer of permanent employees’. Discrimination on political grounds had been a feature in Sri Lanka since independence, in appointments and promotions. Now it became ‘institutionalised’. ‘Politicisation of the public service was not restricted to key appointments at the policy-making levels, but extended throughout the service’ even to some extent in the judiciary. Appointments made on political affiliation and personal connections resulted in inefficiency and corruption, with discrimination against employment of children and close relatives of opposition activists and supporters. No local government elections were held since May 1971. The government won only two by- elections, one in October 72, and one in August 76. During this period it lost four seats, and did not capture any from the Opposition. The Indian Tamils whose vexed question of citzenship was negotiated by Mrs Bandaranaike in 1974, for half million to be allowed Sri Lankan Citzenship with political legitimacy to follow, was not put into effect. However by 1976 the CWC whose ties with the UF were never strong, realised there was no advantage to them from a ‘separate Tamil state’ advocated by the TULF. The CWC relationship with the government was also unfriendly. The government was oblivious to the plight of the plantation workers on whom the effects of inflation in the 1970s was worst, having declined from ‘a bare subsistence to grinding poverty’. Mr Badiuddin Mohamed who was for a second time the Minister of Education in the SLFP government, used his position to strengthen ties between the Party and the Muslims, but it did not last long. By 1973 he was accused of favouring Muslims in the education sphere. Anti-Muslim sentiments aroused clashes in various parts of the island, especially in Muslim areas in Gampola and Puttalam- the worst since the Sinhala-Tamil riots .of 1950s.

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441 SL Histary Chap82 - ... CHAPTER 76

SRI LANKA UNDER SLFP 1975-1977

BREAK UP OF UNITED FRONT

The United Front which came into power with the left-parties joining in 1970 had a serious rift over the nationalisation of foreign-owned plantations and the LSSP was expelled from the coalition in October 1975. Both took credit for the nationalisation of estates - which was the program that had brought them together in 1964. The SLFP felt that with this done, the range of activities left for private enterprise was so limited, that there was no need for further socialist programmes. The SLFP was in itself a ‘coalition’ consisting of trade unionists, businessmen, peasants, traders and landowners and industrialists; ‘from a pragmatic right-wing to a populist-centre and a vocal-left’. With the LSSP expelled from the government, the right now became dominant and made the decisions, all of them unpalatable to the left. The first decision, the restoration of the free market in paddy and rice was of benefit to the peasants. The ceiling on incomes was removed, and taxes were reduced substantially from what Dr. N. M. Perera, as Finance Minister had raised it to, to tax the rich. This change came at a time when relations with the United States were improving. With the expulsion of the LSSP, two of their M.Ps stayed behind with the SLFP, but one MP of the SLFP crossed over to the UNP. With the LSSP gone, the SLFP lost its ablest debaters and its two-third majority. The CP and the left of the SLFP found they had no voice in the government. In July-August 1976 the conference of non-aligned nations was hosted inspite of the massive financial expense involved. The government hoped that the international prestige accruing to the Prime Minister from presiding over such a conference would improve the prestige of the government. The LSSP however backed the government on the decision to hold the conference.

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442 SL Histary Chap.82- ... . Soon after, for the first time, the SLFP retained a seat at a by-ele ction. This was after a string of defeats it had suffered since October 1972. Instead of using this to boost their chances at the next election due in mid-77, the SLFP attempted to win over two or three Opposition M.Ps, with offers of ministerial positions, to get a constitutional amendment through, to postpone the elections. A series of public meetings were held and the most persistent theme was the postponement of the elections. Although Mrs Bandaranaike did not publicly support this, she did not repudiate it. But when in October all six Communist Party M.Ps including their representative in Cabinet and five of the SLFP cabinet Ministers opposed the postponement of the election, it became evident, that there was a rift between the CP and the SLFP. Now negotiations were started to resolve the differences with the TULF and get support to extend the term of the parliament. But this failed, though it did improve relations between the parties. The TULF leader fell ill and died in April 1977 The year 1977 started with LSSP led strikes, and even pro-government trade unions joined them. They escalated when some of the strikers were jailed, but eventually the strikers came back to work. The action by the government alienated some of its own left M.Ps and the CP. The opposition prepared to bring a vote of ‘no confidence’ on the government’s handling of the strike, and it was fixed for 19 February 1977, but a week before that date, Parliament was prorogued. This led to a quick depletion of the government ranks with the five left wing SLFP M.Ps and one SLFP Minister and all the Communist Party M.Ps under pressure from their party, defecting to the Opposition. The SLFP was 'left discredited and dispirited' to face the election that most of them had desperately wanted postponed. There was an additional setback. The day before the government was wanting to rush through several bills, including one for nationalisation of foreign banks, the President of the Republic, Mr William Gopallawa, (who had been appointed by Mrs Bandaranaike), dissolved Parliament and announced that a general election would be held on 21 July 1977, with the new National State Assembly to meet for the first time, on 26 August 1977. In July 1977 the SLFP faced the elections alone. It won only eight of the ninety seats it held. All Marxists were defeated and for the first time, the winning party, the UNP won 141 of the 168 seats, with absolute majorities in 126 of these.

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443 SL Histary Chap82 - ... THE UNP BACK IN POWER - 1977 Mr J. R. Jayawardene who was nearly seventy-one took over as Prime Minister. The SLFP suffered a humiliating defeat and the only prominent M.Ps to retain their seats were Mrs Sirima Bandaranaike and her deputy. The TULF was now the main parliamentary Opposition with eighteen seats, and for the first time since independence, the leader of the Opposition was a Tamil, Mr Appapillai Amirthalingam. As a result of the peculiar demographic profile of the island, with a concentration of Tamils in the North and to a lesser extent in the East, the TULF with one-fifth of the popular vote secured by them had 18 seats while the SLFP had only eight. However the TULF election manifesto had clearly stated that their objective was to "establish an independent, sovereign, secular, socialist state of that includes all the geographically contiguous areas that have been the traditional homelands of the Tamil-speaking people...."(RG pg xi) Almost immediately after the new government took over, a change was announced in the mechanics of securing admission to University. In mid-August 1977, a minor clash between the police and a section of the people in Jaffna town, brought on a ferocious outbreak of communal violence between the Tamils and the Sinhalese. The new government restrained it firmly without resort to Emergency rule and a one-man Commission of Inquiry was appointed. A series of administrative measures were taken to redress some of the long-standing grievances of Tamils. The UNP treated its decisive victory as an endorsement of the far- reaching constitutional changes it had incorporated into its election manifesto. Hence in August-September 1977 a parliamentary select committee was appointed on consitutional reform, and the adoption by the National State Assembly of a constitutional amendment establishing a presidential system of government. Under the terms of this amendment, J.R.Jayawardene, the Prime Minister assumed office as the first elected President of Shri Lanka on 4 February 1978, thirty years after Sri Lanka gained independence. In October 1977 the Criminal Justice Commissions Law, perhaps the most controversial piece of legislation of the UF, which had led to abuse of human rights and harassment of political opponents was repealed. Those convicted and in jail were released or their fines and penalties squashed. The most notable beneficiary of this decision, Rohana Wijeweera, the leader of the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, who had been in jail since

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444 SL Histary Chap.82- ... 1971 for his role in the insurgency, was released. In 1978 an amendment of the Public Security Act was made, that the imposition of the emergency rule would be debated and voted by the National Assembly on the first available occasion and the extension of emergency rule beyond 90 days in the aggregate, would require a special two-thirds majority of the house. The new Constitution which came into effect on 7 September 1978 was a presidential system designed to meet Sri Lanka’s own special requirements in view of her past experience in the working of previous constitutions. It was a unique blend of Sri Lanka’s past constitutions with features of the American, French and British systems of government. It rejected many authoritarian features of the Constitution of 1972, by imposing more effective restraints on powers of the executive and the state, by sustaining the rule of law and by strengthening the independence of the judiciary, the rights of the individual as against the state, and most significantly the rights of minorities. It also introduced ‘proportional representation on the list system, in place of the ‘first-past-the-post principle’ of representation based on the British model’ A concession was made to Tamils in fulfilment of the pledge given in the government’s first statement of policy in the National State Assembly on 4 August 1977. The Articles in the new constitution referred to are Article 19 which declared ‘Sinhalese and Tamil as the national languages, with Sinhalese remaining the sole official language’ and Article 26 which abolished the distinction between citizens by descent and citizens by registration, thus removing the stigma of Indians being second class citizens. This ensured that persons of recent Indian origin were treated on par with Sri Lankan citizens by descent and the same civil rights were afforded to ‘stateless persons’ as are guaranteed by the constitution to the citizens of the country. For the first time Indian Tamils came into national when Mr S. Thondaman leader of the Ceylon Workers Congress, the main political party and trade union of the Indian plantation workers entered the cabinet under the new constitution in September 1978. The TULF of the indigenous Tamils dissociated itself from the processes of constitution-making, due to its committment to Eelam. It was also conscious of the challenge from an extremist terrorist group committed to separatism. Thus for the second time since 1930s the youth of the

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445 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Tamil party became the pace-setters in Tamil politics. Jayawardene, who had rebuilt the UNP from the ashes of defeat, inherited a stagnant economy, with high unemployment and severe inflation. The theme of the government’s economic policy was the establishment of a free economy as announced in its first budget in November 1977 and later in 1978 and 79. The improvement seen in tea and rubber in 1976 continued and in 1977 Sri Lanka enjoyed a favourable balance of trade for the first time in fifteen years, with a high foreign exchange reserve. This foreign exchange reserve was sustained through 1978-79 with the economy improving, and an increase in GNP of 8 percent in 1978, 6 percent in 1979 and 5.5 percent in 1980. The economic strategy of the government breathed new life into private enterprise, with an expansion of both economic activity and employment opportunities in the private sector. The establishment of an Industrial Processing Zone, in an area of 200 square miles to the north of Colombo city attracted industries manufacturing for export. The nationalisation of plantation estates by the previous government had resulted in a decline in productivity and managerial efficiency and although the government had treated the rehabilitation of estates as a priority, the results were poor. In other areas of the state sector a change in management and new managerial techniques showed a marked improvement in productivity. The management of State-owned textile mills being handed over to private-sector firms proved a success. The economic and political bankruptcy of the 1970s conferred a new respectability on traditional agriculture. The development of the power and irrigation resources of the gigantic Mahaweli Scheme, the ‘largest and most intricate irrigation scheme attempted in the island’s history,’ was begun. The removal of import controls in the first budget had immediate benefits on employment. It eliminated scarcities of foods and the queues that had been so common. It mitigated the effects of prices rising due to the devaluation of the rupee in November 1977, the escalation of oil prices in 1978-79, and the impact of inflation due to the government’s development programme in industry, housing and irrigation. Bumper rice harvests from 1977 to 78 helped to keep food prices down. Thus despite high unemployment, severe inflation and systematic

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446 SL Histary Chap.82- ... reduction of subsidies on food and other items of consumption and transport, the government remained popular. Hence at the municipal and urban council elections in mid-May the government won a decisive victory, with SLFP coming a poor second, and the left being routed once again. ETHNIC VIOLENCE IN SRI LANKA - 1979 Communal violence produced in mid-1979 by the activities of the extremist Tamil youth group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), was averted by firmness and conciliation. Special legislation modelled on the British Prevention of Terrorism Act, was rushed through parliament in July 1978. A state of emergency was declared in the north with a military commander to co-ordinate security arrangements and to stamp out terrorism. Many academics and legal commentators campaigned against this Act stating that it would be counterproductive. But the government was adamant, and it was rushed through Parliament. A ten-member Presid- ential Commission was appointed to report on decentralisation of administration through District Councils. Legislation based on the Commission’s report was approved by Parliament ‘paving the way for the establishment of Development Councils as a measure of democratic decentralisation, which, one hopes should help to blunt the separatist aspirations of the Tamils and give the restive Jaffna peninsula a durable peace.’ In the south the old left had declined. The new left, the JVP faction was as hostile to the UNP as to the SLFP and the leftist parties. Though vocal and vigorous, it was an ineffective anti-government force.

The next few chapters summarises the Ethnic Problems in Sri Lanka from the valuable information taken from "Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka" by Rohan Guneratne.

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447 SL Histary Chap82 - ... CHAPTER 77

MINORITY PROBLEMS IN SRI LANKA AND INDIAN INTERVENTION Rohan Guneratne gives a very revealing, and almost unbelievable account in his book, "Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka". Indian interven- tion he says began from the early 1980s. From 1953 however the Indian Intelligence bureau had a station in Colombo, just as they had in Karachi, Lahore, Dacca, Pakistan and Burma. In 1963 in response to the vociferous campaign for a separate Tamil State in India, Nehru introduced the Sixteenth Amendment to India’s Consititution making it mandatory for those running for office to take an oath promising to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India. Since then Tamil Nadu politicians could not campaign for a separate state openly, but Tamils in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka continued to harbour the dream of a separate "Thamil Desam". In 1967 the DMK led by M. Karunanidhi came to power in Tamil Nadu. Smugglers in Jaffna and communal extremists in the Federal Party established contact with Tamil Nadu and chauvinists in the DMK. In 1968 the Research and Analysis Wing was formed by R.N.Kao. Kao was India's "spy master". He was a Kashmiri Brahamin and a distant relatinve of the Nehru family who won the trust of both Indra Gandhi and her father. The RAW under him grew from 250 pesonnel with an annual budget of 20 million Indian rupees in 1956 to 7000 personnel and a 100 million budget. He had worked with Parthasarthy and Indra Gandhi to decide the destiny of India's neighbours. Kao speaking to Rohan Guneratne had said "Sri Lanka by itself was not a threat to India. But in our perception Sri Lanka became a seat for outside influences which we consider not very friendly towards us". Indian Intelligence Services recruited Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and trained them and directed them to spy on Trincomalee and the northeastern security forces installations.

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448 SL Histary Chap.82- ... In a book titled "Tamil Eelam and the UNO" the author Krishna Vaikuntavasan, says, "Sixty million Tamils but no country - although there are over 60 million Tamil speakers in the world in countries such as Tamil Nadu(50 million), Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon, it is deplorable that we have no country to call our own. So here is the opportunity for our Tamil friends throughout the world, to help in the coming into being of Eelam, the first Tamil country in modern times" (RG 99) Mr Amirthalingam had written the foreword to this book. The cry for a separate state in Tamil Nadu started in 1885. In 1916 they formed the South Indian People's Association to fight north Indian Brahamins, who dominated important positions in Tamil Nadu. Periyar Ramaswamy Naikkar stated that Brahamins were imposing their language, Hindi, on the Tamils. The British then made Tamil an optional language in Tamil Nadu. He campaigned for a Dravida Desam, which was to include all Tamils across the world. He even asked the British not to leave India without creating a separate state for Dravidians. The area they demarcated was, Tamil Nadu together with a part of Andhra where people spoke Telegu, Bangalore district where people spoke Kannadi, and Malabar in State of Kerala where people spoke Malayali. But these other states resented this attempt by Tamil speaking people of Tamil Nadu to dominate them. In 1967 the DMK fought the Congress in India on two issues- the adoption of Hindi as the official language in India, and the betrayal of Tamils of Indian origin in Sri Lanka. They won more than 100 seats over Congress. This made the Tamil politicians in Sri Lanka rejoice, and soon they began taking all their problems to their brothers across . Politics in Sri Lanka became closely linked with those in Tamil Nadu! But in 1972 the DMK lost. The DMK is said to have plotted to assassinate Mrs Gandhi. Her vehicle was attacked in Madurai and two persons in it were injured, but she escaped. Tamil Nadu continued to agitate against the Indian government's general lack of concern for Tamil interests, the adoption of Hindi as official language of Indian Union and the domination of Brahamins in the social and public life of their state. This forced Nehru in 1963 to bring in the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, where all those running for office had to take the oath to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India.

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449 SL Histary Chap82 - ... In January 1966, J R Jayawardene as Minister of State moved in Parliament the Tamil Language (Special Provisions Regulation) in accordance with the Senanayake-Chelvanayam Pact on which the FP had supported the UNP. But the regulation of the Special Provision Pact was not implemented by the UNP or the UF government which succeeded it in 1970. The FP felt betrayed and withdrew its support. Even before independence, the Tamils wanted greater representation. G. G. Ponnambalam wanted 50% political representation for ethnic minorities who constituted only 30% of the population. The British did not approve of this. Even Tamils think it was unreasonable.(Broken Palmyra pg 12) DISCRIMINATION AND STANDARDISATION OF MARKS In Sri Lanka where education is free, many students of all ethnic groups strive to get into University. Students from schools in bigger towns do well and enter for Science and allied subjects, but the children from schools in smaller towns where facilities for teaching Science subjects are not too good, fail to make the mark. As a result the UF government of Sirima Bandaranaike decided to standardise the marks of students from under-priviledged schools so that they too got a chance to benefit from a University education. Since then many students from schools in rural areas got in for courses such as engineering, medicine, and dentistry which hitherto had exclusively been possible only for children of affluent schools, while many children of professionals of all ethnic groups failed to get into the faculties they wanted. This led to a ‘brain drain’ with many professionals leaving the island so they could give their children the education they desired. Some parents even sent their children to rural schools. Tamils insist it was done to discriminate against them and to prevent Tamil students getting into University. Tamils had always got a large number of places in University, much out of proportion to their numbers in the community. In 1978, due to protests from Tamils, the Jayawardene government withdrew this scheme but reintroduced it as a new scheme where 30% students were selected on merit, 55% on district basis and 15% from backward areas. This affected students of all ethnic groups. Many from affluent schools could not get into University although they passed the examination. But Tamils maintained it was a conspiracy against them and their youth took up arms. In 1978 Tamils who were only 12 % of the population, had 39%

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450 SL Histary Chap.82- ... of University admissions for Medicine, 59% for Dentistry, 48% for Vet. Science and 37% for architecture. In 1981 they had 25% for Medicine, 24% for Dentistry, 40% for Vet Science, and 23% for Architecture. They also say they were discriminated for jobs. In the Public sector, in early 1980s, the 12% Tamils accounted for 34.9% Engineers, 35% Doctors, 38.8% Vet.Surgeons and 33.1% Accountants in the Public sector. But these figures were much higher when the British left Sri Lanka in 1948, and before Sinhala became the Official language in 1956. Since 1956 more Sinhalese educated were able to compete for jobs in the Public sector, and the numbers of Tamils getting these jobs naturally reduced. In the 1960s there were five Ophthalmologists in the premier Eye Hospital in Colombo, of which four were Tamils. The Professors of Surgery, Anatomy, Biochemistry, and several Specialist Physicians, Surgeons and Obstetricians in Colombo were Tamils. Tamil Youth Form Groups Satyaseelan formed the Tamil Manavar Peravai (Tamil Students Federation). One of the main articles they took up was the Republican Constitution of 1972, where "the official language of Sri Lanka shall be Sinhala, Act 33 1956...... "and Article 16 Section 6 which states "Republic shall give Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster Buddhism while assuring all other religions the rights granted under Section18(1)(d)". The Tamil Parliamentarians walked off Parliament on this issue and Tamil agitation started, with the destroying of government buildings, buses, and the burning of the National Flag. Neither Christians nor Islamists protested.

The Tamils claimed that the new constitution gave ‘validity and confirmation to their second-class citizenship’, with Buddhism being given special status, and the recognition of Sinhalese as the state language, (which they regarded as an act of discrimination), with a distinctly inferior status been given to Tamil. This brought the Tamil Congress and the Federal Party together for the first time since 1949. At a meeting presided over by the late Tamil leader S.J.V. Chelvanayagam, a radical youth Kasi Anandan who distinguished himself as a poet said, ‘Mr Duraiappa, Mr Subramanium, Mr Arulampalam, Mr Anandasangari are enemies of the Tamil nation. They do not deserve a natural death. Nor do they deserve to die in an accident. The Tamil people especially the youth, must decide how they should die.’ (Apparently

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451 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Anandan is a prominent member of the LTTE and was linked to the Rajiv Gandhi assassination.) (RG pg 67) ‘In many ways the FP was exploiting the Tamil youth to threaten the non-FP Tamil politicians who had from time to time supported the UNP...... Meanwhile, certain moves were made politically to unite all the Tamil parties. On 14 May 1972 three Tamil parties, the Federal Party (FP), Tamil Congress(TC) and the Ceylon Workers Congress(CWC) formed an alliance called the Tamil United Front (TUF). (Later the CWC opted out of the alliance). (RG pg 67) In May, soon after the Republican Constitution was adopted, the TUF submitted a set of six demands to Prime Minister Sirima Bandaranaike. Their six demands were as follows: 1. Tamil language should be given the same status as Sinhala in the Constitution. 2. There should be constitutional guarantees of full citizenship to all Tamil-speaking people who had made this country their home. There should not be different categories of citizenship or discrimination against some of them. The State should have no power to deprive a citizen of his citizenship. 3. The state should be secular, with equal protection accorded to all religions. 4. The state should ensure valid fundamental rights, guaranteeing equality of persons and ethno-cultural groups. 5. There should be provision in the Constitution for the abolition of caste and untouchability. 6. In a democratic and socialist society, only a decentralised structure of government would make for a participatory democracy with people's power rather than state power. The TUF publicly declared, "We are giving the government three months to amend the constitution." But the government did nothing. On 2 October 1972, the TUF launched a resistance campaign and hoisted the Tamil flag, the rising Sun, which pleased the members of the TUF Youth league. Violence and counter-violence followed. The government increased the police force in the north. In January 1974 when the fourth International Conference of Tamil Research was held in Jaffna, the police were forced by a UNP Tamil

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452 SL Histary Chap.82- ... politician to confront nearly 10,000 Tamils with tear-gas and a baton charge, leading to a massive stampede and the death of eight persons and injuries to many. The Tamil Students Federation soon felt that the TUF was not doing enough. Hence with the more militant elements in the TUF, they formed the militant group called the Tamil New Tigers (TNT), which later in 1975 was renamed the LTTE. The TNT killed several policemen, informants, politicians, and committed several bank robberies and caused destruction of government property. The TNT leader was Chetti Thanabalasingham. Prabhakaran who was a supporter of the Tamil Manavar Peravai joined him. S.Yogachandran alias Kuttimuni and two Indians transporting 20,000 detonators to Jaffna were charged under the Explosives/Passports Act of India by Tamil Nadu, and Kuttimuni was extradited to Sri Lanka. On June 4th 1974 the People’s Bank at was attacked by Tamil youths. When the police confronted them, the leader Sivakumaran who had previously thrown bombs at a police Officer, was trapped by the police. He grabbed a machine gun of a policeman and when that failed to fire, swallowed a cyanide capsule to become the first "martyr." On 5 July 1975 Jaffna Mayor, Alfred Duraiappa was killed by the TNT. He had advised Tamil youth not to indulge in violence. The TUF, in support of the militants, boycotted his funeral.(pg 68) On 14 May 1976 Tamil youths stormed into a meeting of the TUF and demanded they adopt a resolution to ask for a separate state. The TUF obliged and added "Liberation" to their name to become TULF. In August 1977 when the UNP won 140 of 168 seats in Parliament, the TULF with 17 seats became the largest Opposition group and Mr Amirthalingam of the TULF became the Leader of Opposition. In their election manifesto however they said their objective was to get an independent Tamil state. In 1978 as the police force in Jaffna was being strengthened, the militants moved out and established training camps in Murunkan, , Mulativu and Kilinocchi. On 16 April 78, the 'Weekend' published by the Independent Newspapers revealed the existence of a guerilla group called Liberation Tigers, and their killing of a CID team on the Madhu-Mannar Road. A furious Amirthalingam told Parliament on 18 May 1978, "First and foremost I wish to state that the TULF has nothing to do with

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453 SL Histary Chap82 - ... violence.....The Sun group of papers is talking of Tigers, and we are all left wondering where these Tigers are coming from...".(pg 70) Uma Maheswaran, the then Chairman of the LTTE was a close friend of Amirthalingam. So it was most unlikely he did not know of Tamil Tigers! It is now known that Uma was covertly using the State financed Office of the Leader of the Opposition. In June 1981 there were elections to the District Development Council of Jaffna. On the eve of elections, the youth of Jaffna and the police clashed, and the police burnt the TULF headquarters and the Jaffna library which had a collection of 97,000 books, and was one of the best libraries in south Asia. Despite the violence, the TULF entered the DDC but these councils never functioned. The TULF demanded the appointment of Tamil policemen to Tamil areas, and more Tamils to be recruited to the police and army, and that Tamil home guards be established in Tamil villages. In 1982 Tamil militants were being trained in Tamil Nadu where a politician gave them his estate to establish the first camp. Tamil informants, Tamil politicians, and Tamil policemen were being killed. Foreign links to the Tamils were confirmed when the military found the Tamil militants had sophisticated weapons such as M2. The possibility of Delhi being involved never crossed the minds of the Sinhalese. In May 1982 in the famous Pondi Bazaar in Madras, Prabhakaran and Uma Maheswaran shot at each other and were arrested by police, and locked up. Rudra Rajasingham, the Sri Lankan IGP, who was a Tamil, flew to Madras and Delhi to get them extradited, but failed. The DMK and DK parties in Madras campaigned for their release and Delhi acceded to their requests, and they became important political figures. The Tamil terrorist groups in India were EROS, EPRLF, NLFT, LTTE, TELO and PLOTE. There was a move to bring them together and in August 1982 a Committee for Eelam Liberation (CEL) was formed. In September the CEL announced they would contest the TULF at 1982 Parliamentary Elections, because they felt that the TULF continued to toe the line with Jayawardene, while they wanted to campaign for Eelam. Maheswaran was head of the Political Affairs Committee of CEL, and Prabhakaran accepted it. Prabhakaran was chairman of the Military Affairs Committee, but the TELO objected to this. The CEL lasted only till May 86, when the LTTE attacked TELO.

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454 SL Histary Chap.82- ... The LTTE had links with K. Veeramani’s Dravida Kazhagam (DK). The PLOTE was aligned to Professor Perinchitaran’s Thani Tamil Iyakam (Pure Tamil Movement), and was forging links with the Communist Party of India. The TELO had links with DMK, and EPRLF had links with Tamil Nadu Marxists. The militants issued a warning from India in March/April 1983, on behalf of the six militant groups, asking for a dialogue with the government and a viable alternative to Eelam. They felt that the TULF had betrayed them. The TULF wanted to 'enjoy the benefits of being in the Opposition while they covertly supported the Tamil militants, but the militants did not understand the game the TULF was playing.’ The snatching of weapons from Amirthalingam's body-guard when he visited Jaffna University, and the robbery of his car which was later found with windscreen smashed and tyres slashed, widened the gap between the LTTE and the TULF. Meanwhile the TULF and the Tamil militants embarked on a major propaganda campaign in western countries alleging discrimination by the Sri Lankan government. They wanted to get sympathy, financial support and political advantage, and to block the massive financial development assistance that Jayawardene was getting. To counteract this propaganda, and prove that there was no discrimination, Jayawardene appointed Tamils to high positions, such as S. Shervananda, as Chief Justice. Meanwhile on the advise of Tamil Nadu politicians, the Sri Lankan Tamil militants met Mrs Gandhi. They told her of the deteriorating situation in Sri Lanka. She summoned the Sri Lankan High Commissioner Bernard Tillakaratne and expressed concern over a decision of the Sri Lankan government to dispose of dead bodies without a judicial inquiry. RACIAL RIOTS OF JULY 1983 In July 1983 the LTTE ambushed and killed 13 soldiers and mutilated their bodies so that they could not be given to the families. The day the bodies of these soldiers were brought to Kanatte Cemetry, the Sinhalese began their backlash. Shops, houses, factories, farms and vehicles belonging to Tamils in and around Colombo were attacked and destroyed. For three days while Colombo burned, the government did nothing. This discredited Sri Lanka among the diplomatic community internationally and in India. A total of about 6000 lives and property worth Rs 150 billion were destroyed. India was deeply concerned. There was a world-wide rumour that the soldiers were killed because

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455 SL Histary Chap82 - ... they had raped three Tamil girls. But this was not proved. Racial riots had occured in 1956, 58, 61, 74, 77, 79 and 81 but the 1983 riots were the worst. Common criminals too joined the fray and indulged in looting and arson. JR Jayawardene had admitted to the BBC that the riots "revealed a lack of discipline in the armed forces." It was reported that 200,000 refugees were created and 130,000 were in refugee camps! International newspapers reported that thugs led by government MPs led the attacks in some places! The riots took government by surprise. Controlling the riots was a problem for the police. Tamil militant leaders living in self-exile in Madras, were making contact with Delhi through Tamil Nadu leaders. A 16 member delegation from Tamil Nadu met Mrs Gandhi about the problem. Information sent to Delhi by the various Sri Lankan Tamil leaders later became the background information to Indian Organisations involved in Sri Lanka. However most of those who went into refugee camps in Colombo or were transported by ship to Jaffna for their safety, came back to the south and were back in their homes in the south and at their businesses within a short time. Mrs Gandhi telephoned President Jayawardene and sent her Foreign Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao that very night to Colombo. At the talks Rao denied India's interference in Sri Lankan internal affairs. When at the conclusion, Rao asked what Tamil Nadu government could do, Jayawardene retorted, "By returning some of the Sri Lankan terrorists, so that they may be tried in our courts." Taken aback, Rao then asked whether he wanted a special message conveyed to Mrs Gandhi. Guneratne says 'there was total silence for a while.' "Will you then?" asked Jayawardene. "Of course", Rao promptly replied. "Will you convey to her my love?" said the President (RG pg 80). Between 1976 and July 1983 the Tamil militants had killed 89. Of this 52 were Tamils (17 from services and police and 11 politicians, 13 informants and the balance civilians), 34 Sinhalese (31 from services and police, 3 civilians) and two Muslims. Soon after Mr Amirthalingam went round the world on a propaganda tour. "One of the main lines of propaganda which Amirthalingam and other TULF MPs used was the fact that the TULF led the Sri Lankan Opposition...... Those in western countries, who had little prior knowledge of Sri Lankan politics since independence, assumed the TULF represented the alternative to the party in power and afforded the TULF leaders the same respect and sympathy they would afford to any alternative party in a democracy. The TULF strategists knew this and used it to their full advantage, furthering their propaganda objectives"

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456 SL Histary Chap.82- ... The UNP government brought in the Sixth Amendment which made it compulsory for MPs and Public officials to take an oath of allegiance for a unitary State. This makes it illegal to espouse, support, promote, finance, encourage or advocate a separate state within Sri Lanka, similar to what Nehru brought in when Tamil Nadu politicians demanded secessionism in 1963. The TULF refused to take this oath and TULF Parliamentarians decided to live in exile in India. They were guests of the Tamil Nadu State. The Indian government protested about the oath, not realising that Nehru had introduced a similar amendment! Eelam supporters from other countries came to India, and some even asked Delhi to prevent Sinhalese Buddhists coming to India on pilgrimages. According to Guneratne, the Third Agency, a super intelligence organis- ation staffed by hand-picked RAW and other operatives under Mrs Gandhi, R.N Kao and Nair were planning India's policy vis-a-vis Sri Lanka. Kao who originally came from Pakistan, was a distant relative of the Nehrus. These agents worked with Chandrahasan, son of SJV Chelvanayagam who like his father was a lawyer. Through Chandrahasan, the RAW offered Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups training, arms, ammunition, finances and even logistic support! Guneratne who met Chandrahasan in Madras where he lives, says, that during their conversation, he insisted that the proposed state of Eelam be called 'Thamil Eelam' and the rest of Sri Lanka referred to as Sri Lanka! But apparently today he is on the Tiger 'hit-list' and is under guard. In Tamil Nadu, Chandrahasan helped the DMK to collect 20 million signatures against the genocide of Tamils in Sri Lanka, by visiting every home in Tamil Nadu. The signatures were sent to the UN. For Congress (I) to remain in power they needed votes from Tamil Nadu. 'The centre was thus obliged to covertly and overtly help the interests of the Tamil Nadu state...... This gave New Delhi the licence to intervene in Sri Lanka.' After the 1983 riots, the Tamil groups were busy in Tamil Nadu opening camps for recruiting and training, arranging transport, organising meetings, giving interviews, fund raising, procuring weapons, etc. The LTTE and TULF were favoured by MGR Ramachandran and the state government. TELO was supported by Karunanidhi. TELO, EPRLF, and EROS were supported by the central government. PLOTE had no support in Tamil Nadu and had to get support from outside. They had wealthy sponsors and sympathisers in Europe and America.. For Sri Lankan refugees Ramachandran gave Indian Rs 200,000 from his personal funds and Rs 1,800,000 from the Chief Ministers Fund.

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457 SL Histary Chap82 - ... In October Thondaman returning from India stated that Uma Maheswaran had told him that he was willing to come to a compomise instead of clamouring for a separate state. But meanwhile Anton Balasingam announced that Trincomalee will be the capital of Eelam, and this was given wide publicity in Indian media. INDIAN TRAINING CAMPS FOR SRI LANKAN MILITANTS From mid-October 1983 all the militant groups had training camps in Tamil Nadu and Uttara Pradesh. Every group had camps in Madras and in ten other states. Customs clearance was easy for ships bringing arrms. Amirthalingam visited Tripoli and Uma Maheswaran visited Algeria. Uma was also received by the Prime Minister of Mauritius where a Tamil-dominated government had come into power. The RAW and Tamil Nadu state were all supporting the SL Tamil militants. The militants, particularly PLOTE, invited Indian Tamils to settle in borders of Mannar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee, Mulativu, Batticaloa and Amparai. Over 200,000 Indian Tamils in the plantations were settled with the help of SEDEC, OXFAM, NOVIB, SCOTS and Sarvodaya. With help from RAW some militant groups drew plans to infiltrate the hill country. Indira Gandhi had two hand-picked men R.N. Kao and G Parthasarthy who could work together on the Sri Lanka operation. FIRST EVIDENCE OF TRAINING IN NORTH INDIA (1983) The first concrete evidence of Indian subversive activities came from a small group of Tamil youths arrested in Jaffna by the security forces. These youths from Trincomalee had gone to Tamil Nadu after the 1983 riots gutted their houses. They were taken to New Delhi and trained in the use of 9mm pistols, AK-47 rifles and Indian Sub machine guns, in the manufacture of parcel bombs, the laying of booby traps, the use of radio communications through the Morse code to secret letter-writing, identification of ranks, assessing the movements, strength of troops and vehicles in a camp, conducting surveillance and counter-surveillance, and in cultivating informants and collecting strategic information. Next they were taken to Bombay harbour and taught how to identify ships by flag and form. They were trained specifically in the identification of destroyers, cruisers, minesweepers, gun boats, missile cruisers, missile boats, torpedo boats, aircraft carriers, submarines, oil tankers and passenger ships. They were instructed how to pass on that information from Trincomalee to Madras though a New Delhi Post office Box. They were returned to Jaffna with a few rupees. Jaffna being alien to

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458 SL Histary Chap.82- ... them, the security forces received information that there were strangers in Jaffna who did not know their whereabouts. When apprehended and interrogated they identified a signboard in New Delhi as a landmark. When Colombo informed the Sri Lankan High Commission in New Delhi to locate the board, the Indians promptly removed it. Initial training was at Chakrata near Dehra Dun in Uttara Pradesh, Ramakrishnapuram in New Delhi and at a location near Delhi Airport. The base at Chakrata was most secretive. Previously Tibetan Kampas were trained here against the Chinese. Later it was exclusively for Sri Lankans. Training camps were held in Greater Kailas 11, New Delhi, in Cannal Park and Green Park in Delhi. The TELO leader Sabaratnam later revealed that he and 350 others and PLOTE cadres were trained near the Delhi Airport by one Rajah, a retired Army Officer on contract to RAW. According to a TELO leader the camp at Potur had trained 1500 recruits and the Vidapalaman camp trained 1200. Later they had their own camps in Tamil Nadu. The RAW trained PLOTE. They had six camps in Thanjavur district. Some of these camps trained 500 at one time. The instructor was one Shekar. Lectures in Marxism was also given by one Ranjan. EROS had training in the North and later they had camps at the foothills of the Himalayas. The RAW had training camps for the LTTE in Tamil Nadu. Mrs Gandhi and Rajiv authorised military assistance to them. By early 1987 an estimated 2000 LTTE, 8000 PLOTE, 1500 EPRLF, 1250 EROS and 1500 TELO had training. In 1976 EROS converted the Kannati farm in Vavuniya into a militant training camp. EROS leaders in London struck a friendship with Syed Hameed, the PLO representative in UK, who later arranged training for their cadres in Beirut, Lebanon, and in Syria. LTTE and EROS trained together with Palestinians in late 1976 and 77. About 50 EROS and EPRLF cadres were trained in Lebanon by the PLO. EROS was responsible for a number of incidents in Colombo, such as exploding of bombs in a train at Katunayake on 10 April 1985, at Army Headquarters in Colombo on 29 April 1985, and in an inter-city train in Colombo on 12 November 1985. EROS had also planned attacks on the National Identity Card office at Keppetipola Mawata in Colombo, Duty Free Shopping Complex, Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation Building, the two Television stations in Colombo and the massive Mahaveli dams which were the pride of the Jayawardene

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459 SL Histary Chap82 - ... administration, and several unidentified factories to cripple the country's economy. For some unknown reason they were not carried out but they were responsible for at least 20 bombs in Colombo and greater Colombo in the 1980s.(RG pg 141) Ms Penelope Willis of the Institute for Study of Terrorism, UK., who was also an author, was abducted first by PLOTE and later by EROS in January 1986. After she was released she wrote a book about her bitter experiences in Sri Lanka. Training imparted by RAW to EROS members reached its peak in 1985 when 190 members were trained for 75 days in Thandavur in Uttara Pradesh. By 1986 EROS had 1750 trained, and their fire-power was 3 RPGs, 4 mortars, 2 LMG, 35 SLRs, 60 AK-47s, 10 SMGs, 3 G3s, 303 rifles and 15 pistols/ revolvers. Most of these were provided by the RAW. They also gave to the Tamil militants, arms which Indian forces had seized from the Golden Temple. EROS claimed responsiblitity for bomb attacks on the Central Telegraph Office, Ceylon Cold Stores, and Hotel Oberoi. With assistance and advise of RAW, the TELO performed the mining of the Yal Devi train in January 1985 killing 32 Security Forces personnel, 11 civilians, and injuring 25 others, and attacked police station in November 1984 killing 27 police personel. The TELO received firearms and explosives from India. By early 1986 the TELO had 50 SARs, 10 AK-47s, 2LMGs,50 SMGs, 20 G3s, 4RPGs, mortars, 125 0.303 rifles and 25 pistols/revolvers. TELO with 4500 cadres had headquarters at 1311, thirteenth Main Street,Anna Nagar West, Madras 40.(Guneratne pg 153) INDIA'S DUAL POLICY The Third Agency and RAW were training Sri Lankan militants. The External Affairs Minister Narasimha Rao speaking in the Indian Parliament on 4 April 1984 said, "We are for a peaceful settlement of disputes wherever and whenever they arise.....We do not want any secession. We are against secessionist trends in any country...... These are the parametres of our policy . Therefore there is no question of my having compromised on this." (pg 104) Each and every offical including the Indian High Commissioner in Sri Lanka, was thoroughly briefed to deny the Centre's direct involvement in the Sri Lankan crisis. If they were forced to admit by showing photographs of training camps and confessions of captured militants, they were supposed to say that the Sri Lankan Tamil militancy was supported only "by sections of the Tamil Nadu public."

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460 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Gopalasamy Parthasarthy, Chairman of Policy Planning Committee and special envoy was sent by Mrs Gandhi, to draw up proposals with Jayawardene, to be discussed when he visits Delhi for Commonwealth Heads of Conference on 24 November 1983. Addressing the Conference, Mr Jayawardene said, "Sri Lanka is a small country. We have fifteen million people. Anybody can invade us. I am not arming to fight anybody. Our arms are purely for self- defence. If I have the strength and life I will not let my people be subject to anybody. Fifteen million people can decide to die if they are invaded by somebody else and decide never to give in." Relations between Jayawardene and Mrs Gandhi were not the best. Expatriate Sri Lankan Tamils were sending monetary contributions. Other Sri Lankan Tamils were going west in search of greener pastures, with the blessings of various Christian organisations supporting them. The External Affairs Minister Narasimha Rao in the Indian Parliament on 6th April 1984 said, "We are for a peaceful settlement of disputes wherever and whenever they arise....We do not want any secession. We are against secessionist trends in any country.... These are the parametres of our policy. Therefore there is no question of my having compromised on this." (RG pg 104) In January 1984 an All Party Conference was held to work out a political solution. The Conference was in Colombo. But the militants were waging a war in the northeast while their political counterparts attended the Conference! They robbed People's Bank branches in , and and the loss was Rs 55 million! "The whole situation was a tragi-comedy..... the very people who talked of peace were waging war against each other...... those who pontificated peace to Sri Lanka were covertly supporting the destabilization of the island nation...... When an Indian Diplomat, Mhatre was slain by Kashmiri separatists in Birmingham in February 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi swore to eradicate terrorism from India with an iron fist. Sri Lankan bureaucrats who were aware of her involvement in promoting just laughed it off." Meanwhile Mrs Gandhi had made remarks about Prime Minister Premadasa accusing India of subverting Sri Lanka. Mr Premadasa said, "Do you think we are carrying on a campaign against the Union of India. We are not even carrying on a campaign against Tamil Nadu government. Our complaint is that they have allowed our own people to

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461 SL Histary Chap82 - ... get there and prepare for terrorism and wage war against our country. What would be the position if we allowed Sikhs to come here and train to fight the government of India? We will never allow anybody to use not only our soil or anything else to wage war or invade any other country in this world. This is our policy. We do not want any country to behave in this fashion. We want others to follow our example." Prime Minister Premadasa is also supposed to have said, "Why are you encouraging these terrorists? If you want to invade this country, if you want to swallow this country, do so openly without trying to hide." Meanwhile the campaign to discredit Sri Lanka, spread from Tamil Nadu political organisations to the Indian Ministry of External Affairs. Chandrahasan, leader of PROTEG had written to US President Ronald Reagan, "The Sri Lankan Government has now embarked on a course, the grand strategy of which is to accept ostensibly the good offices of the Government of India and pursue a path of negotiations with Tamil leaders while giving itself time to prepare for the final solution that would see an end to Tamil terrorism and the Tamil demand for a separate state of Tamil Eelam, once and for all. President Jayawardene himself expressed the thinking of his Sinhala people when he told his party colleagues on December 10, 'I would like to be a hero and not a traitor. I can ask the armed forces to kill all the Tamils but I wont do that.' We have reason to believe, Mr President, that the recent inflow of US arms to Sri Lanka include the following: 500 armoured cars from Pakistan, several hundred automatic rifles with night vision; thousands of SMGs, LMGs with pump guns with ammunition from NATO sources in Europe apart from laser guns, sensitive grenades and a large quantity of 303 rifle ammunition, revolvers and pistols" In March 1984, Mr Lalith Athulathmudali was appointed Minister of National Security and Deputy Minister of Defence while President Jayawardene remained Minister of Defence. In this Ministry was Ravi (son of President Jayawardene), as Presidential National Security Advisor, General Sepala Attygalle as Defence Secretary, and General Cyril Ranatunge as General Officer Commanding the Joint Operations Jayawardene had antagonised India over the renewal of the VoA contract with the US, over the allowing of foreign naval vessels to visit Trincomalee provided they did not carry nuclear weapons and they were

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462 SL Histary Chap.82- ... not at war, the leasing of Trincomalee oil tank farm to a Bermuda based company with US links, and the prescence of Israeli, British and South African service personnel. The US Ambassador James W. Spain had been asked by Dixit, the Indian High Commissioner in Sri Lanka, about the US interests in the VoA station, the Trincomalee oil Tank farm and the Trincomalee harbour. Spain said, "Yes, Dixit inquired about these." About the farm he had said, US was not interested because US did not have an Indian Ocean fleet. The Sixth fleet is in the Mediterranean and the Seventh is in the Pacific. About the VoA station, Spain had told Dixit, "Stop this nonsense. The VoA facility is not for eaves-dropping on India. If we wanted to spy on your security installations we have other ways." About the Trincomalee harbour, Spain had told Dixit, "If the Sri Lankan government offered Trincomalee, I do not have to even speak to Washington to answer that question. We are not interested in Trincomalee." Athulathmudali visits India National Security Minister Lalith Athulathmudali visited India in April 1984 and discussed the situation in Sri Lanka with Rajiv Gandhi and other political leaders. Tamil Nadu Deputy IGP Mohandas had been present at the meeting with Athulathmudali. He said, "Athulathmudali was an impressive personality, with all the facts at his finger tips. The Indian officials were at a disadvantage because it could not be denied that India was interfering in the internal affairs of her neighbour..... Athulathmudali laid bare all the false pretensions of India, to which we could not give a satisfactory reply".(pg 104) Tamil militants and the RAW were sending exaggerated reports to Delhi. In November 1983 the Keeny Meeny Service, a specialised outfit for fighting terrorism in the Channel Islands, UK, was contracted to train Sri Lankan commandos. Mrs Gandhi was very concerned about this. For many years after independence, Sri Lanka had an arrangement with India to train Sri Lankan servicemen in India. But after July 1983, India did not impart its best training to Sri Lankans. Hence Sri Lanka had to seek training from Pakistan. When India objected, Jayawardene rightly asked, "How can you train my men and also terrorists?" The Indian High Commissioner had informed Delhi that the Mossad was training in Sri Lanka. This was wrong. It was Shinber, the Israeli Internal Security Service that trained. Israel sold sophisticated firearms

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463 SL Histary Chap82 - ... such as Uzis, mini Uzis, and Dvora Fast Attack Craft for the Navy. Bomb in Madras Airport On 2 August 1984 Tambipillai Maheswaran came to Meenambakkam Airport in Madras under the name of Kadiresan, and left two suitcases to be loaded into the Airlanka plane leaving for Colombo at 2230 hours They were to be loaded into two Airlanka planes in Colombo, one to Gatwick London, leaving at 2355 hours and the other leaving for Paris at 2330 hours. But the suitcases were not loaded into the plane at Madras as the passenger had failed the usual custom and immigration procedures. Soon after, they exploded at the Madras left-luggage counter, killing 30 people, 24 of them Sri Lankans flying to Middle East, and six Indians. They were meant to blow up the two Airlanka planes going from Colombo to London and Paris. This explosion shook the Madras authorities. K. Mohandas the Deputy IGP of Tamil Nadu raided the TEA base where the bomb was manufactured and collected a timing devise, 100 kgms of gelegnite, detonator wires, chemicals from phosporous to Potassium cyanide and sodium metal and IRs 200,000 worth of Indian and foreign currency. Mohandas says "The next day I presented myself before a senior policy maker...... He indicated to me that we had a duty to protect the Sri Lankan militants and if we continued along the known lines of investigation...... the Sri Lankan government would take advantage and proclaim to the world the existence of militant training camps in India which had 'officially been denied by New Delhi.' He added that there was the danger of Tamil chauvinist political parties in Tamil Nadu joining hands with the Tamils to establish a bigger Eelam including Tamil Nadu." Later those arrested escaped and Mohandas claimed they had official support to escape. (pg 109) To counter India's threat, Jayawardene annoyed Mrs Gandhi by seeking help from China and US. During Jayawardene's visit to China in May 1984, which gave rise to suspicion, he said, "In the 2,500 year history of Sri Lanka we have been invaded, but we never gave in. The spirit of man was unconquerable. He will fight. Fifteen-million people will die unconquered if we are invaded." He asked for gun boats from China "to prevent illegal immigration from India and prevent terrorist activities in the north." In August 1984 Mrs Gandhi summoned a high powered meeting and discussed invasion plans for Sri Lanka. Troops were moved from Agra

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464 SL Histary Chap.82- ... to Trivandrum. But in September 1984 the plans were shelved. In October 1984 Mrs Gandhi was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards and her son Rajiv succeeded her. Amirthalingam wrote congratulating him and added, "...... the problem of the three-million Tamils in Sri Lanka has reached an impasse during the last two weeks with President Jayawardene suddenly announcing the winding up of the All-Party Conference...... It was the offer of offices by the late Prime Minister and her continued good concern in working out a final solution that ensured the security of the Tamil people from genocide...... We have no help but India and the helpless Tamils look to you for their redemption from oppression and genocide." (pg 113) The year 1984 was a crucial year for Sri Lanka. The militants were reporting all movements of the security forces to their bases. They threw grenades at army patrols. Under Sathasivam Krishnakumar alias Kittu's direction, the LTTE mined roads, fired at helicopters and aircraft, ambushed patrols, attacked camps, detachments and police stations. Other militants murdered informants, stole vehicles including an ambulance, robbed banks, houses and shops. The LTTE commenced their Radio transmission in March 1985. The terrorists leaders lived in luxury in Besant Nagar and Adiyar. Parthasarthy was still Chairman of the Policy Planning Committee but Rajiv had appointed Romesh Bhandari, as . Jayawardene in a letter to Rajiv on 1 March 1985, wrote stating the problems and said, "I ask of you very little. Let us forget the issue of training camps; the existence of terrorists in South India; their plotting and planning. I ask you to help me to prevent them coming here with arms, at the same time...... prevent them from seeking refuge in your country?..... to help stop this taking of life and damage to property, and the resumption of civilised life in your most friendly neighbour...... Cross border terrorism threatens the very fabric of this democracy...... Do please understand our problem which is now yours too, and help...... " (pg 116) Between 1 January 1977 and 31 October 84, Tamil militants had murdered 167 civilians, 13 politicians, 55 police, 34 army, 3 navy and 4 airforce personnel. On 18th November 1984 Brigadier Ariyaperuma was killed in a landmine ambush. On 20th November, 26 in Chavakacheri police station, on 30th November, 70 Sinhalese civilians, men, women and children in the Dollar and farms in Mulativu, and 12

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465 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Sinhalese civilians, men, women and children in the fishing villages of Kokilai and Nayaru were killed. In retaliation 37 Tamils were killed in Odiyamalai and Nedunkerni. There were incidents everyday. When Lalith Athlathmudali met Rajiv Gandhi in India to push for a military solution, he discussed joint patrols to police the Indo-Lanka maritime boundary. He denied the charge made, of Sri Lankan navy killing Indian fishermen. When Gandhi told him that "India will never invade Sri Lanka" it was a snub for Amirthalingam, who in February had requested Indian invasion. Lalith requested for some one from India to come over for discussions. Romesh Bhandari came in spite of Parthasarthy trying to stop him. Many Indians and Sri Lankans believe that Bhandari was bought over by the Sri Lankan government, and that was due to Professor Ralph Buultjens, a Sri Lankan from New York who was a friend of the Nehru family. Bhandari painted a rosy picture about solving the conflict to Gandhi who said, he saw 'a light at the end of the tunnel.' While Athulathmudali pressed for a military solution in Sri Lanka, the RAW increased pressure on Sri Lankan government to come up with a political solution by intensifying their training and arming of the militants. "They even provided logistical support to the LTTE and other groups to massacre civilians." When the LTTE attacked the holy city of Anuradhapura and killed many pilgrims, the RAW was in Radio contact with the LTTE in the north. Around this time Uma Maheswaran of PLOTE refused to carry out similar massacres. He was reprimanded by the RAW and punitive action taken against PLOTE! (RG pg 118) There were 70,000 Sri Lankan refugees in Tamil Nadu. On 3 May 1985, Rajiv Gandhi said in Parliament "Our concern is for the Tamils of Sri Lanka. The concern is not only of people in the South, but the concern of everyone in India. We have to see that the refugees go back, go back in honour, go back safely, go back with the security of expecting and getting full freedom to express themselves, to work, to live within the integrity of Sri Lanka. We have made our position clear many times on this." A shipload of arms purchased in Hongkong by PLOTE, for US Dollars 4 million (about SLRs 108 million), which came through Singapore and Bombay before reaching Madras, was seized by the Tamil Nadu Police on orders from Rajiv Gandhi. PLOTE appealed to

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466 SL Histary Chap.82- ... the Indian Foreign Minister, the Head of RAW and the Chief Minister, but were unsuccessful. But arms provided by the RAW were smuggled in from Rameshwaran, Kodikkarah, Mandapam in Tamil Nadu to Mannar, Magadal, Velvettithurai, Point Pedro and Mulativu.

CHAPTER 78

THE INDIAN INVOLVEMENT

TALKS IN THIMPHU IN AUGUST 1985

On 18 June 1985 a ceasefire was established. RAW was instrumental in getting the militants to accept it. There were violations on both sides. The LTTE reinforced their camps and consolidated themsleves. Using sleepers from railway tracks they made bunkers, and laid landmines. One officer from the armed forces later said, "We should not have given that opportunity (the ceasefire) to our enemy." The militants refused to meet in Colombo. The king of Bhutan invited India, as mediator for the peace-talks, to hold talks in Thimphu. The government was represented by Dr H.W Jayawardene, brother of President Jayawardene, H.L De Silva, L.C Seneviratne, Mark Fernando and SL Gunasekera. S. Chandrashekaran of RAW assisted the Tamil groups. All militant groups except LTTE said these talks gave them a chance to tell the world that the "Sri Lankan government treated them as the representatives of the Tamil people." The Tamil groups, TELO, PLOTE, LTTE, EROS EPRLF and TULF said they would negotiate only if four principles are accepted. 1. Recognition of Tamil as a distinct nationality. 2. Recognition of an independent Tamil homeland and the guarantee of its territorial integrity. 3. Based on the above, recognition of the inalienable right of self- determination of the Tamil nation. 4. Recognition of the right to full citizenship and other fundamental

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467 SL Histary Chap82 - ... democratic rights of all Tamils who look upon the island as their country. They unanimously rejected proposals put forward by the Sri Lankan government, as they demanded an independent Tamil State. But said "...... In view of our earnest desire for peace, we are prepared to give consideration to any set of proposals in keeping with the above principles that the Sri Lankan government might place before us.". During the talks at 4 pm on 16 August, the leader of the government delegation read out a telex that he had received, that a bomb had gone off in Vavuniya killing 19 persons, and as a reprisal the security forces had killed 100 civilians. The BBC also announced that there were unconfirmed reports of 100 civilians being killed. The government denied this. But the PLOTE read out a statement saying that the government had violated the ceasefire and that 200 innocent civilians had been killed by the army running amok in Vavuniya. Using this as an excuse they all left the negotiating table. Dr Jayawardene who represented the Sri Lankan Government said later, "it is clear from the sequence of events, that the rumour about the massive killing of civilians had been deliberately set afloat to break the talks at Thimpu. The true position is that during the ceasefire there had been repeated violations by the terrorists, amounting to 603 in number, including 114 killings, 87 obstructions, and over 300 robberies. The false rumour was timed to avoid the talks." (RG pg 122) The government group met the Eelam National Liberation Front again for Thimpu II talks. The Tamils picked N. Satyendra, son of Mr Nadesan, QC, a Tamil lawyer from Colombo, who was "known for his arrogance" and was President of a UNP trade Union, as their representative. Both father and son practised law in Colombo "among the Sinhala people who were supposed to be discriminating against Tamils." He picked on Romesh Bhandari, the Indian envoy. When Bhandari made a slip of the tongue "he got a tongue lashing" from Satyendra. During these talks the militants in Sri Lanka were busy transporting arms and increasing mining of all possible routes. Soon after the talks, Amirthalingam and M. Sivasithamparam wrote to Rajiv Gandhi. "The fundamental basis for any solution to the Tamil problem will be the recognition of the right of the Tamil people to rule themselves in their homeland. Serious inroads have been made into these homelands by a policy of planned colonisation with Sinhalese,

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468 SL Histary Chap.82- ... carried out by successive Sinhala governments since independence in the teeth of opposition by the Tamil people...... " The security agents in Sri Lanka knew of the secret connection the TULF had with the militants. In 1985 the truth was exposed when three letters found on Ravi, the son of Amirthalingam was recovered by customs. Ravi had written, "Even after Appah(Amirtha- lingam) met Thamby (Prabhakran), his friend Balasingham is still making statements critical of the TULF...... Now we are purchasing an estate with the assistance of the London Branch. We also obtained a jungle land with the assistance of an Indian citizen. These two would be sufficient. We could train 50 to 100...... We have chosen the name Tamil Eelam National Army...." (pg126) After these talks the representatives of the governments of India and Sri Lanka drew up the Delhi Accord. But by September 1985 there was disagreement between the TULF and the Sri Lankan delegation. The TULF wrote to Gandhi that they could never compromise on "the integrity of the Tamil homeland, devolution of power in respect of land and the subject of internal law and order." When Jayawardene met Rajiv Gandhi in Bahamas at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in October 1985, they discussed the problem. Jayawardene wanted Gandhi to increase Indian coast guard patrols to stop movement of weapons, explosives and manpower from India to Sri Lanka. Jayawardene wanted to ask the Commonwealth Secretary Sir Shridath Ramphal to urge Commonwealth intervention. But Gandhi informed Ramphal he would not even consider such a proposition! In 1987 India's Army Chief Lieutenant General Krishnaswamy Sunderji was planning three military manoeuvres - to attack Pakistan, China, and Sri Lanka. The plan for Sri Lanka was for "airborne troops to secure airheads and sea-borne troops to secure beach-heads." It was to be executed if Sri Lankan security forces were planning to take Jaffna. The 340 Independent Infantry Brigade and the 54 Infantry Division of India had rehearsed amphibious and air landing operations. By March, comprehensive maps of Sri Lanka based on aerial photographs taken secretively, were ready. RAW secretly sent ten cadres from each of the Tamil terrorist groups to Uttara Pradesh for training in use of Surface-to-air missiles. By June 87 the Sri Lankan project was code-named "Operation Pawan". (RG pg 160-162)

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469 SL Histary Chap82 - ... According to Guneratne the events leading to this and the "air-drop" of food parcels in June 1987 depended on four developments. (1). Rajiv Gandhi saw the LTTE becoming increasingly involved in domestic politics of India, and becoming a threat to India's unity. To persuade Prabhakaran to agree to a political solution RAW warned him that the US seventh fleet was planning to intervene. He still was not cooperative. (2). India could not continue its double standards, telling Pakistan not to give sanctuary to Indian terrorists, while India was helping Sri Lankan terrorists. (3) Gandhi had developed a good rapport with Jayawardene at the SAARC in Bangalore in November 1986. For Gandhi's own survival he had to please the AIADMK while Jayawardene wanted to vanquish the Tamil militants, much against India's wishes, which was detrimental to India's own security. (4) The Sri Lankan government was not cooperating with India to find a political solution. On 3 May 1986 morning an Airlanka Tristar plane exploded at Katunayake Airport just before take off to Male with 130 passengers. There is a suspicion that RAW was behind this explosion, with the assistance of individual Tamils trained in India. (RG pg 130). Sixteen persons, of whom 13 were foreigners, were killed. In October 1986 a plan was drawn up, "to enforce the law on the militants." (pg 164). Mohandas, Deputy IGP, Tamil Nadu, was in charge. He was told not to inform the RAW or Tamil Nadu people. A group of local officers were to visit the militants camp before 6 am on November 8th and tell the terrorists that in view of ensuring the security for SAARC, they had to deposit all their arms in rooms and keep the keys themselves. Within 20 minutes commandos were to storm the rooms and break the locks and take the arms to the local police station. On November 8th, the plan was put into action and it worked. 500 armed militants were disarmed. The haul was assessed at Rs 120 crores! (Rs 120 million). The Tamil militants, Prabhakaran and Anton Balasingam (LTTE), V. Balakumar (EROS) and A Selvam of TELO were photographed and finger printed. Uma Maheswaran who had gone to Delhi was placed under house-arrest. The RAW told Gandhi that the LTTE planned to achieve virtual autonomy by 1987. "The concept of a homeland is being projected in

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470 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Tamil Nadu to scuttle talks and assist in their objective." (pg 164). The RAW also told Gandhi that the militants were subdued, disillushioned and demoralised and it was the best time to work out a speedy settlement; a time-lag would give them a chance to rebuild their confidence; and any offensive operation by Sri Lanka's security forces that will result in civilian casualties should be strictly avoided, as both Tamil Nadu politicians and the Tamil people were very sensitive about this, and were less concerned about the killing of the militants.(pg165) They suggested to Gandhi to "come up with concessions which can satisfy the demand for a linguistic unit." Gandhi directed that this should be conveyed to Jayawardene. Gandhi was told by the RAW that he was losing clout in Tamil Nadu which was electorally important to him. Therefore he informed Sri Lanka to consider the following: (1). The possibility of offering concessions in regard to the request for a linguistic unit. (2).To allay fears the Tamils have that the procedures provided may not be honoured by future Presidents, to have them adopted in the constitution (3) The Sri Lankan government adopts a program for young militants to enable them to get into the mainstream. These were to be discussed by the two leaders at SAARC. RAW told the Sri Lankan Intelligence operatives "that once a settlement is reached the militants will have to surrender arms". RAW also disclosed that the LTTE had plans to "over-run the and force Security forces to stage an assault to free the captives." They said that even in three years the government could not vanquish them. When Jayawardene, his wife and the members of his team reached Bangalore after a last-minute change of planes for security reasons, they were received by Gandhi at the airport. Gandhi had approached Prabhakaran through his 'godfather' Ramachandran to meet Jayawardene at the SAARC and work out a peace-pact. Prabhakaran and Anton Balasingham were flown to Bangalore in a special plane. Ramachandran could not make Prabhakaran agree to a pact. Gandhi was disappointed. Deputy IGP Mohandas says, "Apparently angry, MGR asked me to seize the wireless sets which the militants were clandestinely using to communicate with Sri Lanka. I told him it was not necessary because Central Intelligence agencies were monitoring the traffic over the wireless...... But MGR insisted. The sets were seized. Annoyed,

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471 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Prabhakaran went on a fast, without protest. Added to this a public statement by the Union Minister of Home Affairs that he was not consulted, made MGR order the wireless sets and all the arms and ammunition seized, to be returned to the militants...... I refused to be a party to this enterprise..." (pg 167) But actually, the arms seized in November 1986 were returned only to the LTTE, not only their ones, but all those of the other groups. This led many to believe that MGR did it to strengthen the LTTE and weaken the others. But MGR told Prabhakaran, that if he did not comply, he will have to leave Tamil Nadu. Prabhakaran and his people went back to Jaffna in early January 1987. Jayawardene's plan to trifurcate Eastern province was rejected by the TULF saying it was "clearly aimed at grabbing for the Sinhalese the maximum possible land in the Eastern Province." TRADITIONAL TAMIL HOMELAND THEORY On 18 December 1986, an Indian delegation consisting of External Affairs Minister Natwar Singh, Home and Pensions and Personal greivances Minister Chidambaram and the Indian High Commissioner Dixit met the Sri Lankan delegation of MPs from Eastern Province, led by K.W. Devanayagam, (a Tamil lawyer, who was also the Sri Lankan Minister of Home Affairs). They all visited the Eastern Province. Jayawardene thought he could persuade the Sinhalese to accept the proposals. But at the meeting the Sinhalese and even the Tamil Minister Devanayagam said that there were large areas in Bintenna Pattu and Wewagampattu that had never been Tamil homelands. (RG pg 169) "They were Sinhalese and Kandyan for centuries. They could never be considered as Tamil homelands", said Mr Devanayagam. When Chidambaram asked whether it was not possible "to recurve the Eastern Province leaving out the majority Sinhalese areas in Amparai". Devanayagam said, "The Sinhalese, Muslims and Tamils have lived together and should continue to live together in one province. The Sinhalese necessarily had to be part of it" Sinha Ratnatunge had quoted Devanayagam as saying that when he "came to Amparai as a young lawyer, fifty years ago to start a practice, there were hardly any Tamils around, and the Eastern Province could not be considered a traditional Tamil homeland." The fear that Tamils will rule the Muslims, prevent them from supporting

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472 SL Histary Chap.82- ... the Tamils. The MPs of Eastern Province refused the excision of Amparai from the EP as that would alter the boundaries. Gamini Dissanayake, Minister of Lands and Land Development met the Indian delegation on 13 January, who said they agree to the proposals with Amparai excised from EP. Even the LTTE accepted it. But Kittu refused. Balsingham said that it will lead to Tamils losing large areas of fertile land to the Sinhalese, and that was land belonging to Tamil speaking Muslims, but colonised by Sinhalese in the last two decades. India pressurised Jayawardene to consider the proposal to excise Amparai from the eastern province despite opposition in Sri Lanka.(pg 170) Prabhakaran who returned from India early January, was now in charge. Kittu wanted to declare Eelam on January 1st 1987. Sri Lankan troops were confined to their 17 camps. There was a fear that the LTTE would launch a full-scale attack on Jaffna Fort. Colombo imposed an embargo on fuel. Dixit briefed Gandhi and the others. India threatened to withdraw its good offices unless Colombo pursued the political line. Gandhi sent a communique on 9th February, to remove the embargo on fuel. The public and the Cabinet were annoyed. On 12 February 1987, Jayawardene sent a seven-point response to India. In brief it said that if the LTTE ceased armed violent operations, the army will not carry out any further military operations in the area during this period. When hostilities cease the embargo will be lifted, and if they give up arms, an amnesty will be given to them. The government was agreeable to an early date being fixed for negotiations. He also stated that the government had never carried out military operations against civilians, and never will. On 12 February Jayawardene received another message stating that Rajiv Gandhi was distressed over the military operation launched by secuirty forces in the last 48 hours, and to get back to negotiations. "Escalating violence will compel us to think afresh about the whole situation." The Sri Lankan forces were closing in on Jaffna. On 6 March Sivasithamparam and Amirthalingam wrote to Gandhi that "800,000 Tamils within Jaffna were in imminent danger...... It would be doubly tragic if the fate that has befallen the Tamil population in the Eastern Province and the mainland of the Northern Province was to overtake the bulk of the Tamils within Jaffna...... The Tamil people have suffered immeasurably through the manoeuvres and manipulations of President Jayawardene and his government."

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473 SL Histary Chap82 - ... India's reply to Jayawardene said that the Sri Lankan response was inadequate, the military operations should be stopped and the reply should be clear and unambigous. Meanwhile MG Ramachandran wrote to Rajiv that "people in Tamil Nadu were grieved and shocked at all the killings of their brothers in Jaffna and Vavuniya, and of the aerial bombings...... in panic the Tamils have fled to forests...... " Gandhi had to convene a strategy meeting which lasted four hours, the longest he had had so far! On 7 March 1987, the Sri Lankan Government Parliamentary Group unanimously passed a resolution supporting the government's effort "to defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and unity of Sri Lanka where necessary by military action." Deputy Minister Harindra Corea stated, "...... Sri Lanka like any other democratic country in the world should not tolerate the activities of a section of its people who take up arms and declare a particular part of its territory as their own. The group disagrees wholly with the request of the government of India that Sri Lanka should halt its military action unilaterally. This request is hardly that which should have been made by a mediator." On 13 March 1987 the former Indian Foreign Minister Dinesh Singh arrived with a message from Gandhi. Jayawardene reaffirmed his committment to the December proposals. A ceasefire was declared from April 11 to 21. The LTTE regrouped themselves and on 17 April attacked 127 Sinhalese civilians, men, women and children travelling in a bus going from to Trincomalee. The government called off the ceasefire and recommenced the offensive. The LTTE attacked a number of villages killing at least 100 Sinhalese. On 21 April they detonated a bomb at Pettah Bus stand killing 107 civilians and injuring 288. On 21 April Premadasa announced in Parliament, "From now on, we will talk of a political solution only after we are able to protect and preserve the country. Whatever proposals were discussed, I say emphatically, we will consider them only after peace is restored." On 28 April, Jayawardene said, "I am always for a military solution. War has to end in a solution. There will be a major military thrust." Now it had become a Sri Lanka-India conflict. India did not want Sri Lanka to succeed militarily. A military solution would have domestic implications for Gandhi and the Congress(I). Militarisation of Sri Lanka

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474 SL Histary Chap.82- ... was a reason for alarm. Meanwhile security forces advanced north. On 5 May 1987 Gandhi received a top secret message from Jayawardene. "...... in a few days the badly battered LTTE will be a little more receptive to talks. They need to be impressed that they are not invincible...... The government has not and will not close the door to negotiations...... " On 26 May 1987 the armed forces launched Operation Liberation - a full scale assault by 8000 men, on . As a prelude leaflets were dropped asking people to move into temples and schools. A 48-hour curfew was declared. Jayawardene said "I told the generals to raze Jaffna to the ground, to burn the town and rebuild it." On 27 May he said it was a "fight to finish. Either win or lose" and Jaffna will be liberated. That evening Dixit came to convey a message given on the phone to him, which said, Rajiv Gandhi is, (1).Deeply disappointed and distressed. (2).Thousand civilians killed since 1983 has aroused tremendous indignation. (3).Last offensive in Jaffna has altered the entire basis of our understanding. (4) We cannot accept genocide and (5). Please do not force us to review our policies. Gandhi told the press, "The military operation is adding to the carnage. The horrific loss of innocent life of this magnitude is totally disproportionate to the avowed aim of exterminating the Tamil militants. It is apparent the Sri Lankan government is buying time for pursuing the military option." By this time the army had destroyed 32 fortified bunkers and captured Velvettithurai, Prabhakaran's hometown and a LTTE stronghold. The armed forces had 24 lost, and 130 were injured, mainly from anti-personal mines. India condemned the attack! Jayawardene in anger had said, "Ask them to go to hell. We will reply them tomorrow...... ".(RG pg 177) Later when Gandhi telephoned Jayawardene, he said that he was doing what was necessary in Jaffna. Jayawardene consulted his inner cabinet and due to India's threats called off the offensive. Sinhalese in the south were furious. Later it was revealed that RAW was preparing to invade the North and if necessary the whole island. It was indicated through diplomatic channels that "India will not allow Jaffna to be taken" and "India will arm the LTTE with Surface-to-Air missiles." (pg 178) On 1 June 1987 Dixit delivered a four-paragraphed statement from India. "The population of Jaffna already suffering extreme hardship

475

475 SL Histary Chap82 - ... under the five-month old economic blockade imposed on them by their own government, are now becoming the victims of an all-out military assault, as part of what has been described as a "fight to finish." Thousands have been killed...as the defenceless population is subjected to sustained strafing and bombing from the air...... Although attempts have been made to keep this tragic story from the world by a communications blockade, and by sealing off Jaffna from the rest of the world ...... reports are already filtering through...... deaths, property- damage leaving thousands homeless...... In response to this tragic situation the government and people of India propose to send urgently needed relief through the Indian Red Cross ...... by sea starting 3 June 1987." .The reply denied the accusations in the first two paragraphs, but welcomed the relief supplies. The inner Cabinet wanted to refuse Indian aid supplies. But it was accepted. Several letters went to and fro between Rajiv Gandhi and Jayawardene, and finally the gift was sent. Jayawardene in his reply said, "...... An impression is in circulaton here that a large number of Indians will be coming to provide relief to the LTTE under the guise of distributing relief items. I wish to assure you that there are no shortages in Jaffna peninsula, and in fact fuel rationing has already been lifted. I am trying to agree to your proposal because I am aware of the situation you also have to face...... " On 3 June at 2.00 pm 19 fishing boats with supplies under a Red Cross flag, led by Vikram, a 1,000-tonne Indian off-shore patrol vessel set sail from Rameshwaram. A helicopter of the Indian Navy and coastguard accompanied the flotilla carrying 38 tons of pulses, kerosene, bread, tamarind, vegetables, milk, rice, salt and match sticks. After 4-hours of negotiations between an Indian Official and the commander of a Sri Lankan Navy patrol-boat, entry was refused and the Indian vessels had to go back. It humiliated India. Dixit told Sri Lankan colleagues that India will retaliate. Gandhi flew back from Goa to Delhi and called a high powered meeting of the Political Affairs Committee (PAC) at 1 am. After six hours of deliberation whether India should allow Jaffna to fall, opinion was divided between the Congress(I) politicians and the IB and the RAW, as to what role India should play. Finally it was decided to consult Ramachandran, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister, who from his sick bed said, "Do not allow the LTTE to fall in Jaffna. The LTTE must be saved."

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476 SL Histary Chap.82- ... FORCED AIR DROP - OPERATION POOMALAI The next day, India asked all Indians in Colombo to move into Indian Hotels. The Sri Lankan High Commissioner in Delhi, Bernard Tilakaratne was summoned and the Minister for External Affairs, Natwar Singh told him, that in 35 minutes India would airdrop relief supplies over Jaffna A written message was given, saying that the planes, with observers from foreign countries and Indian press will be accompanied by four Mirage fighters, and Sri Lanka should not mount an attack. India hoped Sri Lanka will cooperate. Tilakaratne used Natwar's telephone and called Sri Lanka. The reply was that it would be taken up at appropriate fora. The alternative, Tilakaratne later said, would have been to send two Indian battleships from Pondicherry. Dixit said this was "our first military projection into Sri Lanka, short of actual violence." On 4 June 1987 four Mirage fighter planes escorted the Soviet built AN-32 and 25 metric tonnes of food and medicines were air-dropped from 1500 feet at 4.55 pm. The planes had instructions to return fire if attacked. Sri Lanka could not fight back. One Cabinet Minister said "There are good and bad dogs. Pariah dogs often come uninvited to our back gardens, and ...... and go away." This explained the reaction of the average Sri Lankan to India's intervention! (RG pg 183) Most countries condemned this. The US Ambassador said, "It was a clear violation of sovereignty of one country by another." But Dixit is supposed to have told Minister Tyrone Fernando, "If your offensive goes on, you can expect more droppings." While China and SAARC countries condemned it, the US and the west were silent. Jayawardene said India demonstrated to the world that they were rabid over the Sri Lankan issue. When in July 1987 President Jayawardene met Professor Edward Azar a distinguished scholar on 'Conflict Resolution', from US, he said "Civilised societies such as India cannot permit the regression to the law of the jungle. Terror and violence to suppress people will not work. You cannot bully your way all the time.....We in Sri Lanka have a great deal of dignity, courage and a sense of justice. We will not be defeated irrespective of some setbacks. We will keep on...... One has to be realistic. We are involved in the struggle to build a democratic and just nation for all our people. We want to avoid making mistakes but we want to prevent terrorism and violence...... " Minister Gamini Dissanayake proposed solving the problem with Indian assistance. This was the start to the Indo-Lanka Peace Accord.

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477 SL Histary Chap82 - ... N. Ram an associate Editor of the Hindu who had met Prabhakaran and who was believed to be able to influence both Rajiv Gandhi and Prabhakaran was introduced to Gamini Dissanayake. Ram had later said that it was difficult ot persuade President Jayawardene to use the word "militant" instead of terrorist! When the Accord was presented to Parliament, Premadasa vehemently opposed it. Jayawardene said, all decisions are collective...... Those who do not agree can go - the door is open. He was not prepared to step down. Hardip Puri from the Indian High Commission flew to Jaffna and met Prabhakaran. He told him that Jayawardene had agreed to a merger but subject to a referendum. Prabhakaran said he would agree only on two conditions. Firstly, the Army must pull back to where they were on 26 May, the day before the Operation Liberation started, and secondly all refugees must be resettled in their areas. If they agreed to these, it was proof of their sincerity, and then the Tigers would be ready to talk. Jayawardene and Gandhi agreed to these conditions laid down by the LTTE. Puri flew back to tell this to Prabhakaran, but he said he would not agree if that meant abandoning Tamil Eelam. Puri persuaded Prabhakaran to fly to India with the other militant groups and the TULF and meet Gandhi. In Delhi, Gandhi met all the other groups and the TULF at his residence but went to Ashok hotel where the LTTE was, to meet Prabhakaran, the same evening. Three issues were raised at this meeting. Firstly, the safety of the LTTE cadres after they handed over the weapons. To this Gandhi said they could keep their small arms. Secondly Gandhi said the LTTE should play a leading role in the Interim Council. But they should allow EROS and TULF to participate. Prabhakaran agreed to this. Thirdly, Prabhakaran wanted financial assistance to rehabilitate LTTE cadres. He agreed to stop taxing people after Gandhi promised to provide monthly payments to maintain the LTTE. Later Dixit, who wanted to scuttle talks between the LTTE and the RAW, exposed the secret deal that IRs 100 crores had been given to the LTTE by Gandhi through RAW. (RG pg266)

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478 SL Histary Chap.82- ... CHAPTER 78

INTERVENTION BY INVITATION - THE ACCORD 1987

THE IPKF ARRIVES IN JAFFNA

Soon after Gandhi met the militant groups in India he came to Sri Lanka to sign the Accord. Before he returned to India he was invited to inspect a guard of honour. While he was on this inspection, Vijithamuni Rohana de Silva one of the naval ratings, lifted his rifle and brought it down on Rajiv Gandhi. Neither the Navy Commander Ananda Silva or Gandhi's security moved fast enough to stop the attack.

At the Court martial it was revealed that the plan had been for Vijithamuni to hit Gandhi on the head, so that he would fall, and then the two on either side were to attack him with their ceremonial bayonets. For some reason those two did not attack. If they did, Gandhi would have died. Vijithamuni said he thought 'the Accord would make Prabhakaran the leader of the northeast and he would have to honour Prabhakaran as he was ordered to honour Gandhi.' He was sent to jail but was released later under an amnesty given by President Premadasa.

The Accord was signed on 30 July 1987. The next day Indian troops of the IPKF began to land in Jaffna. Some called it an "invitation" others called it an "intervention." It was " intervention by invitation" (pg193) Eight -thousand Indian troops came by plane and the Sri Lankan army was brought to the south in those same planes. The LTTE and their sympathisers rejoiced and garlanded the Indian troops. Some women who had suffered at the hands of the LTTE and the armed forces went crying to the Indians and worshipped them calling them their saviours. Apparently there were rumours that Prabhakaran was under house arrest in New Delhi.

When in India Prabhakaran's movements had been restricted unlike those of the other groups. But he had access to the phone. According to

) 479

479 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Gopalasamy, Prabhakaran had phoned him on 30 July from Delhi and said, " We have been betrayed by Mr Rajiv Gandhi. I have been stabbed in the back." Then he said in Tamil, " Brother, I have a cyanide capsule round my neck. I have thought of committing suicide but I cannot. There are thousands of my brothers in Eelam. My brothers and sisters are there. I cannot take that decision." (RG pg 194) Rajiv Gandhi told President Jayawardene that Prabhakaran had two calls from US. He thought that the CIA was supporting Prabhakaran.

Anura Bandaranaike the leader of the Opposition boycotted meeting Gandhi. Instead he sent a letter to Gandhi asking him not to sign the Accord as the people of Sri Lanka were vehemently opposed to it. " ....The City of Colombo has been torn with rioting and a curfew has been imposed until you leave Sri Lanka. This is not the way our people would have normally welcomed the son of Mrs Indira Gandhi...... What you are going to do today is the greatest betrayal of my country."

Even RAW and the Intelligence Bureau were against the accord as were most Indians, though opposition was worse in Sri Lanka. According to a plan sent from Gandhi the LTTE were to hand over arms on August 4th. and the event was to be witnessed by the press and TV. If the LTTE did not surrender arms, the Indian army was to disarm the LTTE by force. Before Prabhakaran came back he had met Lt Gen. Depinder Singh, the Commander of the Southern Command in Madras. Singh said Prabhakaran told him , "the LTTE agreed to the ceasefire only because India insisted, and nodded, when I said that this insistence was a consequence of the misery and pain inflicted on the Tamils because of fighting and the economic blockage." Prabhakaran had said that he will not trust the External Affairs Ministry or the RAW again.

Prabhakaran came back on 2 August in an Air -India plane amidst tight security provided by India as well as by the LTTE. When on his return Major General Harkirat Singh discussed with Prabhakaran, the handing over of weapons, he refused to hand over a single weapon to the Sri Lankan Government. Depinder Singh who also flew into Jaffna from Madras had told Prabhakaran that even a token handing over of arms was necessary because Jayawardene was wanting to announce an amnesty to all Tamil militants. That evening Prabhakaran addressed the people at Amman

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480 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Kovil. He said that he did not know of the Accord till he went to India. ' The Indian government stood unbudging on the point that whether we accepted the Agreement or not, he was determined to put it into effect. There is no point in objecting. When a great power has decided to determine our political fate in a manner that is essentially beyond our control, what are we to do?. It puts a stop to our armed struggle...... This Agreement disarms us suddenly without giving us time, without getting the consent of our fighters, without working out guarantees for our people's safety...... Therefore we refused to surrender arms...... Prime Minister Gandhi invited me for a discussion. I pointed out that I did not repose the slightest faith in the Sinhalese racist government...... I do not have faith in the straight forwardness of the Indian Prime Minister...... We love the Indians..... The Indian soldiers are taking the responsibility of protecting us against our enemy...... The time is not far off when the monster of Sinhala racism will devour this Agreement...... I will continue to fight for the objective of attaining Tamil Eelam...... But I wish to firmly declare that under no circumstances and at no point will I contest an election or accept the offer as Chief Minister. The Liberation Tigers yearn for the motherland of Tamil Eelam"

On the future of Sri Lanka, Jayawardene said, "One has to be realistic. We are involved in the struggle to build a democratic and just nation for all our people. .... India says the ball is in our court. However I am not sure to whom to throw it back ...... Unless India acts positively the future of Sri Lanka will witness hard times but so will the future of India. You cannot play with fire without worrying about the spread of it beyond what you can control." But by mid-July Jayawardene had to change his thinking. As Tyronne Fernando quoting Pundit Nehru said " If your enemy extends a hand, however dishonestly, you grab it. If there is good faith you have respon- ded. If not then you have at least one of his hands immobilised."

Guneratne met Prabhakaran in Jaffna on August 5th 1987. He told him, " Tamils think you are a hero, the Sinhalese think you are a murderer. Once you hand over the arms, will you be safe on the streets?" He had said "The Sinhalese can come to Jaffna. The LTTE constitution has nothing against it. But our battle for Eelam will continue. Today we will give up arms. Tomorrow our effort will take a different direction. We will fight the Gandhian way...... We will not stop short of Eelam." Guneratne had seen a large convoy of LTTE vehicles and trucks flying

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481 SL Histary Chap82 - ... the LTTE flag, loaded with armaments ranging from anti-aircraft weap- onry, machine guns and mortar launches to automatic rifles. These were mostly impotent/discarded weapons, small arms and military hardware the LTTE could afford to part with. This act was for the purpose of buying time. On August 5th General Sepala Attygalle, Defence Secretary Cyril Ran- atunge, Brigadier Gerry De Silva and General Depinder Singh and several Indian and Sri Lankan officials were present at a special Ceremony to mark the handing over of arms. On behalf of the Sri Lankan government General Attygalle accepted from Dilip Yogi, the leader of the political wing of LTTE, a weapon symbolic of the arms surrender.

In return Attygalle read out a document on behalf of the President "Today is a historic day for the future of Sri Lanka. This act of surrend- ering arms signifies an end to the bloodshed and violence that has affected the entire fabric of our Democratic Society. We sincerely hope that from now on, all of us Sri Lankans can live in peace and harmony in this our own, our native land."

When TV cameraman and press photographers pleaded with Yogi to repeat for the cameras, the handing over of the gun to Gen Attygalle he refused. Even when the Indian General persuaded him to do it, he refused. At that time General Atygalle placed his hand over the weapon which was on the table.

The Sri Lankan troops were angry for 3 reasons. Firstly, over 6000 of their troops had been taken back to the south and when a young Sri Lankan serviceman wanted to take a photograph, three Indian soldiers had stopped him. Secondly, India flew a large number of Indian and foreign journalists, who neither had visas nor media accreditation to visit and cover Sri Lankan events etc, to watch the ceremony of handing over of the arms, and they were allowed direct access to the hall, but Sri Lankan media had to watch it from another hall. Thirdly an unusually friendly relationship was developing between the militants and the IPKF. But there was nothing they could do. The Indian Commander had told Prabhakaran that they had to hand over their arms, but it was clear that he and his comrades had not made up their minds about laying down arms. Prabhakaran had told Guneratne that 'they were not keen to give up all their weapons, but will hand over some and see the Accord implemented.'

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482 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Guneratne had noticed that the LTTE cadres were depressed, and he had heard that some had committed suicide, because 'several years of struggle seemed to have brought nothing tangible'. After much waiting and disappointment over the surrender of arms, the IPKF Commander who was under pressure from Delhi, landed by helicopter on the grounds of Jaffna University on 6th August. He was taken to see Prabhakaran. He told him that if by the next day the arms were not surrendered, plans were afoot for a joint "search and destroy operation" of the LTTE arsenal by the Indian and Sri Lankan forces. Prabhakaran said they will part with their weapons in stages, and he brought out the point that other militants were still having their arms. Later under pressure he agreed to surrender part of the weapons the next day.

That evening Prabhakaran called a meeting of his people. Some of their arms were handed over and collected by a team of LTTE cadres. These were not to be handed over, but to be greased, wrapped in polythene and buried. The IPKF having heard that a large amount of polythene was being purchased, questioned Prabhakaran. He said that it must be the other groups, and added that if they surrendered their weapons, the other groups will attack them. Guneratne went to see the second handing over of the arms. What was handed over was not what he had seen collected the previous day. The Indian High Commissioner, Dixit lied to the press that 800 weapons were handed over the first day, and 300 the second day.

On 8 August 1987 Flight Lieutenant Lasantha Waidyaratne went with some Buddhist priests to Nagadipa and from the plane they saw about 40 people being trained at . He returned to the site with a cameraman. The numbers were less but training was going on. Indian helicopters intensified surveillance, but by then the trainers had left. By the second week of August there were several reports of LTTE men being killed by rival groups, and of LTTE killing those from other groups. Depinder Singh had been told by Prabhakaran that he had positive information that the RAW was instigating other groups to kill LTTE cadres. In Mannar a clash between LTTE and PLOTE resulted in at least 100 militants being killed.

The LTTE informed India of the unwritten promise made by Gandhi to give him a monthly allowance. The money was sent and apparently after that 'Prabhakaran mellowed.' He had asked those cadres who wanted to leave and those who wanted to go back to University to do so. A 483

483 SL Histary Chap82 - ... to leave and those who wanted to go back to University to do so. A few even went abroad for studies. In the south there was much anti-Accord feeling. On 12th August Jayawardene met several Ministers and others at a meeting to explain why he signed the Accord. General Cyril Ratnatunge explained that though they took over Jaffna and Vadamarachchi areas they could not maintain them because they did not have enough forces and equipment. The Jaffna hospital was booby-trapped. Even pilots refused to fly over Jaffna. At this meeting Home Affairs Minister Devanayagam who is from Batticaloa, and Monty Jaywickreme and M.H Mohamed said that the Accord was the best that could have happened.

On 18 August a grenade thrown on Parliament by the JVP resulted in Athulathmudali being seriously injured, Premadasa had minor injuries while Jayawardene escaped. Towards end of November, Agriculture Development and Research Minister Gamini Jayasuriya, made a speech in Parliament, criticising the government, and resigned from Parliament. Gamini Jayasuriya said, " the Accord amounted to a betrayal of the sovereignty of Sri Lanka". Meanwhile the LTTE and the other militants surrendered their arms. They were asked to support the government which was under threat from the JVP.

IPKF MOVES EAST After August 15th the IPKF established themselves in Batticaloa. Many LTTE cadres visited the army camps and police stations in the Northeast, even giving gifts of chocolates etc. The public in Jaffna worshipped the IPKFe giving them gifts. The Special Task Forces in the south were strengthened to launch anti-JVP offensives.

In September the LTTE killed 34 PLOTE cadres including their seretary Kannan and Batticaloa leader Subash, and the death toll in Batticaloa increased to 70. The LTTE wanted to humilate the IPKF. They also planned to oppose a plan to to settle some Sinhalese in Trincomalee. The IPKF supported the lTTE in this. This resulted in a soldier in civils driving to Trincomalee town and firing at some IPKF soldiers. An IPKF soldier whose brother died in a mine accident killed one Sinhalese, one Tamil and one Muslim. Dixit meanwhile was at conflict with the IPKF. He resented their friend- ship with Prabhakaran, whom Dixit describes as "a very self-centred fascist leader. ... It is essentially a case of Megalomania...... " The LTTE decided on a civil- disobedience campaign, the reasons were the failure, to release political prisoners, to withdraw emergency 484

484 SL Histary Chap.82- ... regulations in the northeast, to disarm the home-guards, to stop colonisation of the East with Sinhalese under the cover of rehabilitation, to form an interim government with the LTTE as the dominant partner; to resettle and rehabilitate; and to form a Tamil force etc. They alleged that under India's patronage the other militant groups were being armed and they were harrasing the LTTE and the public. The LTTE political leader and Thileepan, their political chief began a fast-unto-death. Thileepan however had been given only a few weeks to live by doctors as he had several organs removed after gunshot injuries. He died on 16 September.

Elections were being planned by Jayawardene and Dixit for the formation of an Interim Administrative Council (IAC). An agreement was signed by Puri of the Indian High Commission and the LTTE on 28 September 1987. The LTTE said they were forced to sign. However Jayawardene and the LTTE could not agree on the order of preference to be given to nominations put in by the LTTE and hence the proposed Interim government was dropped.

On October 2nd, the IPKF informed the SL Navy that a boat carrying arms was crossing Palk Straits. Those in the boat were apprehended and their cyanide capsules removed and 17 LTTE cadres captured. One of them was Pulendran who was responsible for killing 126 bus com- muters. They were in Palaly and the Tigers were allowed to bring food for them. With the food they surreptiously got cyanide capsules. The LTTE wanted them kept in Palaly, but instructions were given to Brigadier Jayaratne at Palaly to send them to Colombo. The 17 LTTE men took out their cyanide capsules. This was reported to Colombo but Jayaratne was ordered to carry out the orders given earlier. Jayaratne arranged for doctors, ambulances and stomach pumps to be ready. On 5 October thirty -four soldiers rushed into the hanger where the 17 LTTE men were, but could not stop them biting their cyanide capsules. Nine died immediately, four later and four escaped. When this news reached General Sunderji, the Indian Army Chief, he decided that force had to be used against the LTTE. Depinder Singh did not approve of this. He said that it would create an insurgency situation for the next 20 years. He was admonished, and advised not to adopt a defeatist attitude. The next day orders came to use force. He and Harkirat Singh then helicoptered to Jaffna University grounds. Prabhakaran was out and they met Mahattaya. When he was told they must stop the killing , he said, "We are prepared to die. We will not live in dishonour".

485

485 SL Histary Chap82 - ... CHAPTER 79

INDIAN ARMY IN NORTH EAST SRI LANKA (1987-1990)

If military history of the twentieth Century were to be written, there will be parellels drawn between four tragic wars- Americans in Vietnam, Chinese in Cambodia, Soviets in Afghanistan and Indians in Sri Lanka, where four-great powers, failed in their efforts to subdue the enemies in four- wars they were fighting for others. They failed to subdue an enemy, smaller in number, weaker in strength, poorer in training but at the same time iron-willed, devious in strategy, and ruthless to their foes.( pg 237) In the case of India they were really fighting an enemy who was trained by their own Indian Servicemen in civilian disguise, seconded to the RAW. They were nurtured to fight against the country of their birth, given sanctuary, training, arms and money, and they had become better eqiupped than their military gurus! They were more experienced having fought the Sri Lankan army for 10 years, whereas the Indians had last fought in 1971. "The instructors of the Indian Special forces found they had to rewrite their military manuals."

They had to go 'soft' on the enemy, and they had to avoid civilian deaths, due to pressure from Tamil Nadu. India's policy then was to "subdue the LTTE, not to eliminate them." " The LTTE knew the standard psychology, the combat strategies, the weaponry of the Indian soldier but the Indians knew little about the LTTE." As one Indian officer had said, " We are fighting the enemy with one arm tied behind our backs." The IPKF - a peace-keeping force, soon became an army of occupation.

The LTTE claimed that their cadres who took cyanide on October 5th had been 'tortured and killed' by the government forces. So they took revenge by executing 8 soldiers they had in custody, and displaying those bodies at Jaffna's main bus stand. This was followed by burning 3 policemen, slaying 4 employees of Rupavahini, Jaffna, and 2 employees of Cement Corporation and the massacre of 260 Sinhala villagers, men,

486

486 SL Histary Chap.82- ... women and children in border villages between 6 and 9 October 1987. On 7 October 1987 LTTE opened fire at IPKF personnel in Trincomalee. Delhi ordered IPKF to plan for a crack-down on the LTTE, to destroy their communication, to raid their strongholds and recover arms and ammunition, dislodge them from Jaffna and to prevent movement of militants and arms in or out of Jaffna. On the same day the LTTE captured 5 Indian para-commandos on their way to collect supplies and hanged them publicly, with tyres round their throats and set fire to the tyres - that is "necklaced by the LTTE."

It was quite clear that the LTTE was not keeping to the accord. So the IPKF was asked to change its Peace-keeping role. On 9 October Gandhi decided to forcibly disarm the LTTE to make them keep to the implementation of the Accord they had signed.

The Tamils said, "While Tamils were mourning over their dead heroes, the government of India has mobilised its peace-keeping force for a bloody war against the Tamils...... For the Tamils, India was their protector, guardian and saviour and the prescence of the Indian troops was looked upon as an instrument of peace and love. .... their promoter, a friendly power who provided sanctuary and armed assistance...... the Indian decision to launch a war against the LTTE, shook the Tamil nation by surprise and anguish." (RG pg 241)

In the early hours of 10 October, the first Battalion of the Maharatta Light Infantry advanced from Jaffna and blew up the LTTE presses, Eelamurasu and Murasoli, and occupied the LTTE TV Station Nidharsanam at Kokuvil. Later the IPKF closed down Eelanadu, Udayam and blasted Eelanadu, 'to neutralise their propaganda machine.' In Madras Indian authorities seized six-radio transmitters through which the LTTE in Madras communicated with their bases in Jaffna. The Indians captured 131 militants, 27 weapons, amunition, explosives and communications equipment. President Jayawardene placed a price of SL Rs one million on the head of Prabhakaran. India declared war on the LTTE on 11 October 1987.

Gandhi said " ...... The LTTE chose to adopt a course of violence. They started a propaganda campaign against us and the Agreement. ... They massacred about 100 members of other militant groups.... At the time of suicide of the 12 LTTE cadres, they killed 8 Sri Lankan soldiers in t 487

487 SL Histary Chap82 - ... in their custody and massacred over 200 civilians ...... to produce a Sinhalese backlash that would have destroyed the Agreement., and produced a cycle of violence...... There was no alternative to disarming the LTTE...... " A secret mission by a group of para-commandos was arranged to capture Prabhakran on the night of October 9th. It failed because the LTTE had intercepted the IPKF communications, transmitted carelessly. Prabhakaran had left his house about two hours before the planned attack. The 30 Sikhs who took part, including their Commanding officer Major Birendra Singh, were brutally killed in the attack with only one survivor being captured. This was within 12 hours of the Sikhs arriving in Jaffna.

The LTTE increased their strength from 1500 to 2500. Despite surveillance by the SL and Indian Navys, the LTTE got a weapon consignment in September from Singapore. After 45 days in action the IPKF lost 319 officers and men, and 1039 officers and men were injured. They killed 1100 LTTE cadres as well as civilians, and recovered 167 rifles, 17 sten carbines, 8 rocket launchers, 23 machine guns, and 70 mortars. The deception practised by the LTTE was surprising and ruthless. They would come behind civilians who at a given signal would disappear and leave the Tigers to shoot at the Indians.

On 21 October 1987 the LTTE started shooting from the hospital so that when the IPKF retaliated, they shot many patients and staff . They had with them unarmed cadres to assist them in recovering weapons from their dead and the enemy's dead. They destroyed several Indian helicopters and tanks. Explosives were placed away from the edge of the road and were activated on impact or by remote control. Vehicles transporting IPKF personnel were mined and ambushed, and susurvivors were gunned down. The IPKF was given the motto "Innocent People Killing Force"

According to Guneratne(pg 246) the IPKF had also killed large numbers of civilians, men women and children. Women were sexually assaulted and killed. Indians stormed the hospital and killed over 100 patients and raped and killed several nurses. Thousands were injured. Electricity and water was cut off for months. Public and private transport was banned, so no food and medicines were available, and fishing was banned. The fault made by the Indians were they did not use sophisticated weapons fast enough. RAW had to intervene and give the Indians the

488

488 SL Histary Chap.82- ... same weapons they had given to the LTTE. 70,000 AK-47s were flown in from Poland straight to Palaly. They used main roads that were mined instead of cross country roads. The LTTE had manufactured hand grenades, claymore mines, improvised explosive devices and mortars. The IPKF also found an LTTE -built aircraft and a glider. Throughout this period Tamil Nadu supported the LTTE, allowed them a free-run in Tamil Nadu. They were allowed to meet Kittu who was under house- arrest in Madras.

M.G . Ramachandran died on 25 December 1987, soon after his return from a kidney transplant in New York. By late January 1988 Jaffna had returned to normalcy under the IPKF. Food and cooperative societies, medical supplies and services, education and examinations, electricity, water and sanitation, transport and fishing had almost returned to normal. The LTTE had retreated to jungles. In February the LTTE received another consignment of weapons and ammunition from Singapore. This consisted of .25 pistols for women fighters. By March 1988 the IPKF had over 100,000 troops deployed in Sri Lanka but the figure was kept secret . In March 1988 the LTTE killed 15 and wounded 10 civilians in Morawewa village and on 5 March killed 19, and injured 11 in Sittaru in Trincomalee.

The RAW arranged for the EPRLF, ENDLF and TELO who had benefited from India both militarily and financially to assist the IPKF. But a lack of discipline among them made them kill, loot and destroy property mainly of Sinhalese and Muslims. They were disliked by the Tamils for having raped their women, and robbed them of money and gold, and for having extorted their property. 'They were out-and-out thugs, looters, and killers, despised by the people and hunted by the LTTE.' On 8 August 1988, police in Madras arrested 72 LTTE cadres in Madurai, and 70 in Madras. In September, Kittu and another 13 were jailed. When in October Kittu went on a fast, 85 LTTE cadres in custody were flown to Sri Lanka, and Kittu was released under pressure from Tamil Nadu opposite the Jaffna hospital.(pg 275) Other LTTE cadres were released later. The support that the LTTE got from Tamil Nadu is 'baffling and inexplicable' .

In September the LTTE called for a ceasefire. Their demands were a prolonged ceasefire, release all LTTE leaders held in Indian and Sri Lankan custody, and talks between LTTE and India to be held with-

489

489 SL Histary Chap82 - ... out preconditions. India insisted that a precondition for a ceasefire was for the LTTE to lay down arms. The war recommenced.

Provincial Council Elections were fixed for the North-east Provincial Council. The government reiterated the fact that all militants who lay down their arms will be given an amnesty. The elections were fixed for November "...... for the Northeastern Province which has been merged temporarily...... until a referendum is held....."

Elections were held in November 1988, but none of the 22,000 election officials turned up. The IPKF flew in 324 officials from India to conduct the elections. Annamalai Vartharajah Perumal was elected Chief Minister with Lt Gen. Nalin Seneviratne appointed as Governor. The EPRLF and ENDLF obtained a majority in the 71 member Council.

By now the IPKF had 100,000 men in Sri Lanka, which was about 10% of the India's total force and much more than Sri Lanka ever had.

On 19 December 1988, Sri Lankan Presidential elections were held. Premadasa won with 50.43% of votes. He found that his writ as Pres- ident did not run to the two provinces under the IPKF! He saw it as an affront to the Nation and a derogation of the oath he had taken to ensure the Unity, Integrity and Sovereignty of the country.

Premadasa was worried the IPKF would never leave. He announced a temporary ceasefire on 12 April 1989 to coincide with the Sinhala and Tamil New Year. The LTTE said they will not have a ceasefire till the 'invading Indian army leaves.' The State Minister for Defence Ranjan Wijeratne issued a statement inviting the LTTE leadership for talks. On 15 April the President received a fax from the London LTTE office accepting the invitation for a dialogue.

Anton Balasingham, a former journalist and translator at the British High Commission, who joined the LTTE in the late 1970s, and was running the LTTE office in London, and his wife Adele, an Australian Nurse, whom he married in UK, were on their way from London. Sothalingam, Prabhakaran's guru living in Abdul Gaffoor Mawata in Colombo 3, was go-between. The LTTE were clear on their demands - the release of 12 of their leaders, which included two women, one of whom was responsible for the bomb blast which killed a large number of civilians in Colombo. This was granted. They were released in secrecy. On 1 June 1989 Premadasa speaking at the unveiling of the pinnacle 490at Chitta Vivekashramaya in surprised the country by stating that he was asking the IPKF to leave, the last batch by end of July.

490 SL Histary Chap.82- ... On 1 June 1989 Premadasa speaking at the unveiling of the pinnacle at Chitta Vivekashramaya in Battaramulla surprised the country by stating that he was asking the IPKF to leave, the last batch by end of July. On June 3rd IPKF searched Sinhala villages for LTTE cadres. They were assisted by EPRLF cadres. LTTE had secretly warned Colombo that the RAW had planned to attack Sinhala villages and plant bombs in public places with the help of pro-Indian Tamil groups, to create unrest.

However the pro-Indian Northeastern Provincial Council opposed the withdrawl of the IPKF. The TELO, EPRLF, and ENDLF demonstrated in the east asking the IPKF to remain. They denounced the Sri Lankan army and threatened to resume their campaign for Eelam, if the Northeastern Provincial Council was dissolved. The EPRLF said they had sacrificed " over 600 of its members for the establishment of Provincial Councils in the midst of obstacles placed by the government, and the inhuman and violent opposition of the LTTE...... " (RG pg 376)

Prabhakaran did not appear at the talks, but the group was in radio contact with him. The LTTE while staying at the eighth floor of the Hotel Hilton freely entertained many visitors from diplomats to journalists, and LTTE sympathisers at State expense. They convinced Premadasa and the others that they were being attacked by the IPKF because they were negotiating with Colombo. They wanted arms to protect themsleves. The first batch of arms given were not brand new but had been used by the army. They complained that they were rusty. They requested weapons, funds, vehicles, cement, etc. Brand new weapons - 400 T-81 were shipped from China and given to the STF for whom they are supposed to have come, and they were then asked to handed them over to the LTTE. Later a truck-load of assorted ammunition, from T-56 magazines to mortar shells were similarly handed over. ( RG pg 294) They were given 30 to 40 vehicles. To conceal the State- LTTE link, they were driven to the northeast and the LTTE pretended to take them by force (RG pg 303) Premadasa wrote to Gandhi, that the LTTE had announced "a complete cessation of hostilities against the Sri Lankan government..... if Your Excellency will ensure the IPKF will not take offensive action against them." I PKF continued their operations in Mulativu and Vavuniya areas. The LTTE now accused the IPKF of using heavy artillery and mortars against civilian targets. RAW had supplied Delhi with proof that the Sri Lankan government had armed the LTTE against the IPKF.

LTTE requests for arms and ammunition were discussed and executed 491 strictly between General Attygalle and President Premadasa. (pg 294)

491 SL Histary Chap82 - ... LTTE requests for arms and ammunition were discussed and executed strictly between General Attygalle and President Premadasa. (pg 294) It was an ironic situation that many Sri Lankans and Indians could not understand! Later more truckloads of arms and ammunition were given to the LTTE and they also imported arms through Colombo! Mrs Bandaranaike said "Eleven lorry-loads of arms had gone to them." A specially imported Desert Eagle, an Israeli pistol was presented to Prabhakaran by the government (Pg 377).

Unconfirmed reports say that Premadasa authorised the issue of 2000 T-56 weapons, 200,000 rounds of ammunition, 14,000 pairs of boots, but the Army soldiers had stolen 2 weapons and erased off the last zero from the ammunition, so they sent only 20,000. The LTTE had complained and the Sergeant Major who did this was court-martialled. The LTTE attacked the villages and the front line government troops with the weapons gifted by Premadasa!!(RG pg 300). "Truck loads of cement were sent to the LTTE with which they built bunkers.....Some LTTE leaders while in Colombo consumed liquor in large quantities..... had access to free accomodation, food of their choice and Direct International Dialling . The average phone bill per month exceeded Rs 100,000. They also entertained quite lavishly ...... "Reliable sources reveal that eleven cheques amounting to Rs 9 million withdrawn from the treasury in the name of Finance Secretary R. Pask- aralingam were spent for hosting the LTTE...."(pg 304) According to Guneratne, monies running into many millions of rupees had been drawn, and the vouchers said " for emergency confidential security purposes...... That money was unaccounted...... Reliable sources reveal it came from a secret vote of money which is unaudited and its expenditure classified under the Official Secrets Act " Rs 20 million had been drawn between 8 January and 8 June 1990. (RG pg 304). . On 13 July 1989 Tamils throughout the world were shocked when the LTTE assassinated Amirthalingam 'the father of Eelam', and V. Yogeswaran, in their residence in Colombo. One of the assassins had been helped by Yogeswaran to get a job in Point Pedro. They came by appointment. When Yogeswaran saw the assassins, he had asked the security guards not to search them. Ajit Mahattaya admitted that the LTTE killed the 'two traitors' More killings followed. Uma Maheswaran was assassinated on 16 July. Sam Thambimuttu the TULF MP for

492

492 SL Histary Chap.82- ... Batticaloa, who had moved to Colombo for greater security was killed.

On 20 January 1990, a top secret operation was carried out by the National Intelligence Bureau. Madhivadhini, the wife of Prabhakaran, returned to Sri Lanka. She had been a former Medical Student at Jaffna when she fell in love with Prabhakaran. She came accompanied by Balasingham and his wife Adele, who went to Singapore two weeks before. According to reliable sources, she was returning after six years in Copenhagen, Denmark, and Europe. Even though she had paid several visits to India to meet Prabhakran, he had advised her to stay away from the war scene. She was accompanied by son, Charles Anthony (5) and daughter Dwaraka (2 1/2) and Kumaran, the head of LTTE International Committee. They stayed in a bungalow of the Airport that night and were flown by an Air Force helicopter to the Nettikulam jungles the next day, where they were received by Prabhakaran's top aides.

Indian High Commissioner C Jothindra Nath Dixit was under threat, to be killed in Delhi. In September, 87 Indian Guards were sent for his protection. and he and his family in Delhi had to be protected. The last ship of the IPKF left in April 1990, having failed after 1155 deaths ( including 49 officers), 2987 injured and IRs 1000 crores spent. The LTTE got what they wanted. Some Indians say ". It is a national trait among Sinhalese not to thank a force that fought their war losing 1155 men." The LTTE moved into Trincomalee, and while talks continued they built up their arsenal. On 11 June they attacked nine police stations and took 600 policemen whom they later killed. Eelam II broke out!

In March 1991 the Minister of State and Defence, Ranjan Wijeratne who was also the General Secretary of the ruling UNP was assassinated by a powerful car bomb in Bambalapitiya when 5 STF personnel and 13 civilians were killed. It is believed to be the work of Black-Tigers- a suicide squad of the LTTE.

In May 1991 Rajiv Gandhi was electioneering in Tamil Nadu, in an election he was expected to win. Dhanu, believed to be a LTTE woman wearing a belt-bomb assassinated him. Pottu Amman, the LTTE intelligence chief and Sivarasan the LTTE master-mind, both trained by intelligence agencies in India and Prabhakaran are wanted by India over this killing. On 29 June a powerful bomb exploded in Flower Road near the Operational Headquarters of Ministry of Defence killing 10 soldiers 493

493 SL Histary Chap82 - ... the Operational Headquarters of Ministry of Defence killing 10 soldiers and 12 civilians and wounding 67 soldiers and 85 civilians. In Polonnaruwa, on 6 July 18 civilians were massacred, and on 19 September 13 civilians in a Muslim village were killed.

In 1992 front line Generals Denzil Kobbekaduwa, Wijaya Wimalaratne, and eight others were killed in a mine explosion in an island off Jaffna. In November the Navy Commander Clancy Fernando was killed in Colombo while travelling in his own vehicle.

In January 1992 a bus caught in a land mine in killed 9 civilians and one airmen. In March in Batticaloa, an explosion in a Muslim hotel killed 3 civilians and injured 13 civilians.

In Colombo Lalith Athulathmudali was killed at an election meeting. On 1 May 1993 President Premadasa who was arriving for the May- day rally was killed by a cyclist bomber. On 25th October 1994 several senior UNP politicians including Gamini Dissanayake were killed at an Election meeting.

Killings haven't stopped. People live in fear. Where and when will they strike next? Peace-talks have started and stopped for a third time. The ceasefire during the talks were helpful only to the Tigers, to regroup and rearm, and attack with a vengeance! The killings extended to villages where innocent villagers, men, women, children and even infants became Tiger prey! The people of Sri Lanka are suffering with a war that has taken thousands of lives, and crippled the economy of the island.

The terrorists are now attempting to arouse the Sinhalese by bombing oil installations and other public places in Colombo, hoping to create a backlash on the over one million Tamils in Colombo who have for generation lived side by side w ith the Sinhalese, studying and working together and even intermarrying.

Terrorists are brainwashing Tamil chidlren to hate the Sinhalese with whom they have had good relations in the past. Are they wanting to ensure that the two races remain enemies for ever and ever?

494

494 SL Histary Chap.82- ... I am very thankful to Rohan Guneratne whose book gave me so much information about the situation in Sri Lanka in the last few years.

But to conclude I feel I must quote what the Calcutta Statesman, one of India's most respected newspapers, had said in the editorial on 21 October 1995 soon after the bombing of Oil Installations in Colombo, which I obtained from the Sri Lankan Newspapers. " Some conclusions can be drawn. The security of vital installations is not up to scratch, the response of the armed forces is not quick enough and the government ought to pay more attention to the morale of the civilian population. It must be said that to the extent that this dastardly act is in retaliation to the apparent success of the Army operation in Jaffna, it is an index of the plight of the Tigers rather than an assertion of their strength. Those wooly headed wets in the west who look upon the Tigers and their campaign of violence as the assertion of minority rights must think again. There is still too much aid in money and equipment flowing to the rebels for the good of peace and democracy in that once happy island. India has a great share of the responsibility. At the risk of repetition it is necessary to assert that at a crucial time in the development of their separatist movement this country provided unlimited assistance well beyond what could be justified on humanitarian grounds, assuming that this could have been an argument. We were playing with fire and we knew it. Indira Gandhi did it for domestic political advantage, disregard- ing national interests and in fact working in opposition to them. It is time to make amends. If the Tigers are a ruthless and determined force, with no scruples and less humanity , it is we who have made this possible. Sacrificing a former Prime Minister is not enough atonement.

The US Ambassador in Sri Lanka, James Spain had told the author of "Indian Intervention in Sri Lanka" Rohan Guneratne, "Bringing in the IPKF resulted in the upswinging of the JVP. We still blame the Japanese, but ironically in Sri Lanka, the people do not blame India." Ambassador Spain who had been a soldier with a service record in the Pacific and Japan, and a doctorate from Columbia University has now retired and chosen to spend his retirement in Sri Lanka. He has said, "I chose to live among a fine and a sincere people and in an old country

495

495 SL Histary Chap82 - ... than in a new one" Speaking about Sri Lanka he says "A military or a political solution may be possible. Even in the worse years, I have been reasonably optimistic. Sri Lanka will not become a Lebanon, but it will never be a paradise again." That indeed is a sad statement. Every child of Lanka I am certain will hope and pray that that will not be the case, and that Ambassador Spain will be proved wrong, and Sri Lanka will be a Paradise again and soon!

They came as male soldiers at various times, as invaders on forays, rather than migrants in search of a place to settle. It is therefore the creative genius of the Sinhalese that left its indelible imprint on Sri Lankan history, giving it a dynamic shape, form and identity. Without it, Sri Lankan history would have been a pale imitation of south Indian history. That is why the claim of the Tamils for a separate homeland sounds hollow. The Tamil migrants who spilled over from South India, who came perhaps as traders or fishermen did not make any substantial contribution to the creation of a new society in Sri Lanka, as seen by the gigantic efforts of the hard-working Sinhalese whose technological expertise created those monumental structures they have left behind, that

496

496 SL Histary Chap.82- ... CHAPTER 80

CONCLUSIONS

As I mentioned in the introduction, the main purpose of this book is to provide Sri Lankans living overseas, especially our children, today's and tomorrow's, a glimpse of the grandeur and the mighty deeds of their ancestors and a knowledge of the achievements of the boatloads of North Indian migrants who settled down in the northwest coast of Sri Lanka 2500 years ago and proceeded to forge a brand new civilisation built on the blood, sweat and tears of the Sinhalese. The North Indian Aryans created a new language (Sinhalese), a new culture (Sinhala Buddhist), a new heritage, a new way of life that had a splendour of its own, unmatched by other migrants, particularly the Tamils or Muslims. The Tamils did not and could not have created a new culture, because they were dependent on their own Dravidian culture which they inherited from South India. There were no waves of Tamil migrants. They came as male soldiers at various times, as invaders on forays, and mercenaries rather than migrants in search of a place to settle. It is therefore the creative genius of the Sinhalese that left its indelible imprint on Sri Lankan history, giving it a dynamic shape, form and identity. Without it, Sri Lankan history would have been a pale imitation of south Indian history. That is why the claim of the Tamils for a separate homeland sounds hollow. The Tamil migrants who spilled over from South India, who came perhaps as traders or fishermen, or were brought over by Sinhala kings as mercenaries, did not make any substantial contribution to the creation of a new society in Sri Lanka, as seen by the gigantic efforts of the hard-working Sinhalese whose technological expertise created those monumental structures they have left behind, that can match the acheivements of any other civilisation Living overseas as we do, whether by choice or necessity, one is

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497 SL Histary Chap82 - ... regularly bombarded through various media, of claims by a particular section of the Tamil community, of the supposed existence of a continuing ancient Tamil kingdom in Sri Lanka, in the North and East of Sri Lanka, which they now claim as their 'homelands'. If one looks at a map of Sri Lanka the question that comes to the mind is, how could any Sinhalese kingdom have existed for over 1000 years in Anuradhapura (BC 377 to 1090 AD), and for another 200 years in Polonnaruwa, (two very prosperous and glorious kingdoms), so very close to this so-called Tamil kingdom.! And while the Sinhalese kingdom has left so much of history and so many monuments, how is it that there are no monuments, no historical records left in India or Sri Lanka, not even a chronological list of kings till 1400s, and not one mention of a Tamil Kingdom in all this ancient history of Lanka, or mention of a war, or any other involvement, or exchange of mercenaries between a Tamil kingdom and the Sinhalese kingdoms? How a ancient Tamil kingdom and a Sinhala kingdom existed so close to each other without friction is certainly beyond my imagination! Not even a trade pact or a marriage proposal or citizens' quarrel! From a layman's point of view I just could not reach the conclusion that a Tamil kingdom existed, despite substantial reading on this subject while writing this book. Hence I will leave it to you readers, to come to your own conclusions about the veracity of this statement, whether you can find proof that an ancient Tamil kingdom or homeland existed before the Sinhalese came. These are my thoughts and/or conclusions on the subject! 1. It is certainly possible that a few Tamils from South India who came for fishing, settled down along the north and northwest coast, considering the fact that the shallow Palk Straits is only a swimming distance of about 17 miles. Of those who were brought from South India as mercenaries by the Sinhala kings, or those who came with the various South Indian invasions that plagued Sri Lanka, from time to time, from 145-101 BC; 103-89 BC; 429-455 AD; 1215-1236 AD. some may have stayed behind and settled in various parts of Sri Lanka, even after the kings of South Indian origin who "sat on the Sinhala throne, ruling over the Sinhalese" were defeated. But if Tamils claim they came before the Sinhalese (who admit they came in boatloads), and if they lived as a Tamil community, leave alone

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498 SL Histary Chap.82- ... a Tamil Kingdom, why are they still only just 2 million while the Sinhalese have grown to 13 million, inspite of a documented heavy death toll from south Indian invasions and from malaria in the days of the Anuradhpura Kingdom? Tamils could not have been less fertile! 2. If they were adventurous enough to leave India to migrate to another country, is it not surprising that they were satisfied living in the arid north, without exploring a little further south, by boat or foot to find the more fertile and salubrious parts in the South, Southwest and Central parts of the island? And if there was a fair sized population with a kingdom, why are there no monuments left or irrigation works undertaken in the north to overcome the perpetual problems of water, when there was so much being built for over 1000 years, in Anuradhapura area, just south of their so-called Tamil kingdom? 3. Devanampiyatissa’s envoys left on their mission to the Court of King Asoka in India, from Jambukola, the present Sambiliturai, in the north of Sri Lanka, and when the Bo sapling was brought to Lanka around 250 BC, Devanampiyatissa is said to have gone to Jambukola to receive Theri Sanghamitta and the Bo sapling. There is no mention of his having obtained permission from a king of Jaffna to step into that territory. Devanampiyatissa (250-210 BC) built the Jambukola vihara at this point and later Vijayabahu I (1055-1110 AD) repaired it. It still exists. Adikaram’s Early History of Buddhism says, “The importance of Jambukola monastery may be judged from the fact that, one of the eight saplings sprung up from seeds of the Bodhi Tree was planted there, and also from the fact that pilgrims from as far a country as Yonarattha came to worship at its cetiya. The name of one of its monasteries was Valika Vihara.” King Nissanka Malla (1187-1196) did restoration work on the Jambukola Vihara. These facts prove that from 250 BC to 1196 AD Jaffna belonged to Sinhala Kings 4. Thera Mahinda, the son of Emperor Asoka from India lived for over 40 years in Anuradhapura (the Sinhala capital from BC 377 to 1090 AD), preaching to the Sinhalese. There is no mention made of his ever going to the North. If there was another kingdom, or even a sizeable recognised population, who were not Sinhalese, in the north, would he, who came all the way from north India, not have wanted to go there and extend his missionary work? And

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499 SL Histary Chap82 - ... why did not King Asoka send a missionary to that kingdom too, just as he sent to Lanka and other Asian kingdoms? Would both Mahinda and Asoka, have "discriminated against the Tamils"? There is mention of “Tamil Bhikkhu communities”, in the Sinhala kingdom, for whom a Sinhala queen built a monastery, but there is no connection mentioned with Tamil Bhikkhus in another kingdom in the north. 5. When the Vallabha king sent a force to Nagadipa (Jaffna) in the reign of King Mahinda IV (956 - 972 AD), it was the Sinhala king who sent an army to the north, under Senapati Sena, and defeated the Vallabha troops. No Tamils came to stop the Vallabha king, showing that Jaffna was under Sinhalese in 972 AD. 6. It is quite clearly mentioned that whenever a Tamil or Damila invasion occurred - whether it was by Sena and Guttika (around 177 BC), the sons of a horse dealer, or by Elara (144 BC) or Bhallaka, they came with armies from India, and landed in Mannar, and went back to India, and did not invade from the north of the island. They ruled over the Sinhalese, on the Sinhala throne. Nor is there any mention of any of these Tamil kings, having had any trade or aid agreements or other connection with any Tamil kingdom north of ‘his Sinhala kingdom at Anuradhapura over which he ruled,’ even when he was being attacked by Sinhalese from the South for so many years. The Sinhala kings always went to India to engage Tamil mercenaries and never to the north of Sri Lanka (where they could have walked to). They often asked for and obtained aid from Pandu, Burma, Cola and other parts of India but never from this so-called Tamil kingdom in the north! 7. When Robert Knox and his father and other sailors were taken captive by soldiers in Trincomalee on 4 April 1660, the soldiers took the captives to ‘their King’ - that was to the King of Kandy who kept them prisoners for many years. It is therefore quite obvious that Trincomalee belonged to the Sinhalese, in 1660, till almost the time of the British occupation. It was the Sinhala king’s army that was involved in the wars between European powers for Trincomalee harbour. When in 1653 the Dutch brought Buddhists monks from Burma for the Kandyan Kingdom, they brought them to Trincomalee.

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500 SL Histary Chap.82- ... 8. When the Portuguese harassed the Muslims in the south, they appealed to the Sinhala king of Kandy, who in 1626 gave them land in Batticaloa on the Eastern coast, where they are living to this day. The Sinhala King could not have done so, if the east coast and Batticaloa belonged to a Tamil kingdom in 1626! 9.. If there was a Tamil Kingdom, there would certainly have been some Tamil inscriptions or some ancient buildings comparable to the 2300 year old Thuparama in Anuradhapura, or the Sinhalese historians would have had some record of some wars or other involvement with a kingdom in Jaffna. Instead some Sinhala and Pali Inscriptions (not Tamil), and Buddhist sites have been discovered in Jaffna. In Kantharodai near , west of the Jaffna-Kankasanturai road, in the centre of the peninsula, over 100 miniature dagobas covering an area of over two acres was excavated in 1916. The largest is about 12 feet in diameter. They are believed to be over 2000 years old showing the Sinhala-Buddhist prescence in ancient Jaffna. The earliest Tamil inscriptions found in Sri Lanka have been further south in Polonnaruwa, Kantalai and Trincomalee, left by Cola invaders from India. 10. A gold plate discovered in near Jaffna has revealed that during the reign of Vasabha (67-111 AD) Jaffna Peninsula was governed by a Minister of that king. King Kanittha Tissa (167-186 AD) during his reign at Anuradhapura repaired the Cetiyagara of the Tissamahavihara in Jaffna peninsula and King Voharika Tissa (209-231 AD) effected improvements to that vihara. One of the earliest Tamil inscriptions discovered in Jaffna is by a Sinhala king, namely Parakramabahu I (1153-1186) who ruled at Polonnaruwa. This was found at the entrance to the Nakapusani temple in the small island now known as or Nagadipa; and it contains certain trade regulations concerning some wreckages off the port of Uratturai (present day Kayts). 11 Aggabodhi I (571-604 AD) built a relic house and dwelling place named Unhaloma for monks of the Rajayatana Vihara in Nagadipa and granted a village there for the provision of gruel to the monks. 12 When during the reign of Sena I (833-53), the Pandu king invaded the Northern province, the Tamils in Lanka joined him, the invader. The Sinhala army lost and the Pandu king plundered the treasures and went to India, but later made a treaty with king Sena, not with the Tamils who helped him, showing that there was no

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501 SL Histary Chap82 - ... Tamil Kingdom in the north of Lanka. 13. When the Vallabha king from India attacked Nagadipa, King Mahinda IV (956-972 AD) sent Sinhala troops under Senapati Sena who defeated the Vallabha king. If there was a Tamil kingdom of some sort, they would have rushed there first, and not allowed a Sinhala Senapati to go there. Thereafter the Vallabha king entered into a treaty with Mahinda. This is mentioned in an inscription in Vessagiri. 14. In 923 AD the Pandu king came requesting aid from the Sinhala king to fight the Colas. When he sensed that the Sinhala ministers would not agree to help him, he went back to India. If there was a Tamil kingdom he would obviously have gone there, for help. 15. Chandrabanu of Tambralinga, a petty kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, invaded Lanka with his Javaka army in 1247 when King Parakrambahu II (1236-1270) was ruling in Dambadeniya. When chased away he went ‘to Jaffna’ which was under Cola rule at the time, and ‘secured the throne for himself’ How he did it is not known. He was ruling there till Pandyans took over, and forced him to submit to Pandyan power.... ‘Chandrabanu was allowed to remain on the throne of Jaffna as a tributary of Pandya.’. When again Chandrabanu attacked the Sinhalese kingdom, the Pandyans helped Parakrambahu II and Chandrabanu lost his life. The Pandyans then installed Chandrabanu’s son on the throne of Jaffna. Later they replaced him with Aryacakravarti, the leader of the Pandyan army, on the throne, and only when the Pandyan kingdom collapsed due to Muslims over-running South India, that Aryacakravarti (a Pandyan) became an independent ruler in Jaffna. (KMDS 67). This was around 1247 AD! There is no mention of any Tamil king who was ousted by Chandrabanu in Jaffna! This is the first time that mention is made of any attack on the Sinhalese from the North (between 1236 and 1270), and that too was by Chandrabhanu, from Malay peninsula and NOT by Tamils from north of Sri Lanka. 16. Parakramabahu VI (1411-1466) who ruled in Kotte was confronted with a dual threat from the traditional adversaries of the Sinhalese, from the north by the Jaffna kingdom and from South India in the form of the expanding Vijayanagar empire. The Vijayanagar thrust was successfully repulsed (around 1431) and from there he moved

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502 SL Histary Chap.82- ... on to take over Jaffna, which was by this time a Vijayanagar satellite! The Vanni principalities were first subdued to prevent any possibility of an attack from the rear, once his forces had reached the Jaffna kingdom. Tradition has it that the ‘Sinhalese population’ in Jaffna kingdom rose in revolt against their Tamil rulers before Parakramabahu’s invasion. By middle of the fifteenth century King Parakramabahu VI had conquered the Jaffna, and he left his adopted son Sapumal Kumaraya as ruler of Jaffna. Parakramabahu VI returned to Kotte and ruled the entire island from Kotte till 1466. But after his father died, Sapumal Kumaraya left Jaffna in 1469 to fight and take over the Kotte Kingdom (KMD pg88) from Parakramabahu's son Jayawira. This left the Jaffna throne vacant, and Pararajasegaram took over the Tamil kingdom in 1478. This is the first king for whom regnal dates are given by the Tamil historian Dr Pathmanathan. This fits in with the history, which gives the death of Parakramabahu as 1466, his son Jayavira ruling Kotte till 1469 and Sapumal Kumaraya the adopted son taking over Kotte in 1469 and Pararajasegaram taking over Jaffna in 1478 after Sapumal Kumaraya left. 17. De Queyroz, a Portuguese historian writes in his 'Conquest of Ceylon', "After the city of Cotta (Kotte) became the Metropolis, (in 1371) there were fifteen kinglets subject to the (Sinhalese) king of Cotta who therefore was considered to be Emporer - the same title is in these days claimed by the (Sinhalese) kings of Candea (Kandy). These fifteen kinglets were Dinvaca, Uva, Valave, Putaloa (Puttalam), Mantota, Taragama, Muliaual, Triquilimale, Cutiar, Batecaloa, Paneva, Vintena, Orupala, Candea and Jaffnapattam. 18 According to Codrington, the place names in the Peninsula of Jaffna indicate that ‘it was held by Sinhalese at no very remote date and it certainly was part of the dominion of Parakrambahu I (1153-1186 AD),’ and ‘the colonisation of Jaffna by Tamils cannot be of extreme antiquity.’ 19. In Gamini Irriyagolla's book,'Tamil claims to land : Fact and Fiction' he states that "even Rasanayagam in his heavily Tamil biased 'Ancient Jaffna' admits, that Jaffna was occupied by the Sinhalese earlier than by the Tamils, is seen not only in the place names but also in some of the habits and customs of the people"

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503 SL Histary Chap82 - ... 21. According to Rohan Guneratne, the Home Affairs Minister K.W. Devanayagam(1987) who is a Tamil lawyer, had said there were large areas in Bintenne and Wewagampattu which had never been Tamil Homelands. "They were Sinhalese and Kandyan for centuries" (RG pg169) When he came to the Eastern province 50 years ago to practice as a lawyer there were hardly any Tamils around, and "the eastern Province could not be considered a traditional Tamil homeland" These are a few of the incidents that makes one feel that this claim of an ancient Tamil kingdom extending across the northern and eastern provinces, which now are claimed as "Traditional Tamil Homelands" covering one third of the land of this tiny island, and two thirds of the coastline, an area where there are monuments and irrigation tanks painstakingly built by the ancient Sinhalese, somehow does not seem right! It is possible that there were three migratory waves from India into Sri Lanka in the very early period. Records speak of the aboriginals, Yakkas and Nagas and the Sinhala and Tamil migrants from various parts of India. But it is the Sinhalese who established the first kingdom and laid the foundation for a glorious civilisation thus legitimising the claim for total suzerainity over Sri Lanka. From all available records it can be etablished that the Sinhala Kings established and initially claimed the entire 25,000 square miles of Sri Lankan territory. A Tamil Kingdom began in the 13th Century. But Sri Lankan history does not begin only in the 13th Century! If it begins earlier (and there is no contradictory evidence), how true is this claim of a Tamil Kingdom having existed before the Sinhalese one? This claim has caused so many problems, destroyed so many lives, families and entire villages, Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim and Burgher, produced so much bloodshed, animosity and hatred, and has shattered the Sri Lankan nation into pieces. Sinhalese live in fear that the only country they can call their own, the only land where Sinhala is spoken, and where their Sinhala Buddhist culture was born and is maintained, will be destroyed. Are we in the 20th Century planning to leave this problem unsettled for the generations to come, so that they too, with more sophisticated weapons can continue to fight and sacrifice

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504 SL Histary Chap.82- ... more lives and destroy this beautiful island? Or are we going to accept that Sri Lanka is indivisble, and that the different ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural groups can live together in peace and harmony as one Sri Lankan nations just as we have done in the south all these many years, and they are doing now in Australia and in several other countries, without having a linguistic separation which will only divide the country still further? What must matter and does matter to all of us who call Sri Lanka, the land of our birth, our home, is that every inch of Sri Lanka belongs to all Sri Lankans who take pride in calling this tiny island their home, however far they have migrated from it. The 65,610 square miles is too small to be compartmentalised into separate linguistic divisions! Let us live in peace without destroying our children and that paradise island which ancient mariners thought was serendipity. Let us leave behind a peaceful island for our Sri Lankan children and their children. All Sri Lankans must be free to live and own land in any part of the island, for after all, we are the same flesh and blood though we take pride in calling ourselves by different names.

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