A Journal of Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya

LANGUAGE DISCOURSE WRITING

Volume 6 July-September 2011

Editor Mamta Kalia

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Published by Mahatma Gandhi International Hindi University Hindi : Language, Discourse, Writing A Quarterly Journal of Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Volume 6 Number 3 July-September 2011

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2 :: July-September 2011 LANGUAGE DISCOURSE WRITING

July-September 2011

Contents

Heritage Modern (Post-War) Hindi Poetry S.H. Vatsyayan 7

Short Story The Story of two Bullocks Premchand 20 The Old Toy Maker Upendra Nath Ashk 32 Cremation of a Jungle Swayam Prakash 38 Tamarinds Prem Kumar Mani 45

Poetry Two Poems Bhavani Prasad Mishra 5 1 Three Poems Kailash Vajpeyi 60 A Poem Meira Kumar 63 Do Not Sell Me, Papa! Jitendra Rathore 66

Discourse Nagarjun’s Poetic Arena Namwar Singh 7 0 Has Hindi been defeated by English Shivapujan Sahay 7 6 Rural Travesties : Shukla’s Rag Darbari Rupert Snell 83

July-September 2011 :: 3 Premchand’s Views on Hindu Muslim Unity Madan Gopal 108 Nagarjun’s ‘Balchanma’ : A Socioloy of Literature Perspective Subhash Sharma 1 1 7 Towards Establishing Enduring Ties Between India and Japan Through Literature Teiji Sakata 123

Language Translation As A Dialogic Activity Minu Manjari 130

Films Modi And His Films Amrit Gangar 145

Book Review Shrilal Shukla’s Raag Darbari Rupert Snell 153 Hindi Alochana Ka Vampaksha Nilima Mishra 1 5 7

4 :: July-September 2011 Editor's Note

The world of writers and writing is quite unique. It undertakes a voyage of exploration with very little plan or project. The writer is moved by an inner rhythm and often he is as surprised as the reader by the discoveries he makes while developing a daydream. A writer’s craft and conviction can generate life and breath in some of the most remote situations. Thus we have Premchand personifying two bullocks and giving them the highest human attributes in ‘do bailon ki katha’. The short story acquires the status of a fable in this regard. The conclusions are natural and humane without any attempt at sermonising, Upendranath Ashk uses the symbol of clay toys in an equally dexterous manner bringing alive the short story in a very natural way. Swayam Prakash is equally deft at conveying a message in ‘Cremation of a jungle’.

We acknowledge S.H. Vatsyayan Agyey’s presence in Hindi by bringing you his rare article on post war modern Hindi poetry that was first published seventy four years ago in 1937 in The Vishwabharti Quarterly in two instalments. It is not always easy to reconcile with Agyeyji’s views on poets and poetry but he was different to the point of being disturbing. Shri Bharat Bhardwaj, editor ‘Pustak- Varta’ has unearthed this archival material for which we feel grateful to him. S.H. Vatsyayan ‘Agyey’ intrigues us as much by his writings as by his persona. He assumed many identities as if one proper noun was insufficient for him. It is said Vatsyayanji acquired the Agyey identity through the correspondence between stalwarts like Premchand and Jainendra Kumar. The cusp of this classic christening could be traced in his revolutionary days when Agyey was behind bars. He wrote and sent a few short stories to Premchand. Premchand liked one of those and shared the experience with Jainendra Kumar. Jainendraji, said, ‘But who is the author? What’s his name?’ Premchandji said, ‘I cannot say who he is. You can call him Mr. Anonymous or Agyey? Thus Agyey was born. In the beginning Agyeyji did not like this name but later he adjusted to it since the Hindi heartland welcomed this pen name. In his centenary year a fresh debate has erupted about Agyey’s personality and placement in the literary world, namely what do we call him, a revolutionary or a reactionary, a patriot or a spy? Much has been written

July-September 2011 :: 5 for and against the proposition. As writers we draw some solace from Faulkner’s views that a writer’s responsibility is totally to his art, he will be completely ruthless if he is a good one.

In our poetry section we have classic and contemporary poets like Bhavani Prasad Mishra, Kailash Vajpeyi, Meira Kumar and Jitendra Rathore. Our great scholar Dr. Namwar Singh writers about Nagarjun’s poetry and he picks some unusual poems of the poet. Younger critic Subhash Sharma has some revealing observations on Nagarjun’s first novel ‘Balchanma’.

Much has been done to establish and propagate Hindi in foreign universities by western scholars. Rupert Snell holds a unique place in this galaxy since he took up the task of analysing Shrilal Shukla’s different and difficult novel ‘Rag Darbari’. His views as a reviewer on the novel’s translation are equally important. Shrilal Shukla’s novel is one such work of art that has provoked varied research not only in Hindi but in other languages of the world. The latest laurel for Shrilal Shukla is that he has been honoured with Jnanpith Award for the year 2009.

The Films column appears after a hiatus because of space crunch. Contributors are welcome to send us on line articles on language, films and books at [email protected]

Visit HINDI on Internet: www.hindivishwa.org

6 :: July-September 2011 MODERN (POST-WAR) HINDI POETRY S.H. Vatsyayan

The Periodising of poetry, indeed of literature in general, must ever remain an arbitrary process. Providence does not move in well defined steps, its movements are rather like the formless undulating progress of the snail. The process of division becomes more arbitrary and even dangerous when one talks of a ‘period’ that is too recent to Heritage be placed in perspective and examined in retrospect.

Yet this arbitrary division has its reasons as well as its uses, and is generally intelligible to everyone. Each arbitrary period has certain characteristics of form, of content, of tone, purpose or ideal. Two poets of the same period examined at close range may not only be very different from each other but may even have affinities with a poet or poets belonging to a different period; yet it will be discovered that in some essential respect they are of a kind.

This essential is the spirit of the age. In all poetry of any worth, there are discernible two governing influences—the poet’s own per- sonality, and the spirit of the age. The personal quality of a poet is obvious to the sensitive reader from the first; the spirit of the age is rarely understood by the age itself. This spirit becomes apparent only when one period is examined in relation to its predecessors and when an attempt is made to understand the forces and influences working on the poets of each age.

The subject of the present paper is ‘Modern (Post-war) Hindi

July-September 2011 :: 7 Poetry’ The writer is fully aware that his to young men to come to the rescue of choice is not a happy one. The task of the Empire, Indian youths did not take tracing out definite lines of progress in to the army, if only because the gov- the present labyrinth of conflict and con- ernment in India has always been sus- fusion, of inert apathy and electric urgency, picious of the educated Indian youth. is one that would have appalled Daedalus, Be that as it may, the fact remains and it is nothing short of impudence in that the monster of war did not cast its the present writer to hope to perform dark shadow over Indian literature. And it in any measure of success. In failure though a few isolated attempts at picturing he will not even have the satisfaction of the naked realities of war may be found knowing that the subject was thrust upon in contemporary literature { chiefly in him. Yet he was one author and a rep- fiction), so far as the majority of our writers resentative of his age himself, he will, are concerned the war might not have even in failure, have expressed two of taken place at all. the characteristics he will presently ex- amine: namely, a perplexity with the The utility, therefore, of fixing the war problems of an age that moves too fast, as a dividing point between two periods a perplexity bordering on despair; and may not be immediately apparent. Yet an almost overweening self-confidence any one who has watched Indian affairs which is in reality the instinct of self- at all carefully cannot but notice that the preservation seeking the last resort of de- indirect influence of the war brought about spair. deep and fundamental changes in modes of living and thinking, and completely Post-war poetry, as such, did not exist changed, not to say revolutionised, our in India. The reason for this is that the social, moral and spiritual values. It ini- war never became a reality to the educated tiated a period of profound unrest and Indian— neither a distant, impersonal but questioning, not of frustration and chaotic large reality, nor an immediate personal despair as in Europe. The seeds of political one. For this again there were obvious consciousness, which had begun to sprout causes. First, India was not sufficiently in the early years of the century, and highly industrialised to be hard hit by even during the war had already cast forth the wrong side of the war. Secondly, the a few dark flowers, now ripened into a so-called ‘martial races’ of India constitute vast growth that shadowed the horizon. a limited, uneducated and culturally in- A sense of unity and nationhood began significant minority. Thirdly, in spite of to dawn in the minds of the more or conscription and Mahatma Gandhi’s appeal less educated young men of the country,

8 :: July-September 2011 till there hardly remained a person to responsibility : God’s business was taken whom the word ‘motherland’ had not a out of His hands and became man’s business definite meaning. even if in order to perform it man felt it necessary to organise himself into a Contemporaneously with this, the God-equivalent State. twofold attack on traditional religion from the east and the west led to a complex The war did not transform India, it transformation in our attitude towards did not revolutionise India. But it helped things spiritual. On one side was the India to realise itself, to see its own face. rationalism of the Mahratta and the And the face that India saw was a new reformatory zeal of the Arya Samaj, the face, with deep furrows of disillusionment, protest against emotionalism and mental harsh lines of disquiet and the conflict apathy, the scorpion-whip seeking to rouse of duties; a face deformed by despair and people from the stupor into which they pessimism, blinded by confusion and had fallen after the decadence of the Bhakti perplexity. It was a face that demanded movement ; on the other was the Bengali effort and at the same time doubted its revolt against formalism and dialecticism, usefulness, that defied sympathy, yet craved the demand for spiritual solace, for for solace, that hungered and would not communion, for religion as a personal be fed. In short it was a face of challenge. experience. This internal struggle was further complicated by the impact of social theories from Europe ; our culture which Did Hindi literature meet that chal- had been based on the individualistic lenge? And does Hindi poetry offer us doctrine of salvation was brought into evidence of awareness of that challenge? conflict with the socialistic philosophy of It is not the business of poetry to solve mass existence. We lost faith in old problems, but it is the business of poetry standards of morality which had failed as a ‘sensitive medium for that perfect so hopelessly; our attitude towards sin expression of experience which constitutes underwent a change. While we became art’, to be conscious of the problems that more tolerant of the individual’s failing torture the collective soul of the age, whose as being conditioned by circumstances not experience it embodied. Does Hindi poetry within the individual’s control, we also then, tell us of the joys and sorrows and realised the futility of imposing the perplexities of this most complex age ? responsibility on God or providence or If a one-word label must be given other supernatural powers. In denying to Hindi poetry today, we may, for want individual responsibility we accepted social of a better word, call it Romantic. Yet

July-September 2011 :: 9 the inadequacy of the label would be im- erature that began to appear in this period mediately apparent to any one who at- indicates that our expectation is not un- tempted to follow its progress. The reason justified. Those were the early swallows, for this is that in an age of transition the harbingers of the full-blown summer such as ours so many diverse forces are we have today. Indeed, we can already active that it is hard to pick out one notice a shift towards arid intellectualism, as the outstanding feature. Then again the and soon the field may be ripe for the ease with which literary controversy can advent of a T. S. Eliot. be started, in this age of publicity, in It is a curious fact that the first and a country which not only possesses special greatest figure in our period is one who aptitude for it but also has tradition at really represents the classical tradition— its back, and the general lack of proportion Maithili Sharan Gupta. In this age of denials and humour which causes writers not only his is the clear voice of faith. The speed vehemently to argue but also to come and the garishness of life have not shaken out with practical-demonstrations of their him ; amid the shambles of modern theories in print while the reader stands existence he still stands out dauntless and by helpless and amazed, renders judgment dignified, full of noble sentiment. One may more difficult. try to explain that by his retired life of Romance, the attitude of wonder, is moderate comfort and one may urge against necessarily the expression of the soul of him that he has not known the extreme man in a certain stage of civilisation. It pressure of twentieth century life, but one is when the realisation breaks on him that cannot deny the ennobling influence of the forces moulding his society and the his poetry. He is not emotional, though values governing his world are not absolute his poetry has poignancy. He is not sen- and eternal as he has so far believed, timental, though he is the poet of sentiment but are relative, mundane, that man begins par excellence—and very cathartic sen- to hunger for a world of wonder and mystery timent too, cathartic in Aristotle’s sense. and spiritual beauty. Consciously or unconsciously he has subscribed to the classical assumption that In this sense it may be said that the love is an inferior motive and that women romantic revival in Hindi should have are scarcely fit for the position of principal commenced about the time of the 1857 personages. That is why, even in Saketa upheaval, for it was then that the traditional which is woven round Urmila as one of institutions began to be questioned ( or the principal figures, the poet has depicted at any rate seriously doubted). And, in his women less as merely human figures fact, the light and fanciful romance lit- and more as individuals governed by almost

10 :: July-September 2011 inhuman ideals. youth from apathy. His song touched the heart of young men, awakened in them Sita who, when Urmila expressed her the pride of achievement and a nostalgia apprehension that Rama may fail to string for the age of legendary valour. His was the bow, says in a supreme expression a voice of protest and his is the one voice of faith: that has remained most consistently prot- To string the bow estant throughout the period that he has been writing. Had he not the power. The individual has limits, but power is My steadfast eyes infinite. Would not have fixed their gaze on him. In action, even death is an achievement or Urmila who says: in itself

‘Be that as it may. I dry my tears Do not go back for sanctions, be a law and drink in faith : Wherever he is, he unto yourself. is well, since life yet, throbs in me’, are A man who lacks an urge, a passion, a little more than human; that is to say, a madness in his life, Of what use to they are human embodiments of a su- the world is his steadfastness ? perhuman ideal. Let our challenge be to Death himself— On the technical side, too, Maithilisharan has stood for the classical Before a new creation let us demand the tradition. Indeed, he is mainly responsible cataclysm! for the rigidity in poetical rhythm and He has not cultivated an attitude of diction, which is one of the notable features superior intolerance towards society, nor of Hindi poetry today and to which we has submitted and fallen back, He has shall have occasion to refer not yelled defiance, but he has never shirked later. Yet, in spite of this, Maithilisharan’s a blow, never sought to escape. contribution to the romantic spirit is large and definite. Lakshmi saved herself by entering the ocean. Sati found emancipation through Classicism tends to order, lucidity and fire, Urmila will live, and wait, and endure. proportion ; romanticism to freedom, fancy, and caprice. “Classicism is method, ro- It is an expression of his own attitude. manticism is energy.” To Maithilisharan (But no:) Pluck at thy sweet will all goes the credit of having roused Indian the blossoms.

July-September 2011 :: 11 That attract thee by their beauty or He is conscious throughout of a super- their perfume : natural world of wonder and mystery and his pen has the power of conjuring up The creeper bears them not to wither vivid scenes of that world which he invokes away in such lines as: But to be fulfilled in proud self-giving. Night’s beautiful soft hair is wet, touch Nor has he been shut off from the it with your hand, dearest, true romantic consciousness of mystery. as a ray of the morning sun— It may be difficult to read it in his longer works in the epic tradition, but in his Open wide the doors.... earlier lyrics it is apparent. In Maya— and which he presents vividly before She came and clung to me : our eyes by the power of his imagination supported by a language rich in imagery She bound me in her slim arms and possessing great suggestive and pic- Nay, ask me not to what nameless torial power: deeds. For whom is thine emergence. Morning She led me in numb acquiescence— Light?

one finds a hint of the evil spell of Bowed to the earth, like prayer, sweet beauty which was so constant a motif as a flute, yet wordless. with the romantics. The conception of an Of what unknown world art thou. eternal traveller (Narada) interfering with mundane life, himself detached, is also The restless pain-messenger? a romantic conception. In short couplets he calls up weird His third great feature is his capacity pictures which create a vague yet none for concentrated emotion, The couplet theless real restlessness: appearing on the title-page of his In all these little things Yashodhara is a good example : The freshness of them that had been This is the story of a woman’s life— lost to me Breasts full of milk and eyes welling By a thousand fold recurrent seeing up with tears. Is still known to you, The real precursor, however, of the romantic movement is Jayashankar Prasad. Still loved by you,

12 :: July-September 2011 Still a source of endless mystery, While the unrelenting wave of karma keeps His gift of thinking saves him from falling into a morass of metaphor like so rising and falling, many of his contemporaries. He has no Defying all obstacles, ‘star-dust’ stuff. His deep human sympathy goes straight to the heart and strikes a In this counting house 0f profit and responsive chord in the reader. When in loss, In light as in darkness, the Outcast Daughter we find the unhappy Whose voice is it that my quivering father aksing in agony. heart keeps hearing ?While the unrelenting Is my stigma greater than the Goddess’s wave of karma keeps rising and falling. mercy? I know not how far more I have to go, how long the day. In this one thing do I surpass Nor where you dwell, The immensity of the Mother’s love!’ But in sleep or waking, we are struck by the ‘enormity of his punishment and accord him our fullest My pilgrimage knows no rest. sympathy. In this art of adapting social Thus with untiring steps I march in themes to political purposes, of attcking joy,- social tyranny and abuse without falling from poetical ideals, Siyaramsharan has I know not how far more I have no equal. to go, how long the day.

As example of his touching optimism In conclusion attention may be drawn we may quote a couplet: to the lack of major achievement in his work. His is the strange case of two virtues The glory of victory is not exclusive combining to produce a failing. His re- to the flectiveness and his benevolence have Short lived flowers : resulted in a lack of that unbalance which is a pre-requisite for great poetry. His It shines forth sometimes from the love is undeniable, he sees a unity and foot of the continuity in the world through his love; thorn-girt bush. but his love does not attain the strength of passion. As some one has said, he “writes This is from his beautiful poem The with his tears, but not with his blood”. tryst, a masterpiece of restrained emotion : Subhadrakumari Chouhan is definitely

July-September 2011 :: 13 a product of the post-war nationalist age. impersonal, detached quality about the Her poetry is direct and simple, and often work. Be it said to the credit of naive. Her simplicity, too, is not the de- Subhadrakumari Chouhan that she does liberately cultivated, and hence more or not falter even though she comes very less artificial, simplicity of the conscious near the danger line. Her very directness artist, not of the art that lies in concealing saves her and justifies her. Her poems art ; it is a direct reflection of a straight- are not only good poetry, but are revealing forward personality. Nowhere do we see of that strange, almost irritatingly self- her employing the usual artifices of the effacing yet thoroughly lovable model of poet—the ‘tricks of the trade’—nor does what we have been taught to regard as she ever become learned or dissertative. ideal Indian womanhood.

Subhadrakumari Chouhan is pre-emi- Poems which are not domestic gen- nently a domestic poet. She has an es- erally have a nationalist bias. sentially poetical outlook towards the little Subhadrakumari Chouhan is an ardent lover things of our day to day life, on which of her country. This love is reflected in her keen receptivity is brought to bear several short poems as well as in her with almost surprising results. The spon- powerful ballad The Queen of Jhansi, a taneity of such pieces as Childhood solitary example of its kind. Rediscovered is refreshing and more than Occasionally she has sought identifi- compensates, nay, is even enhanced by, cation with nature, but the results have their naivete, which otherwise would have been disappointing. Two poems addressed made them puerile and ridiculous. This to flowers, are poor and incomplete. She is also true of such poems as At Parting, cannot feel a unity with the ‘Great Outdoors’. Lovers Quarrel, Spurn Me or Love Me, Her field is strictly domestic. which are direct expressions of the almost abject self-surrender of love. These poems Subhadrakumari Chouhan has not writ- come dangerously near the line at which ten much. There is also a feeling of poetry becomes personal confession and occasionalness in what she has written. hence indelicate and even faintly distaste- Lately she has practically ceased writing ful. All creative art is confession in a poetry. Possibly the poetic vein is spent— sense, but such confession is admissible the fire has burned out. A more likely only in so far as it expresses universal reason is that the hunger which led her experience and can be enjoyed without to write such touching domestic poetry an ever-present, identification with the has found satisfaction elsewhere. Indeed, writer ; that is, so long as there is an if such poems as Childhood Rediscovered

14 :: July-September 2011 have any psychological implications at all, likely result. Escape is most urgent, and our conclusion is the only one that may hedonism most rampant, when reality hits reasonably be drawn. hardest. Our lives have been and are being shaken —and we have sought sanctuary We may now pass on to a review of everywhere, while at the same time doubt- the other poets and examine them in ing if we would get it. The age is one relation to their environments. of doubt, of denial, of frustration. The The literary artist may react to his strident voice of denial can be heard over environment in one of four ways. He may all others—indeed, but for a few notable escape entirely from its impact. This would exceptions ours could well be called the result in the production of utopias, ro- age of irreverence. It has become laughable mances, mysteries. He may bear the impact to confess to any faith, or to an attachment and face disappointment and cruel dis- to old ideals, yet the urgent need of some- illusionment— resulting in realism of the thing to cling to, a bulwark in this flood starkest kind. He may try to snatch a of reality, is everywhere and most of us bit of beauty from what he knows to be in our secret souls jealously guard our harsh and ugly—an attitude of restrained cravings, spirit-hungers, and the shreds protest, of thoughtful optimism—produc- of such loyalties as have survived. Indeed, ing often the most delightful poetry. Or the normal channels being closed by the he may react with passive acceptance and intense pressure of life, hard, unimagi- be overwhelmed by his environment. This native, exacting, garish, in short, our group would include cynics,, hedonists, hungers have become more urgent within, fatalists—all the legions of despair. and burst forth at the merest touch ; the least emotional stimulus gives us an We have already surveyed the envi- unbearable thrill. The appeal of such mystic ronment of the modern Hindi poet. Judging poets as Mahadevi Varma and even such modern poetry in the light of the above fatalists as ‘Bachchan’ can only be ex- grouping, we will find that we have a plained thus. In a healthier age, they could very large output in the first and the only have commanded a very limited ap- last classes—those that yield to the impulse preciation, and their admirers would have to escape and those that submit com- been rudely put aside as eccentrics or pletely. The reflective optimists are few neurotics. indeed, and the realists almost non-existent. And yet we are waking not only to The causes are not far to seek. In reality but also to power— it is an age a first awakening to the impact of desperate also of self-discovery. We are buying new realities, an extreme reaction is the most

July-September 2011 :: 15 lamps for old, and the wonder of it is He is intensely occupied with nature, with that the genie inhabits the new lamp. Our form and colour, and with the presentation soul is coming to a consciousness of great of his own inner being in terms of the forces, we are tending towards a corporate graceful and rhythmic aspect of nature. national existence ; our sympathies are He sings of nature, yet his nature is not widening and comprise the lowly as well natural ; by an unconscious selective pro- as the distant. This is more obvious in cess he chooses only those aspects of prose and fiction ; in poetry it is not nature which conform to his aesthetic ideal so marked, but is coming surely, inevitably. and with which he can seek identification One may wonder why this is so, because without losing his equanimity : — it is generally supposed, and rightly, that The Form the poet is the first iconoclast, the vanguard of the protestants. If one may venture Whose splendour is reflected in the Dawn, an explanation, this slackness may be Whose ornament is the fresh-blown spring. ascribed to the poverty of criticism in India generally and in Hindi, in particular. Whose garland is a chain of stars. We have no good critics, and almost no Who wears a crown of the sun and the critical literature worth the name. Whatever moon, old literature we had is now either inaccessible or otherwise rendered useless Whose hair is clustered in cloud, and by the type of education we have received, whose joy-tears which has cut us off from our own literary are the drops of dew. tradition without having given us a substitute. Even if a critical apparatus based Whose scented breath is the zephyr, mind on our traditions were available, we would the ocean. Whose play is the world of probably have discovered that it was waves-Her must you bind in your tender antiquated and unfit for use without arms, O poet. considerable readjustment. Nature as conflict, as elimination, as I will end this paper with a few words stern justice, nature as a biological fact, on the Aesthetes among our modern poets. is unknown to him. He does not resist, he is not a protestant, for all conflict The aesthetic school comprises poets- is unaesthetic, and protest lacks grace. primarily engaged in a quest of beauty. The aesthete invokes the past sometimes, The aesthete is obviously the person who but here again he invokes the beautiful, does not face reality and who lives a the poignant, the graceful in form. protected and more or less innocuous life.

16 :: July-September 2011 For an examination of the aesthetic separated— tendency we may consider Sumitranandan And the first song must have burst Pant. forth from pain. Pant seems to have drunk deep at Even in dreaming he says : the fountain of Wordsworth’s poetry. He is a nature poet and as such he even Comrade, let us think about dreams. has some of Wordsworth’s faults—his often Straying a little from the field of strict deliberate simplicity, the cultivated na- criticism, one may make a few remarks ivete which provided such an easy target about aesthetes in general. These are for nineteenth century parodists. At its relevant in that they help us to a better best, of course, this simplicity is an intimate understanding of the special qualities and revelation of personality in a child. The limitations of the aesthetic poet. simple child naming that mountain ‘the The aesthete is generally a subnormal cloud-home’, is almost a ‘confidence’ person. His passion is etherialised ( not imparted to a sympathetic listener, and sublimated) to a degree which makes it an indication of the poet’s intimacy with unreal, arid, even affected. The intense nature. But generally it rouses a faint sense intellectual preoccupation with beauty is of ridicule in the listener. itself evidence of the fact that the pas- Pant is nurtured on softness —he is sionate quality is lacking. The libido-does one that has ‘lain on the lilies of life.’ not accumulate, it continuously distributes He lacks resistance. In his poem Sighs itself in countless lesser attractions. which, by the way, is a very flimsy story When I behold used as a pretext for an orgy of nature description, when his childhood affection The garden filling the flowercups with is interfered with: the wine of youth

Love had hardly blossomed yet, To feed the honey-bee,

The flush of shyness had not yet faded, And the ripple, like a young bride, When like a blight came suspicion Wavering a little near the flowers on And the new-blown bud withered. the bank

Like many other poets of today, Pant And then gliding on, sings of pain but his pain is not felt, it When I behold the moonlight lifting is imagined. He says : Her thin rainbow-coloured gossamer veil The first poet must have been of the

July-September 2011 :: 17 of cloud, importunate desire!

It is a glimpse of your face, 0 my love, And the failure of the aesthete is That carries me away in a trance. obvious.

This, of course, rouses the old con- The aesthete’s libido centres round troversy : is great art possible without himself. Almost. invariably he is a nar- great passion ? The present writer wishes cissist—an admirer of beauty as expressed to assert, with all the emphasis he is capable in his own form. Pant’s Vina affords several of, that the fundamental quality of all great examples of this. This self-admiration, art is passion—passion, of course, in the naturally enough, generates a self-esteem, highest sense of strong feeling backed by a sort of superiority complex, from which, a directive will. Without it, a piece may almost invariably again, all aesthetes suf- be beautiful, but it will be the beauty fer. Pant is no exception. Notice the tone of the delicate, weak-kneed, rickety child of contempt for public taste in his preface born before his time. This is what may to Vina: “Readers will probably find the be said of Pant’s long and pretty Ode present collection more to their taste than to Cupid. Pallava because in reality it is not half as good.” Let us take an example. Sings Pant in Woman This is not to say that in moments of self-effacement he does not produce Woman, beautiful poetry. The vision of beauty slowly I love the littlest atom of your being; unveiling itself in:

0 frail form. Slowly you are opening the door of your divine abode. Every moment reveal- Your bosom is the home of all bliss. ing your radiant form. 0 mother, when Compare this merely graceful avowal with shall I see you face to face, You whose Tagore’s majestic Urvashi, or even with image is mirrored in the world? the pagan Navin’s: What has been said above about Pant Bound at last in my arms, you queen as an aesthete and about the psychology of all bonds! Your proud disdain has thawed of the aesthete in general is true, mutatis into sweet graciousness. 0 my beautiful mutandis, of Suryakant Tripathi who writes flower, whom I hold in my iron grasp, under the pen-name Nirala. In fact the See, my heart is welling up anew. The pitfalls to which the aesthete, is liable burning breath of passion sweeps me off show up more glaringly in his case. His my feet As you abandon yourself to my is another case of artistic ability gone

18 :: July-September 2011 astray due to overweening self-esteem, Come into this half-blown lotus of my of poetry sacrificed to a more or less heart, O my love, deliberate attempt at originality. His earlier Leave the narrow path of strict work was often very good, but later it prosody. began to show an irritated obstinacy in the conviction that the main poetic tra- O slow-gaited one, that path is narrow dition had ossified. He joined the ranks and thorny, of les jeunes who “throw bricks at imagi- How could you ever go through. nary Aunt Sallies who maintain that poetry must rhyme, that line-patterns must be The thorns would tear the hem of regular. and that aeroplanes and com- your robe, plexes are taboo in literature.” And your garland would be entangled.

Let us however recognise that his was And having given him due credit for another voice that rang for the freedom this, let us say no more. Nil nisi bonum. of poetry from rigid formalism.

S.H. Vatsyayan (1911-1987) born at Kushinagar, he was one of the most adored and debated authors of twentieth century. He is known by several names, like Sachchidanand Hiranand Vatsyayan, Agyeya and Kuttichatan. He wrote famous novels like Shekhar ek Jivani, nadi ke dweep and Apne Apne Ajnabi. His short stories like Sharandata. Hili bone ki battakhen and Gangrene have earned him world renown. As a poet he not only wrote many sensitive poems but also edited ‘Taar Saptak’ in 1943 that created a literary furore in Hindi. He is remembered for his travelogues and literary journalism. He edited Times of India’s Newsweekly Dinman from 1964 to 1971 and coined its original vocabulary and language, that was different from routine journalism. He was honoured with sahitya akademi award, golden wreath award and Bharat Bharti Samman. He spent long years in prison. He travelled widely at home and abroad. He has penned more than 65 books from different publishing houses. His fans call him the T.S. Eliot of Hindi literature. He passed away in Delhi on April 4, 1987.

July-September 2011 :: 19 THE STORY OF TWO BULLOCKS Premchand

Translated by David Rubin

The jackass is held to be the most stupid of animals. Whenever we want to call somebody a firstclass fool we call him a jackass. Whether the jackass really is a fool, or his meek submissiveness has earned him this title, is something not easy to determine. Cows strike with their horns and one who’s just calved will spontaneously take on the aspect of a lioness. The dog, too, is a fairly pitiable creature, but sometimes even he will go into a rage. But an angry jackass has never been seen or heard. No matter how much you may beat the poor fellow, no matter what sort of rotten straw you

Short Story fling down in front of him, not even a flicker of discontent will pass over his features. He may possibly prance around once or twice in spring, but we’ve never seen him happy. He has never been known to change whether in joy or sorrow, winning or losing, or in any condition whatsoever. Whatever virtues the sages and holy men may possess, all have reached their culmination in the jackass; yet people call him a fool. Such disrespect for virtue has never been seen before. Perhaps simplicity is not suitable for this world. Just look now, why are the Indians living in Africa in such a wretched state. Why aren’t they allowed to slip into America? The poor fellows dont drink liquor, they put aside a little money for a rainy day, break the backs working, don’t quarrel with anybody, suffer insults in silence. All the same, they have a bad requtation. It’s said they lower the standard of

20 :: July-September 2011 living. If they learned to fight back, well, of friendship and a sense of fun, the way may be people would begin to call them friends as soon as they become intimate civilized. The example of Japan is before slap and pummel one another; any friend- us—a single victory has caused them to ship lacking such displays seems rather be ranked among the civilized people of superficial and insipid and not to be trusted. the world. Whenever they were yoked together for plowing or pulling the wagon, they stepped But the jackass has a younger brother along swinging their necks. Each would who is scarcely less asinine and that’s attempt to take most of the burden on the bullock. We use the expression ‘the his own shoulders. When they were released calf’s uncle’ in more or less the same from the yoke after their day’s work at way we say ‘jackass.’ There are some people noon or in the evening they would lick who would probably call the bullock and nuzzle one another to ease their fatigue. supreme among fools, but we have a rather When the oilseed cake and straw was tossed different opinion. The bullock from time into the manger they would stand up to- to time will strike ... and even a rebellious gether, thrust their muzzles into the trough bullock has been observed occasionally. together, and sit down side by side. When And it also has several other ways of one withdrew his mouth the other would expressing its discontent, so it cannot be do so too. ranked with the jackass. It came about that on one occasion Jhuri the vegetable farmer had two Jhuri sent the pair to his father-in-law’s. bullocks named Hira and Moti. Both were How could the bullocks know why they of fine Pachhai stock, of great stature, were being sent away? They assumed that beautiful to behold, and diligent at their the master had sold them. Whether it labours. The two had lived together for bothered them or not to be sold like this a very long time and become sworn no one can say, but Jhuri’s brother-in- brothers. Face to face or side by side law Gaya had to sweat through his teeth they would hold discussions in their silent to take the two bullocks away. When he language. How each understood the other’s drove them from behind they’d run right thoughts we cannot say, but they certainly or left; if he caught up the tether and possessed some mysterious power (denied dragged them forward they’d pull back to man who claims to be supreme among violently. When he beat them, both would living creatures). They would express their lower their horns and bellow. If God had love by licking and sniffing one another, given them speech, they would have asked and sometimes they would even lock Jhuri, ‘Why are you throwing us poor horns—not from hostility but rather out

July-September 2011 :: 21 wretches out? We’ve done everything When Jhuri saw the bullocks he was possible to serve you well. If working overwhelmed with affection for them. He as hard as we did couldn’t get the job ran and threw his arms around their necks, done, you could have made us work still and very pleasant was the spectacle of harder. We were willing to die labouring that loving embrace and kissing. for you. We never complained about the The children of the household and the food, whatever you gave us to eat we village boys gathered clapping their hands bowed our heads and ate it, so why did in welcome. Although such an incident you sell us into the hands of this tyrant?’ was not without precedent in the village At evening the two bullocks reached it was nevertheless a great event. The their new place, hungry after a whole day gathering of boys decided they ought to without food, but when they were brought present official congratulations. From their to the manger, neither so much as stuck houses they brought bread, molasses bran his mouth in. Their hearts were heavy; and chaff. they were separated from the home they One boy said, ‘Nobody had bullocks had thought was their own. New house, like these,’ and another agreed. ‘They came new village, new people, all seemed alien back from so far all by themselves,’ while to them. a third said. ‘They’re not bullocks, in an They consulted in their mute language, earlier life they were men.’ And nobody glancing at one another out of the corners dared disagree with this. of their eyes, and lay down. When the But when Jhuri’s wife saw the bullocks village was deep in sleep the two of them at the gate she got angry and said. ‘What pulled hard, broke their tether and set loafers these oxen are, they didn’t work out for home. That tether was very tough, at my father’s place for one day before no one could have guessed that any bullock they ran away!’ could break it; but a redoubled power had entered into them and the ropes Jhuri could not listen to his bullocks snapped with one violent jerk. being slandered like this. Loafers, are they? At your father’s they must not have fed When he got up early in the morning them so what were they to do?’ Jhuri saw that his two bullocks were stand- ing at the trough, half a tether dangling In her overbearing way his wife said, from each of their necks. Their legs were ‘Oh sure, you’re the only one who knows muddied up to the knees and resentful how to feed bullocks while everybody else love gleamed in their eyes. give them nothing but water.’

22 :: July-September 2011 Jhuri railed at her, ‘If they’d been When they reached the house, Gaya fed why would they run off?’ tied them with thick ropes and paid them back for yesterday’s mischief. Again he Aggravated, she said, ‘They ran away threw down the same dry straw. To his just because those people don’t make fools own bullocks he gave oilseed cake, ground of themselves spoiling them like you. They lentils, everything. feed them but they also make them work hard. These two are real lazy bones and The two bullocks had never suffered they ran away. Let’s see them get oilseed such an insult. Jhuri wouldn’t strike them and bran now I’ll give them nothing but even with a flower stem. The two of them dry straw, they can eat it or drop dead.’ would rise up at a click of his tongue, while here they were beaten. Along with So it came about. The hired hand was the pain of injured pride they had to put given strict orders to feed them nothing up with dry straw. They didn’t even bother but dry straw. to look in the trough. When the bullocks put their faces in The next day Gaya yoked them to the trough they found it insipid. No savour, the plow, but it was as though the two no juice—how could they eat it? With eyes of them had sworn an oath not to lift full of hope they began to stare toward a foot—he grew tired beating them but the door. not one foot would they lift. One time Jhuri said to the hired hand, ‘Why when the cruel fellow delivered a sharp the devil don’t you throw in a little oilseed?’ blow on Hira’s nostrils Moti’s anger went ‘The mistress would surely kill me.’ out of control and he took to his heels with the plow. Plough share, rope, yoke, ‘Then do it on the sly.’ harness, all were smashed to pieces. Had ‘Oh no, boss, afterwards you’ll side there not been strong ropes around their with her.’ necks it would have been impossible to catch the two of them.

Hira said in his silent language, ‘It’s The next day Jhuri’s brother-in-law useless to run away.’ came again and took the bullocks away. This time he yoked them to the wagon. Moti answered, ‘But he was going to kill you.’ A couple of times Moti wanted to knock the wagon into the ditch but Hira, who ‘We’ll really get beaten now.’ was more tolerant, held him back. ‘So what’ We were born bullocks, how

July-September 2011 :: 23 can we escape beating?’ for the bullocks.

‘Gaya’s coming on the run with a couple The two were yoked all day, took a of men and they’re both carrying sticks.’ lot of beating, got stubborn. In the evening they were tied up in their stall, and at Moti said. 'Just say the word and I'll night the same little girl would come out show them a little fun. Here he comes and feed some bread to each of them. with his stick!. The happy result of this communion of 'No, brother!' Hira cautioned. 'Just stand love was that even though they ate only still.’ a few mouthfuls of the dry straw they 'If he beats me I'll knock one or two did did not grow weak. Still their eyes of them down.’ and every cell of their bodies filled with rebelliousness. 'No, that's not the dharma of our com- munity.' One day Moti said in his silent language, ‘I can’t stand it any longer, Hira.’ Moti could only stand, protesting vio- lently in his heart. Gaya arrived, caught ‘What do you want to do?’ them and took them away. Fortunately ‘Catch a few of them on my horns he didn't beat them this time, for if he and toss them.’ had Moti would have struck back. When ‘But you know, that sweet girl who they saw his fierce look Gaya and his feeds us bread is the daughter of the master helpers concluded that this time it would of this house. Won’t the poor girl become be best to put it off. an orphan?’ This day again the same dry straw ‘Then what if I toss the mistress? After was brought to them. They stood in silence. all, she beats the girl.’ In the house the people were eating dinner. Just then quite a young girl came out ‘But you’re forgetting, it’s forbidden carrying a couple of pieces of bread. She to use your horns against womankind.’ fed the two of them and went away. How ‘You’re leaving me no way out! So could a piece of bread still their hunger? what do you say, tonight we break the But in their hearts they felt as though ropes and run away?’ they had been fed a full meal. Here too was the dwelling of some gentle folk. The ‘Yes, I’ll agree to that, but how can girl was Bhairo’s daughter; her mother we break such a thick rope?’ was dead and her stepmother beat her ‘There is a way. First gnaw the rope often, so that she felt a kind of sympathy a bit, then it will snap with one jerk.’

24 :: July-September 2011 At night when the girl had fed them come by. They were coming to villages and gone off, the two began to gnaw at they’d never seen. Then the two of them their ropes, but the thick cord wouldn’t halted at the edge of a field and began fit in their mouths. The poor fellows tried to think about what they ought to do hard over and over again without any now. luck. Hira said, ‘It appears we’ve lost our Suddenly the door of the house opened way.’ and the same girl came out; the bullocks ‘You took to your heels without think- lowered their heads and began to lick ing. We should have knocked him down her hand. Their tails stood up while she dead right on the spot. stroked their foreheads, and then she said, ‘I’m going to let you go. Be very quiet ‘If we’d killed him what would the and run away or these people will kill world say? He abandoned his dharma, but you. In the house today they were talking we stuck to ours.’ about putting rings in your noses. They were dizzy with hunger. Peas She untied the rope, but the two stood were growing in the field and they began silent. to browse, stopping occasionally to listen for anyone coming. ‘Well, let’s go,’ said Hira, ‘only tomor- row this orphan’s going to be in a lot When they had eaten their fill the two of trouble. Everybody in the house will of them were exhilarated with the ex- suspect her.’ perience of freedom and began to spring and leap. First they belched, then locked Suddenly the girl yelled, ‘Uncle’s bul- horns and began to shove one another locks are running away! Daddy, daddy, around. Moti pushed Hira back several come quick, they’re running away!’ steps until he fell into the ditch. Then Gaya came rushing out of the house even Hira finally got angry. He managed to catch the bullocks. They were running to get up and then clashed with Moti. now, with Gaya fast behind them. They Moti could see that their game was on ran even faster and Gaya set up a shout. the verge of getting serious so he drew Then he turned back to fetch some men aside. of the village. This was the chance for But what's this? A bull is coming along the two friends to make good their escape, bellowing. Yes, it really is a bull, and and they ran straight ahead, no longer he's heading right their way. The two friends aware by now just where they were. There look around anxiously for a way out. This was no trace of the familiar road they’d

July-September 2011 :: 25 bull is a regular elephant, you'll risk your The bull wanted to take them on one very life if you try to take him on, but at a time and knock them down, but the even if you don't fight him it looks as two were masters of the art and gave though you won't save your life either. him no chance. At once moment when And he's coming straight for them. What the bull became so enraged that he moved a terrifying sight! to make an end of Hira one and for all Moti struck from the side and gored his 'We're in for it now,' said Moti. 'Can belly. When the bull wheeled around in we get out of it alive? Think up something a fury Hira gored him from the other to do.' side. Finally the poor fellow ran off wounded, Worried, Hira observed, 'He's gone and the two friends pursued him for some crazy with pride. He'd never listen to our distance until the bull collapsed out of pleas.' breath. Then they left him.

'Then why don't we run for it?' The two friends went along swaying 'Running away is cowardly.' from side to side in the intoxication of victory. 'In that case—die here! But your humble servant just wants to get away.’ In his symbolic language Moti said, ‘I really felt like killing the bastard.’ ‘But what if he chases us?’ ‘That’s all hypocrisy. You ought to ‘Then think up something quick!’ strike the enemy down so he doesn’t get 'The plan is this, the two of us must up again.’ attack at once. I'll strike from front, you 'But how are we going to get home from behind, and when he gets it from now?-Just think about that. 'First let's eat both sides he'll take to his heels. When something, and think afterwards.' he turns on me gore him sideways in the belly. We may not come out of it A pea field was right there in front alive, but there's no other way.' of them. Moti went crashing in; Hira kept on warning him, but to no avail. He had Risking everything, the two friends scarcely eaten a couple of mouthfuls when made their attack. The bull had no ex- two men with sticks came running and perience doing battle with a united enemy. surrounded the two friends. Hira was on He was accusomed to fighting one enemy the embankment and slipped away, but at a time. As soon as Hira pounced on Moti was down in the soggy field. His him Moti charged from behind. When the hooves were so deep in mud that he couldn't bull turned to face him, Hira attacked. run and he was caught. When Hira saw

26 :: July-September 2011 his comrade in trouble he dashed back. ‘What do you mean, weren’t you just If they were going to be trapped, then bragging about your strength?’ they'd be trapped together. So the watch- ‘All the bragging has gone out of me!’ men caught him too. The wall of the enclosure was a crude Early in the morning the two friends earthen construction. Hira was very strong were shut up in a village compound. indeed; when he thrust his pointed horn The two friends had never in all their against the wall and struck hard a little life had such an experience; the whole chunk of clay came loose. With that his day went by and they weren't given even spirits rose. Running again and again he a single wisp of straw to eat. They couldn't crashed against the wall and with every understand what kind of master this could blow he knocked off a little of the clay. be. Even Gaya was a lot better than this. At this very moment the compound There were several water buffaloes here, watchman came out with his lantern to nanny-goats, horses and donkeys. But no take count of the animals. When he caught food was set before any of them; all were sight of Hira's mischief he paid him back lying on the ground like corpses. Several with several blows of his stick and tied were so weak that they couldn't even stand him up with a thick rope. up. The whole day the two friends kept their eyes glued to the gate. But nobody From where he lay Moti said, 'So all appeared with food. Then they began to you got was a beating after all!' lick the salty clay of the wall, but what 'At least I used my strength as best satisfaction could they get from that? I could.'

When they got no food in the evening 'What good was it struggling so hard either, the flame of rebellion began to when you just got tied up all the more blaze in Hira’s heart. He said to Moti, securely?' ‘I can’t stand this any more, Moti.’ 'Nevertheless, I'm going to keep on With his head hanging down Moti an- struggling no matter how much they tie swered, 'I feel as though I'm dying.’ me up.'

'Don't give up so quickly, brother! We've 'Then you'll end up paying with your got to think up some plan to get out life.' of there.’ 'I don't give a damn. Being like this ‘All right, let’s smash the wall down.’ is the same thing as dying. Just think, ‘I’m not up to that now.’ if the wall were knocked down how many

July-September 2011 :: 27 creatures would be saved. How many of It was already past midnight. The two our brothers are shut up here! There's donkeys were standing there, wondering no life left in any of their bodies. If it whether to run away or not, while Moti goes on like this for a few more days was busy trying to break his friend’s rope. they'll all die.' When he gave it up Hira said, ‘You go, just let me stay here. Maybe somewhere 'That's for sure. All right then, I'll give we’ll meet again.’ it a good try.' With tears in his eyes Moti said, ‘Do Moti struck with his horn at the same you think I’m that selfish Hira? You and place in the wall. A little clay tumbled I have been together for such a long time! down and his courage grew. Again he drove If you're in trouble today, can I just go his horn against the wall with such violence off and leave you?' that he might have been battling with a living enemy. Finally, after a couple Hira said, 'You'll get a real beating- of hours of violent probing the top of they'll realize this is your mischief.' the wall gave way, lowering it about a Moti said proudly, 'If I get beaten foot. When he struck again with redoubled for the same offence that got you tied power half the wall crumbled. up with a rope around your neck, what When the wall was about to fall the do I care? At the very least a dozen or animals who were lying around half dead so creatures have been saved from death. revived. Three mares took off at a gallop, All of them will surely bless us.' then the nanny goats dashed out, and After he'd said this, Moti thrust at after that the buffaloes also slipped away. the two donkeys with his horns and drove But the donkeys were still lying just as them out of the enclosure; then he came they had been before. up close beside his friend and went to Hira asked them, ‘Why aren’t you two sleep. running away?’ It's scarcely necessary to describe the One of the jackasses said, ‘What if we hullaballoo set up by the clerk, the watch- get caught again?’ man and the other officials as soon as it was light. Sufficient to say that Moti ‘What does that matter? Now’s your got terrific drubbing and he too was tied chance to escape.’ up with a thick rope. ‘But we’re scared! We’ll just stay put The two friends stayed tied up there right here.’ for a week. No one gave them as much

28 :: July-September 2011 as a bit of hay. True, water was given ‘This man is going to cut our throats. to them once. This was all their nour- Just watch.’ ishment. They got so weak that they could ‘So why worry? Every bit of us, flesh, not even stand up, and their ribs were hide, horns and bones, will be used for sticking out. something or the other.’ One day someone beat a drum outside When the auction was over the friends the enclosure and towards noon about went off with that bearded man. fifty or sixty people gathered there. Then the two friends were brought out and the Every bit of their bodies was trembling. inspection began. People came and studied They could scarcely lift their feet, but their appearance and went away disap- they were so frightened they managed pointed. Who would buy bullocks that to keep stumbling along - for if they slowed looked like corpses? down the least bit they'd get a good whack from the stick. Suddenly there came a bearded man with red eyes and a cruel face; he dug Along the way they saw a herd of his fingers into the haunches of the bullocks cows and bullocks grazing in a verdant and began to talk with the clerk. When meadow. All the animals were happy, sleek they saw his expression the hearts of the and supple. Some were leaping about, two friends grew weak from what their others lying down contentedly chewing intuition told them. They had no doubt their cud What a happy life was theirs! at all as to who he was and why he felt Yet how selfish they all were. Not one them with his hands, They looked at one of them cared about how their two brothers another with frightened eyes and lowered must be suffering after falling into the their heads. hands of the butcher.

Hira said, 'We ran away from Gaya's Suddenly it seemed to them that the house in vain. We won't survive this.' road was familiar. Yes, this was the road by which Gaya had taken them away. They Without much faith Moti answered, were coming to the same fields and or- 'They say God has mercy on everybody. chards, the same villages. In an instant Why isn't He being merciful to us?' their pace quickened. All their fatigue and 'To God it's all the same whether we weakness disappeared. Oh, just look, here live or die. Don't worry, it's so bad, for was their own meadow, here was the same a little while we'll be with Him. Once He well where they had worked the winch saved us in the shape of that little girl, to pull up the bucket. Yes, it was the so won't He save us now?' same well.

July-September 2011 :: 29 Moti said, 'Our house is close by!' police station and make a complaint.’

'It's' God's mercy!' said Hira. ‘They're my bullocks, the proof is they came and stood at my door.’ 'As for me, I'm making a run for home!' In a rage the bearded man stepped 'Will he let us go?' forward to drag the bullocks away. This 'I'll knock him down and kill him.' is when Moti lowered his horns. The bearded man stepped back. Moti charged and the 'No, no, run and make it to our stalls, man took to his heels, with Moti after and we won't budge from there.' him, and stopped only at the outskirts of the village where he took his stand As though they'd gone crazy, joyfully guarding the road. The butcher stopped kicking up their heels like calves, they at some distance, yelled back threats and made off for the house. There was their insults and threw stones. And Moti stood stall! They ran and stood by it while the blocking his path like a victorious hero. bearded man came dashing after them. The villagers came out to watch the Jhuri was sitting in his doorway sunning entertainment and had a good laugh. himself. As soon as he saw the bullocks When the bearded man acknowledged he ran and embraced them over and over defeat and went away Moti came back again. Tears of joy flowed from the two strutting. friends' eyes, and one of them licked Jhuri's hand. Hira said, 'I was afraid you'd get so mad you'd go and kill him.' The bearded man came up and grabbed their tethers. 'If he'd caught me I wouldn't have given up before I'd killed him.' ‘These are my bullocks’, said Jhuri. ‘Won't he come back now?' ‘How can they be? I just bought them at auction at the cattle compound.' 'If he does I'll take care of him long before he gets here. Let's just see him take us away!' I'll bet you stole them,' said Jhuri. ‘What if he has us shot?’ 'Just shut up and leave. They're my bullocks. They'll be sold only when I sell them. ‘Then I'll be dead, but I'll be of no Who has the right to auction off my bullocks?' use to him. Nobody thinks of the life we have as being a life.’ Said the bearded man, ‘I’ll go to the ‘Only because we're so simple ...’

30 :: July-September 2011 In a little while their trough was filled Excitement seemed to have spread through with oilseed cake, hay, and bran, and the the whole village. At this moment the two friends began to eat. Jhuri stood by mistress of the house came out and kissed and stroked them while a couple of dozen each of the bullocks on the forehead. boys watched the show.

Premchand (1880-1936) : the greatest among fiction writers in Hindi, wrote about 300 short stories and a dozen novels that had an everlasting impact on future generations of progressive authors. He gave up his govt. job to become a full-time writer. His literary essays, are published in a collection titled, ‘Premchand : vividh prasang’.

David Rubin has done extensive research work on Oriental studies in Indian and American Universities. He taught in Allahabad and Rajasthan Universities. He was professor of Modern Indian Languages at Columbia University, New York, U.S.A. and has translated a great number of Premchand’s short stories. He is visiting professor of modern Indian languages at Columbia Universty, U.S.A. He has written the book ‘After the Raj’ a critical study of British fiction dealing with India since 1947. He has also translated Nirala.

July-September 2011 :: 31 THE OLD TOY MAKER Upendra Nath Ashk

Translated by Krishna Baldev Vaid

The Old toy maker woke up as the faint light of early morning reached the dark hovel, in an enclosure overshadowed by tall houses. The small heaps of toys scattered round him seemed to be emerging from the twilight like rocks from a heaving sea. The old man sat up, propped on his shaky hands. He arranged his soiled and patch- worked dhoti, whose colour, thanks to filth, was now indistinguishable from the balckness of his body and the hole in which he lived. Then he groped about with near-blind eyes, picked-up his staff, and got up with its help. Standing for a moment at the threshold of the room, he scanned the enclosure with misty eyes. It presented a desolate scene. In Short Story one corner stood the kiln-looking sad and exhausted, like a woman reduced to barrenness by repeated confinements. It had delivered so many batches of toys during the past months Right next to the kiln was a heap of broken copper-coloured toys. On its left lay a bucketful of sticky clay, whose surface was cracked. The rest of the enclosure was strewn with toys, which had not been completed in spite of the desperate efforts of his son, Roop, and his daughter- in-law, Kamla. Roop, in fact, had been reduced to idleness a number of days before the fair of Baba Sodal. He had been injured in a row with his brothers during the auction of plots for stalls. The old man had done all that he could to avert that quarrel- he had remonstrated with Roop telling him that he should let his brothers be; that he should not take leave of his senses even if his brothers were bent

32 :: July-September 2011 upon doing so; that he was after all the was going to pay a visit to Baba Sodal, youngest, that it did not behove him to thanks to whose blessings he had got a stand up to his elders. But who would son. The old man was reminded of the listen to him…an old, useless cripple… ceremony he had held when the same a nuisance to all his sons. Baba Sodal had blessed him with his first The old man stood at the threshold, son, Jaggu. He had taken a vow to go engrossed in his thoughts. A row of toy to offer prayers to Baba Sodal with a band soldiers stood before him, coloured but and all. Eleven days before the fair, he unpolished. In another corner he could had sown wheat in four earthen bowls, see the nests and sparrows. But the nests and had watered them each day, morning were empty, and the sparrows lay about and evening, with water fresh from the listlessly. The monkeys were not well. somersaulting on the trunks of the trees, His joy knew no bounds when, after which lay unfinished. There were heaps a few days, he saw the difference between of mangoes, oranges, apples, grapes, the deep green of his plants and the faint apricots, popcorn and ears of maize. The yellowish colour of his neighbour’s. This old man heaved a sigh and stepped meant that Baba Sodal was particularly tremulously towards the gate of the pleased with him. He had produced the enclosure. best available wheat to prepare dumpling On this side of the gate he saw toys for the deity. He had washed it several meant just for display. Roop had been times before spreading it out in the sun able to take only a few… the finished ones… to dry; he had kept watch over it, lest to the fair. The rest lay uncompleted. the sparrows render it unfit to be offered The old man gazed at all this with to the deity. On the eve of the fair, he dazed, lacklustre eyes. All these toys had and his wife had spent hours preparing been prepared in moulds he had made. various kinds of sweets for distribution But didn’t they lack that finish, that deftness, at the holy shrine of Baba Sodal. which his hands possessed once upon a After Jaggu, he had been blessed with time? In the good old days, he could three more sons-Sundri, Hari and Roop. have sold these toys for as much as ten Blessed be Baba Sodal, the giver of sons or fifteen rupees a piece. But now his and of milk, with which to feed those sons… He had always looked upon them sons. Unfortunately, however, he thought, as his toys; and now they considered him Baba Sodal doesn’t seem to concern himself nothing more than a toy, a lifeless thing. with what happens later to the sons or The old man slapped his brow in helpless to the milk…the sons may turn out to anger and locked the gate behind him. be disobedient rascals, and the milk may go sour. A band was playing in front of his neighbour’s house. Perhaps the bania there And, in the old man’s case, the milk

July-September 2011 :: 33 had gone sour and the sons did turn out opportunity for a bit of uninhibited pleasure. to be rascals. These toyshops offered the young men The old man started down the street, a unique opportunity to appreciate the picking his way in the crowd. He cursed rare assemblage of feminine beauty. Most his luck and groaned under the double of the people stopped at these shops in weight of fear and old age. He had a passing. Many of them also purchased toys. premonition of a wild storm that would It was therefore, very easy to establish blow away the last straw from his nest. exhilarating contacts…sometimes through He wanted to fly to the fair so as to a chance touching of pinkish hands and resist this storm and save his nest and soft fingers, sometimes through gazing at children. But alas He was no better than the bewitching eyes of beautiful customers. a bird, whose wings refused to work. So the young men were shouting for customers with great enthusiasm.

The four brothers…the sons of the old Roop’s toys were selling briskly. This man…had arranged their toy stalls in one aroused burning envy in the other brothers. corner of the vast fair grounds, next to Hari and Sundri were feeling particularly one another, in a common plot. At one agitated, but Jaggu was too sickly to time there had been only a single shop experience such violent emotions as in that corner. Ultimately it got split into jealousy and anger. He sat like a clod four separate shops. Even now, only one of earth, his belly swollen and his legs shop was apparent, but an invisible wall sticklike. had grown up between Roop’s stall and Presently, Hari got on to a stool and those of his three brothers. started shouting for customers at the top Ever since morning when the devotees of his voice. Sundri followed suit. Seeing of Baba Sodal had started pouring in, a this, two of Roop’s comrades also took cut-throat competition had been going on prominent positions and started inviting among the four brothers. Roop’s stall was the customers to his shop. nearest the gate, preceding the shops of Roop smiled triumphantly. His heart Hari, Sundri and Jaggu. Roop, who had was somewhat pacified on seeing that he not yet recovered completely from the was having much better business than his injuries sustained in the fight, sat silently brothers. He had paid six rupees more because of his weakness. A couple of than his brothers to secure that vantage- youngsters just for fun, and a few young point, and he had nearly been beaten to men for the sake of a better view were death for having succeeded in acquiring helping Roop sell his toys. it. Now he seemed to have forgotten all A bevy of young girls, having been that, in the glow of satisfaction brought confined for months to their prison-like by such brisk sales. If only he had been homes, were making the most of this able to finish all his toys.

34 :: July-September 2011 Hari, according to Roop, was the real So far he had always defeated his brothers villain who had caused such bad blood at the fairs. As his brothers had reduced among them, Jaggu of course, had been the price of their toys at the spring festival, the first to go out of the joint family, so he had decided to make as many toys but his separation had caused no animosity as possible for this fair so that he could among them. Even when Sundri seceded beat his brothers even if he had to sell from the family after his marriage, relations his toys at fantastically low prices. remained perfectly normal, and the shops Ever since the spring festival he and were run on a joint basis on the same his wife, Kamala, had been devoting their piece of land. But Hari, because of his days and nights to work. They got up cunning and double-dealing, had effected in the small hours of the morning and a serious breach in the family after his remained engrossed in their work secession. Roop hated him for his selfishness throughout the day. Quite often, they would and greed. even forget to take their food. They ate He and Hari had worked together for whatever they got, without wasting their some time after the elder brothers set time in elaborate cooking. When cramped up separate establishments. Both of them from sitting they would get up. Roop would had raised loans in connection with their start preparing fresh clay and Kamla would marriages. The agreement was that they busy herself with the toys spread out in would help each other to payoff those the sun. After they had relaxed their limbs debts. From the very beginning Roop and they would resume their main work—that his wife had worked very hard to payoff of making toys with renewed vigour. Hari’s debts. But as soon as his debts If only they had been able to complete were paid off, Hari had gone away to all the toys they had made! He would live separately,leaving Roop in the lurch. then have given such a crushing defeat Moreover, he had poisoned the ears of to his brothers. But his brothers had beaten the two older brothers against Roop. The him mercilessly on the day the plots were result of all this was a joint front against auctioned, and many of his toys had Roop. consequently remained unfinished. Roop felt a wave of disgust rising within His brothers wanted Roop, being the him. He cast a scorching glance at Hari. youngest, to be content with the plot of Hari was announcing a reduction in prices land farthest from the exit gate of the in order to attract more customers. temple. How could Roop have submitted Roop told his friends to reduce prices to this, when it would have meant such by a half. The boys started shouting; “Toys poor business on the day of the fair? His worth an anna now for two pice each.’ kind brothers would have easily grabbed Toys worth an anna…” all the customers. If only he had finished all his toys Roop had, therefore, declared that he

July-September 2011 :: 35 would get the first plot. This had meant he got up in an uncontrolable rage. Hari a raise in the bid, and, whereas the whole was trying forcibly to pull a customer plot had previously gone for eight rupees, away from Roop’s shop. Roop challenged one fourth of it now went to Roop for him; Hari replied with a curse. Roop picked the same amount. The other pieces went up his staff and pounced upon Hari. to the three brothers for only six rupees. The old toy-maker, bent over his staff But they wanted to punish Roop for having and shaking with old age, was now threading been so obstinate and they had abused his way precariously through the crowd. him, provoked him into retaliation, and All these people, what were they, if, ended up in a fight. Roop had gone home not toys? But they had forgotten their bruised and smeared with blood. Maker. Just as the old man’s toys had Roop felt a storm rising within him forgotten him. Perhaps that Great Toy- as he turned these memories over and maker had also grown old like him. over in his mind. The boys at his shop He heaved a sigh. It had taken him were shouting. “Come on, come on, toys four hours to cover the distance which, worth an anna going cheap for two pice in his youth, he could have done in less each. Toys worth…” than an hour, and with a load of toys Just then Hari got up and shouted; on his head at that. He had met hundreds “Toys worth an anna for a pice and a of people going back to their homes; he half each. had also wanted to go back…it was too Roop got up and shouted; “Toys worth tiring. But he had trudged on, impelled an anna for a pice each.” by an unknown impulse. Kamla appealed to him in the name Signs of a storm were taking shape of his father and pulled him back to his as he approached the fair. And the crowd, seat. Roop looked at Kamla. But for her, the hawkers, the stalls, the water stands, he would not have been able to come everything seemed to be getting lost in to the fair at all. She had applied heat the dust. packs to his aching limbs by the hour, He felt as if this storm was bent upon night after night. She had continued to blowing his nest to pieces. He wanted work at the toys in the time left her after to brave it. nursing him and doing other household He was able to reach the stalls with work. And she came from a family where great difficulty. But by that time the storm no one had ever touched clay. had already started blowing the nest over. Then Roop noticed that Hari was trying Toys lay scattered about and his sons to wean away the customers standing in were raining blows on one another. front of his shop by calling them directly. When the old man saw this, the tremors He could not tolerate this high-handedness; in his body ceased at once. His back

36 :: July-September 2011 straightened; his fatigue suddenly vanished! with the toys. In the midst of the chaos, He felt that he was his old self…that his underneath a cot, lay the old toy-maker- toys had got entangled with one another looking very much like that Supreme Maker and that it was his job to rearrange them of Toys who also seems to have lost his properly. He rushed into the thick of the hold on the toys made by Him. He still storm. clutched his staff, as though wanting to The fair had come to an end. Roop, get up again and face the storm. But that Hari and Sundri were lying in hospital, unknown impulse had obviously run its wounded and bandaged. Cots, empty course and flies were buzzing about his canisters and boards that had been shaped face. into improvised stalls, were scattered about,

UpendraNath Ashk (1910-1996) (1910-1996), renowned author whose creative output like Premchand was first in Urdu and later in Hindi. He was born and educated at Jalandhar, Punjab and settled at Allahabad in 1948. Except for a few short term jobs in All India Radio and films, he was a whole timer in creative writing. He wrote plays, novels, short stories, poems, essays, memoirs and literary criticism besides editing the famous literary volume ‘sanket’. He was a progressive writer who led an eternal struggle against reactionary forces. He wrote regularly from 1926 to 1995. Most of his works were published by his writer wife Kaushalya Ashk from their own publishing house Neelabh Prakashan, named after his illustrious son who is a major poet and an intellectual in his own right. Ashkji’s major works are ‘girti deewaren’, ‘pathharal pathhar’, ‘garm rakh’, ‘badi badi ankhen’, ‘ek nanhi kandil’, ‘bandho na nav is thanv (novels); ‘anjo didi’, ‘tauliye’, ‘sookhi dali’, ‘lakshmi ka swagat’, ‘adhikar ka rakshak’ etc. (collections of plays); ‘akashchari’, ‘judai ki sham’, ‘kahani lekhika aur jhelum ke saat pul’, ‘chheente’, ‘ubaal’, ‘dachi’, ‘kale saheb’, ‘palang’ etc. (short story collections); ‘deep jalega’, ‘chandni raat aur ajgar’, ‘bargad ki beti’ (poetry collections); ‘Manto : mera dushman’, ‘chehre anek’ (memoirs); ‘hindi kahaniyan aur fashion (lit. criticism).

Krishna Baldev Vaid, born 1927 at Dinga Punjab is a prominent author with famous novels like Uska Bachpan, Nasreen, Guzra hua Zamana, Nar-Nari and ek naukrani ki diary. He has translated important authors from English to Hindi and vice versa. Besides teaching in Colleges of Delhi and Punjab Universities, he has taught English in New York State University. He lives in New Delhi and frequently travels to the U.S.A.

July-September 2011 :: 37 CREMATION OF A JUNGLE Swayam Prakash

Translated by Vivek Sachdeva

Mama Soun was a famous archer of his times. He used to live in a jungle; he would wear langoti; and would teach archery to the people of the jungle. He would himself make his bows and arrows. The inhabitants of the jungle, the tribals, did not know how to cultivate land. Moreover, it was also not an easy task to cultivate the jungle land. Animal husbandry, the flora and fauna of the jungle were the sources of their livelihood. It was extremely essential for us, the people of the jungle, that irrespective of our sex, we should learn the art of archery. Mama Soun was always surrounded with children. The people

Short Story of the jungle respected Mama Soun very much and while sending their sons and daughters to him for their education, they would send plenty of grains, dried meat, animal skin and things made of bamboo for him. Mama Soun would make bows and arrows matching the physique of his students. He would teach them names of different birds, their habits, which season do they migrate in, places where they prefer to perch, growth and fall of their species and information about their being edible or not. He would lead his students from the front and in no time, his students would be made familiar with every nook and corner of the jungle. In a couple of years, his students would become so skillful at archery that they would kill three or four birds with one arrow.

38 :: July-September 2011 Mama Soun would teach his students In the nick of time, one of the students how to make bows and arrows. He would of Mama Soun shot an arrow to divert also teach them what kind of arrows are the lion’s attention, which gave the Prince required to kill different animals or birds; some time to take hold of himself. The how deep the arrow would go and how student of Mama Soun made the lion chase far a bow can shoot the arrow. It is a him and took him far. This is how the hearsay that Mama Soun knew how to life of the Prince was saved. The students build those arrows that would come back of Mama Soun served the Prince and saw to his quiver after hitting the target. Nobody him off back to the city safe and sound. had seen this happening, but there wasn’t When the Prince told the King his story, any reason for not believing this as well. the latter was both happy and sad at the Gradually Mama Soun became very same time. He was happy that his son popular. came back home safe; he was sad because Once the Prince, along with his troupe, his son had grown into a full man, still went to the jungle for hunting. The Prince he could not save himself. How would had no prior experience of hunting, nor he protect his kingdom and the subjects? did he know how to respect the territory That day, he let his son have a bit of of birds and animals. Consequently, he his mind. and his troupe entered the jungle, making On being scolded by his father, he a lot of noise. Sparrows wondered at the decided that he would also learn the art strange behaviour of this group and they of archery and that from none other than warned each and every member of the Mama Soun himself. jungle. Getting the news of emergent danger, The King sent for Mama Soun. all of them went in hiding in their respective Initially, Mama Soun hesitated; but nests, holes and caves. The Prince and later on he agreed with a condition that his troupe could not find even a single the Prince would have to stay with him prey. in the jungle. But why should a lion fear anybody? How could the King have any objec- If you are a king, so am I. If you are tions to this arrangement? a prince, so am I. Mama Soun decided the date of starting Eventually, the lion went up to the the formal education and came back to Prince and roared to welcome him. Seeing the jungle. a lion roar in front of them, all the members of the troupe ran amuck and the Prince After some days came a team of masons, began to cry. Taking this as a war cry, blacksmiths, sculptors and carpenters. It the lion attacked the Prince. was revealed that two palaces would be

July-September 2011 :: 39 built in the jungle to ensure comfortable royalty. News was spread in the stay of the Prince. neighbouring kingdoms that from the next But why, two palaces? season of spring, state-of-the-art facilities for training in archery are being made It came to be known that one palace in his kingdom. Those who are interested is being built for the Prince and the second, in taking lessons would have to deposit for Acharya Shaun. a particular amount as a tax or fee in By the way, who is this Acharya Shaun? the state exchequer, which would entitle Later, it came to be known that Mama them for the training course for a particular Soun is now Acharya Shaun. duration at the palace of Acharya Shaun. It was not limited to that only. Carts Now, there were buckets full of gold full of gifts for Mama Soun also started coins in Acharya Shaun’s hut; but nobody coming. was gifting him grain, dried meat, the skin of animals, things made of bamboo and There were shoes, diadem, rosary of wild flowers. Mama Soun himself had to rare jewels, decked seats and what not. arrange all these things for himself. Though After all, how could someone wearing a he was quite uncomfortable with the recent simple loincloth be a Prince’s teacher? developments, yet he could do nothing. Such unprecedented activities dis- Some soldiers were always at guard outside turbed the peace of the jungle. Trees were his hut. Even when he went out in the being felled down. morning to relieve himself, he was The air was getting polluted. Birds and constantly guarded. Finally, he submitted animals got scared and started running to his destiny. here and there to hide somewhere. They One day, the Prince asked Mama Soun, became more aggressive and violent. The “How many days would it take me to people of the jungle also got disturbed learn complete archery?” by the riot caused by the men of the Mama Soun answered, “I have no idea king and started running off their homes. about the complete archery; but even a To make matters worse, the King also life’s time is not sufficient to learn it. prohibited hunting in the jungle so that Learning is an incessant process and the people of the jungle should not kill continues throughout one’s life.” all the animals; at least some animals should be left for the Prince as well. The plea The Prince said, “How many days do was given that conservation of birds and you need to teach me whatever you know?” animals is very essential. Mama Soun said, “It depends upon The King also decreed that now onwards the learner; still it will take at least six Acharya Shaun would teach only the

40 :: July-September 2011 cycles of full moon.” do birds come and when a bird or animal The Prince asked, “Can’t this duration should be hunted? If while chasing your be reduced?” prey, you happen to damage a bird’s nest, or a bee hive, you will find yourself in Mama Soun said, “If you learn with a trouble. Even a small wild bee can take utmost dedication, may be you can learn your life’. in five full moon cycles. But you will have to continue the practice. It all depends Listening to Mama Soun carelessly, on how much you practice.” the Prince said, “I am not going to stay in the jungle forever. I shall go back to The Prince thought for some time and the capital, the place of all comforts. It said, “I cannot give you more than one is only when I would get bored of material month. Teach me fast whatever you can and comfortable life that I may come to teach me in one month. Otherwise, I shall jungle to hunt animals for sport.” find another teacher.” Mama Soun was surprised hearing this. Saying this, the Prince went towards He asked the Prince, “Do you call hunting the palace under construction. Mama Soun a sport? It is our livelihood. We hunt called him and said, “Before your formal to survive. We do not hunt only for sports. training starts, I wish you walk through We are very careful who should be hunted the jungle with me to explore and know and who not. When we hunt, it does not it.” affect the total number of the birds and “My spies have already told me animals.’’ everything about the jungle.” Hearing Mama Soun, the Prince in- “Still, it is better to see it for yourself.” terrupted, “It was your livelihood; now “What is there to see in a jungle? There it is not. Hunting has been banned in are trees everywhere, just like there are this area. Now, only I can kill whatever trees here.” number I may kill. Since it is only I who is going to kill, what difference does it “A hunter should know each and every make how many I kill?” nook and corner of the jungle. Where the land is marshy, where it is dry; where Hearing the Prince, Mama Soun was the water is deep, where it is shallow; shocked. He came back with a heavy heart. where there is drinking water for animals; The next morning he went to the Prince’s where the bee hives are; where the swarm palace and told him that his training will of ants make their dwelling; where the start soon. Mama Soun asked the Prince birds have made their nests; where fox to get up early before the sunrise and and jackals have given birth to their cubs. come to him, ‘‘We will take exercise, worship You should also know in which season the goddess of the jungle and go to the

July-September 2011 :: 41 training site with our bows and arrows. “No problem. We stop here and go We will do this daily on a regular basis.’’ for a walk,” said Mama Soun. “Why exercise? I wish to learn archery, Next day, Mama Soun brought the not wrestling. I am not used to getting Prince to the same place. Even today, up early; still I’ll try,” said the Prince there were nearly a hundred sparrows uninterestedly. on the tree; they were perfectly still. Mama When Mama Soun was about to leave, Soun said to the Prince, “Aim and kill the Prince mumbled, “Then he will say any one of them.” that I shall have to wear a loin cloth. The Prince shot all the arrows, but I think he will transform me into a complete none could hit the target. Mama Soun wild savage like him.” taught him how to hold the bow, how Finally came the day when the training to pull the string back, how to aim properly, was to start. Worshipping the goddess of but all in vain. Mama Soun himself shot the jungle, both Mama Soun and the Prince an arrow. He killed at least ten sparrows went to a relatively open ground within with one shot. The Prince went ahead the jungle. to see. All the sparrows were fake. The Prince was ashamed. Mama Soun said, “Let’s start with sparrows. There are many sparrows on “Sparrows are too small,” said the the branch. Look at that sparrow with Prince. a long blue beak. She, with her long beak, “Its okay. We will see to it. Let’s amble breaks the eggs of other sparrows. Kill for a while.” her.” That day was also spent in walking, The Prince shot an arrow. Not even carrying the bow and arrow. Next morning, a single sparrow flew from the tree. they again reached the same place. He looked disappointedly at Mama The Prince saw that artificial sparrows Soun. of the size of roosters were hanging there. Mama Soun said, “No problem. There Mama Soun said, “Shoot ten arrows. At are hundreds of sparrows on the tree. least one will hit them.” Aim at any one of them and shoot your “It is too high”, said the Prince, “When arrow.” I try to aim so high, my hands shake.” The Prince shot an arrow. It hit a “No problem. I shall try to find some branch of the tree. All the sparrows flew solution. Let’s go for a walk in the opposite away. direction today”. “But they move”, said the Prince. The Prince was getting bored now.

42 :: July-September 2011 Next day, Mama Soun drew a big sparrow Practice it for some days. Let’s go for on a plank and asked the Prince to aim a walk now. I will show you hoppers today. at the eye of the bird from the distance They are there these days.” of a hundred yards. After two days came the minister of The Prince shot ten arrows, only three the King to enquire how the Prince was could hit the bird, but not even a single progressing. He was told that the Prince arrow could hit the eye of the bird. was doing fine. After a month’s time, the The Prince started throwing tantrums. Prince could only learn how to shoot arrows Out of anger, he stamped his feet hard on a plank and kill nine out of ten sparrows. on the ground and even broke his bow. After a month, the King himself came Mama Soun tried to explain to him along with his entire troupe and a small that if you wish to hunt for sparrows, battalion. The sparrows spread the news they would be small in size. Sparrow would of the King’s visit to the jungle. The King always be on a tree. You want they should spent no time in gathering that Mama not move from there, they will even fly. Soun had silently refused to teach his What do you think? Shouldn’t they fly? son on the conditions laid down by the Do you expect your prey to sit dutifully Prince. The King got angry at the stupidity and meekly before you? of his son, but he was not merely his son, but his prospective successor too- The Prince could not understand the future king of his kingdom. The King anything. He refused to go for a walk got Mama Soun’s arms tied up and told and went back to his palace to rest. his son to take his teacher as his plank; Next morning, when he reached the and asked his son to aim at his teacher. site, he saw that a wooden plank was The King wanted that if his son could lying on the ground at a distance of one not learn anything from Mama Soun, no hundred yards. He could not understand one else should be able to learn anything anything. from him. Mama Soun asked the Prince to stand Mama Soun knew that this day would on the plank and shoot ten arrows. The come and he was prepared to face it. Prince did as he was instructed. Nine out However poor the Prince might be at of ten hit the plank, one missed it. archery, but he was able to kill ‘nine out Mama Soun picked a piece of coal of ten’ sparrows on the plank. Now there from the ground and drew sparrows was a living man. Could there be a bigger wherever the Prince had hit the plank aim than a living man? Especially when and said, “I think, now you can claim the man is tied; his back is straight against that you have hit nine out of ten sparrows. a plank, he is surrounded by the soldiers

July-September 2011 :: 43 and the King himself is standing there But, scoundrels to the core, they set to encourage and shelter the hunter. the jungle on fire before they could leave. The Prince put the arrow to the bow The birds and animals could fight the and held his breath to aim. soldiers of the king, but in front of the But before the Prince could shoot his God of Fire, they were helpless. arrow, there came a shower of arrows The real loss was that neither Mama from behind the trees. The soldiers of Soun could be saved nor his knowledge. the king began fleeing wildly and started Some people say that better flora would looking for places to hide and aim. In rise from this ash afresh. Some also say no time, from all over came bears, monkeys, that another Mama Soun would also take jackals, tigers, leopards, snakes, scorpions, birth some day. wasps, bees, eagles, hawks, deer, stags, Whether it happened or not, I do not hyenas, beavers, rhinoceroses, bulls, know. giraffes and elephants. Roaringly recklessly, they started throwing the soldiers of the Presently in cities, the descendants king. The sudden attack from the jungle of Mama Soun are selling cane baskets, unsettled the trained army of the king. small baskets and sparrows and parrots In a great uproar, they started running made of cardboard. to save their lives. Some loyal soldiers I have heard a big dam is being surrounded the king and the prince to constructed in their area, which would save their lives. Realizing that they would ensure development of the country. not be able to fight back, they fled from The descendants and students of Mama there taking the wounded king and prince Soun have been thrown out of their native along with themselves. place.

Swayam Prakash, born 1947, is a prominent progressive author, critic and literery activist. Mechanical engineer by profession, he gives a cautious craft to his novels and short stories. He writes about the common man and his struggles. His famous short stories are–Kya tumne kabhi sardar bhikhari dekha hai, Partition, Admi jaat ka Admi, Taza khabar and Manju Faltu. He has written ‘hamsafarnama’ which portrays his contemporary writers as his comrades. He lives in Bhopal.

Vivek Sachdeva is associate professor in University School of Humanities and Social Sciences at GGSIP University, Delhi.

44 :: July-September 2011 TAMARINDS Prem Kumar Mani

Translated by Minu Manjari

It was a tree. A tamarind tree. Very dense, very old. Just a gentle breeze and the tree danced. And when it danced, the village danced. When it kept mum, the village kept mum. When it slept, the village slept. It was in the west of our village, or the village was in its east. It was the hallmark of the village. When someone went somewhere and failed to explain his village by its name he would say ‘village of the big tamarind’ and everybody understood. Identity of our village was safe with the tree there. When outsiders came to our village, the tree served as the pole-star.When we came back from our grandma’s,

Short Story we saw the tree and ah: what a breath of satisfaction we took that now ends our journey. In a way, it was the Himalaya of our village. Only it was not in the north, but in the west. Many birds had their nests in the tree. Parrots also. Owls resided in its holes. And if we give ear to that Urdu verse ‘Khake Gulistan karne ko ek hi ullu kaafi hai’, there were owls enough to ruin the whole world. But they were real owls, not of verse. So they looked very innocent, very well-mannered, sitting and napping on the poles and other such things. It seemed they were ashamed of their existence. My Maths teacher often called me an owl and I attentively looked at those owls to find the reason. After looking deeply at those round eyes, it came out that they are not drowsy but cunning, alert like

July-September 2011 :: 45 those of a spy. the biography of Jagdish Chandra Bose. With all these minor matters, there The title was strange – ‘trees also laugh was a very important thing. About a dozen and weep.’ Bose had worked in Botany ghosts of different varieties lived on the and the biographer God knows how, got tree. Stories about the ghost-pranks hung the idea of such a title. About the works constantly on the lips of the villagers. of Bose, especially about Kriskograph we These tales were weaved with our sub- learnt anything much later. At that time conscious, so the tree with its ghosts was we thought Bose to be something super- almost a part of our existence. It was natural, thanks to that biography. Like the home of ghosts, but not haunted to most other biographies in our text-books, us. It was very old, but always new to that biography also was a bunch of solid us. exaggerations. It stated that Bose was a To us, the children of the village. botanist right from his childhood. He was In those old times, there wasn’t any born only to be a great botanist. And hoopla of environment conservation. One once when his friend started shattering or two sadhu-type people talked of saving bushes, tears welled up to his eyes and trees. One such essay was in our text- he couldn’t eat anything the whole day book also. Its title was perhaps ‘Tree is etc………… etc ………….. life’. The deep relation of trees with human- But this etc. etc. is today’s thing. In beings we understood much later. What those days the weeping Bose came before touched my heart was the fact that dense my eyes and tears rolled down my cheeks forests attract rain-clouds. ‘Meghdoot’ we also. With the forests, clouds, peacocks, read much later but the essay made me the tearful eyes of sensitive Bose also believe these fluffy clouds are very tickly. jouned. And then those trees seemed a Came the monsoon and clouds began to storehouse of some enchanting power. And wander in the sky like compartments of the skyreaching twigs of trees seemed to some aero-train. And my heart leapt at me like kissing the clouds. And strange all this. I wished my village to turn into tickling overwhelmed me – what a romantic dense greenery attracting clouds all the play of nature started with the monsoon! time. I had heard of peacocks dancing Our village had only a few trees. with the wandering clouds. All these Unnaturally a few elders said once upon interrelated beauties seemed to me some- a time their village looked like an orchard. thing special, part of some great mystery But they too hadn’t seen that orchard, – forests, clouds and dancing peacocks. they had only heard of it from their elders, About the same time I got to read as we were hearing from them. They said in the mutiny of 1857 the village had

46 :: July-September 2011 many rebels. All four were soldiers of Trees of my village may be said to Danapur Cant. Who had rebelled against be the symbol of courage and protest. the English in the leadership of Kunwar The mass-cutting of trees must have struck Singh. They were arrested and hanged. the villagers with a deep terror. And this After that the tree began to be worshipped must have affected decades. Only a few and even its withered leaved were gathered courageous ones would have planted trees as sacred relics. The place became a and since everywhere cowards outnumber pilgrimage. It became so popular that an courageous, very few trees were planted. English officer ordered to cut the tree. Planting sapling those days would have Anger seethed but the villagers had been like challenging the British empire. witnessed the hanging of the four soldiers. Now back to the tamarind. It is said They didn’t protest outright. Instead they that trees are the witness of our fore- turned their anger into a gentle way. They fathers. This was the only tree which had celebrated the martyrdom of the four seen our forefathers before 1857. In this soldiers as tree-worship day. Next year way the tree was historical, or something the whole village emerged with dhols and more special for us. tambourines and every tree of the village But the most important thing about was worshipped with roli-chandan. This this tree was its fruit, dear to us. news reached the English ears and mad Even today just remember its tangy with rage they ordered every tree of our taste and see how a barrel of water comes village to be cut. Next day a lot of policemen to the mouth. In its season, when the and wood-cutters arrived to chop off all tree got covered with its finger like fruits, the trees except one. we felt every pleasure, every beauty of The only tree left was this tamarind. heaven and earth condescended there. We Tamarinds are not worshipped so it was made rounds of the tree hundreds of time left out and so what was its misfortune a day, how shamelessly we beseeched for became its fortune. I trembled at this just one lobe. tale. So many policemen, so many axes And in one such season we heard the and saws, so many trees pulled down from tree was going to be cut. The Government their soaring heights. All the sparrows, would build here a hospital, a very fine all the parrots, where would have they one. We also heard there shouldn’t be gone? How many nests this poor lone tamarind trees near hospitals because it tamarind would have accomodated? poisions air. Baidjee of our village used Did the dark clouds stop even for a to tell a story that the Great Lukmaan wink for this single tree? of Greece wanted to test the skill of India’s Dhanwantri. He sent a messenger to him,

July-September 2011 :: 47 instructing the messenger to sleep under My mother was really terror-struck. only tamarind trees on his way. At last She said – “don’t say such a thing: when he reached Dhanwantri, he was She kept mum after that and her covered with wounds. Dhanwantri met him frightened fingers brushed my hair for and understood Lukmaan’s attitude. He quite a time. just told the messenger to sleep under I was very perturbed those days. No neem trees on his return-journey. Our ray of hope. Father, mother, baidjee, baidjee said the messenger became per- everybody was against the tree. The tree fectly healthy till he reached Lukmaan. on one side and the whole world on the Tamarinds poision the air or not, this other side. And we children were like that was the after-thought. The alarming thing tree, grieved but mute, for who’d listen was that this story poisioned the whole to us. But, in that Lanka incarnated a village against the tree. Vibhishan. He said he would hang himself And once when I heard even my rational from that tree if it would be cut. He was father saying the same, I understood now thought to be the silliest in our village. nobody could save the tree. They said he couldn’t even count We kept making rounds of the tree money, fits of insanity came over him and it kept dropping tamarinds for us. and he sat under the tree whole nights Now it looked very helpless to me. In talking to himself, or to the spirits of breezes it waved and tried to say something the tree, as people said. They said he in its magical language. I wished if Bose practised black arts under the guise of were here, he certainly would interpret madness. They said he had practised ghosts the language. But among us nobody was and spirits and now under their spell was or likely to be Bose. against the cutting of the tree. We worried about the birds, especially But Vibhishan talked of sometime else. owls. Owls cannot live everywhere. They At his profusions, grown-ups laughed. live only in holes. Holes are only in old He said if the tree won’t be there, trees. And old trees, as you know, were our relatives would be baffled in finding very few in our village. the way. Our village, it goes, our honour Some women, my mother was also also goes with it. Our thoughts accorded among them, were relieved that this with the old Vibhishan, but who were ghostland will be there no more. I had to listen to us. asked my mother – “But where will all After these squabbles a meeting was these ghosts go? What if they came to held in the village. But as governments our house?” know the decisions of inquiry commisions beforehand, whole village knew the decisions

48 :: July-September 2011 of this meeting. Old Vibhishan protested made many arrangements for this. Thick, indeed. He said the hospital would be strong ropes were used. Dozens of workers made on his dead body. That there wasn’t held the ropes right. Hundreds were viewers. any need of hospital in the village. That But we? What could we do? hospitals spread corruption etc. His sons Our den, our whole playhouse was apologized in public saying, ‘Don’t heed being demolished. him, he’s become crazy’. On this old Owls fluttered out of their holes. Coming Vibhishan really flared up. But then rec- out in the daylight was certainly hard ollecting himself, said – ‘Ask your mother for them; they sat on poles and looked I’m crazy or what’. Whole meeting echoed at us as if asking, “What have you all with laughter as if hundreds of herons done?” flew from the tamarind. The tree was cut down. Mad Vibhishan Just as the dust settled, people fell was chained because he was really bent down on the tree like a passel of hounds. on killing himself. Seeing his turbulance, Thousands of green tamarinds scattered anybody could say he was in command in the dust far and wide. Dozens of nests of ghosts. and eggs in them lay flat. Many birds It took quite a long time to cut the died. Don’t know why we didn’t gather tree, at least three days. About half a tamarinds that day. We walked ahead, our dozen cutters and carpenters worked day eyes melting. We saw a little owl blinking and night. Many axes, many saws broke. helplessly. It hadn’t learnt flying yet. A The tree did as much as it could to parrot fluttered at some distance. A chip save itself. I didn’t go school all three of wood had wounded its eye and it was days. bleeding. We took up the parrot and the Some of my friends also stuck to the owl. We tied a string in owl’s foot and place. We were waiting for some miracle. medicined the parrot. We thought all axes, all blades of all The parrot died. We tried to feed it, saws in the world would break but the but it died. We friends went to a field, tree will remain intact. Won’t the ghosts made a little grave and laid the parrot, do anything? But when the axes worked, wrapped in a hanky, in it. There used we were angered – “What the hell the to be a coin ‘ikanni’, valuing about six ghosts are thinking? Do they think they’ll paisa. We put an ikanni besides the dead come to our village? Our Ojha will beat body, prayed and heaped earth on it. We them back, and then they’ll understand”. prayed again – “God take this poor thing On the third day the tree fell down. to your heaven. We are giving our ikanni It fell where carpenters wanted. They had to you”. The owlet lived with us for months.

July-September 2011 :: 49 It became tame. Mad Vibhishan did not got settled and unsettled. We heard the live after that. Only after a fortnight of file scents like tamarind. We heard a clerk the demise of the tree, he also slept for died with his head on the file. We heard ever. We were very sad and prayed for there is no need to paperweight that file. him also. However his sons felt relieved. Clerk’s ghost serves as paperweight. My mother said – “The ghosts took the That Clerk’s shraadh was done, his life of the poor man.” widow got pension, his son got assurance And that hospital. The tree fell, of service. Months and years kept rolling Vibhishan died, we became as sad as we on. Once we read in a newspaper – “Like could be, the parrot reached paradise, Ganga in the locks of Mahadev, the hospital the little owl flew away. Owls, parrots, is trapped in the pages of files.” sparrows of the tree made nests in other We became voters, all teeth of my trees and their grand children were born. father fell, my mother’s hair turned grey, And in a distant town a file, the file her eyes got cataract, our dreamgirls of the hospital, moved a little way. It nursed their children, our old house became moved like that chained owlet – limp and scatterlimbed. One day we heard the MLA lazy. of our area came like Bhagirath and carried We matriculated, we read about away the hospital to his own village. kriskograph, Chipko movement started, No guts were left in the village to Sunderlal Bahuguna’s mug came on the protest or do something. No mad person front pages, many governments changed. was there to say if the hospital went Many waves of epidemic swept away anywhere else he’d kill himself. The village many from the village, but the file kept lay flat like our fallen tamarind, lifeless. moving. We heard many times the per- Some like owls came out of their holes centages of contractors, engineers, leaders and brooded. Others were scattered like tamarinds.

Prem Kumar Mani is a well-known writer on the scenario of Hindi. His “Manusmriti: Pratikriya (Manusmriti : A Reaction)” and two short- story collections “Andhere mein Akele (Alone in Darkness)” and “Ghaas ka Gahane (Oranaments of Grass)” have been published. He has been awarded “Srikaanth Verma Smirti Puraskar.” ‘Tamarinds’ is a touching tale of children’s attachment with their environment and an irony upon the present system.

Minu Manjari, works in an office of the Ministry of Defence. She translates in many languages. She is also doing her D. Phil. in English from Patna University. She lives in Patna.

50 :: July-September 2011 TWO POEMS Bhavani Prasad Mishra

Translated by Nishi Tiwari

Poetry The forests of Satpura Enwrapped in sleep Lie The dense wild woods of Satpura, Drowsily nodding, Impassive forests. Standing silent And Impassive The tall and short bushes, Of Satpura.

Silent is the grass Silent the reeds, Mute are, The Shal And The Palash, (As if in harmony with solitude). If you dare, Carve a pathway Where the wind Can’t make it’s way Enwrapped in sleep

July-September 2011 :: 51 Lie The dense wild woods of Satpura Drowsily nodding, Impassive forests.

Leaves numerous And Variegated Pave the pathway Rotten leaves!

Decaying leaves!

Green leaves!

Dry leaves!

Leaves, Nurtured in mud Walk on them If you can Conquer them, If you dare.

Repulsive are, These dense woods Enwrapped in sleep.

Drowsily nodding, Impassive forests.

Creepers, Odd and entangled, Running wild, Seize and, Devour the boughs,

52 :: July-September 2011 Clutch the feet Unawares.

Deadly twines Squeezing the life out.

Threatening, black, snaky creepers.

In the thicket dense.

A forest with creepers profuse Enwrapped in sleep Drowsily nodding, Impassive forests.

Face lost in, A, Maze of spider webs, And, Hair disheveled Turned over The face.

Mosquito bites Black and red Are there instead.

Braving the thunder-showers Walk through them, Steel’d and unbowed.

A forest of perils Enwrapped in sleep Drowsily nodding Impassive forest, Impassable,

July-September 2011 :: 53 And python-infested A forest of seven-mountains Clothed in Bushes tall Bushes dwarf.

Panting with fear The darkling forest.

Lion and tiger infested Harken!...... the roar; Enwrapped in sleep Drowsily nodding Impassive forests.

Embedded within, Unbeholden, Dwell contended The Gond, black and strong Amidst The woods’ solitude, In, Huts thatched Rearing fowls.

Come Holi, the forest reverberated Lost in Celebration With The Breeze Caressing the grass; A drunken forest Heavy, With the scent of Mahua Wafting in the breeze And

54 :: July-September 2011 Songs enthralling With Resonance of drums.

Enwrapped in sleep Lie The dense wild woods of Satpura Drowsily nodding, Impassive forests.

Lyric Seller Oh! Yes, my Lord, I do sell songs Different types of them, Various kinds of them.

Lord! See my wares I’ll quote the price.

Worthless Are they not look at their worth.

Some, Written in exaltation Some, In dejection.

This song will banish pain This will charm the beloved Oh!yes, Hesitant was I At first But anon, It dawned on me People have Sold their virtue.

July-September 2011 :: 55 Lord! Be not astonished For, With discretion Do I sell my songs.

Oh! Yes my Lord, I do sell songs Different types of them Various kinds of them.

Sing the melody Of this Matin song; Enthralling is this song Feel! Feel! It’s power. Written in seclusion Was this song Written in Pune Was this song. Ascends the mountain Does this song Unplugs the fountain Does this song. Satisfies the heart’s longing Does this song. Enriches a wasteland Does this song. Aroma of royalty Is this song, Balm of the suffering Is this song. Come, I’ll show you More of these It’s melody If, You so desire

56 :: July-September 2011 I’ll chant anew.

Choose, The metrical Or, The non-metrical, Choose! Choose! from The eternal And The transient.

No, no, nothing there is here To attend If it please not, I’ll pen down New ones again.

Songs do I sell of all types New ones and old, I sell of all types.

Oh! Yes, my Lord, I do sell songs Different types of them Various kinds of them.

Songs, Should I write of Birth or death Songs, Should I write Of Victory or defeat.

Song embellished, this is And This, so plain.

July-September 2011 :: 57 This song is of This excess And That excess. Songs There are, Of varying symphonies This, is a song of learning And this, is purely filmy.

This, A song divine, And This, So light Oh! No, no.

This is no joke, Beware! For Nights and days Do I write always And hence, churn out songs ever anew. Oh! Not spontaneously Are the songs churned out! Plenteous are they, Oh! Let me remove all these. It’s the choice of the readers I’ll make a move.

Or, Go, go within And ask once more, Although,

58 :: July-September 2011 A sin it is To sell one’s song.

But, Driven to the wall I sell my songs. Oh! Yes, my Lord, I do sell songs Different types of them Various kinds of them.

Bhvani Prasad Mishra (1913-1985) a very wellknown poet who excelled in writing poems in a distinct colloquial style. He had strong faith in Gandhian ideology. He was honoured with Padmshree Samman and Sahitya Akademi Award. He wrote 22 books in all including ‘buni hui rassi’ and ‘geetfarosh’.

Nishi Tiwari, a post graduate in English from Benaras Hindu University, has taught English literature in various colleges on ad-hoc basis. She has also worked as Extension Officer in the government of Bihar and has been teaching English literature for several years. She lives in Delhi.

July-September 2011 :: 59 THREE POEMS Kailash Vajpeyi

Translated by the Poet

Choice Poetry If given a chance What part of life Would you like to live again? Asked the shadow of my aging frame Surprised, filled with doubt The unseen thread of breath As it slipped inside Sighed The answer has yet to come.

Terra Home (Prithvighar) When I didn’t have a home Then out in the streets Pushed and jostled by the crowd I would imagine myself In each and every home on earth Now when I have a home

60 :: July-September 2011 And am inside it The home is no more. At the stroke of midnight Just when I am about to sleep. On my mat of grass Someone calls out Come on out from inside the earth And live in the legacy That has been yours for generations on end.

By A Cutdown Tree People took away your severed trunk Left behind Your rooted stump. Within the earth There flows a sheet of water Your roots will wrap themselves In this sheet And sing. Soon a new life will sprout forth Shoots will cover the wound That was you. Cloud caravans Soft as cotton-wool Will travel across the skies Year after year. You will dance again

July-September 2011 :: 61 Content In the arms of your branches Birds will sing their raga. This never happens To a decapitated torso– If only a man were a tree!

Kailash Vajpeyi, born 1936, is an eminent Hindi poet with laurels like Sahitya Akademi and Vyas Samman to his credit. Widely travelled, Kailash Vajpeyi has been professor of Hindi in Delhi University and visiting professor at Mexico’s academic institution. He is as much involved with philosophy as with poetry. Some of his famous books are : Dooba sa undooba tara. Hawa mein Hastakshar. Sufinama, Beyond the self (English). He lives in New Delhi.

62 :: July-September 2011 A POEM Meira Kumar

Translated by Mangal Murty

Poetry The rainbow on your eyelids,

Its colours swim in my eyes.

Between you

And me

O, how are the dreams shared!

I think and

Have been thinking for long.

And know not

Where to find that city

Of my dreams?

My soul restless,

All packed up, ready to go,

And settle there.

Moment to moment,

Tormented, thrown out,

July-September 2011 :: 63 O you, who live on the margin!

How long will you hold out,

How much poison will you swallow?

In the fields and barns,

Factories, open quarries,

In plains or among rocks,

In magnificent palaces,

Or in petty tenements,

In distant villages,

Or out among sea waves,

From one corner of the earth

To the other–wherever my sight goes,

It’s the magic of your mighty hands

That casts its spell.

O, daily plodders on live coal,

O, tight-rope walkers,

Change your destinies with your hands.

Let there be a roar,

Let the tornadoes rise.

Worship the work,

Not the birth-mark,

Cast off all else,

O my co-city dwellers!

64 :: July-September 2011 Come,

Let’s dash against the barriers.

You and I alone have that trust.

Ours is the strongest bond,

That commonalty of our dreams.

Meira Kumar, born 1945 is a politician by profession and a poet by option. She has been member of Parliament for 5 times and is the first woman speaker of Loksabha. She is well versed in Hindi, English, Sanskrit. Bhojpuri & Spanish. She lives in New Delhi.

Dr. Mangal Murty, born 1937 is a retired professor of English and Linguistics, who served in universities in Bihar and Yemen for more than four decades, and has written and edited several books in Hindi and some in English. He has recently edited and published the collected works of Shivapujan Sahay (his late father) and is presently doing translations of Selected Writings of Shivapujan Sahay. He now lives in Varanasi and is working on an English biography of Dr. Rajendra Prasad. Email: [email protected]

July-September 2011 :: 65 DO NOT SELL ME, PAPA! Jitendra Rathore

Translated by The Poet

Poetry Papa! do not sell me. Oh! sell me not to circus. I am light of your eyes, I am dream of your days, I am blood of your sighs, I am last of the ray. Of the house in which dwell ye, Papa, do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

Crush me in a pool of oils, Throw me in a furnace. Put me in a pot which boils, Thrash me in gas-hall base, To kill me like hell free, But do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus. If hungry you can eat me,

66 :: July-September 2011 And munch each of my bone, If thirsty drink my blood, ye! If angry cut my neck own, For all these you're well free, But, ah? do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

True earth is little, sky is low, And black the air and light, Of our share, I too know, But lose not your heart right, For one day we'll sail free, Papa! do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

Wait and let me touch sky, And kiss the moon and the sun, Embrace the green earth shy, With sea and hill let me have fun, And then I'll hail thee, Ah! Please do not sell me Oh! sell me not to circus.

For even now I do count, The wrinkles on your face worn See your eyes dim, and the amount Of sadness in your dreams But believe me, Papa! I'll settle everything.

July-September 2011 :: 67 Papa! do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

We'll fight against darkness black, For sun, earth and sky blue, To bring air and light back, For use of our life anew, Sounding gloom's death knell free, So, Papa do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

We won't let our foes rest, We'd make them all traceless, And burn their buildings best, Leave them asleep and graceless, And all which now ails thee, So, Papa do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

We would never forgive those, Who robbed our rest and dream, Stole our field and eye's glow We won't forgive these grimnesses, We'd crush them down and wheel free, So, please do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

So, wait for a little time,

68 :: July-September 2011 Till the time I kill them, I promise I won't fail thee, Only do not sell me. Oh! sell me not to circus.

When father sells his son, Mother her daughter good, Sister sells honour anon, And brother his manhood, Even earth will wail aloud So, Papa do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

For mountains will tumble down, Seas will go waterless, And planks will rumble down, All will be fatherless, Groping in evil fallen free, So, Papa do not sell me, Oh! sell me not to circus.

Jitendra Rathore born 1945, Bihar, writes poetry and fiction in Hindi and English. He has one collection of poems, Zamin ki Aag from which he has himself translated the present poem. He lives in Delhi.

July-September 2011 :: 69 NAGARJUN’S POETIC ARENA Namwar Singh

Translated by Nishi Tiwari

It is as essential to classify Nagarjun’s poems as it is difficult to categorise them. His poetic arena is vast and unparalleled. Readers adapted to the smooth arena of poetic creation some times find it difficult to understand and interpret the varying moods and tones of his poetry. Even the seemingly simple descriptions in his poems are highly poetic in themselves, to such an extent

Discourse that, it is difficult to find fault with them. e.g.“Nevla”. In this extremely long poem, he describes the lives of the prisoners living in a jail. He takes up a seemingly trivial incident (which is very important for those imprisoned there). A baby mongoose becomes the center of attraction for the prisoners, whose activities they watch with utmost interest. He gives a detailed description of the entire event. A piece of meat tied to a string is hung in order to tempt the baby mongoose. It makes various repeated attempts to get the piece of meat, but, all in vain. This makes him angry and he makes a peculiar sound; kir….kir… Readers may doubtfully question “where is poetry here?”. Because till the end the mongoose remains a mere mongoose and does not become a symbol. But, because of the inhumane conditions prevailing in the prison, the activities of the mongoose acquire poetic qualities. Similarly, in “Lalu Sahu” a sixty three year old man burns himself to death on the funeral pyre of his sixty year old wife.

70 :: July-September 2011 For Nagarjun, this untoward incident is Ah, kitna bada hai yah kathal/Ah kaisa full of poetic potentialities; otherwise, mah- mah karta hai yah kathal/Ah kis it has neither emotional appeal nor any tarah para hai charo khane chit!) poetic qualities. In another poem jackfruit is used “Joda Mandir” too, falls in the same as a simile where he says; “Like the category of poems, in which, after death peels of a jackfruit, poverty has been of his parents, a son builds a pair of squeezing the blood out of my vitals.” temples in their memory. Only a consummate master having Ordinary commonplace incidents tremendous flights of imagination, could which fail to inspire other poets, affect coin such a far-fetched comparison. This Nagarjun’s poetic sensibilities deeply. It particular characteristic of his leads him proves to be Nagarjun’s creative field. to paint poverty in its manifold forms In this respect he is a daringly uncon- in one of his poems, where he describes ventional poet, having the courage to the life of misery led by a rickshaw- strike out a new note and startle his puller. His streaming, sweating body, reader. He was a radical. This remarkable under a tattered vest, with feet and hands poetic quality in him inspired him to having become gnarled and rough. His write “Paine danton wali”. (Jamuna kinare famished body, compelled to a life of / makhmali dubo par/poos ki gungunee drudgery, rickshaw-puller’s life of drudg- dhup me/pasar kar leti hai/ bhare poore ery with dirty cracked heels. barah thano walee/chhauno ko pila rahee Toilhardened hands, rough hardened legs hai dudh). In this poem, he describes and salty sweet drenched bodies under a female pig suckling her young ones, tattered wax raises various questions basking in pleasant sunshine of winter, in the minds of the readers, wins sympathy on the velvety meadows near the banks and leads to empathy. Had it not been of Yamuna. In his unique poetic style, for Nagarjun, perhaps, these aspects of he refers to her as the daughter of human life would have remained un- “Mother India”. touched. Similarly, in “Katahal”, he waxes poetic at the sight of a jackfruit. “Aha! Nagarjun excels in expressing those How ripened is this jackfruit! / Aha! repulsive features of human life, which How big is this jackfruit! / Aha! What other poets with aesthetic sense prefer a delicious aroma has this jackfruit!” not to touch. e.g. in one of his poems (Ah, kya khub paka hai yah kathal/ he says; “Lord! Retch out everything

July-September 2011 :: 71 /For, it will banish my hunger”(Prabhu, to. In order to enjoy the experience Tum kar do vaman/ hoga meri kshudha of “Danturit Muskan”, “Sindur Tilkit Bhal” ka shaman). Running the risk of being and the loving act of a daughter, hanging labeled rustic, obscene and vulgar he pink bangles in front of her father’s (who dares to talk of the divine urine having is a bus driver) driving seat, one will become a salty lake.(Phail gaya hai mutra have to enter Nagarjun’s poetic field. ka lawan-sarovar).And some extremely The deep longing with which he views unmentionable lines. Thus, making room “The dew drops, residue of the night for the most contemptible aspects of clinging to milky paddy blossoms.(Nisha life. Although, Sanskrit Literature deals shesh os ki bundiyon se ladi, agahani with the nine rasas of life with “Vibhats dhan ki dudhi manjariyan). And full of rasa” forming an integral part of it, it elation, he says, (“Sike hue do bhutte is just a formality. Some poems have samne aaye, tabiyat khil gayi”) here he been composed on this rasa in Sanskrit exhibits man’s deep attachment to his Literature, but, Nagarjun is the first poet natural rural surrounding. It is a rare who has dealt with it, in the socio-political experience. context, and established its importance Nagarjuna’s poetic field is embellished in Hindi Literature. with unique features of the beauty of His “Mantra Kavita” is one such daring nature which indicates the poet’s deep creation which is also unrivalled in poetic love and admiration coupled with deep style and diction. While Nirala’s, penetrating insight into its beauty. He “Kukurmutta” is the historical represen- is remarkable for the minute and precise tation of the thoughts and aspirations delineation of natural objects. Second, of the 1940s, Nagarjun’s “Mantra Kavita” next to Nirala, it is Nagarjuna, who has reflects with conviction the thoughts and written the maximum number of poems aspiration of 1969.The irony here is that, on rain and clouds. If on the one hand, his utterance “My grandson will rule as a traveller, he has observed the beauty forever and ever”(Aur hamesha-hamesha of the clouds gathering over snow-capped raj karega mera pota).Like a prophecy, mountains.“Amal dhawal giri ke shikharon is about to come true today. par badal ko ghirte dekha hai”, on the This does not mean that he is a queer other hand, like a farmer he has gleefully poet. Rather, he is a poet dealing with rejoiced with nature-“Dhin-dhin dha the common place, ordinary events of dhamak dhamak megh baaje.” In fact, life, those aspects, which other poets like a farmer, he discerns keenly the consider too ordinary to give attention transitional phase during the junction

72 :: July-September 2011 of two seasons, on the eve of the he goes on. “Kitne der tak rahi nachati approaching rainy season and sings kapal ke Bhitar ki Katori Mein / Dharan through his verse, thereby, revealing kiya kramashah takali ke roop/Ek phank his attitude towards nature, where he aankh,/Ek phank naak.” surrenders himself completely to the spell Besides this, other poems like:-“Tan that Nature casts upon the human mind. gayi reedh” and “Yahan Tum thi” This reminds us of his poem on depict female charm. fireflies: On a wet rainy moonless night… Nagarjun has also written a number Strewing sanctified grains of rice in the of autobiographical poems, expressing forest. (“Gili Bhadon, Rain amavas…. Kaise his weaknesses, doubts, agony, and his ye Neelam Ujas ke/Achchat chhint rahe devotion with transparency. There are jungle mein”) three outstanding poems in the poetry He has written a wonderful lyrical collection Khichdi Viplav Dekha poem on rain in his mother-tongue, Hamney.which fall in this category- “In Maithili, which reminds one of Vidyapati’s Salakhon Se Tikakar Bhal”, “Thakit-Chakit- couplets and skillfully reflects the Bhramit Bhagna Man”, “Pratibaddh”. In Nagarjunic trend. The Refrain-“Flash of the first one- the poet rests his forehead lightening eliminating the black clouds”. against the bars of his cell and wonders (Shayam Ghata, Sit bijuri reh), about the people who will benefit from It may be written by Vidyapati, but it. In the second one when the mind it strongly resembles Nagarjun’s verse- of the poet is astonished, deluded, and (“Phank jotak timrik dhar/Niwir Vipan dejected, he had apprehensions about ati pathar Dhar/Darid ur, laxmi Janu old age:- when I grow old/ Will I too/ har/Lohak chadari chanik taar”.) Have to/Go back to a monastery/In order A streak of light /Amidst the deep to regain my vitality?.(To Kya Mujhe darkness/A slender brook/In repose,/ Bhi Budhape mein Pushtai Ke liye,/Vapas In a dense dark grove/A glimpse of Nahi Jana hai kisi math ke andar?).In prosperity/In the midst of poverty/A the third one, the most interesting thing silver thread/Woven into an iron sheet. is the proclamation of commitment. These lines illustrate Vidyapati’s “Shyam Nagarjuna is not only committed, but Ghata mein Ujali bijli ki rekha.” also bound and tied to it, determined to overcome his infatuation. He is inclined A poem in Maithili says-“Ek phank to “Sabse aur kisi se nahin aur na jane aankh/Ek phank naak”. In which, after kis kis se”. He is attached to “Swajan, catching glimpses of the beautiful face parijan ke pyar ki dor mein/Bahurupa

July-September 2011 :: 73 kalpana rani ke aalingan pash mein/ Queen welcome/ we will carry your Teesri, chauthi peedhi ke danturit shishu palanquin/This,the order of Jawahar Lal sulabh haas mein.”.These ideas of has been.”(“Aao!/rani, hum dhoyenge Nagarjun are full of virtue, and hence palki/yahi hui hai rai jawarhar lal full of Truth. ki.”).Garnishing his satire with folk song But Nagarjun’s most enchanting and folk drama “nautanki”, he gives it poems are those when he laughs at a remarkable finish, making the satire himself. “This ape / This seventy year caustic. old fool / Tears his hair in ecstasy / This aspect of Nagarjun’s satire has And often whistles to himself in seclu- immortalized his poetry. sion”. His merits are of a kind not likely (Yah banmanush /Yah sattar sala to be affected by time that is why his ujabak/umang se bharkar sir ke baal/ poems never become outdated. There Nochane lagata hai /Akele me bajane lies the difference between the poems lagta hai sitiyan /Aye din) of Nagarjun and those of his contem- If a poet can direct an invective poraries. So, it has been established satire against himself he has the full beyond doubt that next to Kabir, Nagarjun right to direct it towards others too. is the undisputed master of satire. There It is with this right that he vehemently are so many satirical pictures of in- criticizes the existing order of the day. dividuals in his poems that they can be compiled in an album. The attack become bitter and sharp where the poet’s indignation turns into Nagarjun is neither considered to be bitter, biting satire : “A black toothed an experimental poet nor can he be green/ changes into twitching of strag- mentioned in the context of new genre gling mustache”. (“Katthai daton ki moti of poetry. muskan/ betarteeb muchchon ki Yet, the amount of experimental work thirkan”). Similarly, attacking the Con- he had done on the physical aspect has gress leaders, he says:- Yesterday/Have hardly been done by any other poet. they returned/from Delhi/After wrench- Under Nagarjun’s craftsmanship and ing the tickets/see, betel –stained laugh- intelligent wit, poetry scaled new heights. ter/as like the grain of / In this respect, he is a pioneer. Besides pomegranate.(“Dilli se laute hai kal ticket this, he also excels as a dramatic poet mar ke/khile hain dant jyon daane anaar with a dexterity that is surprising. He ke.” Enraged at the welcome being given excels in technique too-metrical, non- to the queen of England he writes:-“O! metrical, or blank verse. He has manifold

74 :: July-September 2011 ways of expression. Diction becomes an poems that he became a target of envy easy tool in his hands, it has plenty even by the most renowned poets of of variety. Having a rich vocabulary his times. ranging from ‘theth boli’ i.e. local dialect His poems are not only artistically to classical Sanskrit glossary. Here, the finished, but extremely popular as well. vista is so vast and expansive that his This establishes him as the foremost poet readers are overwhelmed. In Hindi of his times. Dr. Ram Vilas Sharma is literature, after Tulsidas and Nirala, of the view that “There are very few Nagarjun’s poems are a unique blend poets, who have succeeded in striking of diversity and enrichment. a balance between these two aspects In spite of all his merits, there is of poetry—artistic finish and popularity”. no dearth of uncertainties in his poems. It won’t be an exaggeration if we state This is precisely the reason why it took that second to Tulsidas, Nagarjun’s poetry a long time for him to become a renowned appeal to all sections of the society poet. But, after his thoughts and ideas ranging from rural farmers to poetry matured and reached equilibrium, he lovers. produced such marvelously finished Courtesy : Rajkamal Prakashan, Delhi

Namwar Singh, born 1926, at village Jeeyanpur, Varanasi, is the most prominent literary critic of Hindi. His scholarly stature is revealed in the literary discourses he has undertaken. His views have often resulted in creating a point of departure to the stereotypes of literary thought. He has been professor of Hindi at Sagar, Jodhpur and Jawaharlal Nehru Universities, where he is professor emeritus as well. At present he is Chancellor of M.G. Antar-rashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya, Wardha and Chief Editor of ‘Alochna’ a quarterly magazine of literary criticism. He writes pre-eminently in Hindi but the above article was written by him in English to address an international audience. Some of Dr. Namwar Singh’s published works are: ‘Bakalam Khud: Hindi ke vikas mein apbhransh ka yog’; ‘kahani, nai kahani’; ‘kavita ke naye pratiman’; ‘doosri parampara ki khoj’; ‘chhayavad’; ‘vad, vivad, samvad’; ‘kehna na hoga’; ‘alochak ke mukh se’; ‘Hindi ka gadyaparva’; ‘zamane se do do hath’; ‘kavita ki zameen aur zameen ki kavita’; ‘premchand aur bhartiya samaj’. He lives in New Delhi.

July-September 2011 :: 75 HAS HINDI BEEN DEFEATED BY ENGLISH? Shivapujan Sahay

Translated by Mangal Murty

[ Only months before his death, Shivapujan Sahay, wrote an article ‘Kya Angrezi se Hindi har gayee?’ which was published by the famous Hindi poet and writer, Dharmveer Bharati, in the epochal Hindi weekly Dharmyug (July 1, 1962). Bharati was running a series of articles on this burning language issue of the time, and

Discourse had requested Sahayji for his views on the matter. The relevance of the question is all the more substantial now when things seem to have gone beyond control, with Hindi being pushed behind and discarded increasingly at every step. The full Hindi article, which appeared in a heavily edited form in the journal, excluding the first two introductory paragraphs, is being presented here in English translation for the first time. The original Hindi article is available in volume 3 of the Shivapujan Sahay Sahitya Samagra ( 10 volumes) recently published. – Translator] Our national leaders love their power, and not Hindi. We, the Hindi people, could have easily taught these autocratic leaders a good lesson through the ballot boxes if we really had a united force. Unfortunately we don’t have that. Even the capable and popular Hindi newspapers which could have actively sustained a movement in this regard are owned by capitalists. No competent leadership for the movement either was allowed to develop. Rajarshi Tandon was ousted primarily for his championship of Hindi’s cause. Left alone, Seth Govind Dasji also has become powerless.

76 :: July-September 2011 Hindi has been deliberately ham- language, such injustice couldn’t have strung and crippled by having English been forced on us. Regrettably, even as a burden on its shoulders. The whole the supporters of regional languages Hindi world is deeply discontented by would not arise and proclaim that all the government’s Hindi policy. The idea our Constitutionally approved languages of promoting a foreign language in an can join hands amicably in managing independent nation for nurturing na- all the linguistic needs of governance. tional awareness is a clear sign of the There is no need to offer the crown government’s lack of foresight. The to English. But sadly, the regional thought of national integration sans an language supporters also are happy to Indian national language is merely a cut off their noses to spite Hindi’s face. fool’s paradise. Even emotional integra- It is as if the whole well of the nation tion can never be achieved by devaluing itself is polluted with cannabis [‘bhang’]. the native Indian languages. The en- Hindi has always helped in the spread thronement of English through the of all the regional and local languages disregard of the chief Indian languages on a nationwide scale. It has rid them is a grievous blow to our nationalism. as far as possible of their ‘frog-in-pondism. As our national language, Hindi can Even so, all those who are intolerant fully serve as the language of governance, of Hindi’s progress are happy to find with the mutual cooperation of all its their antipathies succeeding. Indeed, it sister Indian languages. But instead of is a matter of outright misfortune for strengthening and augmenting this natural a great nation like India. And when we capability of Hindi, the idea of according look at the language policies of our supremacy to English is a totally anti- neighbouring countries it appears to be national endeavour – a clear mockery all the more disgraceful. It shouldn’t of democratic norms in a great republic be so mortifying to say that though the like ours. But unfortunately, we have English are gone, their progenies still absolutely forgotten what Gandhi had remain with us. Countries that gained so consistently taught us – the method their independence after India are of compelling even the mightiest gov- managing their affairs in their own ernment to conceding our demands. We languages quite well. But a gigantic nation also seem to have lost the capability like India which is historically, culturally to use the unassailable weapon which and civilizationally much older to them he had given in our hands to bring a can unabashedly profess to the world government back to the right path; oth- that it cannot work with its own native erwise our own government wouldn’t language. have been able to indulge in such wilful It’s a matter of the greatest aston- acts. If we had genuine concern for our ishment that even our best educationists,

July-September 2011 :: 77 politicians, and leaders crying hoarse English has put paid to them all. Our with their nationalist slogans, would not heads bow down in shame to find our care to look towards Asian nations like populist government pleading for the China and Japan, but rather gaze fixedly inexorability of English. But those who towards England. How exhilarated our now rule us, who hold the reins of erstwhile ‘white masters’ must be feeling government in their hands, it’s their logic to notice this ‘slave mentality’ in the that must be seen as impeccable. It’s Indian people’s consciousness! The an eternal principle that the power of headache of a Pakistan that they suc- governance can be held only in an iron cessfully gifted us would, perhaps, cause fist. Even so, there can be no only a faint smile on their lips, but the authoritarianism in a democratic set up. spell that they have cast on us through But had this been a reality, the vox their language, English, would surely make populi of the Hindi-speakers would not them burst in laughter! The soul of that have gone absolutely unheard. One has far-sighted Macaulay must be laughing a distinct feeling of contrition in calling its heart out on our myopic vision. Our oneself the citizen of a country which heart bleeds as we say this, but it is holds its language and script to be like banging our heads against a stone incapable of national use and shows its wall if we try to emphasise the integral helplessness by accepting the efficacy relationship between our culture and of a foreign language for its domestic language in a country, the heart of not purposes. In fact, according to a rustic one of whose leaders is charged with adage: whom to swear by, when both a national spirit. the husband and the son are equally Numerous ambitious plans are being dear; the government is as much our put forward by our government for the own as is Hindi – that’s the biggest expansion and advancement of Hindi. problem. The tyranny on our own by Various efforts to promote Hindi like our own is truly insufferable. publication of books and magazines, It would be quite relevant here to translation programmes, book distribu- quote rather extensively from an article tion, institutional grants, regional semi- published in the famous Bangla weekly nars, note-writing in Hindi, etc are being Desh. In its 17 February, 1962 issue, made, but the perpetuation of English the Head of the English Department of has thrown cold water on all that. The the Yadavpur University and an eminent Hindi people are not mere children to Bangla litterateur, Shri Buddhadeva Bose be diverted by toys and dolls. Whatever has written a heart-touching account of ambitious projects are being implemented his travel to Japan. The lines are quite by the government for the propagation eloquent in themselves. of Hindi, the blind devotion towards “The part of Japanese life that has

78 :: July-September 2011 left its deepest impress on my mind tongue only. Criticism, scholarly writing is the position of English there. The and knowledge discourse – all done in Japanese are not proficient speakers of the mother tongue. Commerce, admin- English. Even among the intellectual istration, government affairs, disquisi- elites, the learned and the scholarly, tion, jurisprudence are all carried only it is rather rare to find a person who in the mother tongue. That is to say, can freely talk in English for long. What Japan has consistently been following is more interesting is that they don’t the most natural, vigorous, and world- even try, or don’t even consider it acknowledged system of language use. worthwhile, to try overmuch. Among But it doesn’t mean that they have turned the ordinary people, most would use their back on the world; scholars would the same kind of workaday English; that frequently publish their researches in is, they would mostly remain within a French, German or English. And yet they limited perimeter of workaday use of would always encourage foreigners to English. Beyond that, they would have learn their language, Japanese. Many no use for another language. I found reputed journals would publish their many ladies always carrying a pocket papers in Japanese with an abstract in English dictionary in their vanity bags; English just to attract attention of foreign if they don’t understand an expression scholars....For their interest in foreign they would sooner browse into their literature and knowledge, they are always dictionary. Even university Deans who ready to learn a foreign language with taught English or French literature would seriousness, and would also teach it to generally respond only with a mystifying their students, but it hardly occurs to smile, without any apparent sign of hav- these teachers and their students that ing understood or not, the questions they would also be expected, or are I put to them. proficient enough, to talk freely in that “ I think this last observation of language. Presently, it seems, the older mine would turn the brows askew of generation is drawn towards English due many of our countrymen – ‘How is that to American influence; but even so, it possible, teaching English, but not is inconceivable for the Japanese that conversing in it?’ But the straight answer culture or education are in any way to this is that from the primary to the dependent on English.... highest levels of education the medium “In our country India, English is all of instruction there is solely too important. It wouldn’t be an ex- Japanese....Literature, science, engineer- aggeration to say that among all the ing – everything in Japan is taught countries where English is not a native through the mother tongue. Textbooks language, the highest proficiency in the and examinations are done in mother use of English is to be found in India....It’s

July-September 2011 :: 79 true that a handful of our countrymen That is only because it is imperative have the same degree of proficiency in to know Japanese before establishing any using the English language as is possible kind of relationship with them. By our for a non-native user ( though there sheer subservience to English, we are still would be a limitation). But it is not allowing our own language to raise also not true that we have any special its head in pride, and this is why our advantage in the world as a consequence inner thinking - our heart’s voice has of this unnatural situation. Of course, not been able to reach out to the world. English is of much use to us as our “Has Japan retrogressed in any field only window to the world. It has some because of keeping away from English? special value for us because, generally, Is it that we are more conversant with the world’s winds blow on us through the wealth of world knowledge? I feel this window alone.... But the main issue sad to say, it’s just the opposite. Not is whether it is desirable for English only in science, but in literature too, to have the kind of stranglehold that it is they who are the ‘world citizens’, it has come to have on us. How can and we are the ‘provincials’. It is, indeed, I call it proper when I find that in the paradoxical, that the English which we whole world we are the only unfortunate consider as our window on the world, people worshipping the stone idol of has only obscured our own world from a foreign tongue – not benefiting from us! its true spirit, but only wildly exulting “The view of the Japanese about with its outer form. translated [world] literature is that just “Whenever foreigners come to India as it can be done into English, so also they are paid due respect. Some of them into Japanese. If it’s not possible to would even mix in our society, or spend read it in the original, it is much better years and even their whole life here. in their own language japanese. If But they wouldn’t bother to learn much translation [of world literature] is possible of our language except a dozen or so into English, it is equally possible in of our words which they would only Japanese. have to use with the servants. But in “Japan is an ideal answer to the Japan nothing is possible without using question : whether the mother tongue Japanese –neither business, education can be the medium for higher education or studies, nor marriage or settlement in India? Ideal because Japan also is there. This is the main reason behind an Asian nation, and its rise in Asia Japanese literature being translated into has been phenomenal. One reason for many languages even now. There are this, certainly, is that even the most full-fledged departments of Japanese updated knowledge in the west is dis- language in many American universities.

80 :: July-September 2011 seminated in Japan through its mother The mindset of the Hindi speakers is tongue. In spite of its substantial surely never defeatist, nor can Hindi assimilation of the best in the west, it be ever defeated. But as is the wont has never committed the suicidal error of our destiny-makers, Hindi can never of the slavery of a foreign language. win in this battle against English. It is It is often stated that though literature only to their [dis?]credit that even after and such other subjects can be taught a self-rule of fifteen years they have in the mother tongue, but for science not been able to build up sufficiently and engineering education English is the strength of their centuries-old inescapable. Yet who are more advanced national language. If they had harboured in the fields of science and engineering true Indian nationalism in their hearts, [or technology] – we the English-knowing English wouldn’t have secured the Indians, or they, the mother tongue- enviable position of a darling second educated Japanese? What Mahatma spouse. But it is these same people who Gandhi had called a ‘slave mentality’ have forced Hindi’s defeat at the hands – we have still not been able to shed of English. This thorn in the Hindi it off. And the proof of this lies in our speakers’ flesh would keep agonizing so helpless, miserable enchantment with long as English continues to grind its English.” corn on the chest of Hindi. After bruising No comments seem necessary on the the hearts of millions of Hindi speakers above-expressed views of a well-known with utmost cruelty, the big drum of scholar of English, but regarding his last India’s ancient heritage is being beaten sentence, it must be added that Mahatma all around the world. It’s a matter of Gandhi’s language policy and national unbearable pity! reconstruction policy were conveniently What is more amazing is that those put on the back-burner; only his name occupying the seats of power also continued to be utilized as a talisman consider themselves to be great linguists. on the ballot box. It’s a great misfortune They who are totally ignorant of its riches that Mahatmaji’s blessing hand is gone are, in fact, trying to weigh the worth forever from over Hindi’s head, other- of Hindi. One among them would even wise our nation wouldn’t have had to brag that there is nothing at all in Hindi face this humiliation. literature, and another would profess As for the question of Hindi’s battle that all 14 languages are national lan- for victory or defeat with English, it’s guages. They speak from the peaks of only a matter of the victory or defeat the Himalayas and their assertions of the mindset. If the mindset is defeatist, resound throughout the land. But who there is defeat, of course; but if it’s can hold their tongue? It is these same victory-spirited, it is victory ultimately. people who are complicating the issue

July-September 2011 :: 81 and spoiling the atmosphere. If the whole it be for us all to join hands in enriching truth were to be revealed, lots of and strengthening our Hindi language unpalatable facts would also come out and literature. Acharya Ramchandra in the open. But now it would hardly Shukla in his book Goswmai Tulsidas, help or harm the cause of Hindi either while considering Tulsi’s devotional to reveal or hide the truth. The pennant tradition, has aptly observed – “The of English is firmly fixed on the fort richness of Hindi poetry in Sur[das] and of Hindi. And the soul of Hindi is fled Tulsi is not because of their high from that fort. recognition in the royal [Mughal] court; From now on, I think, we should instead the high recognition in the court put all our energies into preparing Hindi is the result of that literary richness. for the future campaign. At the same That rich literary heritage is the product time, we must earn the goodwill of the of Sur and Tulsi, and they themselves well-wishers of our other Indian lan- are the products of the development guages. But before whom can we play of that devotional ethos, the foundation our lute, singing of Hindi’s power and of which is firmly laid down by Rama the wealth of its literature? Better would and Krishna.”

Acharya Shivapujan Sahay (1893-1963) was a close associate of Premchand, Jayashankar Prasad and Nirala, and is highly regarded as one of the foremost writers of modern Hindi prose. He is well known for his novel ‘Dehati Duniya’, a pioneer work in Hindi regional fiction, and as one of the greatest editors after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi. He edited several famous Hindi journals like ‘Matwala’, ‘Madhuri’, ‘Jagaran’ and ‘Himalaya’ as well as Premchand’s ‘Rangbhumi’, ‘Dwivedi Abhinandan Granth’ and Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s ‘Atmakatha’. His complete works ‘Shivapujan Sahay Sahitya-Samagra’ in 10 volumes, edited by Dr. Mangal Murty, have been published recently. He was awarded Padmabhushan in 1960. He passed away in Patna in 1963.

82 :: July-September 2011 RURAL TRAVESTIES : SHRILAL SHUKLA’S RAG DARBARI Rupert Snell

Shrilal Shukla, administrator turned Hindi author, was born in 1925. Of his background he writes, ‘‘A deprived childhood, a student career overshadowed by hard work and anxieties, then a middle-ranking government appointment – there is little point in recounting these experiences because such stories are stale and have been repeated time and time again’’1, Shukla began writing in 1953-54 when in a government post in Bundelkhand, a succession of administrative posts Discourse led to his becoming Director of Cultural Affairs in the Uttar Pradesh government in the late 1970s; he is now retired. Like so many Hindi authors, he was unable to base his livelihood entirely on his literary career, which he describes in the following terms: “Despite the fact that I lived in the town, when I wanted to write I had to do all those things that married men have to do with a mistress: for many years I resorted to car seats, rooms in hotels and dark bungalows, and for some time I rented a second flat; writing novels in particular calls for extended leave and escape to some other place.”2 Shukla’s published work includes six novels and some collections of satirical essays. He came into prominence in 1968 on the publication of his novel Rag Darbari, whose graphically realistic portrayal of Indian village life caused a considerable stir in Hindi literary circles; has subsequently been translated into several other Indian languages, and is currently being filmed for Doordarshan. Rag Darbari is set

July-September 2011 :: 83 in village called Shivpalganj, a few miles or integration and presenting a wilful from a large town somewhere in the Awadhi- obstrunction to the further progress of speaking region of Uttar Pradesh. The action its own genre. Though satirical writing takes place over the six-month period is commonplace in Indian literature during which Rangnath, a young research generally, it is rather unusual to find satire student, comes to stay with his uncle to as the backbone of a full-length Hindi novel. convalesce after an illness. The opening From the point of view of its extreme scene describes a truck in which Rangnath readability, Rag Darbari is worthy of close solicits a lift to Shivpalganj at the beginning attention; and is both sufficiently distinct of his stay; and distinguished a work to merit, without The city boundary from that point, the particularly aspiring to it, the label of ocean of rural India begins. a “modern classic”. Just there stood a truck. A single glance Principal Characters showed that its purpose in life was to Much of the action of the novel centres rape the roads. Like truth, it had a number on the extended family with which Rangnath of different aspects; the police, looking lives in Shivpalganj. The patriarch is at it from one point of view, might say Rangnath’s maternal uncle Vaidyaji, an that it was standing in the middle of ayurvedic practitioner with a finger in the road, while the driver could say that many pies; he maintains a tight grip on it was parked at the kerb. Following the the running of all the major village current fashion, the driver had fastened institiutions, but manages, godfather-like, the door in its open position, spread out to keep his hands clean of any actual like a bird’s wing; this both enhanced dirty dealing. Vaidyaji called Baidji the beauty of the truck and obviated the Maharaj, is the apex of the village’s feudal danger of any other vehicle being able structure. He “is, was, and shall ever to overtake it.3 remain”: it is the Vaidyajis of this world Rag Darbari too is both parked at the who ensure the impossibility of change roadside and standing in the middle of and progress, and in whose gift lie all the highway. On the one hand, it is a positions of power both real and symbolic. novel of Indian village life which belongs He is a turncoat, adept at aligning himself to a tradition of rural fiction extending with the winning side, and thus able to back to Premchand’s generation of pre- transform himself from onetime supporter Independence times; but on the other hand of the British Raj to khadi-wearing it has the destructive intention of satire, nationalist. His authority derives in part aimed at ridicule rather than correction from his brahmanical status, underlined

84 :: July-September 2011 by a pedantically maintained Sanskritic of political intrigue is the gruesome toady style of speech and enforced by a loosely Sanichar, dressed in striped under-shorts structured gang of goondas under the "torn in some important places" and to control of his elder son, the wrestler Badri which is added, on formal occasions, a ‘Pahalvan’. As a vaidya, he lays great store grubby vest; one of the narrative strands by the maintenance and promotion of of the novel sees him promoted, for reasons virility (virya), especially through the of political expediency, from his natural avoidance of the spilling of semen; thus position of bhang-preparer to that of head he preaches celibacy (brahamacarya) to of the village council. He is Vaidyaji's Rangnath as part of his “cure”4 Vaidyaji constant attendant, leaping to his summons has also a younger son, an eighteen year "with a monkey-like bound (aisi bandar- old student called Ruppan; the two brothers chhap chhalang) which confirmed the together provide their cousin Rangnath Darwinian theory of evolution"; un- with much of the practical education he questioningly pious in a mindless sort of is to receive during the course of his way, he responds to the sublime sound village sojourn. The female characters in of a Sanskrit quotation (never mind if the family hardly exist for the novelist: it concerns some medical context) from in fact there are no female protagonists Vaidyaji's lips by clasping his palms together - apart from one Bela discussed below, and falling into a prostration with a cry and she too is almost always off-stage of "Jay Bhagvan ki!". There is, too, the - though women are prominent among cripple Langar,6 a pathetic and sombre the groups of crouching figures to be figure who spends the entire period of discovered at their ablutions in the early the novel hobbling around the village mornings. Much the same applies to the awaiting the receipt of a copy of a legal portrayal of children: seemingly, only men document relating to a land-related court can sing the Durbari raga. case of some years earlier. Amongst It is to the durbar-like atmosphere Vaidyaji's adversaries is Ramadhin of Vaidyaji's baithak that the novel's title "Bhikhamkheravi", Calcutta-returned opium alludes. The raga called Darbari is the dealer and jailbird, who is the patron of most majestic and imposing of all the the village gambling den; an aspiring Urdu Hindustani ragas: its slow and ponderous poet of decidedly modest talents, he takes development reflects the solemn dignity his nom de plume from the nearby village of the royal court, of which Vaidyaji's ol Bhikhamkhera (whose distance from cabal is an almost burlesque travesty.5 Shivpalganj is judged from the fact that Typical of the hangers-on at this centre a nautanki performance in one can be heard in the other.)

July-September 2011 :: 85 The main arena for the politickings context is doomed to failure, not least planned in Vaidyaji's baithak is the local because of the lack of any linguistic and school, the grandly-named Chhangamal cultural bridge between the village and Vidyalaya Intermediate College, originally the developed world from which the will built with government funds diverted from for change is imported. Incongruities of a project intended to provide the village culture are expressed in and by the with a meeting centre. The theoretical absurdities of unrestrained code-switching, purpose of the college was to counter the problem being encapsulated in the the lack of engineers and doctors in the following dialogue from a ninth-grade country - an uphill struggle, because the science lesson on apekshik ghanatva people of this country are traditionally ('relative density'): of a poetic bent. Before understanding One boy asked, 'Master Sahib, what's a thing they necessarily become enthralled apekshik ghanatva?' by it and turn to verse. Seeing the Bhakkra- He replied, 'apekshik ghanatva means Nangal dam they will cry "Ah! Once again "relative density" God has chosen India as the place to demonstrate His miraculous powers!"; and Another boy said, 'See, he's not teaching at the sight of a young girl stretched science, he's teaching English'. out on the operation table they will begin The master said, 'How the hell can spouting couplets by Matiram and Biharilal. you teach sala science without English?' (P- 21). The boys laughed - not at the dispute Any real training is of course well between English and Hindi, but because beyond the capacities of the college: students of the master's idiomatic use of the word would have to go to England or America sala. for that, and the College can only provide The college, whose bizarre and gothic a preliminary initiation to such an education goings-on recall Dr. Pagan's academy in - tek-af-stejvala. While theoretically Evelyn Waugh's Decline and Fall, is presided intended as a door to a wider world, the over by Principal Sahib. He is, needless college is actually prey to a problem which to say, Vaidyaji's man. His two specialities represents a major theme in the novel are creative accounting, which ensures - the incompatibility of lofty institutions, the maximum government funding for the conceived far away and on an abstract college, and a tendency to lapse into and idealized plane, with the realities of Awadhi8 at moments of extreme vexation. life on the ground. Any attempt at imposing In a conversation with Rangnath he confides change or development in the village that a higher academic position had been

86 :: July-September 2011 denied him after a small incident in his Nanda (P. 379) own student career: it was in his salad The narrative of the novel returns days just after Independence, and before'the intermittently to the central theme of Indo-China war, when non-violent historical college politics. A forced election for the subjects such as Buddha and Ashoka chairmanship of the college governors is became all the rage and had streets named crudely rigged by Vaidyaji to ensure his after them. He blighted his own chances continued control of the institution; a further of advancement in academe by knowing strand to the narrative concerns Khanna’s that the Sanskrit word vimana can mean crusade, in which he is joined by Ruppan "seven-storeyed mansion", a fact that the and others but opposed by Badri, who professor had been saving up to present is ever loyal to his father. The rivalry as the punchline to a lecture as evidence between the two brothers Ruppan and of his own intellect, (pp. 231-2) The college Badri is exacerbated by their parallel is not a happy place. While many of the ambitions with respect to Bela, the village teachers - like Motiram Master, whose beauty; Ruppan sends her love letters only real interest in life is the flour-mill concocted from bits of film songs, and through which he augments his salary, the village is abuzz with gossip and and which can be heard chugging away excitement at the latent scandal; but it in the background throughout his ill- eventually transpires that Bela has set her disciplined classes - are merely own sights on Ruppan’s hunkier brother. incompetent, a more dynamic negative This fact emerges when she pays a nocturnal force is represented by the (action led visit to Badri, crossing the rooftops in by Khanna Master, who dares to be critical the best traditions of the illicit tryst, only of the fact that Vaidyaji’s position as to discover Rangnath sleeping in Badri’s Manager of the college is not open to room. Rangnath in turn is amazed to find democratic challenge. Something of the a female form bearing down on him in scholarly status of the college can be the middle of the night, the stone artifices inferred from the contents of Khanna of Khajuraho having been his only Master’s personal library: experience of such matters previously; Dr. Ishwari Prasad’s history of India; but Bela quickly retreats on realizing her some history cribs by ‘A Graduate’, useful mistake, leaving Rangnath to live in the for examinations: a selection of titles from imaginary world which is the lot of a the ‘Pocket Spy’ series; several special society where boy meets girl with such issues of the religious periodical Kalyan; great difficulty. Even before this briefest and a complete set of the novels of Gulshan of encounters, Rangnath too had become

July-September 2011 :: 87 besotted by the idea of Bela, not least college management committee; Khanna because of the rumours of her being a Master’s clique approaches him in this woman of the world; like Ruppan, he too capacity in the hope that he might call had to fall back on his stock of images a meeting of the committee in order to from the film world to make sense of check the excesses of the Manager (Vaidyaji) her all too vivid reality : and Principal Sahib. During the fruitless After being told the story of the love discussions, one of the masters unthinkingly letter on their way back from the fair, uses the word ‘morality’ (naitikta): Rangnath could not bring himself to ask Even after all this conversation it was Ruppan for more details. Now that he only now that Gayadin’s expression was alone his curiosity about Bela could betrayed any disquiet. But when he spoke be quelled only by imagination, it was in the usual wearied tone. ‘Don’t masturbation and frustiation, and since talk about morality, Master Sahib, someone these are to a large extent the inspiration might hear you and issue a writ.’ behind our arts, Rangnath was framing The others said nothing. Then again these moments in an artistic context. What Gayadin seemed moved to speak. He would she be like? Like Vaijayantimala glanced over to a broken wooden stool in ‘Madhumati? Like Shubha Khote in in a corner of the room and said, ‘Morality ‘Godaan? Like Waheeda Rahman in ‘Guide? is like that stool. It just lies there in No: these had all become like Mother the corner. When a meeting comes along India figures, but Bela must still be in a cloth is spread over it and it looks the flush of youth He tried very hard really fine. Then you can fire off as many to compose in his mind a complete picture speeches as you like. That’s what it’s for.’ of a girl, but failed: his imagination once (p. 121) captured a complete torso, but that was Gayadin is in fact hardly better qualified no use because it had no face; for a to occupy the high moral ground than time his brain was dominated by the round anybody else. But his despondent cynicism circumferences of an isolated pair of about the abuse of power does somehow breasts. Finally his body tensed, then mark him off from those around him. When slackened, and he dozed off under the Vaidyaji approaches him with a reluctant bedding, (pp. 199-200) proposal for an inter-caste marriage Bela’s father, Gayadin, has a cloth between Badri and Bela, Gayadin snubs agency and is the village usurer. A him and concludes with the words “let pessimistic and gloomy man, he also holds decent people live in Shivpalganj too” (p. the nominal post of Vice-President of the 361): for once a sombre note is struck,

88 :: July-September 2011 free of irony. is fast with an insult or a lathi, but slow Shivpalganj to work; he is very fond of defecation (of which more later), quick on the main Though a number of plots and sub-plots chance, ever ready to form factions and run through the novel, mostly involving cliques,, ill-disposed towards official the machiavellian subterfuges of Vaidyaji authority, corrupt almost by default. and his chumcha, Principal Sahib, there is no single linear narrative running through To assert the centrality of Shivpalganj all thirty-five chapters. It has been as being equivalent to a character in its suggested that the character of Rangnath, own right is not to label Rag Darbari whose arrival in and departure from the as a novel of “place” in the manner of village demarcates the time-scale of the the so-called anchalik school of Renu and book, is insufficient to provide a structural his followers, because with the exception unity to its various and disparate episodes.9 of the occasional appearance of Awadhi But while it is true that Rangnath’s existence dialogue there is little direct reflection supplies an external perspective from which of the character of the region as distinct 10 the village can be viewed (and to some culturally from other regions: indeed the extent also facilitates discussion about that point of the novel’s satirical stance is to old chestnut of Hindi literary controversy, lampoon attitudes and behaviour perceived the town-versus-village debate, he is never as universal, not localized. Shukla himself really promoted to the position of narrative regards the anchalik label with suspicion. hero. That role is held by the village itself, He argues that village life represents the and by the atmosphere which prevails mainstream of Indian culture, and it is there, for the characters are all bound the urban novels, if anything, which should to it as inevitably as are R. K. Narayan’s be described as anchalik” (for which the characters to the fictional town of Malgudi. literal sense of “fringe” would apply quite The village and its topography are of a accurately in this discussion). In the rarified piece with the behaviour of its inhabitants, world of Hindi literary criticism, genre and seem almost to shape and exacerbate categories proliferate like empty coat- the situations in which they find themselves. hangers in a taxonomic wardrobe - they The residents of Shivpalganj are dubbed rattle about noisily, but to no great effect: ‘Ganjaha’, and growing familiarity with the thus in contradistinction to the anchalik place as one reads the novel gives that school, one critic designates Rag Durbari 12 term a very particular set of implications as an ‘un-anchalik’ novel. This seems to - mostly derogatory, though often entailing be going too far, and one wonders where also a certain pride of infamy. A Ganjaha it will all end: suffice it to say that Shivpalganj

July-September 2011 :: 89 holds a prominent place in the novel, concentration on the more malodorous but as ‘Anytown’. side of life. But the relative shortness of Portrayals of village scenery are rarely the history of modern literature in Hindi flattering. Many of the chapters and their - effectively contained within the present sub-divisions beginning with a scene-setting century, and with the added catalyst of of the following type, where the nature rapid political change - means that of the place anticipates the actions of its Premchand’s very much more reverential human inhabitants: and idealized depiction of the village as a kind of shrine to Mother India still plays On the outskirts of the village there over the mind of the modern reader as was a small pond, the epitome of village the exemplar of its genre. Even in Godan life. Filthy, clogged with mud, stinking. (1936), where Premchand’s earlier A contemptible place. Horses, donkeys, didacticism had given way to the dogs and pigs were overjoyed at the sight sophistication of a more mature narrative of it; bugs and insects, flies and mosquitoes, style, there is an implicit sanctity and all quite untrammelled by the complexities benevolence in the soil tilled by the noble of family planning, flourished there in peasant-farmer: their millions, indicating to us that if we could only learn their ways the population The June sun was rising out of the explosion would cease to worry us. mango grove, its argent glory bestowing a splendour to the redness of the sky, Any deficiency in the filth of this place and the air was beginning to warm up. was made good by a couple of dozen The farmers working in the fields on either village boys who would come to the side of the path called a greeting to Hori pondside regularly morning and evening and respectfully invited him to share a - and irregularly at any other time of pipe: but he could not afford to indulge day, as directed autocratically by their himself just now. Still, the craving for insides - and would deposit there, before respect sitting deep inside him was gratified returning home unburdened, substances at the honour and brought a glow of of solid, liquid and gaseous state, (p. 241) pride to his weathered face. In terms of the traditions of realism Leaving the pathway between the fields in the Western novel, a description such he came to a low piece of ground which as this may seem unremarkable; even in used to retain some moisture after the Hindi literature (at least since the monsoon floods, so that some greenness emergence of debunkers such as Nirala) was still to be seen even at the height there has been some occasional of summer; cows from the surrounding

90 :: July-September 2011 villages used to come here to graze. There or animal. The lyrical skies and bee-loud was still some freshness and coolness in glades beloved of Premchand and Renu the air; Hori took a few deep breaths, are nowhere to be seen, their place usurped and decided to rest here a while, since by the lusts and passions of more earth- he would after all have to toil in the bound concerns; milk and honey have summer wind all day long.13 here given way to urine and pan-stained Though no longer based on the same spittle. Decadence is nowhere frowned ideology as Premchand’s, post- upon, even by the more educated members Independence novels often maintain a of village society, but merely similarly soft-focused idealism in their accommodated, as for example in the hut descriptions of the village scene. which functions as Shivpalganj lover’s lane: Phanishwarnath Renu’s 1954 novel Some way along the road stood a MailaAnchal, which both established the kachha hut built in the middle of a thick anchalik style of fiction and helped it find mango grove. It turned its back to the a name, did for Mithila what Hardy did road; its doorway, which had no door, for Wessex, portraying the countryside faced the jungle. During the monsoon the as a succulent and lush (if sometimes farmers would shift their gambling sessions malevolent) background to the vagaries from under the trees to this hut, while of human life and death: for the rest of the year it lay empty. Maryganj is a large village, and is But not for long: men and women would home to people of al! levels of society. come here to take their pleasure, and To the East of the river flows a stream the name given in Shivpalganj to this called Kamla River; during the rains the hut would startle even a Henry Miller Kamla runs full, and in the other seasons A master from the college had watered the water collects in great pools - brimming the name down somewhat, and called with fish and with lotus flowers! The full- it ‘Love Cottage’, (p. 33) moon day of Paush brings crowds of people Language and Identity bathing here from morning till night, and Every author makes a judgement, confectioners and grocers from Rauthat deliberately or subconsciously, about the station set up shop nearby. The praise appropriateness of different language of Mother Kamla is extolled in countless registers within any given context. One 14 tales by the villagers. of the many variables in this internal and In Shivpalganj, on the other hand, any eternal debate in Hindi writing is the position vacant space inevitably attracts some of English words, which survive all attempts variety of decadence or defecation, human at replacement by the factory-fresh

July-September 2011 :: 91 neologisms of today’s supporters of machine-things going ‘kirrr-kirrr’ at every Sanskritized Hindi. In urban life, English well, pond, ditch and drain. Two of them loanwords have a natural place, and this went to each house in turn and stencilled is reflected in present day Hindi novels up a hymn in English in praise of Malaria with urban settings: Shukla’s own novel Maharani I tell you, Bapu, those words Simaye tutati hain overflows with examples. looked so impressive, one look at them In the village, however, where English- and the mosquitoes were off1. speakers are few and far between, its The politician said, ‘What was it you incomprehensibility makes it an iconic came out with, Langar symbol rather than a means of “All that writing in Angrezl communication; it develops a semiotic potency equivalent to that of the Sanskrit made them macchars run like crazy!” shloka which so impressed the ears of Vah!, said the sweetseller, ‘What a Langar. Shukla exploits to the full the fine verse! Have a jalebi!’ (p. 315) bizarre juxtapositions of register which Registers are mixed with wonderful obtain in modern Hindi usage, as for abandon, sometimes to the confusion of example in the use of English for anti- the speakers themselves: the police malaria propaganda, an incident discussed inspector’s use of the Arabic-derived word by Langar and others at the sweetseller’s galatfahmi (‘misunderstanding’) in a shop: conversation with Sanichar provokes the ‘One day a load of people in a motor perplexed response “Galatfahmi? What kind turned up in the village. They set about of animal is that? Leave off your English writing all sorts of stuff in English on and speak our desi language!” (p. 341). all the walls Then, Bapu, they took some (And elsewhere, further misunderstandings blood from my arm and put it in a machine are caused by the traditional use of Persio- and looked at it. What do you think, Arabic vocabulary in the courts.) Shukla’s Bapu - it’s an odd time, this kaliyug, a linguistic skill, in particular through the local fellow like me, and what kind of unexpected juxtapositioning of registers, disease does he get? is an important element in the success A foreign one! Those people who came of the novel. The example of the mosquitos’ in the car, they said Langar’s a big man terror at the sight of the awe-inspiring now. he’s got malaria And then, Bapu, English letters is a kind of verbal cartoon; well, just imagine, the people who’d come and it is double-edged, mocking not only in the motor, they really got going They the ignorance of local human and insect went round in twos and threes with life, but also the lack of judgement of

92 :: July-September 2011 the propaganda officials blinded by their but) restrictive tatsama vs. tadbhava axis reverence for an old imperial tongue. So around which such discussion so often passages like the one quoted above are revolves. not mere linguistic slapstick - or rather, More conventional monolingual word- their being slapstick does not rob them plays are typified by a pun on the literal of a deeper and more subtle significance. versus idiomatic uses of marammat as Shukla’s translingual puns necessarily “repair/beating”, in “one of the policemen defy real translation, as in the example had given his shoes - which were always of the College Inspector’s bungalow, “called eager to deal out the treatment to some in English an ‘office-cum-residence’, but individual - for their own treatment at in Hindi, ‘afis-kam-residens-zyada’ (roughly the hands of the cobbler sitting under “Office? Come! - Residence.”: p. 299), the banyan tree” (p. 260). It is oddly Through the forced equivalence of English satisfying for an English reader to find and Hindi, Shukla points up the also that the use of graffiti, especially to unnaturalness of a situation in which alien deflate the puffed-up pride of the officious, institutions are blithely imposed upon a is an international art-form: a sign hanging culture inhabiting quite another realm of outside Sanichar’s shop with the slogan meaning; and by so doing, he suggests “Do not come in” (andar mat ao) - a that the failure of such institutions is message wholly out of keeping with the inevitable and is not to be laid at the Ganjaha’s cherished freedom of access to door of those unhappy people involved anywhere he chooses - is promptly amended in their implementation. At the same time, by the addition of a single vowel sign the pun helps specifically to characterize to read “Piss inside” (andar mut ao).16 the bungalow’s resident, quick to exploit ; Shukla maintains a constant playfulness two funding agencies for the domestic and of language use - yielding a continually official rents of the building (and one could replenished chuckle, rather than a series take it further - the punning cum/kam of belly-laughs only dimly to be suggested is not merely English/ Hindi but rather through the citing of such examples. Latin/Persian, thereby extending the The one character in the novel sensitive reference a stage further in both directions). to the appropriateness or otherwise of Shukla exploits the rich seam of ironies language register is of course Rangnath. lying in such linguistic situations, and by Standing at a pan stall with Principal Sahib, doing so he brings a welcome honesty he points critically to a picture of Gandhi and pragmatism to the question of linguistic and Nehru in a gaudy advertisement for identity, freeing it from the (important a skin-disease remedy:

July-September 2011 :: 93 ‘See that?’ arena, training ground for Badri’s coterie, ‘Horses for courses’, replied Principal is one of the locations where the Ganjahas’ Sahib, in Awadhi idiom.17 ‘The picture’s boli is given free rein. When one of the not so out of place in a village setting.” wrestlers comes looking for Badri, Sanichar tells him that he is at a meeting (discussing ‘Village or town, what difference does the absconding of a Cooperative Union it make?’, Rangnath said, ‘Everybody ought supervisor - one of the minor sub-plots to respect Gandhiji’. He studied the picture of the novel). The wrestler is unimpressed for a while and added with feeling. by the thought of Badri attending such ‘Whoever did that painting, I’d like to a meeting: give him a good shoe-beating’. The pahalvan spat without ceremony Principal Sahib laughed, to show he on the platform where Sanichar was sitting. thought Rangnath a fool. ‘Make of it what ‘What kind of egg does Badri think he’s you will! What do you expect of a pan- going to hatch [kya anda dege] at a seller? You don’t think the poor sod would meeting? He should just pick up the hang up a Picasso, do you?’ Rangnath supervisor and flatten him out [dhobipat interrupted hurriedly, ‘Stop, Master Sahib, marte], that would sort the bastard out please stop1 Don’t mention Picasso! I feel once and for all! [usi me sala te ho jata] all queer when you say a name like that!’ What’s the point of all this meeting-sheeting (p. 229) business? The reason for Rangnath’s dizzy spell, Rangnath wasn’t with it. He said, ‘Do as he explains apologetically to Principal people lay eggs at your meetings here?’ Sahib a little later, is the incongruity of The wrestler had not expected anything Picasso’s name in the surroundings of from this quarter. ‘What do you expect Shivpalganj. But “It’s not your fault, them to do - pull their hair out? They Principal Sahib, nor mine, nor the fault all moan on and on like a bunch of widows, of Shivpalganj, nor of the pan-seller. It’s, then-when it comes to getting anything Picasso’s fault.” (p. 230) done they just sit there holding their The Shivpalganj vernacular is so heavily dicks.’(p. 87) loaded with idiom that the outsider (not Rangnath muses that the akhara is well least the writer of this paper) is bound equipped to strengthen the modern Hindi to miss some of the references: the city- lexicon; and later, as a bystander at a dweller Rangnath, used to the prosaic Shivpalganj card game, he echoes a thought conventions of urban Hindi, is himself quite very familiar to the non-mother-tongue bemused at times The akhara or wrestling reader of Hindi, namely that the rampant

94 :: July-September 2011 process of (neo-, pseudo-) Sanskritization if he had read Jainendra Kumar, then (so much more hurried, contrived and he would have recognized this occurrence banal a process than the Latinization of as a mere assault of verbosity. (p. 351) English, with which it is sometimes Shukla himself is wary of the Sanskritized compared) is inexorably draining modern register; in his usage it often has an ironic Hindi of its true potency as a vernacular tone of the “high-their-speech-but-low- language. Rangnath is delighted by the their-deeds” variety. Examples are to be gamblers’ assimilations and calques in terms found in his descriptions of such characters such as pallas (‘‘flush’’, as the name of as the master perjurer Pandit Radhelal, a card-game), jor, (‘‘pair’’), daur (‘‘run’’), whose “superior competence” (ucha koti lagri (‘‘flush’’), pakki (‘‘running flush’’) and ki dakshata) in his craft lends him an tirrail (‘‘trail’’); and he dreams of setting “unprecedented prestige” (abhutpurva up a little committee of Ganjahas to replace pratistha) amongst court witnesses.19 In the professional lexicographers of modern similarly ironic vein, a villager who has Hindi, who are busily inventing a new been attacked by footpads on a road near and incomprehensible language within the the village’s haunted peepul tree is four walls of their committee room (p. described as “suffering from self-pity (atma- 18 215). The artificiality and sheer difficulty daya) acerbity (akrosh] and several other of “literary” Hindi is a frequent target such literary characteristics”, (p. 285) for Shukla’s ironic barbs. After a rather At the other extreme of the linguistic abstruse passage of reported speech in register is the language of Jognath, the which Vaidyaji has been asked to offer village drunkard. He and his confreres his resignation (tyag-patra) as Director speak a kind of alcoholic argot called Sarfari of the Cooperative Union, Shukla makes boli, which involves interposing -rf-between this aside: random syllables; when the police arrest This last sentence sounded as though him for a suspected dacoity, he flummoxes it had been lifted from somewhere in the Inspector with phrases like “Whrfo Jainedra Kumar’s writings. But Vaidyaji is that barfstard? I’rfm kirflled you srfod, was a political man, and one could hardly you shoorfting the gurfn!”.20 Such speech expect him to have read Jainendra Kumar’s underlines the separateness of the village philosophical works; after all, even Hindi in cultural terms: the outsider can never professors have great difficulty in reading gain real access, Shukla’s exploitation of twentieth century Hindi literature. In fact, registers extends into his use of metaphor Vaidyaji had no connection with any kind and other descriptive devices. His of literature. If it were otherwise, and avoidance of an unnaturally Sanskritized

July-September 2011 :: 95 style does not rule out allusions to the of his body in a pose made famous by classical past of the Hindi tradition, where the late Marilyn Munroe (p. 382) the Sanskrit heritage has a natural place. Here the incrongruity is of quite another Thus when the fresh-faced Rangnath is order. But the effect is cumulative: by encountered by the truck-driver at the switching references between, as it were, opening of the novel, he is described in Vrinda-ban and Holly-wood, Shukla terms of an eulogy of the youthful Rama, constantly wrong-foots the reader, who borrowed from Tulsidas (and then too from is never sure from which cultural direction a kind of macaronic verse): the next reference is likely to appear. In a single glance the driver took Narrative and Descriptive Strategies in all the possibilities represented by the A puzzling constant of modern Hindi fiction woman shopkeeper, then turned and looked is the “thumbnail sketch” so often used at Rangnath: Ah! What an aspect! Lotus- to introduce a new character. Reduced buds his eyes, his mouth a lotus sweet, to the barest essentials of physical lotuses his hands, red lotuses his feet1 description, and with the lack of definite (p. 8) or indefinite articles allowing even greater Similar bathos is achieved in describing economy than usual in English equivalents, Badri’s sidekick Chhote Pahalwan as such minimal listings of characteristics “standing under a tree in the tribhangi read like instructions for an identikit artist: pose” - a reference to the dandy “thrice- or perhaps they look back to the prolonged bent” posture, with knee, waist and neck nominal compounds of Sanskrit kavya. bent in jaunty fashion, of the fluting Krishna. Whatever the case, they are well Hindi fiction, it is true, is full of such represented in Rag Darbari, lightly classical allusions, whether ironic or seasoned with irony: straightforward; what singles them out in At four o’clock, Principal Sahib came Shukla’s writing is the fact that they out of his office. A slender frame, parts represent only one extreme of an unusually of which were covered in khaki shorts broad range of cultural references. They and shirt; a cane like a police sergeant’s stand out in sharp and effective contrast stuck under his arm; sandalled feet; - to allusions from the other end of the all in all quite a smart impression, the range, such as the following: more so in his own estimation, (p. 26) Khanna Master, who until now had Rangnath looked at him [Ruppan] been sitting cross-legged, suddenly sat closely: dhoti-end resting on shoulder, forward with knees bent under and chest freshly-chewed pan, several litres of oil thrust forward, emphasising the contours

96 :: July-September 2011 in his hair - he looked promising in the Up on the open rooftop there, was hoodlum stakes by any standard, (p. 35) a corrugated iron lean-to; under the lean- People called him Langar. A Kabir- to was Rangnath, under Rangnath was panthi tilak on his forehead, a necklace the charpoy. Next I’ll tell you what the of tulsi seeds around his neck, a bearded weather was like, (p. 106) face weathered by the extremes of climate, So begins chapter eleven, in a manner lean-and-thin body dressed in a jacket. vaguely reminiscent of J. D. Salinger22 One leg had been amputated near the (whose style haunts this book, albeit knee, the loss made good by a wooden coincidentally). A similar technique, using stick. On his face the expression of those the same studied naivety in its adverbial Christian saints of yesteryear who would references, is used at the end of a description daily scourge themselves with a hundred of Badri; but here it has an unexpected lashes, (pp. 39-40) lyrical touch, in marked contrast to the A cycle-rickshaw was travelling from usually wry style - the town towards the village. The On his clean-shaven head was the rickshaw-wallah was a lean-and-thin gleam of mustard-oil, and above - high, young man in coloured vest, shorts, long high above - the blue sky. (p. 259) hair: his sweat-swathed faced was a More frequently, a robust comedy is cartoon - not a photograph - of anguish, preferred, particularly in descriptions of (p. 48) the earthier aspects of Shivpalganj Many an episode is introduced in this characters. Despite the “thumbnail sketch” way. Elsewhere, a more selfconsciously tendency, Shukla does not hesitate to make innovative and allusive style starts a new his realism full-fledged and palpably graphic direction in the narrative The type of the when it suits his ironic tone, especially lethargic bureaucrat is well caught in the if the description involves ribaldry, following description of the police inspector rotundity, or vulgarity: - a decent enough man, but hardly one Despite the chill in the air, the sanitary of the more dynamic members of the force inspector’s forehead shone with sweat. He - “It must once have been some medieval was wearing shorts, shirt, and a jacket throne, now worn down into an armchair: open at the neck. The shorts were tightly Darogaji was both sitting on it and lying secured with a belt, to stop them slipping on it” (p. 14). Unsurprisingly in as off the protruding belly, whose area was iconoclastic an author as Shukla, there consequently divided above and below is also plenty of scope for laconic self- into two portions of approximately equal mockery:

July-September 2011 :: 97 dimension (p. 134) The bitter realities of suffering and self- Two wrestlers strolled nonchalantly interest are all too easily hidden under out of the akhara. One was Badri: the the humbug of art. Shukla maintains that other, Chhote. Both had shaven heads, every reader of Godan knows how strong covered with a plaster of dust and sweat. is the bond between a farmer and his The backs of their necks were wrinkled land; but the selfish motivation beneath like a rhino’s; they wore the ends of their that bond is lost in the rhetoric of romantic loincloths hanging down loosely at the novel-writing: front, like an elephant’s trunk. On either These matters are not so clearly side of the narrow loincloth hung the portrayed in Godan, nor is it apparent scrotum, at large in the universe, on public in the Bombay films - whether for fear exhibition; but just as the indecencies of of Krishan Chandar and Khwaja Ahmed Henry Miller and D. H. Lawrence are Abbas, or because of the fifty-percent condoned in the name of art, so too these blindness of the zeal for a progressive two wrestlers were permitted to let it attitude, or because of mere boorishness; all hangout in the name of Indian so they have to be set out cleanly, even gymnastics (p. 287) though it is hardly the role of the artist Realism here is a weapon in the arsenal to promote cleanliness in his own land. of satire, not of character portrayal. It (p. 248) is part of Shukla’s intention to pull the References of this kind point to an rug out from under romanticism and to awareness of the artificiality of literature, denude anything that smacks of the falsely of which Shukla constantly reminds the artistic: reader. An editorial withdrawal from the God knows where today’s sentimental narrative may be a common enough feature fiction-writers got hold of this favourite of the English novel, but has greater claim notion of the “purifying” effect of suffering. to originality in Hindi; it is a feature parallel The reality of the matter is that suffering to the self-consciously sophisticated uses squeezes a man out, then wrings him of language register referred to earlier. dry, then gives him a face that makes While telling a story-within-a-story about him look completely gaga and marks it three alternative gambits for winning with a couple of deeply-shadowed lines. elections, Shukla interjects; “All this Then it leaves him there on the road happened like the stories in the Simhasan to continue on his way alone in long, Battisi and Baital Pachisi” (p. 253) - thus long strides, (p. 50) the narrative commutes between reality and artifice. Descriptions of characters and

98 :: July-September 2011 their behaviour are frequently likened to designation rajniti: rather it is lidari, stock situations from the formulae of fiction netagiri, gutbandi, because the people who or cinema, as in a passage which uses play these games are the members of factions negative similies to describe the conclusion and cliques, the village wide-boys, the of a row between Vaidyaji and his flunkeys of strong-arm men, not the increasingly rebellious son Ruppan: promoters of ideologies. Even (or This was the last scene of the argument. especially) the positions of officers such Badri Pahalwan said sarcastically to his as the college principal are grist for the father, ‘Did you hear what he said?’ mill of self-interest - “that se prinsipali kiye jaiye!” exhorts an acquaintance, Ruppan Babu had stormed out of the untranslatably. on page 32. But the room. Vaidyaji stood silently by the character of Rangnath, the outside observer charpoy. He did not moan and weep like who is so often shocked and dismayed the father of a hero in the films; nor, at the goings-on of village life, is hardly on hearing that a commission was to set up as a viable alternative to the investigate his alleged corrupt practices, monstrosities of Shivpalganj. From the very did he make a statement saying that first opening of the book, when the truck-driver of all one would have to arrive at a who brings him to Shivpalganj lightens precise definition of what ‘corruption’ was; his pocket in a kind of initiation to the he did not laugh the contemptuous laugh larger-scale corruptions which are to follow, of the author who, a million thanks to Rangnath is portrayed as naive and the Text Book Committee, reads an ineffectual; his urban/academic unfavourable notice of his new book; background and his so-called despite hearing such a direct challenge “intellectualism” is ridiculed as inadequate to his conduct, he did none of these things. for any kind of useful functions in life He just stood there silently He did not (“like any ordinary fool, he had started even do what came naturally to a man research work after his MA just because of his profession: he did not utter the he couldn’t immediately find employment” words “He Ram!” p. 313) - p. 59), and his education and supposed Satire and Symbols moral superiority are never actually capable Village institutions, the Ganjahas, the of being translated into effective action. village, the village novel - all are the butt He weakly allies himself to Khanna Master’s of Shukla’s satire in one way or another. faction in the college, and strikes up a The world of politics, for example, is here friendship of sorts with his own cousin hardly to be accredited with the lofty Ruppan; but everything is done in the abstract, he avoids actual confrontations

July-September 2011 :: 99 and keeps himself aloof from real situations; Rangnath, your thoughts are on a very and ultimately he follows the exhortations lofty plane. But all in all it seems that of an inner voice which tells him: you’re a fool”. Flee to that world where so many From the point of view of narrative intellectuals dwell with eyes closed: the technique Rangnath is, of course, the world of hotels and clubs, bars and coffee- necessary link with a wider reality: “Just houses, the modernistic edifices of as Indian people glimpse the state of affairs Chandigarh, Bhopal and Bangalore, the in the outside world through the window hill stations with their endless seminars; of the English language, so Sanichar began - those spanking new research institutes to have a glimpse of Delhi through the built with foreign aid, in which Indian window of Rangnath” (p. 83). But this genius is being fashioned - the haze of link serves merely to underline the cigar-smoke, glossy-covered books, the parochialness of Shivpalganj, it has no universities blinded by their incorrect but positive connotation. Rangnath’s would- obligatory English; find yourself a niche, be intellectualism is second-hand and and sit tight, (p. 404) lacklustre, and even the library resources Rangnath’s weakness is recognized by of his own research area, Indology, at least some of the Ganjahas. Ruppan subjugate him to a world ludicrously is offended by his assumption of superiority removed from his own realities: to the villagers, and accuses him of being To his left lay Marshall, to his right judgemental, like an England-returned, Cunningham. Winternitz was right under regarding everyone else as a “little-black- his nose: Keith behind him, nestling against man-crapping-on-the-ground” (p. 344); his trousers. Smith had been thrown down Badri is unimpressed by his veneer of towards the end of the bed, where Rhys urban sophistication, and when advocating Davis was also to be glimpsed, higgledy- the use of main force against Khanna’s piggeldy. Percy Brown was hidden by college faction he assures Vaidyaji “Why the pillow. Amidst this thronging crowd worry about Rangnath making a fuss? He’s lay Kashiprasad Jaiswal, face-down in from the city, he’s like pigshit -useless a fold of the bedding; and Bhandarkar for wall-plaster, useless for burning” (p. peeped timorously out from under the 347). On the last page of the novel, when sheets, (p. 107) Rangnath rebuffs Principal Sahib’s offer When Rangnath does make judgements of the lecturership from which Khanna about village practices he is invariably Master has been forced to resign, the challenged, and quickly backpedals - as Principal says (not without reason), “Babu for example on a visit to a local fair,

100 :: July-September 2011 when on the basis of his archaeological discusses Indian scatological humour as expertise he identifies the image in a devi being particularly popular when it concerns shrine as being the secular statue of a Brahmins (with names like “Tatachari”, of male soldier: course).24 Shukla too revels in the comic The temple priest left off his puja and and satirical aspects of this, the most literally collections and began hurling abuse at fundamental of all human activities, and Rangnath for all he was worth. His mouth finds the Indian setting particularly was a small one, but mighty insults came appropriate for its detailed description: pouring out of it, spilling over each other the true definition of an Indian is someone in total disarray; for a little while the who can search out a pan anywhere and temple was awash with invective as the who can find a place to piss wherever worshippers added an abusive chorus to he may be” (p. 302). Whether one agrees the words of their priest. with critics such as R. D. Mishra” that Shukla takes these things to excess is a A little further on Rangnath said, matter for personal taste, but certainly “It was all my fault. I shouldn’t have the author’s near-obsession with defecation said anything”, (p. 145) and all its works (“fart for fart’s sake”, Satire tars everyone with the same as one might have said if Walter Redfurn brush, its purpose not being to discriminate had not said it first26) is a striking aspect between sense and folly but rather to of the novel’s satire, and one which demonstrate that folly is universal; and incidentally puts it at the furthest possible as age-old and world-wide tradition has remove from the apparently bowel-less shown, the surest way to demonstrate the villagers who populate the novels of commonality of life is by reference to Premchand’s generation. the scatological. Descriptions of defecation Where a specific and clearly defined and urination litter the novel like faeces political implication is carried, the satire on a Shivpalganj roadside; shitting and can tend to become overburdened; to pissing (monosyllabic verb-stems such as change metaphors, Shukla’s satire hag- and mut- demand parallel renderings sometimes seems too blunt an instrument in English tadbhavas) go beyond mere to make clean incisions into the structure physiological functions and join the rather of society. While Shukla usually manages limited range of recreational activities to maintain a skilful balance between the offered in traditional village life - of Nita narrative and ironic elements of his story- Kumar’s recent analysis of the role of telling, there are some self-indulgent ablutions (nipatna-nahana) in passages where the relentlessly wry style contemporary Banarasi lifestyle.25 Lee Siegel

July-September 2011 :: 101 of his observations begins to pall, as in beings soon began to follow suit in the the following extended example: shelter that the platform provided, (pp. “Chamarhi” was the name of a mohalla 124-4) of the village where the chamars lived It would probably be far-fetched to “Chamar” is the name of a caste considered suggest, by way of apology for such style, to be untouchable. An untouchable is a that a concentration on a single rasa finds biped whom people used not to touch its justification in traditional aesthetic in the days before the constitution came theory. The rather monolithic irony and into force. The constitution is a poetic literalness of reference in this passage is work whose seventeenth article eradicates at odds with the evident truth that “all the distinction of untouchability; but humour, and much intelligence, entails because in our country people live not an ability to think on two planes at once”.27 by poetry but by religion, and because Shukla’s subtler ironies, those casually untouchability is a religion in our country, interwoven with the narrative, contrast the untouchables had separate mohallas favourably with contrived set-ups of this in Shivpalganj, as in other villages. kind. Particularly effective are the allusions After the constitution came into being to the emptiness of rhetorical posturing an excellent work was done in the area which is so much part and parcel of the separating Chamarhi from the rest of the political scene. Rangnath, for example, in village: a stone platform, called the “Gandhi nominal deference to Vinoba Bhave’s land- Platform”, was built there. Gandhi, as donation movement, wears a “bhudani some people recall even today, was born kurta” - the cultural equivalent of the in India; and when his principles were ‘Solidarity’ lapel badge considered de consigned to the sacred waters of the rigueur for the designer socialist of 1980s Ganges along with his ashes, it was resolved UK; later on, the allusion is recycled to that from now on all constructions built equally apposite effect in “a bhudani in his memory would be solid-built; and namaskar. Everywhere the characters in it was in the grip of this enthusiasm that the novel lay great store by the names the platform was erected in Shivpalganj. of things, in the vain hope that realities The platform was very useful for taking may be invoked through the pronouncing the sun on a winter’s day, a facility mostly of their labels in a kind of profanely re- exploited by the dogs; and since no interpretated nam-seva. A prominent bathroom facilities had been installed for Shivpalganj thakur, Durbin Singh, had been them, they would urinate in the corner given this name (durbin, telescope) by while sunning themselves, and human his parents “in the hope that their boy

102 :: July-September 2011 would do everything in a scientific manner” an inclination both towards traditional and (p. 63); and of course official titles such those progressive values which can bring as “M.L.A.”, locally pronounced e-me-le, about a rational transformation in the have an almost talismanic significance. The society”;29 ‘’Shukla gave an impressive following of ideas in name only is a speciality representation of an Indian village after of the likes of Vaidyaji, who temporarily the breakdown of the old order the crude convinces himself of the social benefits victory of machiavellism over morals and of inter-caste marriage when he sees an tradition”;30 a curse which has already advantage in wedding his son Badri to plagued the cities is encroaching on the the Vaishya girl Bela. villages, “and that curse is crisis of Critics and Critiques character... but because of an excess of comic satire the writer’s basic point of One of the many themes in the books view appears obscured [sic]”;31 “one can is, without doubt, the impossibility of real at least hope that after reading the novel change and the sterility of the institutions some Rangnaths, some Gayadins and some which seek to impose it. Apparent social Langars may be aroused and be inspired or economic development always turns to seek the light”.32 Such attitudes put out to be the substitution of one evil quite an unjustifiable pressure on the novel by another, just as the village boys learn to exist as propaganda for social reform, to gamble with playing-cards instead of or at least as a vehicle for some set doctrinal cowrie shells, and piles displaces diarrhoea purpose; the critics appear to approach as the most widespread medical complaint the book with a closed agenda of their in the locality. The prominence of such own invention, or else borrowed from the themes leads the critics of Rag Durbari idealistic pre-Independence days which to maintain that the novel concerns itself saw the passing of Progressive Writers’ primarily with declining standards and a Association resolutions about the social loss of innocence. The following judgements “usefulness” of literature. The possibilities seem representative of the critics’ views of diversity which are allowed to western (though only a cursory survey has been novelists as a matter of course seem to possible here): “the author has bluntly be denied the Hindi novelist who makes described how the modern corrupt politics a modest departure from conventional has destroyed the simple life of the villages patterns. Shukla himself explains his attitude and has created strange patterns of belief towards writing the novel by saying that amongst the villagers”;28 “Shukla expresses “while writing Rag Darbdn I had two options his revolt against the capitalistic and before me; either I could write it with feudalistic structure of society and shows the attitude of an ‘angry young man’, which

July-September 2011 :: 103 35 I was not, or I could write it as a literate originality of his creation. The mood of rustic accustomed to the ways of Sanichar, disenchantment and helplessness which Ruppan Babu, Principal Sahib, Vaidyaji followed 1947 is so often portrayed by and the others, which I was”.33 Hindi writers in terms of a breakdown Halfway through RagDarbari, Shukla in communications, accompanied by the describes Sanichar having his hair cut by hackneyed spectre of angst-ridden a village barber: The shop was both alienation, that it is a delight to find an nowhere and everywhere: there was a author tacking against the wind and tree at the side of the dusty village track harnessing the same energies to take him and under it sat the barber with a piece in a completely different direction: it is of sacking spread out. A brick was set as though some medieval poet had forsworn on the ground in front of him. On the the conventional aesthetic code and brick, Sanichar was neither sitting nor adopted scurrility as a new sthayi bhava. standing - just was. (p. 223) Rag Darbari opens with Rangnath’s Few critics34 seem prepared to allow arrival in Shivpalganj, looking for rural Rag Darbari simply to be, to exist as tranquility and finding a snake-pit of satire first and foremost; they are reluctant depravity and subterfuge. The novel depicts to concede that it is neither particularly the immutability of human behaviour in this way nor that way inclined, but just the daily struggle for survival: the more is. It would clearly be unrealistic to suggest things change, the more they stay the that satire is remote from political and same. As if determined to leave the reader social commentary; but it does have a with a final reminder that the complexities raison d’etre of its own, and to impose and ambiguities of life are not be be a monovalent reading of Shukla’s satire contained by any simplistic taxonomy, as functionally orientated robs it of much Shukla closes with an image of cultural of its point. Indeed it seems a moot point plurality in which nothing is resolved: whether satire has to be “about” anything Rangnath’s conversation with Principal at all. Sahib ground to a halt. The monkey-man, Alongside the obviously pertinent ignoring Principal Sahib’s vehement advice commentary on village life is an equally to go to hell, broke into song at the pertinent reflection on human life generally: top of his voice, his drum beating out we are all defecators, regardless of our a new rhythm. A little way off, some politics. With political concerns so high dogs began barking, with tails wagging on their agenda, the critics fail to give and backs arched; a circle of children Shukla the praise he deserves for the gathered round to watch. The two monkeys

104 :: July-September 2011 sat solemn-faced and ponderous in front of the Queen of Sheba’. of the monkey-man; and it seemed that 6. A passage discussing the use of when they began to dance it would be derogatory titles as personal names nothing less than Bharat Natyam that cites the following further examples: they would perform. Sure, for a blind man; Tutte, for a NOTES man with ears damaged in wrestling 1. From an article entitled ‘Gardish ke bouts; Shukracharya, for a one-eyed din’ in Sarika, August 1975; quoted man; Bahre Baba, for an old man; in Sarju Prasad Mishra, Hindi ke sat Chattoprasad, for a man whose face upanyas, Kolhapur Ajab Pustakalaya, is scarred by smallpox; and Chhagur 1977, p. 107 Ram. for a man with six fingers, (p. 316) 2. Ibid. 7 . Of all the colourful abuse in the novel, 3. Shrilal Shukla, Ragdarbari, New Delhi: it is that stock favourite sala (lit. Rajkamal Paperbacks, 1985, p. 7 All “brother-in-law”, implying “I’ve slept page references are to this edition. with your sister, you’re nothing and 4. The same concern is reflected in the neither is your family”) which is the priorities of another practitioner in least translatable. Used adjectivelly, the novel, a babaji who offers “bloody” is almost certainly too lily- treatment for such complaints as wet livered a rendering; as a noun, it dreams, premature ejaculation and sometimes has the vituperativeness impotence (p. 253). of “bastard”, to which must be added 5. The title is superbly apposite; its irony something of the vulgarity of the is deepened by the idiomatic senses transatlantic “mother-f***er and, at of raga in expressions such as rag the same time, the possibility of the gana, rag alapna, “to sing one’s own more affectionately derogatory tune, blow one’s own trumpet”, so connotations of “old bugger”. An wholly applicable to Vaidyaji. The additional sibilant adds vitriol: ^Llkys! contrast between the classical xatkgiu >kM+ jgs gks!* (P. 320) connotation of the raga name and 8. Occassionally mixed with English, as the provinciality of Vaidyaji’s intrigues in tkSuq gqdqe gS] rkSuq dSjh vkmV djkSA is also pointed up by the title - it le>~;ks fd ukgha\ (P. 27) is almost as though unscrupulous 9. Peter Gaeffke, Hindi Literature in the dealings in some parish council were Twentieth Century. Wiesbaden. Otto to be set to the music of ‘The arrival

July-September 2011 :: 105 Harrassowitz, 1978, p. 70. ko protsahit karna (p. 37), kauve 10. The characteristics of anchalik fiction udnevali lakir ko pakarna (p. 333), are discussed in Indu Prakash Pandey, chithra (“rag”, i.e. cheap newspaper; Regionalism in Hindi Novels, p. 336). Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1974; 19. There is an echo here of Premchand’s for Renu’s reservations about use of Sanskrit-spouting brahmin, the self- the term anchalik see his interview important Pandit Moteram. in Lothar I.utze, Hindi Writing in 20. dQ kS±u gS lQ kZyk\---eQZj xQ Z;s lQ kZys] xQkZsyh Post-Colonial India: a Study in the pQZkusokys- Aesthetics of Literary Production, New 21. uodat ykspu dateq[k djdat indatk#.ke~ Delhi: Manohar, 1985, p. 127. [Vinaypatrika 45] 11. Sarju Prasad Mishra, op. cit. p. 116. 22. “If you really want to hear about 12. Viveki Rai, Svatanttryottar Hindi it. the first thing you’ll probably want katha sahitya aur gram-jiwan, to know is where I was born, and Allahabad: Lokbharti Prakashan, 1974, what my lousy childhood was like, p. 150 and how my parents were occupied 13. Premchand. Godan, 10th ed. Banaras: and all before they had me, and all Saraswati Press, 1949, p. 6. that David Copperfield kind of crap, 14. Phanihwarnath ‘Renu’, Maila Anchal, but I don’t feel like going into it. New Delhi: Rajkamal Prakashan, 1982. “Opening sentence of The Catcher in the Rye. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 15. fy[ks ns[k v¡xjsth vPNj 1958, p. 5 Hkkxs eysfj;k ds ePNjA 23. Nita Kumar, The Artisans of Banaras. 16. Equivalent to that standard English Popular Identity and Culture, 1880- graffito, the addition of a medial ‘‘I’’ 1986, Princeton: Princeton University to a signboard reading ‘‘TO LET’’ Press, 1988 17. tokc esa vo/kh dh dgkor] ^tbl ilq 24. Lee Siegel, Laughing Matters: Comic rbl c¡èkuk*a- Tradition in India, Chicago: University 18. Shukla’s own language has its fair of Chicago Press, 1987, chapter 7. share of calques and the like, some 25. Rama Darasha Mishra [sic], Modern of them no doubt tongue-in-cheek Hindi Fiction. Delhi: Bansal, 1983, with self-irony, klas lena (p. 27), prem p. 251 me girna (p. 259) itihas apne ap 26. Walter Redfurn, Puns, Oxford: Basil ko dohrayega (p. 1 39), naye khun

106 :: July-September 2011 Blackwell, 1984, p. 173. 34. Except Ishvardayal Gupta, ‘Vyangya 27. Walter Redfurn, op. cit.. p. 22. rag ka vilambit alap, in Sundarlal Kathuriya Adhunik Sahitya: vividh 28. Rama Darasha Mishra, op cit , p. paridrishya, Delhi: Vani Prakashan, 251. 1973, pp 196-201, and Sarju Prasad 29. Sulochana Rangeya Raghava, Mishra, op cit. Sociology of Indian Literature a 35 The criterion of “originality” is often Sociological Study of Hindi Novels, dismissed as inappropriate in the Jaipur: Rawat Prakashan, 1987, p.34. appreciation of Indian literature: yet 30. Peter Gaeffke, loc cit. most works of abiding significance 31. Laksmisagar Varshney, Dwitiya do seem to possess it willy-nilly The mahayuddhottar Hindi Sahitya ka element of tradition (for which read Itihas, Delhi: Rajpal, 1973. p. 125 “lack of originality”) always seems 32. Sarju Prasad Mishra, op cit , p. 121. more evident in the art of another culture than in one’s own. 33. Ibid, p. 119.

Rupert Snell is a scholar and former teacher of Hindi at University of London and is now vice-chairperson and Director of Hindi Urdu Flagship Programme, University of Texas, Austin. He has written several books to teach Hindi to foreign students. Prominent among these are : Teach yourself Hindi and English Dictionary, Teach Yourself Hindi with audio package, Read and write Hindi. He has also written books of literary criticism. His study of Shrilal Shukla’s classic novel Rag Darbari earned him accolades. His literary work on autobiographies has been recently published. Rupert is also known for his work in Brajbhasha and translation of Harivansh Rai Bachchan’s autobiography ‘Kya Bhulun Kya Yad karun.’

July-September 2011 :: 107 PREMCHAND’S VIEWS ON HINDU MUSLIM UNITY Madan Gopal

PREMCHAND had a passion for Hindu-Muslim unity, and was, therefore, critical of the fanatically inclined, be they the Muslim mullahs or Brahmin priests. It was from this angle that he viewed the policies pursued by the political parties. Because of his advocacy of Hindu-Muslim unity, Premchand was

Discourse bitterly critical of the movement for conversion from one religion to the other. “I strongly disagree with this movement,” he wrote to Nigam, “and even though I have practically given up writing anything in Urdu, I am writing a short article against this movement for Zamana. It’ll reach you in three or four days. The Arya Samajists will raise a hue and cry. I am sure, nevertheless, that you’d give it some space in Zamana.” The article, entitled “Malkana Rajput Mussalmanon ki Shuddhi,” was published in Zamana of May 1923. Herein Premchand took up cudgels on behalf of the Muslims who deprecated the shuddhi movement launched by the Bharatiya Hindu Shuddhi Sabha, formed by several sections of the Hindu society, including the Sanatanists, the Arya Samajists, the Jains and the Sikhs. While Premchand agreed that the shuddhi movement had been originally started by the Muslims, the launching of the shuddhi movement by all sections of Hindu opinion to him signified a grave danger to the Muslims. They had not been afraid of the movement carried on by the Arya Samajists,

108 :: July-September 2011 he said, but apprehended danger in the of India?” All that it might lead to was combined, opposition by all sections of a few more seats for the Hindus in the the Hindus. There were many among the legislative councils. This gain was hardly Muslims, said Premchand, who were leav- worth endangering Hindu-Muslim unity and ing the Congress fold because, according the prospects of swaraj. Hindu Muslim to their thinking, Congress raj would now unity was the foundation of the movement be synonymous with Hindu raj. This trend, for swaraj. It was a sad thing that the Premchand thought, would, therefore, obsession of a few misguided religious weaken the movement for swaraj. This bigots was posing a great danger to that being so, the movement which gave spiri- foundation. “While I had full confidence tual satisfaction to a few individuals, but in the wisdom of Hindus and was certain hurt a large section of the people, should that no harm could come from them to be called off. The Hindus, he added, were Hindu-Muslim unity,” the “first blow has better educated, were politically more con- been struck by the Hindus themselves.” scious, and were greater patriots. Propa- Premchand posed a few questions to gation by them of the shuddhi movement, the advocates of shuddhi, e.g. why didn’t when they had earlier opposed the they win over these sections of the Hindu movement launched by Muslims, was society, the untouchables, who were being regrettable. Their policy in effect amounted gradually converted to Christianity, and to one of “retaliation.” While the con- thus strengthen themselves? The conten- version movements during the Moghul rule tion of the advocates of shuddhi that the were motivated by religious objectives, Malkana Rajput Muslims (from Tonk) had this shuddhi movement was basically po- the same traditions, bore Hindu names, litical in character. It was indeed sad, observed the same customs, worshipped he maintained, that people viewed prob- the same deities, called Brahmin priests lems from the communal angle rather than for the ceremonies, and did everything from the national angle: “Hindus thought that the Malkana Rajput Hindus did-except of themselves as Hindus first and Indians burying their dead–meant nothing; what next.” was more important was the entry in the One of the aims of the movement was old records. In conclusion, Premchand to ensure an increase in the Hindu emphasised that Hindus’ sense of tolerance population and a consequent reduction was proverbial. “Now is the time for showing in the number of Muslims. “But numbers such tolerance; otherwise, it would be too never prove anything. Wasn’t England with late.” a smaller population ruling the millions While Muslim readers praised the “lib-

July-September 2011 :: 109 eral mindedness” of Premchand, there was would weaken the country. “So long as criticism from the Arya Samajists. One the Hindus are weak, and the Muslims of them, Sriram, M.A., in a rejoinder in know that the Hindus are weak, Hindu- the journal’s issue of June 1923, wrote Muslim unity is meaningless.” that Premchand who had been so lavish Premchand was a great admirer of the in regard to tendering advice to the Hindus two brothers, Mohammed Ali and Shaukat had said nothing to the Muslims who were Ali. (The former was the editor of Hamdard determined that Hindu-Muslim unity or for which Premchand wrote, and there no unity, foreign rule or swaraj, they could seems to have been regular correspon- not call off their shuddhi movement; that dence between the two) “I consider the he had not raised his voice against the transformation in the idea of the Ali movement for conversion to Christianity; brothers,” he wrote to Nigam, “to be that he and the Congress were silent in genuine. Only such conversion, shuddhi, regard to the Buddhist mission’s activities can be lasting.” The reference presumably in Malabar Is it only the poor Hindus was to the presidential address to the whose activities arouse his ire?” annual session of the Indian National Con- Opposition to the movement from gress at Cacinada a fortnight earlier. among the Hindu according to the re- When, in the later days of the non- joinder came only from those people who cooperation movement, the Swarajya group were “obsessed” by political objectives, came into being and Nigam asked him who had never bothered about the future which party he supported, Premchand of the Hindus and who as Hindus never wrote back: “I favour neither. This is because had done anything for the Hindu. Referring neither of the parties is doing any practical to the plea of danger to Hindu-Muslim work. I am a member of the party to unity and the adverse effects of shuddhi be, that is, a party which would undertake on the congress movement, the writer political education of the masses. The mani- said; “Does work for the congress imply festo issued by the Khilafat party has my any special obligation and favours to the wholehearted support. The surprise, how- Hindus? And does the Congress work for ever, is that it has been issued by one swaraj mean that it is done to make the party only. Both the parties, I think, should Hindus feel grateful? If that is not so, have agreed to it.” Premchand maintained why this threat?” that while the eminent leaders were in In conclusion, he pointed out that the prison, the reactionaries, with the support Hindus engaged in political work should of the British rulers, had strengthened recognise that the weakness of the Hindus themselves. Those who had been left be-

110 :: July-September 2011 hind in the non-cooperation movement Hindu Sangathan or shuddhi would not utilised this opportunity to rehabilitate have led to such heat,” and would have themselve, through communal propaganda. resulted in the reduction of incidents that The main blame lay on the shoulders of had taken place under their impact. the candidates for the elections to councils. “It is, indeed, sad that even though Premchand’s ideas, according to Nigam, the Congress as an organisation has not corresponded to those of C. R. Das who had anything to do with these movements, too blamed the Hindus for rigidity in its individual members have left no stone approach to the shuddhi movement and unturned for the shuddhi movement. Not Hindu-Muslim unity. one of the top leaders of the Congress Premchand was all praise for the sac- has openly raised his voice against these rifices of and the ideas of swaraj as propa- movements. Even leaders like Motilal gated by the Ali brothers on their release Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhagwandas and from prison. He compared their thoughts Sri Prakasa who, one hoped, had the moral to those of Rama and Lakshmana, the conviction to come out with their views highest praise that a Hindu could pay openly, expressed themselves one day to the Muslim leaders. against the movement, and contradicted their statements the next day.” In an article entitled “Qahat-ur-Rijjal” (or a famine of wise men), in Zamana Premchand could boast of his proph- of February 1924, Premchand wrote that ecy. In a letter dated September 30, 1924, in the light of the Muslim approach to he told Nigam; “ The Hindu-Muslim riots the problem of Hindu-Muslim unity, the are continuing. I had prophesied it, and Hindu attitude was not above board. He what I had said is coming true, every felt sorry that the Hindus had not un- word of it. The Hindu Sabha may create derstood nor cared to understand the im- obstacles in reaching an agreement at Delhi. plications of the Khilafat movement. In In Lucknow the provocative action was fact, they had looked upon it with sus- that of the Hindus; they committed excesses, picion, and not from a wider angle like but having done so, they disappeared from that of Gandhiji. The Maulana, he said, the scene”. (Premchand at this time was had equated swaraj with Hindu-Muslim working in Lucknow.) unity and had given his all for the cause. What pained Premchand deeply was “The attitude of the Hindus shows that an attempt to divide the nation on com- the nation has gone bankrupt. If the Hindus munal lines. He was, therefore, happy had even one Kitchlew, or Mohammed whenever he saw attempts being made Ali, or Shaukat Ali, the movement of the to bring the different sections of the Indian

July-September 2011 :: 111 people together. With the idea of making the impact of tragedy on the reader. The the Islamic history and culture better un- language of this work, incidentally, is more derstood by the Hindus, he himself wrote Persianised. a drama. Karbala. Divided into five acts and further sub- The drama, published by the Ganga divided into forty-three scenes, the drama Pustak Mala of Lucknow in November 1924, is built round the tragedy perpetrated at is built round the cruel death of prophet the battlefield of Karbala and is meant Mohammed’s son-in-law Hussain, his rela- for being read and not staged. tives and friends at the battlefield of Karbala. While Hussain stands for the higher That Premchand was deeply moved by ideals of sacrifice and truth, Yezid is the the event is clear from the fact that in very picture of lust for power and wealth. August 1922 he wrote to Nigam to send Hussain, however, is superhumanly him a copy of the collection of elegies idealistic. The drama has no female on the martyrdom of Imam Hussain at chararcter worth the name, possibly Karbala, which he had seen with Khwaja because the inclusion of women in a drama Saheb, the Manager of Zamana, and also of religious importance is disfavoured by published a longish essay on Karbala in the Muslims. the November 1923 issue of Madhuri at Mention should also be made of some Lucknow. of the stories woven round the themes Volumes had been written on the subject such as the life of the Prophet and glimpses of the battle of Karbala by eminent Muslim of the Muslim characters in Indian history. writers, but there appeared to have been Nyaya purports to be a chapter from very little by Hindu writers. The exac- the Prophet’s life. His son-in-law, we are erbated differences between the Hindus told, has not yet joined his new fold. When and Muslims, in fact, made it difficult for the Prophet’s difficulties force him to the Hindus to have an idea of the principal undertake hijrat, the son-in-law is captured characters of Muslim history. It was for during a skirmish. He agrees to his wife Premchand to cut a new ground in order being held as a hostage and is released. to introduce the Hindus to the great men Back to his trade and his caravans, he of Muslim history. For, to him, greatness finds that once his caravan is caught and was the important thing, the religion to he is to be tried. The Prophet who is which a person belonged was not. trying everyone else, leaves the chair; In fact, the drama includes references for, he says, justice must not err and to the presence of Hindu soldiers in the he should be the last person to disobey army of Hussain whose martyrdom creates

112 :: July-September 2011 the laws prescribed by himself in favour mutely. To test their courage, Nadir Shah of some one who is near to him. The feigns sleep, but none dares pick up the son-in-law is so touched at the impartiality sword (that he has kept by his side) and of justice that he joins the fold of his thrust the steel into him. He is disap- father-in-law, the Prophet. pointed: “As there is not one among you, Rajyabhakta recaptures the times of the descendants of Timur, who could stand the nawabs of Lucknow just at the beginning up to protect her honour, this kingdom of the nineteenth century when British is doomed and its days are numbered.” intrigues at the court had taken a concrete Vajrapat portrays the massacre of Delhi shape. A court intrigue against Raja at the hands of Nadir Shah’s soldiers, and Bakhtavar Singh who was a loyal servant shows how the conqueror manages to get of the nawab and the country, leads to the precious, world-famous diamond, the his house arrest. Afterwards, the British Mughal-i-Azam (Kohinoor), The gem brings soldiers and the local deserters create bad luck to his son, for, no sooner does chaos and rob the people. A stage comes he put it in his tiara at the court, than when the life of the nawab himself is in he is murdered before his father’s very danger from the British soldiers and their eyes. Nadir Shah ascribes bad luck to the local stooges. Just at that time comes diamond. A moving event is the effect Bakhtavar Singh who risks his own life on the conqueror of Delhi of a verse saying to pull the nawab out of the quagmire. that you have killed so many that you The nawab now knows who is loyal to must bring the dead back to life in order him and to the kingdom, and who is a to carry on your mission of killing. deserter. Bakhtavar Singh regains his Kshama is the story of the times of position of trust. The British Resident lets the Arab conquest of Spain. A Christian down the five accomplices and tells the leader is shown to give the invaders a nawab that he has complete authority to stiff fight. Besieged, he quietly slips out punish them, but they are not seen of the fort. There is a prize on his head. anywhere. Involved in a duel, he kills the only son Pareeksha portrays Nadir Shah’s con- of an Arab chief. Being chased from pillar tempt for the depravity of the Moghuls to post, the Christian leader is forced to which had made them and their princesses take shelter in the house of an old man and begums lose all sense of shame and who is none other than the father of the honour. Ordered to present themselves young man he has murdered. The old and to dance before Nadir Shah, the man, not knowing the identity of the princesses and begums come and stand fugitive, agrees to give him shelter. Told

July-September 2011 :: 113 of the identity, he stands by his word, she stabs her and chases the man who saves him from the wrath of those out had let her down-without killing him, for to kill him, and gives him his own camel she still loves him. A little later, the or- to enable him to escape. The Christian phanage-bred soldier, Asad Khan and she is impressed by the moral values of Islam have a scuffle. Her eyes fall on a snake which could make people behave in such tattoo mark on his hand. She too had a noble manner. one. He is her lost brother, and she tells Laila’s locale is Persia where there him that he had killed his own father. is a conflict between the king’s love for The story is hard to believe, but the available the pied-piper type Laila and the con- evidence shows that they are brother and servative elements’ insistence that the king sister. They search out the body of their send her away, even though in actual fact father and recite fatiha, the requiem. it is Laila who is responsible for several Shatranj ke Khiladi (or Shatranj ki liberal measures that help the subjects Baazi) is a pen picture of decadent Lucknow of the king. in the last years of Wajid Ali Shah. It Fatiha which appeared a few years portrays the life of various sections of later, is a story wherein a tribal chief the urban community, all steeped in de- from the North-Western Frontier Province bauchery or useless pursuits like cock- loses his infant son who is admitted into fighting, kite flying etc. at a time when the orphanage and subsequently when he the British were making inroads into the grows up, joins the army. He now fights kingdoms of Oudh and Lucknow. The against his own people, the tribals. He principal characters are two nobles who distinguishes himself and is the favourite devote all their time to playing chess. of his Hindu boss, a colonel. Once he The game is in fact an obsession to them. kills a chief and is chased. While talking They play to the exclusion, of everything to his boss, he sees an Afridi woman. else. Indeed, their indifference to other This woman is none other than the chief’s things, including their families or the duties daughter who had once saved the life of to the State, is startling. So, in fact, is the colonel taken prisoner and held to their sense of value even though they ransom. To win her sympathy he tells can indulge in a duel in defence of the her a lie that his wife was dead. The woman preservation of the name of the ancestors! arranges his release. A few years later While the British forces enter Lucknow she leaves her parents and goes to the and make Wajid Ali Shah a prisoner, the man to find that his wife is still alive. two nobles are still engaged in the game As the wife stands between her and him, of chess!

114 :: July-September 2011 Another story in a lighter vein is Vinod. “Why should I kill myself when others It depicts how some students at college do not bother about me?” make fun of a simpleton. He falls a victim The central character of this story, to a ruse played by them through letters Moteyram, whose prototype we first met supposedly sent by an Anglo-Indian girl in Jalva-i-Isar (1912), became the pre- who asks him to change his ways, his cursor of several caricatures later. dress and his habits, and how he obliges Mandir aur Masjid is woven round her and even gives a farewell dinner to the characters of a Muslim zamindar, all of them, to be told, how he has been Choudhury Itarat Ali, and his extremely fooled. loyal Rajput chaprasi, Bhajan Singh. Itarat Premchand used the art of caricature Ali holds in equal respect both Hinduism to make fun of the vested interests who and its temples and Islam and its mosques. stood in the way of hindu-Muslim unity. Itarat Ali is what a good Hindu or a good He exposed the hypocrisy of the so-called Muslim ought to be. Because of his lib- “leaders of religion” –the Brahmin priests erality towards his Hindu subjects, the and the Muslim mullahs. fanatical Muslims dislike him. They plan Satyagraha, which echoes the non- to stage a showdown. Janmashtami day violent struggle for freedom, caricatures is seized by them to attack a Hindu temple. the Brahmin priests of Banaras. When the Bhajan Singh who is deputed by Itarat city decides to observe hartal on the visit Ali to go to the scene of the incident of the viceroy, the ‘reactionaries’ stage is furious at what he sees and, strong a counter-satyagraha through a Brahmin as he is, he beats up many of the Muslims priest who undertakes fast unto death if who had entered the temple. Among those the city-dwellers carry out the satyagraha. killed is the son-in-law and heir-apparent The Brahmin is a glutton. He gorges of ltarat Ali. Bhajan Singh is remorseful enormous amount of food as a precaution and wishes to kill himself. But Itarat Ali against hunger. But the idea of sweets is a man of strong character; he saves is tempting. He feels sorry for the self- him and is not sorry that his son-in-law inflicted fast and devises stratagems to who had defiled the Hindu abode of God, waylay a sweetmeat-seller, and eats up has been rightly punished. He goes out his sweets. When the Congress secretary of his way to hide Bhajan Singh from the (who, incidentally, bribes the policeman arm of law, and, when the latter surrenders posted by the district authorities) takes himself for the sake of safety of Itarat sweets which look and smell tempting, Ali, he ‘defends Bhajan Singh much to the Brahmin yields, and breaks his fast. the chagrin of the Muslim fanatics.

July-September 2011 :: 115 When acquitted, Bhajan Singh is made temple, is deeply pained at the defiling a hero by the Hindu fanatics who have of the mosque. He questions the propriety been planning to take revenge for the of this act and wishes to kill Bhajan Singh earlier affront. On the following who sees his own mistake. Bhajan Singh Janmashtami day, it is the turn of the is ready and willing to be sacrificed. “You Hindu fanatics, with Bhajan Singh as their saved my head, master, it belongs to you; head, to precipitate trouble by singing I am merely its custodian. You are merciful in front of the mosque and then entering and cannot behead me. And if you do the mosque and beating up the Muslims. so here, there would be a furore Send Itarat Ali, who had done all to save Bhajan someone tomorrow morning to my house Singh and had pardoned his crime of mur- to take it. Who can guess as to who killed dering his son-in-law who had defiled the me at my own house? Pardon my failings.”

Madan Gopal devoted his life to a study of Premchand’s contribution to literature and society. He compared Premchand to Gorky and Tolstoy. His literary biography of Premchand from where this extract is taken was considered a major work of note. Another book by this author ‘My Life and Times’ has been published by Roli Books in 2006.

116 :: July-September 2011 NAGARJUN’S ‘BALCHANMA’ : A SOCIOLOGY OF LITERATURE PERSPECTIVE Subhash Sharma

Nagarjun’s novel “Balchanma’ was first published in 1952, though it was written a few years before that and the period of plot relates to 1930’s in pre-independence India. This novel is a short one with only 172 pages and is divided into eight parts. It starts in ‘I ’ style: “ At the age of fourteen, my father died. My family

Discourse had grandmother, mother and one sister. We had a thatched roof house – 9x7 ‘hands’ (one and half feet is equal to one hand). It had a small courtyard. On the left side we had a small agricultural field, about eight to ten ‘dhurs’ (one – twentieth of one viswa/Kattha).” Thus in the beginning itself one gets acquainted with the poor family background of the hero – without economic support. The novelist further tells how Balchanma’s father Lalua (Lalchan) died due to the merciless beating by the landowner as he had taken away two ‘Kisunbhog’ mangoes from his garden! This reflects the prevalence of physical torture by feudal landowners even for small theft in the Mithila region in the then Bihar. Further the novelist is intelligently telling the sociological causes of distortion of names from Balchand to Balchan and further to Balchanma:, his father’s name is also distorted from Lalchand to Lalchan to Lalua. These examples falsify the saying of William Shakespeare, ‘What is in a name’. Actually economic background, social status and education do have a bearing on names.

July-September 2011 :: 117 Obviously Balchanma has no option The landlady exploits the poor widow but to work as a cowherd simply to of Phoodan Misir (upper caste) as she get both ends meet. Though the landlady dishonestly changed the weights and used to scold, beat and abuse Balchanma, measures while giving food grains on he became used to it slowly with the loan and receiving these back. passage of time. However, his family Subsequently Nagarjun also shows had also taken loan from the landord’s how the ghosts and spirits haunt the family and was tired of paying interest women, especially the issueless women. over the years without clearing the While chanting ‘mantras’, the ‘Ojhas’ principal amount. Their problem (sorcerers) used to close the doors and compounded because Balchanma’s were alone with the spirited women. This mother agreed to exchange two ‘Katthas’ shows not only superstitions but also of paddy land for four ‘Kathas’ of upper the lowest status of issueless women as land but did not get the latter , nor well as their sexual exploitation. But their loan was adjusted. This shows society accepted presence of ‘Ojha’ (male, depiction of double exploitation. outsider, healer) to be in close contact Nagarjun has vividly depicted that the with the spirited woman (the patient, lower castes used to eat leftovers at the victim, the insider). Thus, higher castes’ festivals/feasts. A dalit sociologically speaking, male prevailed writer, Om Prakash Valmiki, wrote later over the female, outsider prevailed over an autobiography ‘Juthan’ showing how the insider, and the healer prevailed dalits used to eat leftovers at higher over the patient. Undoubtedly this is castes’ houses on important occasions a quite realistic depiction of the prevalent like marriage or religious feasts. As social customs, yet the novelist does Nagarjun described this practice long not hint at questioning of such back in his novel ‘Balchanma,’ dalit writers superstitions through a character. Hence like Om Prakash Valimiki should give due to this depiction ‘naturalism’ prevails credit to Nagarjun for that because the over ‘critical realism’. latter had a vision, and also had ‘declassed’ Nagarjun has also depicted the gender and ‘decasted’ himself for such a realistic dimension of social reality. For instance, literary creation. However, unlike most the landlady was the only child of her of dalit writers, who are narrow-minded parents but got only twenty-five bighas and hyperbolically depict the social of land, though one thousand bighas of exploitation of dalits by upper castes, land was owned by their ancestral family Nagarjun is broad-minded and depicts – the sons of her uncle got bigger share the class character of exploitation too.

118 :: July-September 2011 than her. Therefore, Balchanma makes caste (Yadav) boy against the socially a passing comment that the (upper caste) and economically strong discrimination against girls/women is man. The novelist later not only shows more pronounced in upper castes. Later different customs among different Balchanma, as a domestic help, follows communities but also depicts Balchanma’s Phool Babu (landlady’s cousin’s son) who questioning of the fatalist attitude of joins the law degree course at Patna. villagers who think that the god will Phool Babu later joined Congress in provide food to one and all. Balchanma struggle against the British rule. But also tells that the landowners do not along with others he was caught at Sadaqat pay the minimum wages to agricultural Ashram while breaking the salt law. When labourers. For instance, they get only he is released from jail, he does not one bundle out of thirty-two harvested keep Balchanma as a domestic help bundles. However, during agricultural because Gandhiji had advised to be self works like cropping there used to be – reliant to wash one’s clothes, to cook singing sessions by touring singers and one’s food and clean the night soil. these songs helped those labourers to Subsequently he went back in his village forget the drudgery of tasks. Nagarjun to serve the old landowner but his cites one example of intricacies of social, younger brother – one day teased and political and cultural aspects of human seduced his (Balchanma’s) younger sister personality. One person first became Rebani who cried. At once he blamed a Congress volunteer, then became a her that she is spirited. Yet she did touring saint with coloured dress, and bite in his hand. He had told her that finally became an activist of Yadav Jati her mother is his kept. He had pressurised Sabha. While his first role was national, Balchanma’s mother to send Rebani to secular and broad-based anti-colonial, him but she refused to do so. When his second role was withdrawal from Balchanma came to know this incident, worldly life of mainstream society, and he challenged him: “Certainly I am poor. his third role was narrow, local, and You have huge property, family and purely casteist. Thus he degenerates lineage, name and fame, and I have from national identity to a mendicant nothing.. But I will fight with you till identity and finally to caste identity. my last breath …… you will not be able It is notable that Nagarjun had a vision to make my mother and sister your keeps.” to see such a degeneration of national Here the novelist has rightly and overtly identity into caste identity politics that taken a progressive stand through became a new social reality in 1990’s showing courage of a poor boy, a lower and is kicking even today where the

July-September 2011 :: 119 so-called middle or backward castes have and written traditions. Masses have lived managed the bigger share of the political their daily life primarily through oral cake and have got reservation in jobs traditions, folk lores, oral histories, etc. and education on the caste basis. in different ways for ages but the British Then Nagarjun depicts the colonial rule gave primacy to written mobilisation of peasants and agricultural documents (like rent receipts, sale and labourers for waging the struggle against purchase deeds) over the oral practices the feudal Zamindar who used to collect like actual tilling and possession of lands. rent and cess from farmers. There he Thus contradiction has been cemented brings in a lively character called Swamiji since independence though the fact (Sahjanand Saraswati) of Kisan Sabha who remains that illiteracy does not mean advised the peasants and labourers in ignorance- an illiterate peasant knows a public gathering: be united and many skills and practical knowledge of organised, do no leave the land, and quality of soil, need of irrigation (time do not go to the court. Thus he does and frequency), quality and quantity of not recognise the British court. Then seeds, use of fertilisers/manures and there started a clash because the insecticides, soil preservation etc. Zamindar’s cronies started shouting Nagarjun, however, has shown that after slogans like ‘Mahatma Gandhi Ki Jai’, the mobilisation of peasants a Hindi ‘Bharat Mata Ki Jai’ and ‘sit down Swami newspaper called ‘Kranti’ (revolution) Ji’ but the peasants and labourers was brought in the village so that more retaliated strongly. Another peasant news of problems and struggles of leader, using a Hindi couplet of Rahim, peasants could reach them. Thus advised them to snatch their rights. The peasants’ consciousness increased and peasants and labouers also raised slogans in the direct conflict with the Zamindars, like ‘land to the tillers’, ‘death to British the local Police and court took the side Rule,’ ‘long live revolution’ etc. It is of the Zamindars but the peasants also revealed during struggle that succeeded in harvesting the paddy peasants did not get rent receipts while despite legal restraint. Interestingly the Zamindars dishonestly managed huge Congress leader Phool Babu took the areas in their names. Thus a very side of the Zamindar and pressurised pertinent sociological trend emerges: the mill owners not to purchase the clash between oral tradition and written sugarcane of such local peasants. During tradition. India has been a vast country the late 1930’s when there was Home with ancient civilisation having both oral Rule, mainly by the Congress leaders, the Zamindars were happy and their

120 :: July-September 2011 cronies attacked the peasants who were has rightly observed that upper class/ watching at night their standing crops caste women usually do not work in in the fields. Balchanma got badly injured the fields. Similarly he has also observed in such an attack and became senseless. through Balchanma that during the There ends this novel showing its tragic earthquake Congress leaders character. discriminated against the poor labourers. As sociology is the study of social Through Kisan Sabha he shows a new relations, these are vividly depicted in dream of redistribution of land among this novel. Famous sociologist C.Wright the landless, education and health Mills in his book ‘The Sociological facilities for all, and a new class identity. Imagination’ talks of three dimensions However, the sociology of literature of social reality : biography, history is also concerned with the literariness and society . While the biography denotes (art and craft, diction, style etc). On an individual’s life, history denotes the this count this novel suffers because past, and society denotes context and there is less artistry and more and more collectivity . That is, a literary creation sociality. Often Nagarjun forgets that may be analysed in terms of these three he is writing a novel, not a sociological aspects which are interrelated. Actually monograph or thesis, especially when the sociological imagination distinguishes he gives minute details of names of between the ‘private troubles’ and ‘public beneficiaries of relief, actual food grains issues’, that is, only when private troubles distributed, and more quantity of food become public issues the sociological grains shown on paper. Actually the imagination begins. In this novel truth of a literary creation differs from Nagarjun begins with the private troubles that of social reality itself because of of Balchanma’s family but subsequently creative imagination, fantasy, new ideas he links the larger social/public issues etc through selectivity. As Premchand like Zamindari System and exploitation had once rightly remarked: “When there of labourers/peasants therein, or the is more scope for the imagination of contradictions of Congress party that a reader in a story or novel, it will serves the interests of the Zamindars, be more interesting.” Unfortunately hence peasants/labourers get organised Nagarjun has not left enough space for under the auspices of Kisan Sabha or the reader’s imagination in this novel. prevailing derogatory customs like child Hence due to lack of a creative balance marriage and polygamy or superstitions between the literariness and the sociality, about spirits, sexual exploitation of this novel could not become a classic servant’s family’s women etc. Nagarjun as Premchand’s many novels like Godan,

July-September 2011 :: 121 Rangbhumi, Karmbhumi and Nirmala have literary evaluation of writers and poets become, though both of them took up – either one is overrated or underrated, the relevant major issues of peasantry depending on the faction, association, during British rule. Actually Nagarjun’s background, ideology/perspective or greatness lies in his great poetry (where region of the critics. Regarding the he has flourished in diverse ways with evaluation of novels like ‘Balchanma,’ different forms of experiment and Nagarjun should not be overrated as rhythms). Undoubtedly he is a major it is, of course, a good novel, but not Hindi poet but by and large in Hindi a great novel, and actually good is the criticism there is hardly honesty in enemy of the great.

Subhash Sharma, born 1959, educated in J.N.U., author of ten books including books in English ‘why people protest, dialectics of agrarian development.’ His main interests include culture, environment, education and development. He works in Ministry of Defence and lives in New Delhi.

122 :: July-September 2011 TOWARD ESTABLISHING ENDURING TIES BETWEEN INDIA AND JAPAN THROUGH LITERATURE A Brief History of Accepting Modern Indian Literature in

Japan After 1952 Teiji Sakata

Various Modern Indian Languages with Rich Tradition

Discourse Literature will spring up when an individual feels something awful or joyous, and the individual desires to share the feeling with other individuals. In order for the feeling to be shared, it must find oral expression and be listened to by other individuals. A community consisting of some individuals has its own peculiar way of expressing itself through language. Thus, literature will spring up in an individual and find vocal expression of language to be received by others. In a huge country like India, there are many communities with peculiar languages. To count languages with more than 10 million speakers, we will find more than ten languages including Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Most of these languages enjoy a long history of about one thousand years and have rich literary tradition. The Beginning of Academic Studies of Modern Indian Languages in Japan

July-September 2011 :: 123 Japan has been accepting Indian culture viously unknown and prepared ground for conveyed with Buddhism since the 8th systematic and academic studies. Shizuka century. For the study of Buddhism and Yamamuro is noteworthy, though he was related subjects, major Buddhist temples a specialist in north European literature, established some colleges in the 8th century he had a good eye to cherish poems of and after. Rabindranath Tagore and published Se- But systematic study of modern Indian lected Poems of Tagore in 1943. languages was started much later. Since 1952 and After: Studies in Modern the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan has Indian Languages and Literature in Japan; been very eager to open its mind and Publication of Books on the Languages doors to the world. The government of and Translation of Literary Works Japan adopted the policy to open some Diplomatic relations were established institutions for the study of foreign lan- between Japan and India in 1952. This guages. In this trend, the Department of fact is to bear rich fruits hereafter. Kyuya Hindostani was established in the Tokyo Doi, who later edited and published the School of Foreign Languages in 1911, and first Hindi-Japanese Dictionary, left Tokyo also in the Osaka School of Foreign Lan- in 1953 to study Hindi at Allahabad Uni- guages in 1921. These departments served versity as a scholar under the Japan-India as centers for the study of Hindostani, Cultural Exchange Program. A brief in- Urdu and Hindi. The members and the troduction to Hindi literature and Urdu graduates of these departments published literature was offered by Kyuya Doi: “Mod- introductory books for language learning ern Indian Literature in India and Pakistan” for Hindostani, Urdu and Hindi and trans- in five pages in the volume of India in lation of literary works. Reiichi Gamoo the series titled the Culture and Geography and Eizoo Sawa were pioneering leaders of the World in 1954. of these results before and sometime after A. Invitation of Literature in Modern 1952. Indian Languages: Along with these specialists, some Publications of an Anthology and a people deeply interested in the literature History of Literature of modern Indian languages studied and translated some works of Indian literature Chikuma Shobo published An Anthol- through English translation. Their role has ogy of Indian Literature in 1959 among been important in that they attracted the the 100 volumes of the Grand Selection interest of the general public to works of World Literature. This monumental vol- of modern Indian literature that were pre- ume of 510 pages offers extracts from

124 :: July-September 2011 important literary works from ancient Guides and Readings. Vedas to modern Premchand with a de- Daigaku-shorin has been publishing, tailed background explanation. Kyuya Doi to mention very important publications who studied under the guidance of only, Basic Hindi by Katsuro Koga, Basic Dhirendra Varma translated Godan of Urdu by Takeshi Suzuki, Basic Punjabi by Premchand into Japanese. Hiroshi Hagita; the Hindi Dictionary by This is followed by A Historical Survey Kyuya Doi, Handy Urdu Dictionary by of Indian Literature From the Vedic Lit- Takeshi Suzuki; Hindi Conversation by erature to Nai Kahani, published by Meiji Kyuya Doi, Urdu Conversation by Takeshi Shoin in 1967. This book of 261 pages Suzuki, Punjabi Conversation by Tomio covers the survey of classical Indian lit- Mizokami; Readings in Urdu by Yutaka erature by Otoya Tanaka and of modern Asada, Indian literature including Hindi, Urdu, Short Stories of Premchand by Kyuya Bengali and Tamil literature by Teiji Sakata. Doi, Hindi Folktales by Teiji Sakata, Readings Publication of an anthology and a his- in Punjabi by Hiroshi Hagita. Publication torical survey of Indian literature is the of Kyuya Doi’s Hindi-Japanese Dictionary joint fruit of endeavoring studies by related in 1975 is monumental in the history of scholars and reflect a deepening interest cultural relations between Japan and India. in India among Japanese people. Hakusuisha has been publishing two In 1960’s, many students of Reiichi important series: one for Introductory Gamoo, Eizoo Sawa and Kyuya Doi were Books for Language Learning, another for offered the opportunity to study in the Conversation Guides. The former includes universities of India and Pakistan. attractive word “Express” in the titles: B. Seeding for the Future: Studies Express Hindi by Toshio Tanaka and in Languages and Publication of Kazuhiko Machida, Express Punjabi by Language Teaching Materials Norio Okaguchi and Express Bengali by Kazuhiko Machida and Kyoko Niwa. The Since this stage of deepening interest latter, which are conversation guides, limit in India, beginning in the 1970’s, many the glossary to be employed in the books for learning modern Indian lan- conversation to only 250 words. This guages have been published. Two pub- includes Hindi in 250 Words by Norio lishers. Daigaku-shorin and Hakusuisha, Okaguchi and Yoshiko Okaguchi. It is are very active in this matter. regretted that no such book is published Their publications include Basic Gram- on Dravidian languages. For these lan- mar Books, Dictionaries, Conversation guages, teachers are obliged either to

July-September 2011 :: 125 prepare classroom materials of their own 4. Premchand. Pus ki Rat and Other or to rely upon the books written in English Stories (Hindi & Urdu) by Teiji or other foreign languages. Sakata et.al. 1990. C. Appreciating Literature in Mod- 5. Upendranath Ashk. Girti Diwaren ern Indian Languages: Many (Hindi) by Yuichiro Miki, 1991. Japanese Translations to find 6. Bhisham Sahni. Tamas (Hindi) by Readers ToshioTanaka, 1991. Since the 1980’s, students interested 7 . Mahashwetta Devi. Jagmohaner in modern Indian literature and enjoying Mrityu (Bengali) by Masayuki much better conditions for learning lan- Onishi, 1992. guages from their predecessors are working 8. T. Tejaswi. Karvalo (Kannada) by by themselves and guiding newcomers. Kyoko Inogue, 1994. Thus, much enforced crops of scholars have been trying to find literary works. 9. Jayakanthan. Akkinippiravecam important by themselves and, at the same (Tamil) by.Hiroshi Yamashita, time, attractive to Japanese readers. 1996. Below given is a chronological list of It is noteworthy that works in Dravidian important novels and short stories trans- languages, including Tamil and Kannada lated into Japanese and published for the were translated although the languages general public from the 1980’s. have no introductory books in Japanese. A small group of scholars are painstakingly For each publication, the name of au- pioneering the way. thor, original title (original language), the name of translator and the publication Most of the Japanese translations are cen- year of Japanese translation are given in tered on novels and short stories, but their respective order. some poetical works in modern Indian languages are sometimes translated as 1. Ravindranath Thakur. Selected below: Works in 12 volumes by Tatsuo Morimoto et.al., 1981-1993. 1. Rabindranath Tagore. Gitanjali: Poems of Tagore (Bengali) by Shoko 2. Krishan Chandra. Peshawar Ex- Watanabe 1977. press (Urdu) by Shurei Sha et.al., 1986. 2. Jibananda Das. Rupasi Bangla (Bengali) by Masayuki Usuda, 1992. 3. A. F, Qasmi. Parmeshwar Singh (Urdu) by Takeshi Suzuki, 1987. 3. Nazrul lslam. Poetical Works (Bengali) by Kyoko Niwa, 1993.

126 :: July-September 2011 4. Faiz Afmad Faiz. Poetical Works that more translations of such kind of (Urdu) by Hiroji Kataoka,: 1994. works should reach Japanese readers. literary works written in English Literature for children is some- by Indian writers and non-resident-Indian times translated from English into Japa- writers are also attracting the interest of nese: a few examples are; Tagore. Kabuli Japanese readers. They are aiming at a Wala and Other Stories by Shizuka rather extended range of readers and some Yamamuro, 1971. of them may be more accessible than those AWIC (ed.) On the Trail of Blue File written in indigenous Indian languages. and Other Stories by Chitose Suzuki et.al., Some important translations will be given 1998. below: Autobiographies and Folktales may not 1. R. K. Narayan. The Guide by Soyoko be included in literature in the strict sense, Morimoto, 1995. but they may show the innermost part 2. Rohinton Mistry. Such a Long-Jour- of human mind. Some recent publications ney by Takayoshi Ogawa, 1996. are given here. 3. Anita Desai. In Custody by Akira Autobiography of M. K. Gandhi was Takahashi, 1999. translated from its original Gujarati by Translated works of some other genres Toshio Tanaka in 2000. will also be mentioned here. Folktales from India, Nepal and Though very limited in number, Srilanka was published in 1998 by the premodern works have been translated joint efforts of eight specialists under the as follows. editorship of Teiji Sakata. Indian Animals Folktales contains the stories told by Santals 1. Mir Taqi Mir. Ghazals of Mir from in Bengali to Naoki Nishioka and its Japanese 18th century Urdu by Kouko translation was published in 2000. Matsumura, 1996. As seen above, various genres of mod- 2. Tiruvalluvar. Tirukkra from 5th ern literature translated from many Indian century Tamil by Takanobu .languages into Japanese have reached Japa- Takahashi, 1999. nese readers in these 50 years. 3. Kabir. Bijak from 15th century Hindi Toward Building more Intimate Ties by Taigen Hashimoto, 2002. between India and Japan through These are very important works to Literature have the idea how people of the day thought Friendly ties between Japan and India and behaved. There is no need to say

July-September 2011 :: 127 since the 8th century invite a broad range portant in their own policy. Two pub- of interest in India among Japanese people. lishers, Daigakushorin and Hakusuisha, have In general, elder Japanese are interested been taking special interest in the books in Buddhism and the sacred places related for language learning and deserve to be with Buddhism, active men are more in- mentioned first. terested in business relations; some young Two more publishers, Heibonsha and people are attracted by the “Spiritual and Mekhong-sha, also deserve to be acknowl- Eternal India”. Literature, however seems edged. All the three pre-modern works to attract a limited number of Japanese. given in Chapter III (Tiruvalluvar and Classical Indian literature, including Kabir), were published by Heibonsha in Buddhist literature, has a long history of its Toyo Bunko series or “Books of the acceptance in Japan, and some people East”. Most of the novels and short stories have known it. Buddhist monks, philoso- (by Krishan Chandra, Mahashweta Devi, phers learned much from it to establish Tejaswi etc.) were published by Mekhon- one’s thoughts. Compared to classical Indian sha in its series of ‘Selections from Modern literature, modern Indian literature is not India”. so common with Japanese people. The efforts of scholars and the pub- In spite of these unfavorable condi- lishers found meaningful cooperation of tions, Japanese studies of modern Indian two foundations in the 1980s. The Toyota languages and their literature since 1952 Foundation has been extending grants for may be estimated to have attained no the publication of Indian literary works bad results. These results are the fruits (e.g. Kabir’s Bijak) and The Daido Life of painstaking scholars working to respond Insurance Company Foundation for In- to the interest of general public. ternational Culture has been extending As for the publication of not very grants for the publication of modern Indian well-known modern Indian literature, con- literature (e.g. Qasmi’s ParmeshwarSingh). tribution of some publishers and foun- In translating literary works of modern dations must be confirmed here. India, Japanese scholars have been asking Translated literary works from modern the cooperation or the guidance of the Indian languages usually find very limited Indian specialists or authors of the novels readers in Japan. It means that the pub- to confirm their understanding. Such lications seldom pay the publishers. Even beneficial communication between schol- under such a situation, some publishers ars of India and Japan will engender re- have been trying to publish what is im- wards in the future.

128 :: July-September 2011 Japanese scholars working on modern of Ganga in Varanasi and incorporated Indian literature may, in return to what them in his novel The Deep River. If it they have been given by India, assist Indian is translated into important Indian lan- scholars in selecting and translating guages such as Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Tamil, Japanese literature. We may adopt a grand The Deep River would convey current project on this auspicious occasion to Japanese beliefs of present day India to communicate the thoughts and the feelings Indian readers. Japanese scholars working of the peoples of India and Japan. Shusaku on Indian languages may cooperate in Endo’s Fukai Kawa or The Deep River this project with the advice of Japanese would be excellent primary material for specialists on modern Japanese literature. this project. Endo discovered important Courtesy : Manak Publications phases of human nature at the riverfront

Teiji Sakata is professor of Hindi at Takushoku University, Tokyo, Japan. A prolific writer and researcher, he has written several books on history of Indian literature, He has also published books of folktales. His other books are, ‘Cosmos of Ramayana’ and ‘Saints of India’ in Japanese language. He was visiting professor in Delhi University in the year 2000. He now lives in Tokyo, Japan.

July-September 2011 :: 129 TRANSLATION AS A DIALOGIC ACTIVITY Minu Manjari

“And now it is the shudder of meaning I interrogate, listening to the rustle of language, that language which for me, modern man, is my nature”(Barthes:1996:2) For a translator it is mandatory to hear the shudders of meaning in the rustle of language. While trying to hear these s/he becomes conscious of the deep connection between word and its context. It is here that the dimension of culture comes into the field of

Language translation because the context of a word is essentially shaped by the culture to which it belongs. Culture and intercultural competence and awareness that rise out of experience of culture, are far more complex phenomena than it may seem to the translator. The more a translator is aware of complexities of differences between cultures, the better a translator s/he will be. It is probably right to say that there has never been a time when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their significance for translation. Translation theorists have been cognizant of the problems attendant upon cultural knowledge and cultural differences at least since ancient Rome. Cultural knowledge and cultural differences have been a major focus of translator training and translation theory for as long as either has been in existence. As Homi Bhabha says-“translation is not simply appropriation or adaptation; it is a process through which cultures are required to revise their own systems and values by departing from their habitual or ‘inbred’ rules of transformation.”

130 :: July-September 2011 a culture was coextensive with the Language and Culture specificity of its language. The increase valorization of diversity and plurality in The main concern has traditionally cultural matters also lent strength to this been with words and phrases that are new understanding of language and culture. so heavily and exclusively grounded in The unit of translation was no longer a one culture that they are almost impossible word or a sentence or a paragraph or to translate into the terms – verbal or even a text, but indeed the whole language otherwise – of another. Long debates have and culture in which the text was been held over when to paraphrase, when constituted. to use the nearest local equivalent, when to coin a new word by translating literally, Mounin introduced a theory in this and when to transcribe. All these respect in 1963 which underlined the “untranslatable” cultural-bound words and importance of the signification of a lexical phrases continued to fascinate translators item claiming that only if this notion is and translation theorists. considered will the translated item fulfil its function correctly. The problem with It began to be noticed that literary this theory is that all the cultural elements texts were constituted not primarily of do not involve just the items, what should language but in fact of culture, language a translator do in the case of cultural being in effect a vehicle of culture. In implications which are implied in the traditional discussions, the cruxes of background knowledge of SL readers? Translation i.e the items which proved particularly intractable in translation are The notion of culture is essential to often described as culture specific, For considering the implications for translation example-maya, payal, dupatta etc. But it and, despite the differences in opinion was increasingly realized that not only as to whether language is part of culture were such particular items culture specific or not, the two notions of culture and but indeed the whole language was specific language appear to be inseparable. In 1964, to the particular culture to some degree Nida discussed the problems of or the other. The Sapir- Whorf hypothesis, correspondence in translation, conferred to the effect that “a language defined and equal importance to both linguistic and delimited the particular world view of its cultural differences between the SL and speakers, in the sense that what they could the TL and concluded that differences not say in their language was what they between cultures may cause more severe could not even conceive of” seemed to complications for the translator than do support the view that the specificity of differences in language structure. It is

July-September 2011 :: 131 further explained that parallels in culture of translation and refer to them as having often provide a common understanding moved from word to text as a unit but despite significant formal shifts in the not beyond. They themselves go beyond translation. According to him cultural language and focus on the interaction implications for translation are thus of between translation and culture, on the significant importance as well as lexical way culture impacts and constraints concerns. translation and on the larger issues of Nida's definitions of formal and dynamic context, history and convention. Therefore, equivalence in 1964 consider cultural the move from translation as a text to implications for translation. According to translation as culture and politics is what him, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies they call it a Cultural Turn in translation formal equivalence where form and content studies and became the ground for a are reproduced as faithfully as possible metaphor adopted by Bassnett and Lefevere and the TL reader is able to "understand in 1990. In fact Cultural Turn is the metaphor as much as he can of the customs, manner adopted by Cultural Studies oriented of thought, and means of expression" of translation theories to refer to the analysis the SL context. Contrasting with this idea, of translation in its cultural, political, and dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the ideological context. receptor to modes of behavior relevant Since 1990, the turn has extended to within the context of his own culture" incorporate a whole range of approaches without insisting to "understand the cultural from cultural studies and is a true indicator patterns of the source-language context". of the interdisciplinary nature of According to him problems may vary in contemporary translation studies. As the scope depending on the cultural and result of this so called Cultural Turn, cultural linguistic gap between the two (or more) studies has taken an increasingly keen languages concerned. interest in translation. One consequence of this has been bringing together scholars from different disciplines. It is here The Cultural turn in translation important to mention that these cultural It can be said that the first concept theorists have kept their own ideology in cultural translation studies was cultural and agendas that drive their own criticism. turn that in 1978 was presaged by the These cultural approaches have widened work on polysystems and translation norms the horizons of translation studies with by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury. new insights but at the same there has They dismiss the linguistic kinds of theories been a strong element of conflict among

132 :: July-September 2011 them. It is good to mention that the is to be translated and what function of existence of such differences of perspectives TT will be are crucial for the translator. is inevitable. I Reiss and Vermeer in their book with the title of ‘Groundwork for a General The purpose of translation Theory of Translation’ concentrated on the basic underlying ‘rules’ of this theory Translating cannot be seen in isolation. which involve: 1- A translatum (or TT) The translator’s role is embedded in the is determined by its skopos, 2- A TT is broader context of a communication an offer of information in a target culture process whose purpose will be different and TL considering an offer of information in each instance and where the number in a source culture and SL. This relates and identity of the interlocutors will also the ST and TT to their function in their vary. Indeed, the very same text can respective linguistic and cultural context. sometimes be made to serve different The translator is once again the key player purposes on different occasions and can in the process of intercultural therefore require a different translation communication and production of the each time. To do full justice to any text, translatum because of the purpose of the we have to think and feel ourselves into translation. the relevant context. The more thoroughly we can steep ourselves in the background, the more effortlessly and naturally we will Culture in practical translation be able to produce the quality of work In 1988 Newmark defined culture as which is required for each occasion. "the way of life and its manifestations that In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced are peculiar to a community that uses skopos theory which is a Greek word for a particular language as its means of ‘aim’ or ‘purpose’. It is entered into expression", thus acknowledging that each translation theory as a technical term for language group has its own culturally the purpose of translation and of action specific features. He also introduced of translating. Skopos theory focuses above ‘Cultural word’ which the readership is all on the purpose of translation, which unlikely to understand and the translation determines the translation method and strategies for this kind of concept depend strategies that are to be employed in order on the particular text-type requirements to produce a functionally adequate result. of the readership and client and importance The result is TT, which Vermeer calls of the cultural word in the text. translatum. Therefore, knowing why SL Peter Newmark also categorized the

July-September 2011 :: 133 cultural words as follows : Newmark, Vermeer's stance would imply 1) Ecology: flora, fauna, hills, winds, the impossibility to translate whereas for plains the latter, translating the source language (SL) into a suitable form of TL is part 2) Material Culture: food, clothes, of the translator's role in transcultural houses and towns, transport communication. 3) Social Culture: work and leisure Language and culture may thus be 4) Organizations Customs, Activities, seen as being closely related and both Procedures, aspects must be considered for translation. Concepts : When considering the translation of cultural • Political and administrative words and notions, Newmark proposed two opposing methods: transference and • Religious componential analysis. According to him • Artistic transference gives "local colour," keeping 5) Gestures and Habits He introduced cultural names and concepts. Although contextual factors for translation process placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful which include: to initiated readers, he claimed this method may cause problems for the general readership and limit the comprehension 1-Purpose of text of certain aspects. The importance of the 2- Motivation and cultural, technical translation process in communication led and linguistic level of readership Newmark to propose componential analysis 3- Importance of referent in SL text which he described as being "the most accurate translation procedure, which 4- Setting (does recognized translation excludes the culture and highlights the exist?) message". 5- Recency of word/referent Newmark also stated the relevance of 6- Future of referent. componential analysis in translation as a flexible but orderly method of bridging He further clearly stated that the numerous lexical gaps, both linguistic operationally he does not regard language and cultural, between one language and as a component or feature of culture in * Some strategies introduced by direct opposition to the view taken by Newmark for dealing with cultural gap: Vermeer who stated that "language is part 1) Naturalization: A strategy when a of a culture" (1989:222). According to

134 :: July-September 2011 SL word is transferred into TL text in sound effect, pragmatic effect or metaphor its original form. in one part of a text. The word or concept 2) Couplet or triplet and quadruplet:- is compensated in other part of the text. Is another technique the translator adopts In 1992, Mona Baker stated that S.L at the time of transferring, naturalizing word may express a concept which is or trying to avoid any misunderstanding: totally unknown in the target culture. It according to him it is a number of strategies can be abstract or concrete. It maybe combinetogether to handle one problem. a religious belief, a social custom or even 3) Neutralization: Neutralization is a a type of food. In her book, In Other kind of paraphrase at the level of words. Words, she argued about the common If it is at higher level it would be a non-equivalents which a translator comes paraphrase. When the SL item is generalized across while translating from SL into TL, (neutralized) it is paraphrased with some while both languages have their culture free words. distinguished specific culture. She put them in the following order: 4) Descriptive and functional equivalent: In explanation of source a) Culture specific concepts language cultural item there are two b) The SL concept which is not elements: one is descriptive and another lexicalized in TL one would be functional. Descriptive c) The SL word which is semantically equivalent talks about size, color and complex composition. The functional equivalent d) The source and target languages talks about the purpose of the SL cultural- make different distinction in meaning specific word. e) The TL lacks a super ordinate 5) Explanation as footnote: The translator may wish to give extra f) The TL lacks a specific term information to the TL reader. He would (hyponym) explain this extra information in a footnote. g) Differences in physical or It may come at the bottom of the page, interpersonal perspective at the end of chapter or at the end of h) Differences in expressive meaning the book. i) Differences in form 6) Cultural equivalent:-The SL cultural j) Differences in frequency and purpose word is translated by TL cultural word of using specific forms 7) Compensation:-A technique which k) The use of loan words in the source is used when confronting a loss of meaning,

July-September 2011 :: 135 text and practice of translation, power resides It is necessary for a translator to have in the deployment of language as an knowledge about semantics and lexical ideological weapon for excluding or sets. Because in this case: S/he would including a reader, a value system, a set appreciate the “value” of the word in a of beliefs, or even an entire culture. given system knowledge and the difference In 1992, Coulthard highlighted the of structures in SL and TL. This allows importance of defining the ideal reader him to assess the value of a given item for whom the author attributes knowledge in a lexical set. S/he can develop strategies of certain facts, memory of certain for dealing with non-equivalence semantic experiences ... plus certain opinions, field. These techniques are arranged preferences and prejudices and a certain hierarchically from general (superordinate) level of linguistic competence. When to specific (hyponym). considering such aspects, the extent to which the author may be influenced by such notions which depend on his own The Politics of Translation sense of belonging to a specific socio- Lawrence Venuti mentioned the cultural group should not be forgotten. effective powers controlling translation. Applied to the criteria used to determine He believed that in addition to governments the ideal ST reader it may be noted that and other politically motivated institutions few conditions are successfully met by which may decide to censor or promote the potential ideal TT reader. Indeed, the certain works, there are groups and social historical and cultural facts are unlikely institutions which would include various to be known in detail along with the specific players in the publication as a whole. These cultural situations described. Furthermore, are the publishers and editors who choose despite considering the level of linguistic the works and commission the translations, competence to be roughly equal for the pay the translators and often dictate the ST and TT reader, certain differences may translation method. They also include the possibly be noted in response to the use literary agents, marketing and sales teams of culturally specific lexis which must be and reviewers. Each of theses players has considered when translating. Although a particular position and role within the certain opinions, preferences and prejudices dominant cultural and political agenda of may be instinctively transposed by the their time and place. Power play is an TT reader who may liken them to his important theme for cultural commentators own experience, it must be remembered and translation scholars. In both theory that these do not match the social situation

136 :: July-September 2011 experience of the ST reader. Therefore, of the suppressed people which served Coulthard mainly stated that the core social to reinforce the hierarchical structure of and cultural aspects remain problematic the colony. However, some critics of when considering the cultural implications postcolonialism, like Robinson, believe that for translation. the view of the translation as purely harmful and pernicious tool of the empire is inaccurate. Postcolonialism and Translation The scope of translation studies needs Postcolonialism is one of the most to be broadened to take the account of thriving points of contact between Cultural the value-driven nature of sociocultural Studies and Translation Studies. It can framework. Venuti used the term invisibility be defined as a broad cultural approach to describe the translator situation and to the study of power relations between activity in Anglo-American culture. He different groups, cultures or peoples in said that this invisibility is produced by: which language, literature and translation may play a role. Gayatri Spivak’s work 1. The way the translators themselves is indicative of how cultural studies tend to translate fluently into English, to especially post-colonialism has over the produce an idiomatic and readable TT, past decade focused on issues of translation, thus creating illusion of transparency. the translational and colonization. The 2. The way the translated texts are linking of colonization and translation is typically read in the target culture: accompanied by the argument that “A translated text, whether prose or translation has played an active role in poetry or non-fiction, is judged acceptable the colonization process and in by most publishers, reviewers and readers disseminating an ideologically motivated when it reads fluently, when the absence image of colonized people. The metaphor of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities has been used of the colony as an imitative makes it seem transparent, giving the and inferior translational copy whose appearance that it reflects the foreign suppressed identity has been overwritten writer’s personality or intention or the by the colonizer. essential meaning, the foreign text, the The postcolonial concepts may have appearance, in other words, that the conveyed a view of translation as just translation is not in fact a translation, a damaging instrument of the colonizers but the original.” who imposed their language and used (Venuti, 1995) translation to construct a distorted image Venuti discussed invisibility hand in

July-September 2011 :: 137 hand with two types of translating strategies: it from the ideological dominance of the domestication and foreignization. He target culture. considered domestication as dominating In his later book ‘The Scandals of Anglo-American (TL) translation culture. Translation’ Venuti insisted on foreignizing Just as the postcolonialists were alert to or, as he also called it, ‘minoritizing’ the cultural effects of the differential in translation, to cultivate a varied and power relation between colony and ex- heterogeneous discourse. As far as language colony, so Venuti bemoaned the is concerned, the minoritizing or foreignizing phenomenon of domestication since it method of Venuti’s translation comes involves reduction of the foreign text to through in the deliberate inclusion of the target language cultural values. This foreignizing elements in a bid to make entails translating in a transparent, fluent, the translator visible and to make the invisible style in order to minimize the reader realize that he is reading a translation foreignness of the TT. Venuti believed that of the work from a foreign culture. a translator should leave the reader in Foreignization is close adherent to the peace, as much as possible, and he should ST structure and syntax. move the author toward him. Venuti also said that the terms may Foreignization, on the other hand, change meaning across time and location. entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which are excluded by dominant cultural Translation and Gender Questions values in target language. Venuti considers In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural the foreignizing method to be an ethno studies brings to translation an deviant pressure on target language and understanding of the complexities of gender cultural values to register the linguistic and culture and it allows us to situate and cultural difference of the foreign text, linguistic transfer. A language of sexism sending the reader abroad. According to in translation studies, with its image of him it is highly desirable in an effort to dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and restrain the ethnocentric violence in betrayal has been prevalent. Simon translation. The foreignizing method of mentions the seventeenth century image translating, a strategy Venuti also termed of “les belles infidels” (unfaithful beauties), ‘resistancy’, is a non-fluent or estranging translations into French that were translation style designed to make visible artistically beautiful but unfaithful. She the persistence of translator by highlighting goes further and investigates George the foreign identity of ST and protecting Steiner’s male-oriented image of translation

138 :: July-September 2011 as penetration. has been an area of interest from a long time. The problem of discussing translation and ideology is one of definition. There The feminist theorists, more or less, are so many definitions of ideology that see a parallel between the status of it is impossible to review them all. For translation which is often considered to instance, as Hatim and Mason (1997) stated be derivative and inferior to the original that ideology encompasses the tacit writing and that of women so often repressed assumptions, beliefs and value systems in society and literature. This is the core which are shared collectively by social feminist translation that theory seeks to groups. They make a distinction between identify and give a critique of the tangle the ideology of translating and the of the concepts which relegate both women translation of ideology. Whereas the former and translation to the bottom of the social refers to the basic orientation chosen by and literary ladder. Simon takes this further the translator operating within a social in the concept of the committed translation and cultural context. In translation of project. Translation project here can be ideology they examined the extent of defined as such: An approach to literary mediation supplied by a translator of translation in which feminist translators sensitive texts. Here mediation is defined openly advocate and implement strategies as the extent to which translators intervene (linguistic or otherwise) to foreground the in the transfer process, feeding their own feminist in the translated text. It may knowledge and beliefs into processing the seem worthy to mention that the opposite text. of translation project occurs when gender- marked works are translated in such a In 1999 Hermans stated that Culture way that their distinctive characteristics refers to all socially conditioned aspects are affected. of human life. According to him translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said Ideology and Translation that we bring to translation both cognitive With the spread of deconstruction and and normative expectations, which are cultural studies in the academy, the subject continually being negotiated, confirmed, of ideology became an important area of adjusted, and modified by practising study. The field of translation studies translators and by all who deal with presents no exception to this general trend. translation. These expectations result from It should also be mentioned that the concept the communication within the translation of ideology is not something new and it system, for instance, between actual

July-September 2011 :: 139 translations and statements about to a large extent. translation, and between the translation 3) Cultural Borrowing It is to transfer system and other social systems. the ST expression verbatim into the TT. In 2002, Hervey and Higgins bring No adaptation of SL expression into TL in the concept of complete cultural forms. After a time they usually become translation. According to them accepting a standard in TL terms. Cultural borrowing literal translation means that there’s no is very frequent in history, legal, social, cultural translation operation. But political texts; for example, “La langue” obviously there are some obstacles bigger and “La parole” in linguistics. than linguistic ones. They are cultural 4) Communicative translation– obstacles and here a transposition in culture Communicative translation is usually is needed. adopted for culture specific clichés such According to Hervey & Higgins cultural as idioms, proverbs, fixed expression, etc. transposition has a scale of degrees which In such cases the translator substitutes is toward the choice of features indigenous SL word with an existing concept in target to target language and culture rather than culture. In cultural substitution the features which are rooted in source culture. propositional meaning is not the same The result here is foreign features reduced but it has similar impact on target reader. in target text and is to some extent The literal translation here may sound naturalized. The scale here is from an comic. The degree of using this strategy extreme which is mostly based on source some times depends on the license which culture (exoticism) to the other extreme is given to the translator by commissioners which is mostly based on target culture and also the purpose of translation. (cultural transplantation): 5) Cultural Transplantation– The whole Exoticism— Cultural Borrowing— text is rewritten in target culture. The Calque— Communicative TL word is not a literal equivalent but Translation— cultural transplantation. has similar cultural connotations to some extent. It is another type of extreme but 1) Exoticism The degree of adaptation toward target culture and the whole concept is very low here. The translation carries is transplanted in TL. A normal translation the cultural features and grammar of SL should avoid both exoticism and cultural to TL. It is very close to transference. transplantation. 2) Calque-Calque includes TL words but in SL structure therefore while it is unidiomatic to target reader but it is familiar

140 :: July-September 2011 Translation in the Global World way into target language dictionaries. Nico Wiersema in his essay Translators will then have contributed to “GLOBALIZATION AND TRANSLATION” enriching their own languages with loan stated that globalization is linked to English words from the source language (esp. being a lingua franca; the language is said English). to be used at conferences (interpreting) He considered this entering loan words and seen as the main language in the into TL as an important aspect of translation. new technologies. The use of English as Translation brings cultures closer. He stated a global language is an important trend that at this century the process of in world communication. Furthermore, globalization is moving faster than ever globalization is placed in the context of before and there is no indication that it changes in economics, science, technology, will stall any time soon. In each translation and society. Globalization and technology there will be a certain distortion between are very helpful to translators in that cultures. The translator will have to defend translators have more access to online the choices he/she makes, but there is information, such as dictionaries of lesser- currently an option for including more known languages. Such comments can be foreign words in target texts. Therefore, extended to the readers of translations. it is now possible to keep SL cultural Should the target text be challenging for elements in target texts. In each translation a reader, the internet can help him there will be a certain distortion between understand foreign elements in the text. cultures. The translator will have to defend Thus the text can be written in a more the choices he/she makes, but there is foreignising/exoticising manner. He currently an option for including more mentioned a relatively new trend wherein foreign words in target texts. culturally bound elements (some, one might According to him the translator has say, untranslatable), are not translated. three options for the translation of cultural He believed that this trend contributes elements: to learning and understanding foreign 1. Adopting the foreign word without cultures. Context explains culture, and any explanation. adopting (not necessarily adapting) a selection of words enriches the target text, 2. Adopting the foreign word with makes it more exotic and thus more extensive explanations. interesting for those who want to learn 3. Rewriting the text to make it more more about the culture in question. comprehensible to the target-language Eventually, these new words may find their audience.

July-September 2011 :: 141 According to Nico Wiersema (2004), translational misreadings. According to him Cultures are getting closer and closer and misreadings in translation are often caused this is something that he believed translators by a translator’s presuppositions about need to take into account. In the end the reality of the source language it all depends on what the translator, or community. hese presuppositions are more often, the publisher wants to achieve usually culturally-derived and deserve the with a certain translation. In his opinion special attention of the translator. He by entering SL cultural elements: showed how cultural presuppositions work to produce misreadings in translation.“Cultural presupposition,” a) The text will be read more fluently refers to underlying assumptions, beliefs, (no stops) and ideas that are culturally rooted, b) The text remains more exotic, more widespread. foreign. c) The translator is closer to the source Following Features of Culture are culture. Generally Agreed upon : d) The reader of the target texts gets 1) Culture is socially acquired instead a more genuine image of the source culture. of biologically transmitted; 2) Culture is shared among the members Cultural Presuppositions in of a community rather than being unique Translation to an individual; In 2004, Ke Ping regarding translation 3) Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing and culture paid attention to misreading means assigning to entities and events, and presupposition. He mentioned that meanings which are external to them and of the many factors that may lead to which cannot be grasped alone. Language misreadings in translation is cultural is the most typical symbolic system within presuppositions. culture; Cultural presuppositions merit special 4) Culture is integrated. Each aspect attention from translators because they of culture is tied in with all other aspects. can substantially and systematically affect According to Ke Ping culture is normally their interpretation of facts and events regarded as comprising, with some slight in the source text without their even variations, the following four sub-systems: knowing it. He pinpointed the relationship between cultural presuppositions and (1) Techno-economic System: ecology

142 :: July-September 2011 (flora, fauna, climate, etc.); means of collaboration is seen as been built into production, exchange, and distribution of the very process of translation, which is goods; crafts, technology, and science; a dialogic engagement between at least artifacts. two authors ,the original and the secondary (2) Social System: social classes and and two languages, the source and the groups; kinship system (typology, sex and target. marriage, procreation and paternity, size The term Dialogic emerges out of of family, etc.); politics and law; education; Mikhail Bakhtin’s famous contrast between sports and entertainment; customs; general Tolstoy’s novels and Dostoievsky’s.In his (3) Ideational System: cosmology; book “Problems of Dostoievsky’s religion; magic and witchcraft; folklore; Poetics(1929)he says Dostoievsky’s are in artistic creations as images; values (moral, the dialogic form i.e. his characters are aesthetic, etc.); cognitive focus and thinking liberated to speak ‘a plurality of independent patterns; ideology. and unmerged voices and consciousness, a genuine polyphony of fully valid voices’. (4) Linguistic System : phonology and Translation also gives validity to a totally graphemics; grammar (morphology and different voice emerging out of the same syntax); semantics and pragmatics. text. Each ingredient in these four sub- The increasing practice of translation systems can lead to presuppositions that has been successful in dispelling, at least are fundamentally different from those bred partially, the notion of languages and thus by other cultures, and hence might result cultures being insulated. The prevalent in misreading when translation or other hierarchy has been like this: “The speakers forms of communication are conducted of language A translate item X from language across two cultures. B because language A does not have item X, nor have the speakers the means and Translation As A Dialogic Activity capabilities of creating an X”.A lot of people believe this even now. However two The broadening field of translation thousand years of translation practices theory interlinks it with all cultural aspects have changed the situation so much that including politics, sociology, economics translation has become a bidirectional etc. By its very nature it acts as a stage activity, both A and B taking turns as where multiple voices can be articulated. donor languages. Today speakers of A Harish Trivedi says- “ Literary translation translate Xa from B but they also transfer is regarded as a repeatable ,collaborative Xb…………….Xn from a number of other and explicit activity. An element of

July-September 2011 :: 143 sources (culture, science or language). This REFERENCE is because in the shrinking world technical Alvarez, Roman communication is becoming faster. This and M.C.A. Vidal (1996) Translation kind of bidirectional activity then forces Subversion. London:Routledge. the original donor language to take into Baker, Mona(1992) In Other Words. account this new conceptualization of X. London: Routledge. Baker, Mona(2001). Routledge This bidirectionality of translation has Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. another aspect as well. It is not only London: Routledge. Baker, Mona(2005). Translation and synchronic but also diachronic. In this Conflict. London and New York: respect it is deeply connected to history Routledge. and its implications are quite important. Barthes, Roland(1986).The Rustle of Translation has been significant in the study Language.Oxford:Blackwell. Bhabha,Homi K.(1990) Nations and of Indian freedom struggle and in dispeling Narration.London: Routledge. the myths surrounding its episodes by Hatim, Basil and J. Munday(2006). foregrounding various folk narratives such Translation an Advance Resource Book. London as local so called vernacular chronicles and New York: Routledge. Hung, Eva (2005). Translation and The idea of Translation possessing a Cultural change. Amsterdam : John polyphonic sound can be summed up in Benjamins. the words of Derrida that translation Larson, Mildred(1984). Meaning Based behaves like a ‘child’ which is not just Translation: A Guide to Cross language Equivalence. Lanham: University Press of a product subject to the law of reproduction America. but has in addition the power to speak André Lefevere on its own in a new and different fashion, Routledge. 1 (1992). Translation History supplementing language and surrounding Culture London. Newmark, Peter (1981) . Approaches to the ‘babelian note’ which causes languages Translation. Oxford: Pregamon Press. to grow. Venuti,Lawrence(1995).The Translator’s invisibility . London :Routledge. Wiserma, Nico (2004). Globalization and Translation from www.akademiai.com: D.O.A-12-08-2006

144 :: July-September 2011 MODI AND HIS FILMS Amrit Gangar

Films Shakespeare and Sohrab Modi Sohrab Modi was fond of acting from a young age. After finishing school, he became a travelling exhibitor in Gwalior with his brother, Keki Modi. At the age of 16, he used to project films in Gwalior’s Town Hall. Ten years later, together with his brother, he set up the Arya Subodh Theatrical Company. It was here that Sohrab Modi’s voice was trained — the ‘voice’ that was to become a unique ‘tone’ in the Indian talkie. From 1924 to 1935 he moved around with his travelling theatrical company and performed in almost all the cities from north to south of India. Sohrab Modi and his brother also founded the Western India Theatres Company that owned a number of tent cinemas and permanent theatres. In 1932, the company opened the New Elphinstone in Madras that screened the best of Hollywood films. In 1935, Sohrab Modi established his own Stage Film Company and produced his maiden film, Khoon ka Khoon (1935) which was a free adaptation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In this film, Sohrab Modi played the lead role of Hamlet, while Naseem Bano, mother of the well-known actress Saira Bano, made her screen debut as Ophelia. With her natural beauty and the most gorgeous eyes, Naseem Bano went on to act in several of Modi’s films. Mehdi Ahsan’s Urdu version of Shakespeare’s Hamlet had been put up on stage earlier and was familiar to audiences all over India. Bombay’s leading Parsee actor-producer, Cowasjee Khatau, had also successfully staged it for 40 years. About Modi’s film adaptation,

July-September 2011 :: 145 the Times of India (10 January 1936) it was staged inside the studio against noted, “ Khoon-ka-Khoon, as it is called, stage-like backdrops and filmed from is about the best presentation of Hamlet different angles.” In his comparative study that we remember to have seen and it of theatre and film, Prof. Satish Bahadur is no surprise that it has been packing gives the example of Modi’s film Khoon the Minerva at every show for the last ka Khoon as a straight filming of Agha fortnight. The supreme domination of Hashr Kashmiri’s rendering of Hamlet for Modi’s Hamlet, however, puts the play the Parsee Theatrical Company. “The first on such a sure level that the other shot of the film showed the opening of characters do not matter very much and the proscenium curtain with a whistle and Modi carries the entire picture on his the bang of a cracker, and the play began. shoulders with conspicuous success.” While The dominant camera composition was praising the film’s resounding dialogues the full frontal view of the whole stage, rendered in pure Urdu, the reviewer advises but often the camera would move in to the readers that they “should on no account closer angles on the actors.” Citing the miss seeing it”. Modi enjoyed a tremendous example of Bal Gandharva’s play, Sadhvi sense of fulfilment every time the curtain Meerabai (1936), Prof. Bahadur said that came down and the audience clapped. it was also filmed with the same technique Naseem Bano’s mother, Shamshad, also but with disastrous results. acted in Khoon ka Khoon. Modi’s next film, Saeed-e-Havas (1936) The film’s advertisement announced: was based on yet another Shakespearean “For the first time in the history of Indian play, King John, adapted in Urdu by Agha films...a masterly adaptation of Hashr Kashmiri. Sohrab Modi is rightly Shakespeare’s most famous tragedy, regarded as the man who brought Hamlet. The director, Sohrab Modi, gives Shakespeare on to the Indian screen. But, a magnificent characterisation in the main both the films were not very successful part. Lovely Naseem plays Ophelia. And at the box-office. Shamshad Bai is Gertrude, the queen.” Parsee Theatre: A Glimpse In Hamlet, Modi retained the principal Parsee Theatre was a professional theatre cast that had previously played in the movement sponsored by the Parsees and stage version. While making this film, the the Zoroastrian traders who migrated from well-known film historian, Firoze Parsa in Iran to India, to first settle on Rangoonwalla, recalled, “They had no Gujarat’s coastal areas, close to Bombay, pretensions about it. The whole thing was during the 17th century. Parsee Theatre’s meant to be enacted like a drama. So aesthetics and strategies have greatly

146 :: July-September 2011 influenced the concept, organisation and performances of Harishchandra and production of modern Gujarati, Hindi and Alauddin in London are said to have been Urdu theatres in India and in turn the graced by the presence of Queen Victoria Hindustani cinema, both during the silent and Edward VII. and the talkie eras. The Parsees in turn From 1882 to 1922, there were over derived inspiration from the English stage 4,000 shows of Victoria Drama Company’s and in 1853, they started staging their Harishchandra and Nal Damayanti, both own Parsee-Gujarati plays in Bombay. Their episodes from the epic Mahabharata. Many first drama company was named Parsee comedy plays and skits were also quite Natak Mandali or the Parsee Drama successful. Nusserwanjee Eduljee was the Company. Faramjee Gustadjee Dalal (pen- top comedian of the day. Kabrajee Boman name Falugus) was the proprietor of this Nawroji was another pioneer of the theatre drama company and the first drama they who produced and directed many staged at the Grant Road Theatre in Bombay adaptations of classical plays from English. was Rustam and Sohrab. Also performed Due to the scarcity of female artistes, young along with it was a satire, Dhanji Garak. Parsee males often played female roles. Thereafter, from 1853 to 1869,20 more Early Parsee pioneers were the real Parsee drama companies came into promoters of stage drama. Besides Kabrajee, existence. These companies travelled with two others—Maneckjee and Khori Eduljee— their plays to various parts of India. The also promoted the theatre in India. repertoire of these companies included In the history of Parsee Theatre, some adaptations of English plays besides Indian of the famous dramatic companies were and Persian historical, mythological and Parsee Natak Mandali, Victoria Natak social dramas. Besides providing Mandali, Alfred Natak Mandali, Elphinstone entertainment to the Indian masses, the Natak Mandali, Zoroastrian Natak Mandali, Parsee Theatre played an important role Natak Uttejak Mandali, Gujarati Natak in sending across messages of social reform. Mandali and Baliwala Theatre. The initiative of presenting plays in The Parsee Theatre was a confluence Urdu was taken by a Parsee scholar, of various theatrical streams of English Dadabhai Patel, affectionately called Dadi and Indian dramatic styles. It had varied Patel. It was he who produced the first musical scores drawing on Western, Indian Urdu musical play, Benazir Babremuniron. and Arabic musical heritages, making use Parsee drama companies also travelled of different ragas of Indian classical music with their Urdu-Gujarati plays as far as and a variety of songs and dances. It to Rangoon, Singapore and London. Their used impressive stage decor with newer

July-September 2011 :: 147 techniques. Integrating the best from among of the Parsee Theatre that emphasised all these sources and assimilating them, rhetoric and an essentially flamboyant style the Parsee Theatre entertained and thrilled of acting; its best representative in later Indian people with some of the best dramas. years being the inimitable Sohrab Modi. The Parsee Theatre performed a grand They mainly drew on Sanskrit and Persian spectacle called Indrasabha and for the mythology, medieval Indian legends and first time in this country had a woman English plays (Shakespeare was very act on the stage. important) and novels for their creations. Indrasabha was an adaptation of Sayyed The modern Indian film industry with Aga Hasan Amanat’s play written in 1853. its sub-plots, its rhetoric (the ‘dialogues’), It was written for the Lucknow court of its songs and dances and its fate-driven Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Though it did not plots cannot be understood without the succeed due to protests from the pervasive influence of the playwrights of conservative sections of the community, Parsee Theatre. Scenarist and the best- it did bear fruit when, after a few years, known early 20th-century Hindi playwright, women entered the world of drama. When Agha Hashr Kashmiri (1879-1935), for Madan Theatres produced the same play instance, had a strong influence on Parsee as a talkie-film in 1932, it is said to have Theatre productions. He was attached to contained 69 songs familiar from the stage Alfred Theatre in Bombay during 1901- productions. This impressive figure has 5 and then after 1916 to the Madan Theatre’s remained untouched in the history of Indian Elphinstone and Corinthian companies in cinema so far. The film had absorbed Parsee Calcutta, providing adaptations of theatrical strategies, while assimilating Shakespeare. Most of the plays written European opera aesthetics. Kohinoor Film by him were repeatedly filmed in the silent Company had produced a silent version and in the early sound periods. of this film, aka Sabz Pari, in eight ‘enchanting Parsees, the Pioneers of Indian reels’ featuring Miss Zubeida and Sultana. Cinema It was shown at Bombay’s Imperial Cinema, In 1918, J.F. Madan, the Parsee pioneer having four daily shows at 5, 7, 9 and of cinema in Calcutta, claimed to control 11 p.m. with extra shows on Saturdays over one-third of the 300 cinemas in India. and Sundays at 8 p.m. Madan had contracts for the supply Writers such as Agha Hashr Kashmiri, of films with both British and American Syed Mehdi Hasan ‘ Ahsan’ Lakhnavi, Pandit companies. His audience generally Narayan Prasad Betab and Hakim Ahmad comprised of British officials, British troops Shuja were steeped in the conventions

148 :: July-September 2011 and Anglophile Indian elites. Saraswati He was the one to produce Jhansi ki Rani Devi, India's first woman film music (1953). composer, composed songs for several of Minerva Movietone and the Bombay Talkies hit films, such as Achhut ‘Atmatarang’ Experience Kanya, Janmabhoomi, Jeevan Naiya, Durga, In 1936, the Stage Film Company was Kangan, Bandhan, Jhoola, et al. The first transformed into Minerva Movietone whose Bombay Talkies film, Jawani ki Hawa (1935), emblem was the roaring lion. Made after for which she composed the music, became two Shakespeare films and Khan Bahadur controversial among the Parsee (1937), Atmatarang was an important pre- community. The controversy concerned Independence ‘social’ film, along with Jailor, two main issues — the status of cinema Talaaq and Meetha Zahar that came in in the eyes of society and the fact that later. But it was Atmatarang’s failure at it was Parsee women and not men who the box-office that shattered Modi’s heart had joined the film industry — in this as early as 1937. In fact, he had decided case, Khurshid Manchersha Minocher- to quit filmmaking forever. But fortunately, Homji (Saraswati Devi's real name) as a something interesting happened in one of music composer, and her sister as an the screenings of the film that inspired actress. The Homji sisters were already Modi to stay put in his chosen vocation popular as radio artists. Saraswati Devi and keep on making films through which worked briefly with Sohrab Modi too after he could “give something back to the leaving Bombay Talkies and composed the public.” At that eventful screening of music for Modi's Prithvi Vallabh and Parakh. Atmatarang, a dejected Modi sat outside Ardeshir M. Irani, another Parsee, the cinema hall, as there were barely 20- produced the first talkie of Indian cinema, 25 people inside. When the show was over, Alam Ara, thus becoming the father of he saw four gentlemen coming out of the the Indian talkie. Sohrab Modi, J.B.H. Wadia balcony. But as they were about to leave, and Homi Wadia of Wadia Movietone were someone spotted Modi and they went to the other eminent Parsees who made congratulate him for making an excellent significant contributions to the founding film such as Atmatarang. They inspired of Indian cinema. There are many other Modi to make more films like that and Parsees too who contributed to different assured him that one day he would be branches of Indian filmmaking. Eventually, at the top in his field. Later, when Modi with the advent of sound films, Parsee enquired about those four gentlemen, he Theatre declined. Modi set up the Stage found out that they were judges of the Film Company to rescue this dying art. Bombay High Court. Modi told himself,

July-September 2011 :: 149 * ‘My God, if the judges of the Bombay we don’t find some of these titles in Modi’s High Court have asked me to make pictures filmography: perhaps they weren’t made like Atmatarang, I must continue doing or released. so.’ That was indeed a turning point in A Social Trilogy: Jailor, Meetha Zahar Sohrab Modi’s life. Atmatarang dealt with and Bharosa the virtues of celibacy. At that time, Modi Although Modi went beyond the Parsee had become a member of the Ramakrishna Theatre for his choice of themes and even Mission. tackled such themes as illicit passion in 'Onward Minerva! 1940 is Yours!'— that's Jailor (1938, remade in 1958) and incest how Modi's Movietone was advertised in in Bharosa, his formal approach remained the Times of India of 1 January 1940. closer to it. It evoked the way Parsee It further said, "The Minerva Movietone Theatre looked and sounded using frontal gratefully acknowledges this mighty compositions and staging the narrative message of 1939 and makes a new promise, in spatial layers with copious use of Urdu humbly though proudly, of greater efforts dialogue. in the New Year on new pictures designed C. Ramchandra (Ramchandra Narhar to be still worthier of the unprecedented Chitalkar), who later became a well-known success of 1939. Mighty was 1939 but composer, had even played minor roles mightier still shall be 1940!" While wishing in Modi’s Saeed-e-Havas and Atmatarang. a Happy New Year to its patrons all over He was also a harmonium accompanist the country, the studio announced three for Minerva composers, Bundu Khan and films, viz. Bharosa, Sikandar and Firdousi Habib Khan at one time. Soon after Modi "under preparation". Another film, Vasiyat made Jailor for which Ameer Haider Kamal, (Will) was announced as "coming soon with better known as Kamaal Amrohi, wrote a bang!"— a different picture with a the story and lyrics. It was Modi's first refreshingly novel treatment to capture psychodramatic role of a liberal man the hearts of cine-fans with its ennobling becoming a tyrannical jailor. He loses his humour! Directed by Multani, it starred wife to a lover, who then goes blind. The Sheela, Jagirdar, Eruch Tarapore, jailor locks up his wife, Kanwal, in their Sunalinidevi and a host of Minerva artistes. own home, forbidding any contact with Mai Haari (Defeat), directed by Jagirdar their child, Bali. Later, the jailor himself was announced as 'ready for release at falls in love with a blind woman, Chhaya, any moment'; it had only to lose her as well. Leela Chitnis Naseem, Navin Yagnik, Mayadevi and played the lead role opposite Modi. Modi Eruch Tarapore in its cast. Incidentally chillingly portrayed the transformation of

150 :: July-September 2011 a rational man into a tyrant. Jailor was an unequivocal stand on this issue in the premiered in Lahore in 1938, when the film. 'Bharosa' (Trust, 1940) was a social leading director-producer-exhibitor, melodrama that had Chandramohan, Sardar Dalsukh M. Pancholi, and the then film Akhtar and Mazhar Khan in the lead. A journalist, B.R. Chopra (now one of story of incest is launched when Gyan Bollywood's best-known directors) were (Khan) goes to Africa and entrusts his present among the other dignitaries. wife Shobha (Akhtar) to his bosom pal, As B.R. Chopra, who edited Cine Herald Rasik (Chandramohan). The two have an from Lahore, recalled, Sohrab Modi once affair, resulting in the child Indira (Sheela). asked him to bring out a special edition On his return, Gyan assumes the child of his journal on Minerva Movietone. An to be his own and is delighted when later advertisement of his film, Jailor, appeared Indira falls in love with Rasik's son, much on the cover page and the film went on to Rasik's and Shobha's consternation. to become a big hit. Modi always regarded In those days Bharosa was considered Cine Herald as his lucky mascot. Chopra to be quite revolutionary in its social theme also cherishes fond memories of meeting and as Rangoonwalla said, "It had such Mehboob Khan in Lahore. Khan had gone a thematic climax, so daring, that today's there hunting for talent for his film Ek filmmakers might not risk touching it." hi Raasta. "To this day, I feel privileged Film India magazine, edited by the acerbic that I was a part of the team that selected Baburao Patel, who wasn't so friendly with Govinda's father, Arun Ahuja, to play the Sohrab Modi, headlined the film's review lead role in Mehboob's Ek hi Raasta, and as: 'Sohrab Modi Directs His First Good when Chopra first came to Bombay in Picture'. While commenting on an 1938, there were two cars waiting to receive advertisement in which Modi compared him at the airport. One belonged to Bharosa to Pukar of 1940, the Film India Mehboob Khan and the other to Sohrab review of September 1949 said, "That is Modi. "I can never forget their warm, condemning Bharosa. Pukar may have made generous hospitality," said Chopra. more money for Sohrab Modi but that Modi's early films at Minerva dealt does not mean that it was a better picture with contemporary social issues, such as than Bharosa." Bharosa was released at the evils of alcoholism in Meetha Zahar Minerva Talkies in Bombay on 15 August (Sweet Poison, 1938) while Talaq (Divorce, 1940. There was also a comment that 1938) dealt with the controversial subject Modi had a streak of misogyny in him, of a Hindu woman's right to divorce. as was apparent in his social trilogy. However, Modi doesn't seem to have taken For the story of Talaaq, Modi

July-September 2011 :: 151 collaborated with Gajanan Jagirdar who Shanta but since he does not approve also played the lead role opposite Naseem of the divorce law, they cannot marry. Bano. The story revolves around Roopa, Jailor too echoes the issue of sexual wife of politician Niranjan. She leaves her infidelity. Though these films did well, what husband to fight for more progressive attracted Modi were the historical themes divorce laws. Chhabilal, the editor of the with larger-than-life characters and the radical journal Anadhi, helps her for opulence of royal courts. Minerva exploitative reasons. Roopa gets her Movietone will always be remembered for divorce validated by law but she is its famous trilogy of historical spectaculars disillusioned by her legal achievement when that were to follow - Pukar (1939), Sikandar Amarnath, whom she marries, uses the (1941) and Prithvi Vallabh (1943), and same law against her. Niranjan rescues for Jhansi ki Rani much later in 1953. and falls in love with the already married Courtesy : ‘Wisdom Tree, Delhi’

Amrit Gangar is a writer who is passionate about heritage of Indian Cinema. He has worked for Films Division from 1949-1993.

152 :: July-September 2011 SHRILAL SHUKLA’S RAAG DARBARI Rupert Snell

Shrilal Shukla’s Hindi novel Raag Darbari was published to great acclaim in 1968. It has since been translated into some fifteen Indian languages and has been adapted for television, also picking up a Sahitya Akademi award in 1970. The novel’s success derives from its no-punches-pulled descriptions of village politics in the 1950s in the Rae Bareli district of Uttar Pradesh, and from its energetically iconoclastic tone. In a comment reported in the translator’s introduction, Shukla himself describes this approach as the antithesis of contemporary Hindi writing on rural life, which ‘either emphasized misery and exploitation or presented an idyllic rustic picture’. Shukla’s fictional village of Shivpalganj does indeed seem to be on a different planet from the villages of Premchand, Renu and other novelists given to the bucolic ideal; far from idyllic, Shivpalganj is the scene of open machination, denigration, and defecation; it is peopled by a cast of characters headed by Vaidyaji, the Machiavellian don of the village scene, aided

Book Review and abetted by a motley group including his elder son Badri the Wrestler (who has real balls, as revealed both by the plot and by the inadequate folds of his loincloth) and his nephew Rangnath, a student of Indology whose six-month recuperative home-visit to Shivpalganj marks out the time-scale of the novel.

The introduction to Gillian Wright’s very welcome translation of Raag Darbari tells us that the novel has its origins in a series of anecdotes themselves based on Shukla’s own experiences of U.P. village life, especially those from a period spent in government service in rural areas of the state. The resulting episodic narrative is held together

July-September 2011 :: 153 by a satirical tone, sustained very skilfully into English (or its local sub-variant) by through descriptions of the antics of a officials such as the slogan-writers of anti- wonderfully varied and often grotesque malaria campaigns. The translator has group of characters. No section of society somehow to transmit something of the is safe from Shukla’s barbs: an author whose flavour of these different voices, since it definition of an Indian is ‘someone who is through the dialogue more than the can track down a paan and a pissing- narrative itself that the sounds, sights and place wherever he may be’ is unlikely smells of Shivpalganj reach the reader’s to be warned off any sacred cows, far senses. Conscious of this fact, Wright rashly less mere humans. The novel scuds along substitutes a regional English voice for at a brisk rate of knots, finding humour the Principal’s Awadhi: she makes him and folly in every context from the speak in a B-movie version of northern scatological to the scatological; what keeps English, bizarrely mixed with Hindi the narrative afloat, apart from its headlong vocatives: ‘Bhaiya, iftha’ goest on like this pace, is Shukla’s eye for linguistic register, tha’ canst forget Vice Principal. Next year whose wide-ranging variety on the one I’ll damn well see thee out on the street, hand gives each character and event an with no job!’ (p. 23). Aye, and trouble entirely appropriate place in the socio- at mill too, no doubt. To be fair, this cultural scheme of things, and on the other is the least convincing of Wright’s narrative sets an almost impossible task for the voices and is not typical of the book as English translator. Gillian Wright’s version, a whole; elsewhere, the whippets are kept though far from perfect (there are numerous indoors and she manages a much happier blemishes in the detail of comprehension rendering, with a less ambitious but at and translation), has met this challenge least safer selection of speech patterns. with skill and wit, and has added to the Much of the comedy of this novel still very short list of modem Hindi works derives from cultural incongruities of a readable in English. type familiar everywhere in (especially Shukla’s writing draws on a linguistic non-metropolitan) India, these incongruities continuum reaching from the prestigiously themselves being expressed through Sanskritic at one extreme to the earthily contrasts between various linguistic vernacular at the other; various points registers. Thus when Badri the Wrestler on the continuum comprise such vital reveals himself rather too fundamentally ideolects as the college Principal’s racy (in the scene referred to above), the Hindi Awadhi, the drunken lispings of the decrepit strikes an ironically lofty Sanskritic tone: Jognath, and the occasional brave venture [unke] andakosh brahmand me pradarsit

154 :: July-September 2011 ho rahe the’ , ‘his scrotum was displayed continue; nor did he laugh the for the scrutiny of the universe at large’; contemptuous laugh of a writer who, secure the play on andakosh and brahmand is in the great wealth which follows the listing admittedly elusive, but Wright’s flat ‘testicles of his books on college syllabi, reads a ... displayed to the world’ (p. 239) makes critical review. None of these things did little of the nicely rounded irony. Similarly, he do when he heard such a strong challenge Shukla targets the literary pretentiousness to his behaviour. He did not even do of ‘fine writing’ generally when he describes what came most naturally to a man of a villager after a mugging as ‘suffering his profession: he did not say ‘’He Ram!’: from self-pity [atma-daya ], acerbity [akros] ‘ Wright’s translation cuts this passage and several other literary characteristics’; down to the single last sentence, but Gillian Wright has inexplicably omitted emasculating the irony of the whole episode. this line (p. 236). Her blue pencil has Other such cuts include nearly two whole also struck through a delightfully pages from the opening of chapter six, unexpected metaphor when Shukla and a passage from chapter five which describes college teacher Khanna Master memorably describes the pious toady - the very archetype of parochialism Sanichar arriving inside Vaidyaji’s house ’suddenly sitting up with knees bent and ‘in a single monkey-like bound which chest thrust forward in a pose made famous confirmed the Darwinian theory of by the late Marilyn Monroe’. evolution’. Nowhere are these cuts admitted to or explained (there is no note to suggest Elsewhere too, in an alarming aspect that Shukla himself has approved them); of Wright’s translation technique, the some examples remove inter-textual English version compresses or omits whole references which would be obscure to the sections of narrative. Chapter twenty-nine reader without a knowledge of Hindi contains a key passage in which Vaidyaji’s literature (as on p. 295, where a paragraph authority is challenged by his younger alluding ironically to the novelist Jainendra son Ruppan. A strong reaction to such Kumar falls to the cutting-room floor); insolence is naturally expected; but others may reflect a consciousness that Vaidyaji ‘did not bellow with the cry of the incessantly ironic tone of the novel, a film hero’s father; nor did he issue a unleavened by the original Hindi’s variety statement as would a leader who, hearing of register, can make for heavy reading. that a commission was to investigate Despite the often felicitous touch of Wright’s accusations of his corruption, insists that translation, and the usefulness of at last a universal definition of “corruption” be having a readable translation of this agreed upon before proceedings can important novel, it has to be said that

July-September 2011 :: 155 her English version is like Sanichar’s Book reviewed : Raag Darbari underwear in having ‘holes in some Author : Shrilal Shukla important places’. Publisher : Rajkamal Prakashan, New Delhi-2

156 :: July-September 2011 HINDI ALOCHANA KA VAMPAKSHA Nilima Mishra

Critique i.e. ‘critical reflection’ is a highly intellectual activity which has as its prerequisites, deep understanding of the subject matter and knowledge of criteria and norms of its evaluation which are analysed and reanalysed during the course of reflection. Rationally reflecting on this ‘critical reflection’ is all the more intellectually demanding. The writer of the Book ‘Hindi Alochana ka Vampaksha’. Dr Asha Upadhyaya undertakes this arduous task and accomplishes it with aplomb. The subject of the book is very profound but simplicity of language and fluidity of style make it easy to grasp. In this book Dr Asha Upadhyaya clarifies the nature of ‘critique’ in the context of Hindi literature as according to her, literary critique, in its ideal form, is not only an explanation of a literary work or writings, it is almost a new creation and also provides creative satisfaction. Asha distinguishes among various kinds of critiques. As progressive approach of critique forms the subject matter of Dr Asha Upadhyaya’s book, she tries to understand western influences on Hindi criticism and challenges arising out of it. Marxism Book Review is a progressive life philosophy, it is pro-people, it is a scientific view-point. The leftist critique, understandably, is also taken to be man-centric and scientific. If the aim of literature is the good of ordinary man, then it is absolutely necessary to delineate minutely the structure of society and its eco-political distresses. Progressive views and literature make us humane and create a social or collective consciousness. This fact is dealt with in this book rather elaborately in a very simple, straight but effective manner. Hence even the ordinary student who wants to learn about this kind of critique, can do it without much difficulty. Progressive critique advocates changeability of aesthetic-literary norms-they are not eternal as

July-September 2011 :: 157 they develop and die out in the course together can work to the enrichment of time. Progressive critique does not of human life. Therefore it is necessary recognise a literature which is not for literature to take science under concerned with ordinary people. consideration, then only it can represent Literature, according to it, ought to be and analyse its time and society. In this simple and this simplicity makes it context, on some pages the writer humane. The main emphasis of this kind discusses minutely the problems of of literature is on facts or reality of communalism–the biggest crisis of today. life, not on figurative language etc. An In Dr Upadhyaya’s opinion, creative art divorced from ordinary man or society literature works firstly on the level of is not an art, according to progressive sensitivity and finally on the level of or leftist critique, and to bring both values. It is literature’s power or of them close, it is mandatory that the capability that provides new and healthy common man becomes the subject-matter direction to those who have lost the of literature and art. way. Since the main interest of a creative This book underlines the concept of writer is man (common man), in this ‘modernity’ as well. In this context, the light the critical appraisal of the basic writer analyses the meanings of characters of modern criticism and modernity and tradition. According to conventional criticism have also been her, traditions are dynamic, not static. done in this book. Amrit Rai, Muktibodh, Modernity is actually a present stage Dr Ramvilas Sharma, Namwar Singh, Dr of tradition. This dynamism helps in man’s Manager Pandey, Dr Shiv Kumar Mishra progress. Artistic and literary traditions and many other progressive–marxist are also open to change and experiment. critics, all come here under literary Without understanding all this, Hindi evaluation of the writer with analytical critique and society of today can not views and explanations. A new focus be evaluated properly. Hence, the writer has been thrown on almost all progressive analyses views of various thinkers and critics of today and yesterday. Asha opens tries to clarify the meaning of modernity some new facts of progressive criticism in the correct sense. In ‘Hindi Aalochana and elaborates upon them with proper ka Vampaksha’, Asha Upadhyaya reflects logic. It could be said that this book on the dispute between literature and reveals the new chapters of progressive science. She agrees with Dr Shivadan criticism and writings. The fact is that Singh Chauhan who opines that literature Asha Upadhyay analyses almost every and science are not poised against each Hindi critic much objectively, which other as they both try to discover the makes this effort of the writer very mature reality in their own individual way. and laudable when complicated groupism Science, literature and art, all three put is mounting in Hindi literature, especially

158 :: July-September 2011 in criticism. needs but a writer knows what is the Criticism is not only an explanation need of time and society. Moreover, a of a writing. It is a new writing on the progressive literary critic knows what writings. Following this doctrine Asha is the need of time and what is the takes some kind of risk too but she is thinking of society. Asha Upadhyay knows clear about her content and each and or deeply wants to know what Hindi every line follows the path of new literature needs now. Perhaps, it is time criticism. The new criticism goes beyond to say that Hindi literature needs a lucid, what has been written. It emphasises faithful, honest and dauntless review or how and when it was written too, because criticism. Asha Upadhyaya has been able how and when it is written is the reflection to do this job very well. of our time, our socio-economic At this time, when a heavy shadow atmosphere, our thoughts, our political is trying to make or overtake the future system and reaction of our society. The of Hindi, ‘Hindi Aalochana ka Vampaksha’ whole literature is for socio-economic by Asha Upadhyay throws light on Hindi and man’s improvement and this is the criticism, its content, its intricacy and next truth that the ‘public literature’ its spirit. This kind of book is the need comes through the struggle of socio- of the time. This one is Asha Upadhyay’s economic, cultural and political disparity third book. Her two books, published and conflicts. Progressive critics try to before 1. ‘Stree, Samaya, Samaj aur Shabd’ reach the root cause of this kind of and 2. ‘Alochana Drishti aur Dr Ramvilas difference. Therefore, progressive Sharma’ have been very much appreciated criticism goes into poetry, fiction or by readers and students. The latest book any other form of creative writing. It Hindi ‘Alochana ka Vampaksha’ will also is very difficult to discuss what society fulfill the necessary expectations of a large field of Hindi criticism.

Book reviewed : Hindi Alochana ka Vampaksha Writer : Asha Upadhyay Publisher : Anamika Prakashan, Allahabad. Price : 295/-

Nilima Mishra teaches English at Jagat Taran Girls’ Degree College, Allahabad.

July-September 2011 :: 159 CONTRIBUTORS’ ADDRESSES

1. Dr. Namwar Singh : 32, Shivalik Apartments, Alaknanda, New Delhi-19 2. Kailash Vajpeyi : D-203, Saket, New Delhi-11017 3. Swayam Prakash : 3/33, Green City, E-8 Arera Colony, Bhopal-462016 4. Vivek Sachdeva : Associate Professor, University School of Humanities and S.S. GGSIP University, Delhi 5. Ms. Meira Kumar : Speaker Lok Sabha, 20, Akbar Road, New Delhi 6. Dr. Mangal Murty : D64/94, A/6 Grace Residency II floor, Chandrikanagar Sigra, Varanasi-10 7. Mr. Neelabh : 219, Bhagat Colony, Block A/2 West Sant Nagar Burari, Delhi-110084 8. Dr. K.B. Vaid : 1652 B-1, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070 9. Jitendra Rathore : G-21/198, Sector-7, Rohini, Delhi-110085 10. Rupert Snell : Director, Deptt. of Asian Studies University of Texas, Austin, U.S.A. 11. Subhash Sharma : D-71, Nivedita Kunj, R.K. Puram, Sector-10 New Delhi-110 022 12. Dr. Teiji Sakata : Professor of Hindi, Takushoku University Tokyo, Japan 13. Minu Manjari : C/o Sri Vinod Anupam, B-53, Sachivalay Colony, Kankarbagh, Patna – 800 020; Tel - 09835699558 14. Amrit Gangar : c/o Wisdom Tree, 4779/23, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi-110002 15. Dr. Nilima Mishra : Deptt. of English, Jagat Taran Girls’ Degree College Allahabad 16. Dr. Nishi Tiwari : c/o Jitendra Gandhi, E-85, First Floor, Krishna Gali Opp. Kalyan Vihar, Delhi-110009 17. Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan : Chairperson, India International Centre 40, Maxmueller Marg, New Delhi 18. Dr. David Rubin : Visiting Professor of Mod. Indian Languages Columbia University, New York, U.S.A. 19. Prem Kumar Mani : 02, Surya Vihar, Ashiyana Nagar, Patna-800025

160 :: July-September 2011